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UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

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VIOLIN ETUDES: A PEDAGOGICAL GUIDE

A document submitted to the

Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music

2006

Semi Yang [email protected]

B.M., Queensland Conservatorium of Music, Griffith University, Australia, 1995 M.M., Queensland Conservatorium of Music, Griffith University, Australia, 1999

Advisor: Dr. Won-bin Yim Reader: Prof. Kurt Sassmannshaus Reader: Dr. Robert Zierolf

ABSTRACT

Studying etudes is one of the most essential parts of learning a specific instrument. A violinist without a strong technical background meets many obstacles performing standard violin literature. This document provides detailed guidelines on how to practice selected etudes effectively from a pedagogical perspective, rather than a historical or analytical view. The criteria for selecting the individual etudes are for the goal of accomplishing certain technical aspects and how widely they are used in teaching; this is based partly on my experience and background.

The body of the document is in three parts. The first consists of definitions, historical background, and introduces different of kinds of etudes. The second part describes etudes for strengthening technical aspects of violin playing with etudes by

Rodolphe Kreutzer, Pierre Rode, and Jakob Dont. The third part explores concert etudes by Wieniawski and Paganini. I have introduced the general background of each etude book, the composer, the time of the composition, and some characteristics, then selected etudes are described in depth with their specific technical aspects including practice methods.

Table of Contents

I. Introduction ...... 1

II. What is an etude? ...... 2

A. Definition B. Historical background C. Types: exercise, proper etude, concert etude

III. Etudes for strengthening techniques

A. Kreutzer’s 42 Studies ...... 7 1. No.2: bow control: bowing variation including detaché 2. No.4: slur staccato, can begin on down-bow as well as up-bow 3. No.5: triplets, evenness, first position 4. No.7: string crossing; martelé, collé, detaché 5. No.13: string crossing; wrist motion 6. No.9: independence of left-hand fingers 7. No.11: shifting 8. No.12: arpeggio 9. No.8: Virtuoso Variation by Yampolsky 10. No.15: trill 11. No.24: double-stop octaves 12. No.34: other double-stops

B. Rode’s 24 Caprices ...... 25 1. No.1: slow introduction and martelé at the tip 2. No.5: bow distribution, combination of martelé and detaché 3. No.12: legato, smooth bow change

C. Dont’s 24 Etudes and Caprices ...... 31 1. No.1: triple-stop chord playing 2. No.6: trill, left-hand pizzicato 3. No.8: thirds legato 4. No.19: ricochet

IV. Concert Etudes

A. Wieniawski’s Ecole Moderne, Op.10 ...... 37 1. No.1: La sautillé: sautillé and ricochet 2. No.5: Alla Saltarella: right-hand finger motion

B. Paganini’s 24 Caprices ...... 46 1. No.2: melodic line hidden under the constant string crossing 2. No.3: double trills 3. No.11: singing melodic line 4. No.17: fingered octaves, chromaticism 5. No.20: double stop with open D string (bow pressure), trill and slur staccato 6. No.24: theme and variations

V. Conclusion ...... 61

VI. Bibliography ...... 62

List of Musical Examples

Example page

1. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 2, mm. 1-2 ...... 8 - 9

2. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 3, mm. 1-2, 4-5 ...... 10

3. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 5, mm. 1-3 ...... 11

4. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 7, mm. 1-2 ...... 12

5. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 13, mm. 1-2 ...... 15

6. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 9, mm. 1-3 ...... 16

7. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 11, mm. 1-2 ...... 17

8. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 12, mm. 1-3 ...... 18

9. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 8, mm. 1-2, 9-10, 54-56 ...... 20

10. Yampolsky’s Virtuoso Variation, mm. 1-2, 9-10, 54-56 ...... 20

11. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 15, mm. 1-2 ...... 21

12. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 24, mm. 1-2 ...... 22

13. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 24, mm. 3-4 ...... 22 - 23

14. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 34, mm. 1-2, 7-8 ...... 23

15. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 1, mm. 1-7 ...... 26

16. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 1, mm. 16-18 ...... 27

17. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, mm. 1-3 ...... 27

18. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, mm. 35-36 ...... 28

19. Rode, 24 Caprices, No.5, m. 29 ...... 28

20. Rode, 24 Caprices, No.5, m. 70 ...... 28

iii

21. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, mm. 1-4 ...... 29

22. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, m. 20 ...... 29

23. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, m. 23 ...... 30

24. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, mm. 47-50 ...... 30

25. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 1, mm. 1-4 ...... 31

26. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 6, mm. 1-2 ...... 33

27. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 8, mm. 1-3 ...... 33

28. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 9, mm. 1-2 ...... 36

29. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No.1, mm. 1-2 ...... 39

30. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 8-9 ...... 41

31. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 13-15 ...... 41

32. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 16-19 ...... 42

33. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op.10, No. 5, mm. 1-3 ...... 42- 44

34. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 35-38 ...... 43

35. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 72-73 ...... 44

36. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 16-19 ...... 44

37. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 16-19 ...... 45

38. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 62-65 ...... 45

39. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 52-55 ...... 45

40. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 1-3 ...... 48

41. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 35-37 ...... 48

42. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 51-53 ...... 48

43. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 3. mm. 1-8 ...... 49

44. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 11. mm. 1-8 ...... 50

45. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 11. mm. 29-32 ...... 50

46. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 1-5 ...... 50

47. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 5-8 ...... 51

48. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 18-21 ...... 52

49. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 25-26 ...... 52

50. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 1-4 ...... 53

51. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 17, 21 ...... 53

52. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 25-27 ...... 53

53. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 37-39 ...... 54

54. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 50-53 ...... 54

55. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Theme, mm. 1-5 ...... 55

56. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 1, mm. 1-4 ...... 55

57. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 2, mm. 1-4 ...... 55

58. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 3, mm. 1-5 ...... 56

59. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 4, mm. 1-4 ...... 56

60. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 5, mm. 1-4 ...... 57

61. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 6, mm. 1-3, 5-7 ...... 57

62. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 7, mm. 1-4 ...... 57

63. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 8, mm. 1-4 ...... 58

64. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 9, mm. 1-4 ...... 58

65. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 10, mm. 1-4 ...... 59

66. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 10, m. 12 ...... 59

67. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 11, mm. 1-3 ...... 59

68. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Finale, mm. 1-4 ...... 60

69. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Finale, mm. 13-15 ...... 60

I. Introduction

Although there are books that explain technical aspects in depth in these books, etudes are used only as examples rather than how to practice certain etudes. If one is not aware of the technical terms, it is difficult to decide which etude to study. In this document my approach is how to practice step by step, as if teaching.

Rodolphe Kreutzer, Pierre Rode, and Jakob Dont. The third part explores concert etudes by Henryk Wieniawski and Nicolo Paganini. For these concert etudes, musical aspects are described as well as practice methods. I will introduce the general background of each etude book, the composer, the time of the composition, and some characteristics, then selected etudes will be described in depth with their specific technical aspects including practice methods.

II. What is an etude?

A. Definition

Etudes are instructional musical compositions that concentrate on specific technical aspects. The word etude is originally French, and its English translation means study, a piece for practicing. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians defines it as “an instrumental piece, usually of some difficulty . . . designed primarily to exploit and perfect a chosen facet of performing technique, but the better having some musical interest. . . .”1 The New Harvard Dictionary of Music defines it as “a composition designed to improve the technique of an instrumental performer by isolating specific difficulties. . . . A single etude usually focuses on one technical problem. . . .”2

Most well-known etudes for today’s violinists are those by Kreutzer, Rode, Dont, and the virtuosic caprices by Paganini. All were written and published during the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century, instructional books started to appear. For instance, Leopold Mozart’s Essay on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing appeared in 1756, and Giuseppe Tartini’s Treatise on Ornaments in Music was published in 1756. Johann Joachim Quantz wrote a similar kind for flute in 1752, and C. P. E. Bach wrote one for piano in 1753.3 The New Harvard Dictionary of Music explains the rise of interest in playing instruments as “perhaps linked to need arising from the explosion of

1 “Etude” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press, 2005 (accessed 11 October 2005) available from 2 Don Michael Randel, ed. The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 293. 3 K Marie Stolba, The Development of Western Music. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998), 345.

bourgeois music-making in the late eighteenth century and nineteenth century. . . .”4 This dictionary goes on to explain the rise of interest in playing instruments in the society during the eighteenth century as such: perhaps linked to need arising from the explosion of bourgeois music-making in the late 18th century and 19th century . . . Rodolphe Kreutzer, Pierre Rode, Charles-Auguste de Ballot and others . . . produced large quantities of etudes. . . . The New Grove Dictionary of the Music and Musicians explains the publication of etudes of the nineteenth century as below, From the early years of the 19th century the rapidly growing popularity of (playing musical insturuments) . . . brought a flood of teaching material aimed at the amateur and the budding professional. . . . Studies for many other instruments have been written since the beginning of the 19th century . . . collections for violin by Fiorillo, Rudolphe Kruetzer, Rode, Baillot, and Beriot, . . . Paganini’s 24 Caprice op. 1 . . .being concert studies of unmatched brilliance.

B. Historical Background

The very first time the term etude was used, according to Robin Stowell, was in

1787 by Antonio Bartolomeo Bruni in 29 Caprices et Airs varies en forme d’Étude piur le violon seul, Op. 1.5 Around 1788, Federigo Fiorillo also included the term in his publication of Étude pour le violon formant 36 caprices, Op. 3. This etude book is still widely used by today’s violinists. In 1795, a French violin school centered in Paris was established with its newly founded Conservatoire National de Musique, which later became the Paris Conservatoire. Rode, Pierre Marie Francoise de Sales Baillot, and

4 Randel, 293. 5 Robin Stowell, “Road to Mastery,” The Strad 99 (August 1988): 620.

Kreutzer collaborated in formulating the institution’s violin course; they all wrote etudes.

Kreutzer’s 42 Studies is often described as “daily bread for violinists.”6 Rode published

24 Caprice en forme d’ Études pour le violon seul dans les 24 tons de la gamme, which is also widely used in the present day. Baillot published The Art of the Violin, which is more instructional in nature but does include some etudes.

Famous violinists and teachers have devised different variations of standard etudes throughout the century. Lambert Massart, a pupil of Kreutzer, published L’Art de travailler les études de Kreutzer, which provides various bowing techniques for

Kreutzer’s 40 Etudes.7 Abram Yampolsky’s Virtuosic Variation on Kreutzer’s Study No .8 was published in the September 2004 issue of The Strad. In 1999, Zakhar Bron published

The Art of the Etudes, which includes 13 etudes selected from works by Dont,

Wieniawski, and Paganini with Bron’s own commentary.

Carl Flesch and Ivan Galamian also wrote books on violin playing that include etudes as examples of technical aspects. Flesch’s The Art of Violin Playing consists of two volumes. In the first he describes body posture, general techniques of both left and right arms, tone production, practice schedule, and fingerings. The second volume is titled Artistic Realization & Instruction. In Galamian’s Principles of Violin Playing and

Teaching there are four chapters titled Technique and Interpretation, The Left Hand

(including the posture), The Right Hand, and On Practicing. I will incorporate how the worlds’s greatest violin teachers throughout the twentieth century have sought to build technique through these etudes. In addition, there have been treatises written about violin etudes. K Marie Stolba wrote A History of the Violins: Etudes to about 1800, which was

6 Ibid. 7 See Page 7.

published as a part of “Fort Hayes Studies of New Series” at Kansas State College in

1968. Stolba, herself a violinist as well as a music historian, included descriptions of etudes by Fiorillo, Pierre Gavinies, Kreutzer, Rode, Pietro Rovelli, and Jacques Féréol

Mazas. She also describes instructional materials before 1800, such as those by Francesco

Geminiani, Bartolomeo Campagnoli, Pietro Nardini, and Pietro Antonio Locatelli among others.

C. Types

Etudes can be categorized as three different types. The first is exercise, the second is etude proper, and the third is concert etude. The exercise is a short formula for a specific technical aspect and is one to several measures in length. The exercise books by Sevcik, Shradieck, and Yost belong to this category. The etude proper is the term used by Stolba to refer to “one whole composition that is designed for strengthening various technical aspects.”8 The best known etudes of this category are by Kreutzer, Rode,

Gavinies, Fiorillo, and Dont. The third category is concert etude, which is also a complete composition, but one filled with virtuosic moments for the instrument. It is often performed in public concerts. Paganini’s Caprice, Op. 1 and Wieniawski’s Ecole-

Moderne, Op. 10 and Études-Caprice, Op. 18 belong to this category. The term etude, study, and caprice are used interchangeably. The term caprice came from the Baroque term Capriccio and means free and improvisatory form. Many etudes bear the name

8 K Marie Stolba, A History of the Violins: Etudes to about 1800, (Fort Hayes Studies, New Series, Music Series, No.3. Fort Hayes: Fort Hayes Kansas State College, 1968–9), 5.

caprice in their title. Paganini titled his Op. 1 Caprice, Rode included Caprice in his title, and Wieniawski titled his Op. 18 Études-Caprice.

III. Etudes for strengthening technique

A. Kreutzer’s 42 Studies

Rudolph Kreutzer (1766–1831) was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from

1795 to 1825, where he established the curriculum of violin study as a founding member along with Baillot.9 He is most famous for his Studies published ca. 1769. Its original title is 40 (42) Études ou caprice pour les violin. There is a debate that there were only 40 when it was first published.10 Benjamin Cutter claims that nos. 13 & 24 were added by a

French reviser.11 It is designed to cope with most of the problems of fingerings and bowings that a violinist faces. It is arranged not by progressive order but by technical aspects. Nos. 1 to 14 are focused on various bowing techniques. Nos. 15 to 22 and 40 are for trills, Nos. 23 to 26 are for octaves, broken octaves, tenths, and shifting. Nos. 27 to 30 deal with more advanced bowing techniques of string crossing, slur staccato, and legato, and Nos. 32 to 42 are double-stop etudes. I have selected Nos. 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15,

24, and 34, to be described in this document, No. 2 is for bow control through various bowing patterns, No. 4 is an etude for slur staccato, No.5 for learning each position without shifting, and No. 7 for martellé, collé, and detaché along with string crossing.

With No. 8 I will introduce Yampolsky’s Virtuoso Variation. No. 9 is to build independent left-finger movement, No. 11 is for shifting in legato, and No. 12 is a study of arpeggio.

9 David Carlton, “Rodolphe Kreutzer.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press, 2005 (accessed 11 October 2005) available from 10 K Marie Stolba, A History of the Violins: Etudes to about 1800, (Fort Hayes Studies, New Series, Music Series, No.3. Fort Hayes: Fort Hayes Kansas State College, 1968–9), 244. 11 Stowell, 620.

No. 13 is for string crossing with wrist motion, and No. 15 is an etude for trills. For double stops, Nos. 24 and 34 are worth studying.

1. No. 2 is probably the most widely used etude of present day. This was in fact distinguished violinist David Oistrakh’s favorite etude. Massart (1811–1892), a pupil of

Kreutzer, published L’art de Travailler les Études de Kreutzer. This includes 150 bowing variations for this etude alone. He suggests bowing techniques such as to pratice at the tip

(a), (b) detaché, (c) brush stroke on the string, (d) sautillé, (e) martelé at the tip, (f1, f2) legato, as well as various slur/separate patterns (g1, g2, h1, h2), (i) double stops, and (j1, j2) slur staccatos.

Ex. 1. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 2, mm. 1-2.

I will concentrate on this etude for detaché at various parts of the bow, as well as knowing how to alter bow pressure and bow speed. Detaché deals with on-the-string bowing. The first step is to learn the notes: each note four times per bow (a), each note three times, then each note twice (b), and after that as it is written (c). All of this can be practiced in different parts of the bow: the middle, at the frog, and at the tip as Massart suggests in (a) above. The reason to practice in different parts of the bow is because different parts of arm are used. At the tip the forearm is used; at the frog the upper arm and shoulder. The middle part of the bow is the “neutral zone”13: here, the wrist is flatter, the elbow is open about half-way, and a little of both forearm and upper arm are used.

Not only starting the etude on a down-bow, but also starting on an up-bow should be practiced, because a down-bow naturally tends to be stronger than an up-bow.

From the example above, in (g) and (h) many notes are slurred and there is one separated note. The separate notes require more speed and less pressure. Even if the speed is fast but pressure is not light, it will create an accent for the separate notes. For

(g1) and (g2), since three notes are slurred and one note is separate, the separate note requires three times the amount of bow speed and one third the bow pressure than do the slurred notes. This bowing pattern can be practiced both at the upper half and lower half of the bow as well as on the whole bow. Examples (h1) and (h2) above are even more

12 Lambert Massart, L’art de Travailler les Etudes de Kreutzer. (Paris, n.d., n.p.), 1. 13 Zakhar bron, The Art of the Etudes. (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1999), 15.

challenging, because seven notes are slurred while one is separate. The bow should be evenly divided by seven for the slurred notes, and the separate notes require seven times the bow speed and one seventh the bow pressure. Examples (h1) and (h2) can be practiced on the whole bow; all of these various bowings will help to alter various bow speeds and bow pressures.

2. No. 4 is for slur staccato. The bow should feel the pinch on the string before the note is played. Right-hand fingers, including the thumb, should be flexible. This can be practiced starting both on a down-bow and up-bow. The first step is to practice at a slow tempo with rests in between each note for preparation of the bow as (a) below, and then as it is written (b). For fast slur staccatos each note is played twice, as Massart suggests in (c) below:

Ex. 2. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 3, mm. 1-2, mm. 4-5.

3. No. 5 can be played in any one position including first. In other words, this

14 Rodolphe Kreutzer, Forty-Two Studies, (New York: International Music Company, 1963), 6. 15 Massart, 6.

does not require any shifts. I find this etude good for a beginning level student because the entire etude can be played in one position for learning the hand shape of each position.

I recommend practicing it in the first position for intonation, then in second and fourth positions. Somehow, violinists are more accustomed playing in the third and fifth positions, but hand shape for second and fourth are often not so well trained. In fourth position, due to the top bout of the instrument, the hand should feel like that it is reaching over the fingerboard. The following example has the beginning of the etude with fingerings for first, second, and fifth positions.

Ex. 3. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 5, mm. 1-3.

Evenness of the triplet is essential: one can practice repeating each note three times, marked with * above.

4. No. 7 is intended to improve string crossing along with bowing techniques such as martelé, collé, and detaché.

Ex. 4. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 7, mm. 1-2.

Both martelé and collé are good for teaching the right arm to adjust to a new string due to the slight pause between each stroke. Detaché requires more continuous motion, but it is ideal for smooth string crossing. This etude is entirely in octaves and played on two or three different strings. To acquire smooth string crossing, Galamian suggests that “You must be on the new string at the end of the old stroke.”16 This means as soon as one note is played, prepare for the next note, which is on a different string. Flesch introduces rests between the notes to keep the right arm adjusting to the new string, as below.

These rests can be applied to learn both the martelé stroke as well as for placing the arm at the correct angle for each string. Galamian suggests to “feel the pinch” before every note in order to have the arm in the correct position for the string and to keep the bow straight.18 Galamian also shows several different bowing patterns to master martelé:

1) stay in the upper half of the bow for the entire etude, 2) play in the lower half of the bow, 3) whole bow length of down-down, then up-up, stopping at the precise middle of the bow to readjust the bow fingers each time , 4) two slurred across the whole bow followed by two separate half bows , and 5) the reverse of 4) with two separate

16 Ivan Galamian, Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3rd Edition, (Englwood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982), 114. 17 Carl Flesch, The Art of Violin Playing, Book 1, (New York: Carl Fisher, Inc., 2000), 38. 18 Galamian, 114.

followed by two slurred .19 In my opinion, if the above bowing patterns are studied with rests between each note for preparation of bow contact with a string and to straighten the bow direction, one can gain more control of the bow. Since martelé requires pause in preparing each note for the “pinch,” it also serves as good practice for string crossing.

Once martelé is learned, the detaché stroke can be practiced. With the martelé stroke the right arm has learned to adjust to each string; now the string crossings need to be made as smooth as possible. The detaché stroke requires much less pause between the notes than does martelé; by learning the detaché bowing one should be able to cross the strings more smoothly. One can also practice detaché initially with rests in between, but once the martelé stroke is mastered the rests can be omitted. Instead one can repeat each note twice so that the bow moves fast but the action of the string crossing is slower. As

Galamian suggests in his Master Teacher Series, one can repeat different notes each time.

Some of the examples from his Master Teacher Series are shown below:

On his violinmasterlass.com, Kurt Sassmannshaus defines collé as “the click

19 Ibid. 115. 20 Ivan Galamian: Master Teacher Series, prod. and dir. by Charles Avsharian, Shar Product Company, 1979 & 1980. Videocassette.

that starts the martelé stroke, so that clean and crisp articulation is achieved.”21 For collé motion, only the fingers are used. When taking a down-bow stroke the fingers are to be curled around the bow, then stretched out after the action; the opposite motion is used for an up-bow stroke. The length of the bow that makes contact with the string is about an inch. He suggests a couple of ways to practice: 1) alternating up-bow at the tip and down- bow at the frog, 2) the reverse of step 1, alternating down-bow at the tip then up-bow at the frog, and 3) staying at the upper half and lower half for the two previous steps.22

Galamian gives several suggestions on how to practice collé: 1) playing the entire etude at the frog, retaking and playing only up-bow then only down-bow, 2) playing the entire etude at the tip, retaking and playing only up-bow then only down-bow, 3) in rhythms as below to be played with “a tiny and light action.”23 These rhythmic exercises can be used to practice the combination of collé and detaché. For the first two exercises below, during the rests it is time to prepare for clean and crisp articulation using collé . When there is no rest, string crossing should take place smoothly as detaché.

The result of this etude is to be able to cross the strings with various bow strokes.

There is slightly different aspect of string crossing that I will discuss with No. 13.

No. 13 is meant to teach much smoother string crossings for legato bowing, while No. 7

21 Collé (accessed November 5 2005) available at 22 Ibid. 23 Galamian, Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3rd Edition, (Englwood, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1982), 116.

is intended to teach different levels of the right arm with detached bowing strokes such as detaché, martelé, and collé. Unlike No. 7, the string crossings in No. 13 occur only between two strings. There is no string crossing that crosses three at a time.

Ex. 5. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 13, mm. 1-2.

Crossing between two strings requires only slight adjustment of angles for each string, which can be done solely with wrist motion. For the first six measures of No. 13 the string crossings occur from the G string to the D string then to the A string and back to the D string. It never jumps from the G string to the A string.

At this point I would like to introduce silent practice. First, the level of the right arm should be at the angle of the D string. The wrist is slightly turned anti-clockwise to touch the G string, back to the D string, then turned clockwise to touch the A string, then back to the D string. I think it is wise to practice the movement of the wrist silently, after which the horizontal movement of the bow can be added. Sound is produced when horizontal movement of the bow is added. This can be played on open strings as in (a) below. This etude should be practiced slowly at the beginning, but the amount of the bow used is the same regardless of the tempo. The speed of the bow, rather than the amount of bow, determines the tempo. I recommend practicing this etude with two notes slurred, as

(b) below, so there is string crossing with wrist movement on each bow stroke.

Once the motion of wrist is learned, the bowing variations that Massart provided can be studied. I have chosen a few below:

6. No. 9 is an excellent etude to develop independence of the left-hand fingers.

Ex. 6. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 9, mm. 1-3.

It should be practiced slowly at first as in (a) from the example below: one whole note per bow for four beats. Second as in (b), two half notes per bow, two beats each; third as in (c), four quarter notes per bow, one note per beat. Fourth as in (d), eight eighth notes per bow, two notes per beat. Fifth as in (e) to practice sixteen sixteenth notes per bow, four notes per beat. I strongly recommend all of these steps to be practiced with a metronome. Independence of left-hand fingers comes from the reflex of the knuckle. At the same time there is also dropping and lifting motion of fingers. At a slower tempo one might find that the left fingers make slight noise when dropped to fingerboard; this will disappear as the tempo gets faster because when the action of lifting and dropping is faster fingers are not only lighter, they stay closer to the fingerboard. The final goal is to play this etude as smoothly as possible with left-hand articulation at various tempos.

24 Massart, 14.

7. The goal for No. 11 is smooth shifting. In the music below the whole measure is slurred for legato.

Ex. 7. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 11, mm. 1-2.

In the first measure above, a base note can be inserted each time the left hand moves to another position. A base note is the note that the first finger is playing in each position; it is also called the anchor or intermediate note.

Once the base notes are determined, this can be a shifting exercise using viotti-bowing. I recommend viotti bowing because not only can one hear each note twice, but also because shifting occurs in the middle of the bow. If the finger pressure is not released before the action of shifting, a slide is heard. There are three steps in shifting the left hand: 1) release the finger pressure, 2) move along the string without the finger pressing down on the string, and 3) arrive in a correct place to play the note in the new position.

There are two main aspects of shifting. The first is to train the fingers to be placed in an accurate position, and the second is guidance of the ear for good intonation.

8. No.12 is a combination of major and minor arpeggios. This etude is in A minor. There are arpeggios in A minor, D minor, G major, C major, E major, E major second inversion, D-sharp minor, G-sharp minor, G-sharp minor second inversion, A minor second inversion, B-flat major, and A minor third inversion.

Ex. 8. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 12, mm. 1-3.

The first step is to learn the notes with accurate intonation, then to practice the notes as double stops to listen for the sonority of the entire triad. For the first step I would use viotti-bowing as in a) below with no vibrato. I find the viotti-bowing helpful because one can listen to each note twice. The reason for no vibrato is for intonation: with vibrato it is difficult to hear the center of the pitch.

The second step is to listen to the chordal sonority rather than to each note. Using the same fingering, I would suggest playing double stops when possible as in example (b) above. The other practice method is to play with a well-tuned piano as in (c). While the chord is played on the piano, the violinist can play each note and examine whether that note fits into that particular sonority. Since the violin is a monophonic instrument, players are not very accustomed to hearing vertically. This method of getting some help from the piano is how I learned to play arpeggios with my teacher, Dr. Won-bin Yim at College-

Conservatory of Music, University of Cincinnati.

Once the notes are learned, the shape of the arpeggios should be heard. In this etude there are only ascending arpeggios, so each one should have a rising shape using more bow as one gets closer to the last (highest) note with a sense of crescendo.

9. Arpeggios as well as many different kinds of bowing strokes have been discussed including string crossings, detaché, martelé, and collé. With No. 8, I would like to introduce Abram Yampolski’s Virtuoso Variation, which was published in the

September 1998 issue of The Strad. The original etude can be practiced repeating each note four times, then 3, then 2; the practice methods of the arpeggio as discussed in No.

12 can also be applied. In Yampolsky’s variation, another octave is added in the middle of the measure so that it reaches the higher range. Because of added notes in each measure, the notes become triplets. Below are measures 1-2, measures 9-10, and the last three

measures of both.

Ex. 9. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 8, mm. 1-2, mm. 9-10, mm. 54-56.

Above is the original etude by Kreutzer and below is Yampolsky’s Variation.

Ex. 10. Yampolsky’s Virtuoso Variation, mm. 1-2, mm. 9-10, mm. 54-56.

10. No.15 is a study for trills along with the sixth etude from Dont’s 24 Etudes and Caprices, Op. 35, which will be described later in this document. There are eight etudes for trills in Kreutzer’s 42 Studies. I chose No. 15 because it has both trills and grace notes, without any rhythmic intricacy. Unlike No.17, trills are not written out; multiple trills can be practiced.

25 Kreutzer, 12-13. 26 Abram Yampolsky, Virtuoso Variation on Kreutzer No.8, (September 1998): insert.

Ex. 11. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 15, mm. 1-2.

It is easy to lose the pulse, when there are both trills and grace notes. To help with retention of the beat, I first suggest practicing without the trills or grace notes. This method helps one learns how much of the bow as well as which part of it to use, while also working on intonation.

The second practice step is to play only the grace notes as below with a metronome to learn the rhythm.

The finger action of the trill is similar to a dotted rhythm. The movement of the fingers is dropping them down then lifting them up. Simon Fischer says that “finger action of the shorter notes in the dotted rhythm is like lifting the trilling finger quickly as if the string were hot to touch.”28 Below are patterns for dotted rhythms and double- dotted rhythms as pre-trilling exercises.

27 Kreutzer Etude n.15 in B-flat (accessed September 29 2005) available at 28 Simon Fisher, “Basics: Trills,” The Strad 109 (July 1998): 746-747.

Once the rhythm and the trilling exercises are learned, one should try trilling both the lower and upper notes; after this is mastered, one can practice two trills, three trills, and possibly four.

etc. The goal is to play the trills as evenly as possible with correct articulation regardless of the number of trills.

11. No. 24 is for octaves. An octave is usually played with the first and the fourth fingers on two different strings; this helps to learn the correct hand shape of the left hand for each position.

Ex. 12. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 24, mm. 1-2.

There are two different fingerings used to play octaves. One is a regular octave where the first and fourth fingers are used as in (a) in the example below. The other is a fingered octave, with first and third fingers alternating with second and fourth fingers as in (b) below.

Ex. 13. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 24, mm. 3-4.

When playing an octave with the first and the fourth fingers, shifting occurs very often. One should be able to move along the neck of the violin without pressure while keeping the hand shape intact. As suggested in No. 11, a rest can be inserted each time a shift occurs.

When playing octaves, the bow should be placed at an angle that can touch both strings and “80% of bow pressure should be on the lower string.”29

12. No. 34 includes double stops of seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, and tenths. This etude does not involve as much shifting as does No. 24.

Ex. 14. Kreutzer, 42 Studies, No. 34, mm. 1-2, mm. 7-8.

One note is to be heard in each measure throughout the entire etude. In the first measure it is F; for the second measure, G. In the seventh and eighth measures, second line in the example above, there is G-sharp and C-sharp respectively. These notes will

29 Octave (accessed January 30, 2006) available at

guide one’s ear throughout the entire etude. While F is heard for the entire first measure, the moving notes D–A–B–A–D–A–B–A lead the melodic contour with the crescendo and decrescendo helping to make a phrase within each measure. However, it is essential to practice note-by-note at first in order to learn the correct intonation of each double stop.

Here is beginning of the etude, practiced that way.

The viotti-bowing should then be used so one double-stop note is heard twice.

After that one should play one note, then two notes, four notes, and finally eight notes per bow in double stops and then as written with crescendos and decrescendos.

All of these can be practiced in dotted rhythms for faster finger action to be prepared somewhat before the bow is prepared.

The goal for this etude is to play legato with the shape of a moving line as well as to play double stops in tune.

B. Rode’s 24 Caprice

The original title of Rode’s work is 24 Caprice en forme d’ Études pour le violon seul dans les 24 tons de la gamme.30 It was written ca. 1813 and the first edition was published in Paris, ca. 1815. Pierre Rode (1774–1830) was a virtuoso violinist rather than a pedagogue such as Kreutzer, and one might find Rode’s etudes more musically interesting than Kreutzer’s. Rode’s etudes concentrate on expressiveness of sound and a wide range of dynamics as well as basic techniques such as intonation, basic bow strokes, and coordination of left and right hands. This etude book is arranged by keys progressively, starting from C major to A minor then G major to E minor and so forth; the last etude is in D minor. As far as the forms are concerned, seven of the etudes include slow introductions; many are in ternary or binary forms, and some are through-composed.

Kreutzer’s etudes usually concentrate on one particular bow stroke or one left-hand technique, whereas the etudes in this book contain more than one technical aspect. These include slow introductions that have two contrasting characters like No. 1. The ones without slow introductions often deal with more than one bow stroke; for example, No. 5 is a combination of detaché and martelé, with some string crossing. No. 12 requires singing legato with smooth changes in the bow direction.

1. No. 1 is an example of one that contains a slow introduction. The introduction requires alternating bow speed for crescendos and decrescendos, and the main section involves martelé at the tip. In contrast to the main section, the introduction is rather melancholic.

30 Stowell, 620.

Ex. 15. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 1, mm. 1-7.

The introduction, shown in the example above, is marked cantabile; there are crescendos and diminuendos in almost every measure along with slurs, and the dynamics need to be produced by the bow speed. For example, in measures 3 and 7 there are crescendos and diminuendos within one bow. Less than a third of the bow should be used for the first beat. The second beat uses the largest amount of bow for the crescendo, then diminuendo is played toward the tip. For the fifth and the sixth measures, the loudest dynamic happens at the tip of the bow. Speed should be increased to play crescendo at the tip because less sound is normally produced there due to the natural weight of the bow. In other words, less bow speed should be used for the first beat. Near the end of the fifth and sixth measures, when the diminuendo occurs toward the frog, I recommend not only using less bow speed but also reducing pressure.

For the Moderato section, shown in the example below, Olga Marchenko, pupil of David Oistrakh, recommends playing the martelé at the tip with an attack in this etude.31 For the attack, there has to be a solid contact between the bow hair and the string.

This requires using the full bow hair, untilted, with a slight amount of pressure from the right-hand index finger. It is helpful to take extra time between each note to feel the contact between the bow hair and the string (a). One should make sure no pressure on the

31 Olga Marchenko, Violin Technique From Oistrakh, prod. and dir. By Junkil Kim, SHK, Videocassette.

bow is left after the note is played. Practicing without the trills is also recommended to concentrate on the martelé at the tip (b).

Ex. 16. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 1, mm. 16-18.

The tip of the bow is naturally lighter in weight than the frog. Once martelé at the tip with an attack is studied, martelé in any part of the bow will be more easily facilitated.

2. No. 5 is a combination of different bow strokes such as detaché, martelé, and some string crossings. This etude not only concerns the combination of different bow strokes, it also involves bows speed and distribution. At the beginning of this etude, as below, there are frequent dynamic changes throughout each measure that require correct bow distribution.

Ex. 17. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, mm. 1-3.

The syncopated measure, marked detaché, can be played in the lower half of the bow.

One should gradually increase the bow speed in order to express the shape of the ascending line going toward the tonic in the next measure. The first note, F, should be somewhere near the middle of the bow, with more bow used throughout these five notes.

The last of the five, C, uses the most bow, a little more than the entire lower half. The first note in the first full measure, D, should use almost the entire bow to produce the

forte. The second note, A, is martelé at the tip. After the sforzando on A, the bow should remain in the upper half in order to correctly play the subito piano in the third measure.

At the end of measure 3 the bow should start moving toward the frog for the eighth notes with little pressure and more speed without making a crescendo in to order to play the subito forte in the next measure.

There are some examples of detaché and martelé in the examples below.

Example (a) is martelé with string crossings over three different strings. The martelé practice for Kreutzer No. 7 can be applied here. The bow should be on the next string as soon as the previous note has been played. Detaché is marked in example (b) for the sextuplets. Example (c) contains both detaché and martelé strokes within the same measure. Throughout the entire etude, sextuplets are marked as detaché and martelé for the quadruplets.

. Ex. 18. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, mm. 35-36.

Ex. 19. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, m. 29.

Ex. 20. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 5, m. 70.

I find that this etude sounds more like a character piece than an etude. It consists of a variety of bow strokes and different combinations of rhythms that are rare in etudes; this kind of variety makes it more interesting as a composition.

3. No. 12 requires a singing quality for its legato. One way to achieve legato is by a smooth change in the bow direction.

Ex. 21. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, mm. 1-4.

I recommend initially practicing this etude with one slur per measure only (six notes per bow) to learn the notes as in (a) below with the bow divided equally. For a smooth bow change, the bow speed should slow down slightly to prepare for the change of direction.

At the tip of the bow the speed can be slowed with slightly more bow pressure than at the frog, where bow pressure as well as bow speed should be reduced. To get accustomed to the feeling of the bow slowing down before changing direction, one might add extra value to the last note of the six (b) while still equally dividing the bow for each note. The last step for this etude is to express all the markings in the score: more bow should be spent if there is an accent (c1), and where crescendos and diminuendos occur (c2 & c3) one should be able to alter its speed as described in the introduction to Rode No. 1.

Ex. 22. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, m. 20.

Ex. 23. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, m. 23.

Ex. 24. Rode, 24 Caprices, No. 12, mm. 47-50.

C. Dont’s 24 Etudes and Caprices, Op. 35

Jakob Dont (1815–1888) was an Austrian violinist and pedagogue. He studied with Georg Hellmesberger at the Vienna Conservatory, where he later taught; Leopold

Auer was one of his pupils. He composed almost 50 pieces for violin, mostly opera potpourris and character pieces.32 His violin etudes include 24 Etudes and Caprices, Op.

35 and 24 Studies: Preparatory to Kreutzer and Rode Studies, Op. 37. His etudes utilize the most advanced technical material of his time such as chord playing, sautillé, and ricochet. Bowing techniques such as sautillé and ricochet were neglected at the time of

Kreutzer, Rode, and Gavinies because bows did not have so much elasticity as do modern bows.33 From Dont’s 24 Etudes and Caprices, Op. 35 I have chosen etudes that concentrate on what was considered advanced techniques at that time; No. 1 for triple- stop chord playing, No. 6 for trills and left-hand pizzicato, No. 8 for double-stop (thirds), and No. 19 for ricochet over four strings.

1. No. 1 is for triple-stop chord playing.

Ex. 25. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 1, mm. 1-4.

The first step is to play each note separately for intonation. I recommend starting the notes with the finger farthest from the nut of the fingerboard. This is done because

32 John Moran, “Dont, Jakob [Jacob].” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press, 2005 (accessed 11 October 2005) available from 33 Stowell, 621.

stretching the first finger back after putting the fourth finger down on the fingerboard gives more of a natural shape to the left hand, rather than when one places the first finger down and then the fourth finger stretching forward. The second triple-stop chord, marked with * in the example (a) below, will now be discussed. Once the fingers are put down on the fingerboard, they should stay down to play the following chord. The second step is to play the notes as double stops as in (b) below.

For sound production, Zakhar Bron recommends playing these as broken chords as illustrated below. He says “the goal of this exercise is to leave the bow on the string while bowing slowly and then to come off the string very briefly.”34

After practicing the etude as written, one should play it using both down-bows only and up-bows only.

2. No.6 is for trills and left-hand pizzicato. A trill is an ornament that involves the motion of dropping and lifting the fingers. Pizzicato is the plucking of the string with a finger. Both the trill and left-hand pizzicato require strong left-finger articulation. Since trills were already discussed with Kreutzer No. 15, I will concentrate on left-hand pizzicato.

34 Zakhar Bron, The Art of the Etudes. (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1999), 6.

Ex. 26. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 6, mm. 1-2.

The first step is to work on intonation as illustrated in (a) below. Next is to understand the motion for left-hand pizzicato before playing (b) below. Left-hand pizzicato is played by plucking the string with a left finger using the fleshy part of the finger tip. Because the finger is plucking the string, the elbow is also somewhat pulled away from the body.

Finally, this etude can also be played as in (c): the grace notes are played with the bow and the main notes are played pizzicato.

3. No. 8 is full of thirds, alternating between major and minor intervals.

Ex. 27. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 8, mm. 1-3.

I will concentrate on intonation and finger action. For double-stop intonation, as discussed in Kreutzer Nos. 24 and 34 each note should be played separately before

35 Jakob Dont, Twenty-four Studies, (New York: International Music Company, 1963), 12.

playing together (a), then two notes per bow with the viotti-bowing (b), then one chord per bow (c), two chords per bow (d), etc. The interval of a third is not a pure interval, unlike octaves, fifths, or fourths, so intonation can be arguable. In this etude, making an audible difference between the major and minor sonorities is important.

This etude should eventually be played at an Allegro tempo. The fingers not only must be trained to be in the correct position to play in tune, but also with the ability to move fast. For faster finger action, the key is to not press down too hard on the fingerboard. To aid in these techniques, I will consider Bron’s exercise below. The goal of this example is to move the fingers quickly in a legato motion.

All of the exercises above should be practiced with different fingerings: first and third fingers, second and fourth fingers, then alternating first and third fingers with second and fourth fingers as shown below.

36 Bron, 18.

4. No. 19 is for ricochet over all four strings. In this etude there are two different elements: one is ricochet bowing and the other is correct intonation for the arpeggio. The ricochet motion happens on the natural bounce of the bow after it is dropped on a string.

Galamian refers to it as “uncontrolled bow,”37 but it is regulated by the height of the bounce. Full contact of bow hair should be used, not partial. The first step is to learn the natural bounce on an open string as shown below: two notes bouncing, then three notes, then four. In the final step, play an extra note on the up-bow after the bounce as shown below marked with *.

38 Because it uses the natural bounce of the bow, the down-bow stroke is more comfortable, but the up-bow stroke should also be practiced as in (a) and (b) below. Once the bouncing motion has been established, the next step is to play ricochet on all four open strings as

The second element of this etude is practicing arpeggios for intonation, played legato with evenness of every note. It is easy to pass more quickly over the notes on the middle strings. It is important not to shorten the value of the notes on the middle strings as the action of string crossing gets faster.

37 Galamian, Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3rd Edition, (Englwood, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1982), 82. 38 Ibid.

The first practice step for intonation is to take enough time between each arpeggio so that the left hand is prepared. The extra time will lessen as the left hand becomes trained. The second step is to listen to the sonority.

The arpeggios and ricochet are played simultaneously.

Ex. 28. Dont, 24 Etudes and Caprices, No. 9, mm. 1-2.

When playing ricochet, the bow hold should be relaxed so it can be dropped without tension interfering.

IV. Concert Etudes

A. Wieniawski’s Ecole Moderne, Op. 10

Henryk Wieniawski (1835–1880) was a Polish violinist and composer. He studied violin at the Paris Conservatoire in 1843 with J. Clavel and with Massart from

1844 to 1848. For study of composition, he re-entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1849 to study harmony. He lived in Russia from 1851 to 1853. After that he toured Europe extensively, including Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France. On his British tour he played with pianist Anton Rubinstein. From 1860 to 1872 he taught at the St. Petersburg

Conservatory, which was newly founded at the time. His stay in St. Petersburg had a great influence on the Russian violin school.

He also toured North America in 1872 for two years and in 1875 succeeded

Henri Vieutemps at the Brussels Conservatory. Although he had a severe heart condition, he still toured extensively in his later years. His contemporary Joachim once replaced him on a performance of Bach’s Chaconne after Wieniawski was unable to continue his performance.39 Along with Joachim, Wieniawski was also comtemporary of Sarasate, the dedicatee of his Second Violin Concert.

Wieniawski’s compositions include the Polonaise in D major, No. 1, Op. 4

(1847), Souvenir de Moscou, Op. 6 (1853), several mazurkas (1853, 1854, and 1860),

Violin Concerto No. 1 (1853), Ecole Moderne, Op. 10 (1854), Etude-Caprice, Op. 18

(1863), Polonaise in A major, No. 2 (1875), and Violin Concerto No. 2 (1862).40

39 Zofia Chechlinska and Boris Schwarz, “Wieniawsky, Henryk.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press, 2005 (accessed 11 October 2005) available from 40 Ibid.

Wieniawski’s style of violin playing is a combination of the French school with a Slavonic temperament.41 He was known for the intensity of his vibrato. From his contemporaries, Wieniawski was praised as an “individual talent” by Leopold Auer, who later succeeded him at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, and “a violinist of genius” by

Moser. But Moser did criticize Wieniawski for his stiff bow arm, which was somewhat unconventional for his time with a rather high elbow and pressure on the bow stick from the second joint of his index finger. His bow hold is now called the “Russian bow hold” due to the adaptation of it by some Russians.42

Like Paganini, Wieniawski’s compositions are highly virtuosic and based on the principles of Romanticism but with a Slavonic flavor. His etudes are technically advanced and demanding, but musical and “playable . . . (without) . . . unconventional finger extensions and abnormality of Paganini’s techniques.”43 Ecole Moderne, Op. 10 consists of nine titled etudes for solo violin. There is another collection of etudes by

Wieniawski, titled Etude-Caprice, Op. 18, which includes an ad libitum second violin part. Two of his etudes from his Ecole Moderne, Op. 10 are described in this document:

No. 1, La sautilé and No. 5, Alla Saltarella.

1. No. 1 is titled La sautillé. This is played with sautillé bowing technique.

41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 The Etude (Study) Page for Violin (accessed 29 September 2005) available at

Ex. 29. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No.1, mm. 1-2.

Sautillé is one of the bow strokes neglected by the traditional French masters such as

Kreutzer, Rode, and Gavinies because the bow of their time did not have the elasticity as the bow of the late nineteenth century. Massart, a pupil of Kreutzer and Wieniawski’s teacher, included sautillé in his L’art de Travailler les Études de Kreutzer. It also appears in Dont’s Twenty-Four Etudes and Caprices, Paganini’s Twenty-Four Caprices, and many other standard repertoires. Sautillé is an on-the-string bow stroke with a natural bounce at a faster tempo. It starts on the string and is usually played in the middle of the bow, where it bounces naturally. Kurt Sassmannshaus recommends starting tremolo with the wrist in the upper half, then moving to the middle of the bow until it starts to bounce.44 As more pressure is exerted by the index finger, the bounce becomes bigger.

The lower part of the bow is used for a louder sound, and for a softer sound the higher part of the bow is used. However, the sautillé stroke is derived from the detaché stroke.

Galamian says in his Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching “the short detaché . . . can replace sautillé.”45

This etude utilizes sautillé and ricochet. The first step of practice is to play the notes slowly with detaché slurred as shown below instead of with sautillé or richocet for learning intonation.

44 Sautillé (accessed January 30 2006) available at 45 Galamian, Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3rd Edition, (Englwood, NJ: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1982), 78.

The second step is to play every note twice with the sautillé bow stroke only without ricochet to concentrate on the technique of sautillé. Since sautillé requires relatively faster tempo in order to have the bow bounce, it seems to be better to repeat each note twice. The bow stroke is then fast enough to bounce, but the left hand is moving twice as slow at this point.

Next is to practice only the notes that are played ricochet as in (a) below. There are some irregular string crossings in measures 3, 7, 15, and 18; these can be played on the open strings for practice as in example (b) below. The first line of example (b) is the original music of Wieniawski, and on the second line I illustrate how to practice on the open strings. Olga Marchenko says that “every bow stroke starts on the open strings.”46

Other than technical aspects of violin playing will now be described. This etude

46 Olga Marchenko, Violin Technique From Oistrach, prod. and dir. By Junkil Kim, SHK, Videocassette.

is in binary form. It is in C minor, with the second half beginning in the dominant.

Although the overall structure and harmony are traditional, there are chromatic passages.

Chromaticism is prevalent in the harmonic language of the Romantic Era. At the end of measure 8, proceeding to the second section, in example 30 below there is an ascending chromatic line E-flat to B. This can be played with a crescendo using the lower rather than middle of the bow for the louder sound produced by sautillé. In measures 14 and 15, the second and third measures of example 31 below, there is chromaticism surrounding

G; G–A-flat–G–F-sharp–G. This can be interpreted as restatement of this etude’s dominant before going back to tonic. However, measure 13 does not contain the leading- note to G. It is ii instead of V/V. Measure 15 can be played at a different dynamic level from measure 14 because it is repeated.

Ex. 30. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 8-9.

Ex. 31. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 13-15.

The beginning motive reappears on the third beat of measure 17, example 32 below. The previous beat can be played with a hint of ritardando, only if emphasis of the opening motive is necessary. Personally, it is more necessary to play with crescendo at the end, with the repeated C at measure 18 leading to the final chord.

Ex. 32. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 1, mm. 16-19.

2. No. 5, titled Alla Saltarella. Saltarella is a quick Italian dance with a hop step.

The etude below begins with a syncopation so that the first beat of the first full measure is more pronounced, resembling the hop step.

Ex. 33. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 1-3.

The melodic line in this etude consists of mostly legato-line arpeggios. The left- hand technique uses trills, an extended fourth finger, and shiftings. For the right arm there is slur staccato, passages requiring finger motion from the bow hold, and string crossings.

As discussed with Kreutzer No. 12, arpeggios should initially be practiced slowly for intonation. Slur staccatos should have the pinch of the bow before starting to play each note as in Kreutzer No. 4. Refer back to Kreutzer No. 11 for the practice of shifting with insertion of intermediate notes. Below are shifting examples of measures 44 to 46 from

Wieniawski’s Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5.

Finger motion from the bow hold is used to play some of the shorter note values.

The movement of the right fingers is similar to collé, as described in Kreutzer No. 7. At the beginning of this concert etude, the first B-flat needs to be played quickly with a fair amount of the bow by flicking the fingers. This motion can also be applied at the second half of third and fourth measures for B-flat to C, then C to E-flat, played with an up-bow.

Both of these instances are marked with brackets in the example below.

Ex. 33. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 1-3.

String crossing with legato in this etude is essential. Example 34(a) is one of the passages that illustrate this technique. Because the string crossing occurs between only two strings, the wrist can be used to move the bow rather than whole arm. Playing this on the open strings is one of the practice methods as shown in example 34(b). Another method is to take extra time when the string crossing occurs as in (c) below to move to a different string. This break will become shorter as the right arm gets accustomed to the string crossing with the wrist only, and eventually this break will not be necessary.

Ex. 34. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 35-38.

The trills can be left out with initial practice of this etude. Because the tempo is fairly quick, only one or two trills should be enough except for the trills appearing before

the coda. All four quarter notes are B-flat over four octaves that can be played with a crescendo throughout the four notes as indicated below. I recommend starting the trills slowly at the beginning with both articulation of the left finger and the bow, with an increased speed of the trill towards the end of each note.

Ex. 35. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 72-73.

Each of the phrases begins similarly but unfolds differently as they go.

Depending on the harmonic progression, different dynamics can be applied. For instance, example 36 below moves chromatically from G to F-sharp, E-flat to D, and C to B. This harmonic progression can be with a louder dynamic level than the beginning of the etude as in example 33. Example 37 starts as the beginning of the etude, but an octave lower. In the third measure of example 37 there is an ascending line of C minor triad–C, E-flat, and

G–which can be played with a hint of crescendo, as indicated. Example 38 below can be played with a crescendo as the top voice moves E-flat–E–F–F-sharp–G then to B-flat.

Ex. 33. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 1-3.

Ex. 36. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 16-19.

Ex. 37 Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 16-19.

Ex. 38. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 62-65.

There is a short cadenza before the recapitulation at measures 52 to 55. The cadenza is made with an ascending G-minor arpeggio followed by a fermata on B-flat, the dominant of this concert etude. The rest before the recapitulation is also marked with a fermata; this can be played as dramatically as a performer desires. The G-minor arpeggio can be played with a crescendo because it is ascending to dominant. After the pause the recapitulation returns scherzando, which can be played with a much softer dynamic for contrast to the cadenza.

Ex. 39. Wieniawski, Ecole Moderne, Op. 10, No. 5, mm. 52-55.

B. Paganini’s 24 Caprice, Op. 1

Nicolo Paganini (1782–1840) was a legendary Italian violinist. His father taught him to play the mandolin and the violin. His studies with professionals include violin with Giovanni Servetto in Genoa, and in Nice with Giacomo Costa, and harmony with

Francesco Gnecco. Paganini’s first public appearance was at the age of 12 to raise money for further violin study with Alessandro Rolla in Parma. It is reported that Rolla told him he had nothing to teach him and advised him to study composition with Ferdinando

Paer.47 Paganini did study compostion with him and also Paer’s teacher, Gaspare Ghiretti in Parma. Paganini settled in Lucca in 1801, serving as a court chamber musician and violin teacher, but in 1809 he left and began his career as a virtuoso violinist. He toured extensively in Italy, Austria, Germany, France, and Britain. During his first tour of Italy he played his own composition Le Streghe in Milan. This work included the first appearance of double harmonics; Le Streghe was an immediate success. During his tour of Austria in 1828, Schubert praised Paganini and said that he had “heard an angel sing.”48 But his style was not always positively accepted. His performances of concertos by Kreutzer and Rode were criticized for being too free. In Germany some professional musicians thought his style was too eccentric. While performing in Prague Paganini’s virtuosity was received merely as a technical display for the Bohemian violin school.49

Paganini’s violin playing cannot be claimed by a certain school and was not passed on to

47 Nicolas Slominsky, Laura Kuhn, and Denis McIntire, Baker’s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, (New York: Schirmer Books, 2001), 2694.

48 Edward Neil, “Paganini, Nicolo.” The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford University Press, 2005 (accessed 11 October 2005) available from 49 Ibid.

a pupil. Most of his compositions were published after his death, as they were intended for private performances; these include the 24 Caprice, Op. 1.50 Paganini’s style influenced virtuoso playing in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Pianist-composers such as Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, and Rachmanoff modeled some of their compositions for piano on Paganini’s Caprices. For example, Brahms’s Variation on a Theme by Paganini and Rachminonoff’s Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini are based on the 24th Caprice from Op. 1. Among Liszt’s Grande Etudes, No. 2 is based on the seventeenth Caprice, No.

5 is based on the ninth Caprice, and No. 6 is based on the twenty-fourth Caprice.

Paganini’s Op. 1 includes 24 concert etudes that employ much virtuosity. These require highly refined techniques such as multiple stops, left-hand pizzicato, harmonics, fast string crossing, and sautillé to name a few. The harmony is conventional throughout.

Some of the caprices begin with a slow section, usually in an Italian folk-tune character.

Below I will describe No. 2 for string crossings, No. 3 for double trills, No. 11 for a singing melodic line, No. 17 for fingered octaves and chromaticism, No. 20 for double- stop with open D string. And No. 24 is theme and variations; each variation is concerned with certain techniques such as left-hand pizzicato, double stops, etc.

1. No. 2 requires the violinist to bring out the melodic line between the string crossings. For instance, in the first two measures, example 40 below, the repeated note B in the first two measures is to be played with less bow pressure in order to bring out the descending line B–A-sharp–A–G–F-sharp–E–D–C-sharp–B–A sharp–B–D–C-sharp. At measure 35 the moving melody descends chromatically B–A-sharp–A–G-sharp–G–F-

50 Ibid.

sharp–F–E–D-sharp–D–C-sharp, all between the repeated lower Bs. For the string crossings, wrist rotation should be used rather than the whole arm. Even in the passages that cross from the G string to the E string, as in the example 41, the movement of the upper arm should be minimized for a quicker and smoother string crossing.

Ex. 40. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 1-3.

Ex. 41. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 35-37.

The passage of chromatic broken minor thirds from measures 51 to 54 requires special attention for intonation; it can be practiced initially as double stops. This passage heightens chromaticism before the return of the beginning motive.

Ex. 42. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 2. mm. 51-53.

This caprice can be practiced at a slow tempo with detaché and martelé; both of these strokes should be studied for articulation and smoothness. Markings for both bowing techniques appear in the music. Ideally, the player will eventually use a brush stroke, but at a faster tempo detaché is more suitable. The tempo marking is Moderato in

6/8.

2. No. 3 is in two sections: Sostenuto and Presto. I will only discuss the

Sostenuto section for its double trill in octaves. For the octaves in this caprice the first and third fingers are ideal because of the double trill. The first and fourth fingers can be used some places if this over-stretches the hand. In measure 5, shown below, the fingering can be replaced with first and fourth fingers. Switching back to first and third fingers is necessary before the A-sharp at the end of measure 7 for the double trill in measure 8. The first step of practice is to familiarize oneself to play the octaves with the first and third fingers. Next is to work on the trills using the second and fourth fingers; strengthening the fourth finger is essential. To practice the double trills, applying dotted rhythm at a slow tempo can be beneficial, as described previously for Kreutzer No. 15.

The beginning of this caprice is to be played on the D and G strings so there is no string crossing but utilizing many shifts. During each shift, the fingers should be released to move along the string instead of sliding with pressure. This releasing action also frees the muscles across the hand.

Ex. 43. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 3. mm. 1-8.

3. No. 11 is also in two sections. The first is marked Andante and the second is marked Presto. There is brief return of the Andante at the end of this caprice. The melody in the top voice of the Andante is very song-like; the triple-stop chords should be broken to bring out the top voice. A reduced bow speed before the bow change also help to

phrase the singing tune.

Ex. 44. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 11. mm. 1-8.

Ex. 45. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 11. mm. 29-32.

The Presto is a combination of sextuplets and dotted rhythms. The sextuplets must be played evenly. Finger motion similar to collé is necessary for the dotted rhythms as described in Wieniawski’s Ecole Moderne Op. 10, No. 5. There are extended fourth fingers in measure 1 and 3; this technique can be practiced as a trill with a dotted rhythm to strengthen it.

4. No. 17 is dramatic in nature and filled with chromaticism. It is also in two sections: Sostenuto and Andante. In the Andante section, the first half consists of chromatic scales and double stops, and the second part consists of fingered octaves.

Ex. 46. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 1-5.

In the Sostenuto above, the up-beats are to be played at the frog using the wrist to depict the heaviness of the minor third between E-flat and G-flat in the first full

measure, and the augmented second between G-flat and A in the second measure. The long notes are to be played with vibrato at a fairly slow bow speed. The vibrato can be increased as chromaticism becomes more intense. There needs to be a clean change when the bow changes direction, and the bow slows down immediately as soon as the new note sounds. As vibrato speeds up toward the end of the note, bow speed can also be increased.

Both vibrato and bow speed can be increased each time.

The Andante consists of chromatic passages and double stops. Example 47 below is the beginning of Andante. The chromatic passages require left-hand articulation for evenness and clarity; applying dotted rhythms during practice can be beneficial. When shifting in a faster tempo like this, one should prevent playing the previous note shorter than its value. The double stops can be played with a hint of crescendo toward the accented note, then the dynamics can decrescendo.

Ex. 47. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 5-8.

In measures 18 and 19, as in example 48 below, to build intensity the chromatic line can be played with a crescendo even though it is descending. In measure 20 the ascending arpeggio of the dominant and secondary dominant can have a decreased dynamic level while playing poco ritardando, with the return of the beginning of Andante at the dynamic level of piano in order to build intensity with the crescendo toward the finale in measure 24.

Ex. 48. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 18-21.

The fingered octave passages in example 49 below are technically challenging, which can make the left hand very tense. It is important to release the finger pressure of both fingers when shifting to a different set of fingerings. For the fingered octave, a bit of reflex across the knuckles should be used when switching fingers so that they can still be relaxed and articulated.

Ex. 49. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 17. mm. 25-26.

5. No. 20 is in two sections, both in the same tempo: Allegretto in 6/8. The overall form is ABA, and the B section is rounded binary. The A section consists of a simple melody over a tonic pedal, and the B section consists of sixteenth notes with trills and slur staccatos. Example 50 below is the beginning of this caprice; the tonic pedal D is to be played on the open string. Since open strings resonate more than stopped notes, the open string should be lightly touched with bow; the open D should not disturb the

melodic line of top voice. At the beginning, the angle of the bow should be closer to the A string so that there is more bow pressure on it than on the D string.

Ex. 50. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 1-4.

Ex. 51. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. m. 17, m. 21.

This caprice uses triple stops from measure 17 on. In measures 17 to 20, the open D string is on the lowest line. The D string should be touched lightly as soon the chord is broken so that two upper voices are heard longer. In measures 21 to the end of the A section, the open D string is in the middle voice; the top voice leads the melodic contour. These triple-stop chords are also broken, and the angle of the bow is closer to the

A string for less bow pressure on the open D string.

Ex. 52. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 25-27.

In the B section shown above, in the relative minor, the same tempo is used as in the A section, but because of the constant sixteenth notes the tempo seems faster to our ears. Trills should be played with good articulation, and the slur staccatos should be well prepared. There is a passage of string crossing at measure 37 for which I would like to suggest two different bowings, shown in example 53 below. This pause can be played near the frog starting on a down-bow for the B-flat or at the upper half of the bow starting

on an up-bow for the B-flat. Near the frog the string crossing movement is small, but due to the natural weight of the bow there could be excessive pressure. This can produce a lack of clarity. The notes sound cleaner in the upper half, but the bigger movement of the arm for the string crossings may not feel very comfortable.

Ex. 53. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 37-39.

Due to the rounded binary form in the B section, there is brief return of the beginning of the B section at measure 53 as seen in the example below. The harmony is very conventional before this return, traveling through dominant, dominant seventh, and secondary dominant. It is marked poco rit. and followed by rests that can be longer than the written value because there is a gradual slowing until the a tempo.

Ex. 54. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 20. mm. 50-53.

6. No. 24 is a theme and variations, 11 variations and a finale. The theme and each variation is 12 measures long, with the first four measures repeated. Harmony progresses in a simple manner: I - V - I in the first half and I - (IV) - V - V7 - I in the second. Although this harmony is straightforward, it is filled with chromatic twists and technical display. Virtuosic techniques such as left-hand pizzicato, usage of the G string in high positions, multiple-stops, harmonics, and fast string crossings are employed.

Caprice No. 24 uses all of the trademarks of Paganini’s style in one composition. Since each variation is short and focuses on one or two high-level techniques, it can be used as an example to introduce certain virtuosic elements of violin playing.

Ex. 55. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Theme, mm. 1-5.

The theme begins with an alternation of a stopped note and the open A string; in the fifth measure the open A alternates between harmonics and stopped notes. Open strings and natural harmonics vibrate better than stopped notes. The rhythm for the first beat of each measure requires the finger motion of the bow hold similar to collé as well as a relaxed wrist.

Ex. 56. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 1, mm. 1-4.

Variation 1 alternates with arpeggiated minor and major triads containing grace notes and slur staccatos. The first note in each measure is accented, so a much faster bow speed is used than the rest of the notes played with slur staccato.

Ex. 57. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 2, mm. 1-4.

Variaiton 2 consists of neighboring chromatic notes with quick string crossing.

The minor-second interval is played on different strings for variety in the timbre. The

accented notes are placed in the middle of the measure, but the entire measure is slurred so the bow speed is to be increased in the middle of the bow. However, bow changes should be smooth with the bow slowing down slightly before changing direction at both the tip and the frog.

Ex. 58. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 3, mm. 1-5.

Variation 3 is in octaves, played on the D and G strings only. It is played with high positions on the lowest strings to emit a certain color due to the short distance between the bridge and where the string is stopped. There are shifts between every note when these double stops in octaves are played on two strings. Attention to a relaxed left hand is required for vibrato and legato phrasing.

Ex.59. Paganini, Caprice, Op.1, No.24. Variation 4, mm.1-4.

Variation 4 is chromatic using a legato phrasing. Intonation for the chromatic scales is essential. Prior to the practice of any of Paganini’s caprices, chromatic scales should be included in daily scale practice. For better intonation, a chromatic scale should use diatonic notes as a guide to the ears. In this A-minor caprice the diatonic notes are A,

E, and D; these notes are also open strings on violin. When these notes agree with the open strings of instrument, they resonate more for a better sound quality. The fingerings in example 59 are provided by Galamian. There is a shift to a different position in the

bottom fingering; the top fingering uses a half-position shift with one finger.

Ex. 60. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 5, mm. 1-4.

Variation 5 is in half-step intervals for both voices. One is in chromatic broken octaves with string crossings on the A and E strings, and the other has two notes, a minor second apart, on the G string. Because these two elements are in different ranges, it will give contrast to its color.

Ex. 61. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 6, mm. 1-3, mm. 5-7.

Variaiton 6 is in double-stop thirds and tenths. For thirds, alternating the first and third fingers with the second and fourth fingers should aid in producing smooth legato.

For the tenths the fourth finger should be placed on the fingerboard first before reaching back as described for Dont’s Caprice No.1 (see page 33). Because tenths can over-stretch the fingers, they should be practiced with care. When shifting, finger pressure should be released between each note; this helps to avoid tightening the already over-stretched fingers.

Ex. 62. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 7, mm. 1-4.

Variation 7 is a showpiece of how fast string crossings can happen; the string

crossing from the E string to the G string is constant in this variation. As described for

Kreutzer No. 7, as soon as a note is played the bow should be ready for the next one on a different string. This can be practiced slowly at first, taking extra time during a string crossing.

Ex. 63. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 8, mm. 1-4.

Variation 8 has legato triple stops. To play these chords without breaking them apart, the bow should be placed at a level that touches all three strings simultaneously.

When there is an open string it should be touched with less pressure, especially on the E string, as in the first measure. Because the E string has the highest pitch of the four open strings, its frequency is much higher than the others. The higher the frequency, the louder it sounds.

Ex. 64. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 9, mm. 1-4.

Variation 9 is played with left-hand pizzicato. As described with Dont’s 24

Etudes and Caprice, No. 6, the string is plucked with a left finger. The intonation for the notes that are played with the bow should be accurate. Fourth-finger articulation is required for both left-hand pizzicato and bowed notes. The extended fourth finger is used in the first notes of measures 1, 3, and 5, marked with * in the example above. For strengthening the fourth finger I recommend playing the scale with the fourth finger. For

instance, the one-octave D-major scale is played on the G string with the fourth finger.

Ex. 65. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 10, mm. 1-4.

Ex. 66. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 10, m. 12.

Variation 10 is played in a high position on the A string. When playing in high positions, the left hand should have more of a reaching motion over the fingerboard rather than stretching forward. It is important to have a relaxed wrist and elbow. From a distance the melody sounds like a hummed theme. Some ritardando can be applied at the end of the variation as in example 66, so that the next variation has a contrast of mood.

Ex. 67. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Variation 11, mm. 1-3.

Variation 11 has a different mood as compared to the previous variation. No. 10 is like humming, whereas this variation has more presence due to the dynamic level of forte and use of open strings. There are double stops and arpeggios in this variation. The double stops are played from the two low strings to the two upper strings. These string crossings should be smooth, but articulated, to suit the character. The correct sounding point should be maintained when crossing from the lower to the upper strings. The arpeggios are to be practiced slowly at first, taking extra time for shifting and string

crossings. One should not rush the tempo at the end of each arpeggio in the slur staccato for the last three notes. The last note of the arpeggio in the second measure is a harmonic; there is better resonance if the bow is lifted from the string at the same time as the left finger is lifted.

Ex. 68. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Finale, mm. 1-4.

Ex. 69. Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 24. Finale, mm. 13-15.

The finale brings a grand ending to this caprice. There are fast string crossings with shiftings in measure 3, and without shiftings in the first and the second measures.

The double stops are played from the two low strings to the two upper strings similar to the previous variation, as in measure 4 in example 68. The caprice ends with trills as shown in example 69 at measure 13, followed by an A-major quadruple-stop on an up- bow with rather quick bow speed.

V. Conclu si on

Representative etudes from Kreutzer’s 42 Studies, Dont’s 24 Etudes and

Caprices, Rode’s 24 Caprices, Wieniawski’s Ecole Moderne, and Paganini’s Caprices have been described. The practice methods in this document are some of the most basic to string players, but I find that these etudes must be practiced as such in order to strengthen technical aspects of violin playing that can then be applied to almost every item of violin literature. I have tried to describe step by step as if teaching. I hope this gives detailed guidelines on how to practice or teach certain etudes.

VI. Bibliography

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Theses and Dissertations

Booze, Leanna, “The Overlooked Repertory: Twentieth-Century French Oboe Etudes.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2003.

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Video Recording

Marchenko, Olga. Olga Marchenko: Violin Technique from Oistrakh. Produced and directed by Junkil Kim. SHK, Videocassette.

Galamian, Ivan. Master Teacher Series. Produced and directed by Charles Avsharian. Shar Products Company, 1979 and 1980. Videocassette.

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