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©2013 Suzanne Levi-Sanchez ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ©2013 Suzanne Levi-Sanchez ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ALL INSTITUTIONALIZATION IS LOCAL: BORDER (IN) SECURITY AND THE CASE OF TAJIK/AFGHAN BADAKHSHAN By SUZANNE LEVI-SANCHEZ A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Political Science Written under the direction of Jan Kubik And approved by ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey October, 2013 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ALL INSTITUTIONALIZATION IS LOCAL: BORDER (IN) SECURITY AND THE CASE OF TAJIK/AFGHAN BADAKHSHAN By SUZANNE LEVI-SANCHEZ Dissertation Director: Jan Kubik In my dissertation I posit a simple question: What is the importance of local leaders and local identity groups to the stability of a state's border and ultimately, the stability of the state? In order to answer this question I conducted ethnographic fieldwork in the borderlands of Afghan/Tajik Badakhshan. As part of my fieldwork, I lived with families, worked with NGOs and IGOs and studied local foundational narratives. As a framework for my analysis, I define three main concepts: borders, institutions, and identity. The interaction of these concepts with the data collected during my fieldwork led me to three main findings. First, when the state increases authority through formalization of institutional infrastructure at the border, then local leaders will be marginalized and the local population will be alienated from the state and this will decrease overall stability. Moreover, national identity will weaken while (some) local identities will strengthen. Second, if the state works to monopolize power at the border, the stability in the border region decreases as local groups assert alternative forms of identity as a form of silent protest. Third, if local leaders and organizations are given semi-autonomy in coordination with state border forces, then the borderlands will be more stable and national identity will be more broadly accepted. ii Acknowledgments “Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language.” -Ludwig Wittgenstein I have so many people to thank for their kind assistance with my fieldwork, analysis, many drafts of chapters, and support. The following is only a partial list and for those I leave out, it is not my intention to do so. Jan Kubik, my patient and exacting adviser, who has worked with me since my arrival at Rutgers, has forever changed my life. His constant questioning of my analysis, guidance for me as an early scholar, and understanding of my quirks, made it so this dissertation was possible. I am not easy to deal with, and for that, I sincerely apologize. Our many conversations about how I should frame my research, conceptualize it, and write it coherently, forced me to improve in ways I would not have alone. For that I am enormously grateful and know that due to his encouragement I have been able to trust that my scholarship has merit. Cynthia Daniels has guided me through my entire process at Rutgers and offered words of advice, an empathetic ear, and believed in me. I always will be grateful for her guidance and unwavering support. Ambassador Robert Finn began supporting me and my research goals even before I arrived at Rutgers. His calm voice, vast field experience, language ability, and mentoring, helped me through many unexpected obstacles over the past six years. I am equally grateful to Paul Poast, who inspired me to not only believe I could write my dissertation, but who also convinced me it was an important body of research. My dissertation would not have been completed without our many discussions iii about the different drafts of the chapters. Harvey Waterman, Richard Lau, and Jack Levy also kindly guided me through the process at Rutgers. Sophie Clavier and Mark Kleiman, both whom I met in 2005, awarded me research assistant positions. Professor Kleiman awarded me my first grant for conducting fieldwork in Afghanistan. Both of them also guided me through the previously unknown terrain of academia. Since our first phone conversation, Mark has introduced me to countless experts in the field, academics, and given me advice on my writing, analysis, and research as has Sophie. Stephen Amster and Jeffrey Miller advised me during my Title VIII Award from University of Delaware. Stephen has become a true friend and I have been so grateful for his shoulder. Wolfgang Danspeckgruber also has been a steadfast supporter and will continue to be one after I leave Rutgers. His insights have made my dissertation much more focused and I look forward to his guidance in the future. Nurmamadsho Nurmamadshoev carefully read my historical chapter and provided keen insights. Without his help that chapter would have had many errors. Faizullah Faizullah, Mohammadnur Pana, Dr. Shams Ali Shams, Michael Bauer, Dagi Dagiev, Barnett Rubin, Jonathan Kulick, Jonathan Caulkisn, Angela Hawkins, Vanda Felbab-Brown, Eckart Schiewak have all provided expertise which helped me develop my dissertation and keep my analysis in-line. Many at Rutgers advised me and provided support, including David Hunter Walsh, Sheila Friedlander, Alexandra Bachmann, Barbara Sirman, Tom Glynn, and Jill Richards. Also, I am deeply indebted to the many people in the Rutgers including all of the wonderful administrative staff on the Fifth Floor of Hickman Hall who run the Department of Political Science without whose help I would have drowned in a sea of forms and bureaucratic requirements. iv The administrative office at UCLAs school of Public Policy all have assisted me in ways too many to detail here. The LISD team at Princeton, including Trisha Barney, Beth English, Angella Matheney, and Ankit Panda, also has provided support and advice over the past year for which I am truly grateful. Randall Jarrell, Montgomery McFate, Paul Sprachman, Andrew Carney, Carla Koffel, Jennifer Bryson, Dipali Mukhopadhyay, Laura Sjoberg, Dvora Yanow, Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, Judith Stiehm, Andrew Williamson, Michael Barry, Ambassador David Fischer, Sanjoy Banerjee, Andrei Tsygankov, Mahmood Monshipouri, Yasaman Babaloo, Amir Hussein, Danielle Pritchett, Christine Fair, Frederik Coene, Michael Bauer, W.L. Pickens and so many others have supported me and advised me along the way and continue to do so. They are all close friends to whom I will remain in debt. There are those in the field, most of whom cannot be named, who supported me, guided me, taught me, and traveled with me. Some of the people I can include are: Ambassador Henri and Mrs. Guenvieve Fabian De Zipper, Jonathan Andrew, Chris Pickens, William Lawrence, Don Van Atta, Christian Bleuer, Eric Hamrin, Christopher Tatum, Azita Ranjbar, Ali Mohammad Ali, Anne Johnson, and Ashley White. Also, all of the border guards, commanders, customs agents and officials, government workers and other border personnel, and the local leaders and people of Khorog, I owe you my dissertation and only hope it is worthy of the support and time you have given me. There are so many people from Tajikistan and Afghanistan (and Badakhshan in particular) who I would like to mention here, and to whom I will always count as some of my closest friends but, given the sensitivity of my subject matter, at this point, I will have to leave v their names out. Suffice it to say, without their guidance and mentoring in the field and in their region, my dissertation would not have been possible. A number of organizations supported me in my research including, of course, Rutgers University but also, the United Nations, the European Union, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, GIZ in Khorog, Girls International, International Organization for Migration, the Lichtenstein Institute of Self-Determination, University of Delaware, United States Department of State, University of California at Los Angeles, the Mina Houtan Foundation, the International Research and Exchange Board, most importantly, the Khorog State English Program and the Aga Khan Foundation (and of course the staff and administration of both organizations). Last and definitely not least, is my loving family, who has given me love, support, patience and encouragement during the entire process. I know my lengthy absences while I was in the field along with my many hours in my office afterwards have not been easy on my daughters. Watching them grow up into such wonderful and strong young women has been the greatest gift I will ever receive in this short life. I am also so very lucky to have such an understanding husband who has believed in me at every turn, no matter how crazy the next bend in the road might have seemed at the time. vi Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgment iii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: Conceptualization and Theoretical Framework 5 Chapter Three: Methodology and Methods 16 Chapter Four: Historical Narratives of Border Development 48 Chapter Five: Foundational Myths of Badakhshan 74 Chapter Six: The Social Organization of the Khorog 114 Chapter Seven: Development at the Border 135 Chapter Eight: Cross-Border Bazaars 181 Chapter Nine: Conclusion 214 Appendices 243 Bibliography 259 275 vii 1 Chapter One Introduction Borders hold the periphery of the places they mark. They are the beginning, the end, and the point of transition. Borders delineate territory physically, symbolically, culturally, and economically, and they serve as markers to order our world. They provide us a context within which to make and enforce our laws. The state would not exist without its borders and neither would the symbol of each nation. On the other hand, as much as we might want our borders to order our world, many borderlands are anything but clear lands of delineation, instead often are rife with smuggling, illegal crossings, safe havens, and areas of resistance for groups living at the margins of their country.
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