Lives Worthy of Life and Remembrance: Memorialization of the National Socialist Aktion T4 Euthanasia Programme by Meaghan Ann Hepburn A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures University of Toronto © Copyright by Meaghan Ann Hepburn 2014 Meaghan Ann Hepburn Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (2014) Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures University of Toronto “Lives Worthy of Life and Remembrance: Memorialization of the National Socialist Aktion T4 Euthanasia Programme Abstract It is estimated that over 70,000 German and Austrian victims deemed mentally and physically disabled by the Nazis lost their lives in the National Socialist euthanasia programmed entitled Aktion T4. These murders prove to be the first instance of mass gassings of a selection of society deemed unwanted, and provided the intellectual and technological framework that was employed in the Extermination Camps. And yet a void in memorialization exists for the topic. Deficient memorialization of such a historically important event in German and Austrian society raises questions as to why this Nazi programme was not memorialized to the same degree as other historical events and victim groups of the Holocaust. The scarce number of representations of the victims in the forms of literature, art, monuments and memorials is indicative of a reluctance or selective remembering of the topic in WWII memorialization practices. The void in memorialization of Aktion T4 is founded in three important and influential factors. Firstly, the negative stigmas associated with mental and physical disabilities, both in confronting the topic, but also presenting it on public display. Secondly, the legal issues in that only a very few number of doctors, caregivers, or commanders of the killing centres were prosecuted and sentenced for their crimes, but rather continued to practice without any repercussions. Finally, the addressing of the topic of German suffering and the representation of German people as victims, and not solely as the perpetrators of WWII. This complex dichotomy ii of presenting German people as both victims and perpetrators within the same action results in a political nervousness and general avoidance. The topic of Aktion T4 memorialization is pertinent as it speaks not only to the history of the mentally and physically disabled victims, but also to the treatment of people with disabilities today. The memorialization of Aktion T4 and the representation of its victims is an important topic which has been long delegated to the margins of Holocaust memory work. These first victims represent a selected eradication of a group of society deemed unworthy of life, and unworthy of belonging to the German population. iii Acknowlegements I would like to begin by thanking my dissertation committee Rebecca Wittmann, John Zilcosky, and especially my supervisor, Stefan Soldovieri. I am so very appreciative of your support and guidance throughout this process, and your comments have helped me greatly with this project. You have taught me so much throughout my studies, and you have inspired me greatly in my own teaching. I thank you, Stefan, for your encouragement and assistance! I would also like to thank Markus Stock, John Noyes, and Konrad Eisenbichler for your comments during the defence. Thank you as well to my external, Carol Poore, for your contributions. I also extend my appreciation to the members of the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures at the University of Toronto during these past years for your invaluable support. In addition I thank those on-site who assisted me greatly in completing my research abroad. I am appreciative of those at the memorial centres: Thomas Stöckle (Grafeneck), Boris Böhm (Pirna-Sonnenstein), Irene Leitner (Schloss Hartheim), as well as the artists: Horst Hoheisel, Via Lewandowsky, and Adelheid Niepold, and author: Hans-Ulrich Dapp. Special thanks as well to those in Tübingen who helped me find little known sites, and have exposed me to histories which are still waiting to be uncovered. My gratitude to the institutions who provided me with financial support during my graduate studies. The Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures at the University of Toronto provided me with teaching assistantships and travel grants. The Ontario Graduate Scholarship (Ruth E. and Harry E. Carter Award), University of Toronto Katie Keeler Award (German), and SGS Dissertation Completion Grant allowed me to complete my studies. The Joint Initiative in German and European Studies grant was essential to allow me to conduct research in Germany and Upper Austria. iv I couldn’t have completed this without the support of my family and friends. My colleagues and friends at the University of Toronto have been instrumental in contributing to my success and graduate school experience. I am so grateful to have had such support during completion, and thank my friends and colleagues at the University of New Brunswick, and in the city of Fredericton. I am so lucky to be able to say I have such a wonderful set of friends across Canada, Germany, and abroad who have listened, helped, and pushed me on these past years. I would not have enough pages to thank you all adequately ... So with that I extend a heartfelt “Vielen Dank!” to my friends and family who have supported me during this process. Although I never said it enough, your questioning of “Are we there yet?” was most appreciated and helped me through all phases of this degree. A very special thank you to my parents, Lyle and Ann, and to my sister, Lindsay. Your support and encouragement has meant the world to me. ILYAILY. v Table of Contents Introduction: Lives Worthy of Life and Remembrance: The Forgotten Memorialization of Aktion T4 1 A. (Dis)Ability: The Marginalization of Impairment 3 B. Hippocratic Hypocrisy: Medicine and Aktion T4 10 C. Germans as Victims: Confronting the Taboo 18 D. Lives Worthy of Remembrance 21 Chapter 1: History and Origins of Aktion T4 23 A. The ‘Science’ of Selection 24 B. Lebensunwertes Leben: Eugenics to Mass Murder in Germany 28 C. The Judicial Aftermath of Aktion T4 and Euthanasia Perpetrators 46 D. “The story of racial science no more ends in 1945 than it begins in 1933.” 50 Chapter 2: Topographies of Trauma: Memorialization, Museology and Pedagogy at the Former Sites of Aktion T4 Terror 54 A. Grafeneck 63 i. Memorialization at Grafeneck and Southwest Germany 64 ii. Gedenkstätte Grafeneck: “Ort der Information“ 76 iii. Current Trends in Memorialization: Grafeneck as an “Ort des Lebens” 87 B. Pirna-Sonnenstein 90 i. An Abandoned History: Memorialization at Pirna-Sonnenstein 92 ii. Gedenkstätte Pirna-Sonnenstein: Gegenwart ist Vergangenheit 101 iii. Current Trends in Memorialization at Pirna-Sonnenstein and in the city of Pirna 112 C. Schloss Hartheim 118 i. Memorialization at Hartheim: Ein Zeitzeuge in Vergessenheit 119 ii. Lern- und Gedenkort: History and Social Awareness at Schloss Hartheim today 130 iii. Current Trends in Memorialization in Upper Austria 143 D. From Silence to Structures 145 Chapter 3: “Counter Memories”: Alternative Approaches to the Representation of Aktion T4 and National Socialist Euthanasia in the Mediums of Monuments and Art 151 A. Schandmäler: “There is nothing in this world as invisible as a monument” 152 i. Das Denkmal der grauen Busse 161 ii. »Vergangenheit ist Gegenwart«: The Memorial Signs of Pirna 169 vi iii. Berlin Curves or Berlin Junction? 183 iv. Contemporary Aktion T4 Monuments 188 B. Artistic Renderings of Aktion T4 190 i. Hans Körnig – “In der Straßenbahn“ (1956) 192 ii. Via Lewandowsky – “Sie können nichts schreien hören“ (1989/90) 195 iii. Adelheid Niepold – “Den Toten ohne Begräbnis“ (2003) 203 C. Avoiding Trivializing Memory 207 Chapter 4: From the Schubladen to the Buchladen: A Sustained Silence in Literary Representations of Aktion T4 209 A. From Die Blechtrommel to Kindheitsmuster: Early Examples of Aktion T4 in Literature 214 B. Jugendliterature: An Educational and Direct Approach for the Young Reader 227 i. Ursula Wölfel – Ein Haus für Alle 229 C. Contemporary Literature: Exploiting the Victims in Literature 238 i. Reiner Goss – Grafeneck 238 ii. Hellmut G. Haasis – Heisel Rein der Gscheite Narr 250 D. Memorial Publications: A Private Memory becomes Public 253 i. Hans-Ulrich Dapp – Emma Z: Ein Opfer der Euthanasie 254 E. The Topic of Aktion T4 is coming out of the Drawers 256 Conclusion: The 100€ Question 258 Appendix A: Case Studies 264 Appendix B: Aktion T4 Doctors 268 Bibliography 270 vii Introduction - Lives Worthy of Life and Remembrance: The Forgotten Memorialization of Aktion T4 “What we fear, we often stigmatize and shun and sometimes seek to destroy. Popular entertainments depicting disabled characters allude to these fears and prejudices or address them obliquely or fragmentarily, seeking to reassure us about ourselves.” Paul Longmore qtd. in Barnes and Mercer, 525 “[Dr] Gross wasn’t taken to court because he was a colleague of a lot of people in the system. A colleague of the lawyers. A colleague of the judges. And it’s hard to take a friend or a colleague to court.” Oliver Lehmann, Journalist and Author (Gray Matter) An estimated 70,000 mentally and physically disabled German and Austrian victims lost their lives in the National Socialist euthanasia programmed entitled Aktion T4, and yet a void in memorialization exists for the topic. Deficient memorialization of such a historically important event in German and Austrian society raises questions as to why this Nazi programme was not memorialized to the same degree as other historical events and victim groups of the Holocaust. It is not to say that remembrance of the event was and is currently completely absent from public consciousness, but that it was and is deficient, especially when compared to greater Holocaust memorialization. There are limited examples in literature, in canonical texts such as Günter Grass’ Die Blechtrommel (1959) and Christa Wolf’s Kindheitsmuster (1976), and more recently in popular literature and regionally published novels in Germany.