Published by LGA Publications, the Local Government Association Local Government House, Smith Square, London SW1P 3HZ

realising the potential of cultural services the case for tourism

research briefing twelve point seven November 2001

The author This report has been written by Fred Coalter, Centre for Leisure Research at the University of Edinburgh

Acknowledgements This project was jointly funded by: Arts Council of England Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management Chief Cultural and Leisure Officers Association Countryside Agency Department for Culture, Media and Sport Environment Agency Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management Institute of Sport and Recreation Management Local Government Association Resource: The Council for Museums, Archives and Libraries Sport England West Midlands Chief Cultural and Leisure Officers Association

And supported by: Business in Sport and Leisure Children’s Play Council English Tourism Council National Association of Local Government Arts Officers

Published by LGA Publications, the Local Government Association Local Government House, Smith Square, London SW1P 3HZ. Tel. 020 7664 3000. Fax. 020 7664 3030

REALISING THE POTENTIAL: THE CASE FOR CULTURAL SERVICES - TOURISM

CONTENTS ...... i

LIST OF TABLES ...... iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... v Introduction...... v Key findings...... v Tourism economy...... v The environment and sustainable tourism development ...... vi Cultural tourism...... vi Social impacts...... vi Conclusions ...... vii Reconciling micro and macro studies ...... vii Evaluating tourism impacts...... vii Multipliers and additionality...... vii Longitudinal studies...... vii Sustainable tourism...... viii Sustaining local services...... viii

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Definition of tourism...... 1 Nature of available information...... 1 1.2 Tourism and allied sectors...... 1 1.3 Tourism volumes...... 2 Domestic tourism and day trips...... 2 Overseas tourism ...... 2

2 TOURISM IMPACTS...... 3

3 THE TOURISM ECONOMY...... 3 3.1 World and European tourism economy...... 3 3.2 UK tourism economy ...... 4 Self employment...... 4 3.3 Small and medium-sized tourism enterprises ...... 5 3.4 Rationales for local authority tourism services and policy...... 5 Local policy and planning for tourism...... 6 Local spending on tourism...... 6 3.5 Economic benefits of tourism...... 6 3.6 Evaluations of visitor-based regeneration...... 7 i Garden festivals...... 7

ii 3.7 Tourism funding and leverage...... 8 Attracting funding...... 8 Flagship developments...... 8 Distribution of benefits...... 8 3.8 Tourism multipliers and spending volumes...... 9 Timeshare...... 10 Impact of capital spending...... 10 3.9 Limitations of economic impact and multiplier studies ...... 10 Narrow definition of impact ...... 10 Additionality and displacement...... 11 Lack of reliable data...... 11 3.10 A catalyst for public-private partnerships ...... 11 Barcelona’s cruise terminal ...... 11 3.11 Training - public-private partnerships and employment ...... 12 London Hotels’ Training Centre...... 12 Welcome Host Training...... 12 3.12 Women in employment ...... 12 3.13 Information and communication technology (ICT) and tourism...... 13 TourISt ...... 14 3.14 Conclusions ...... 14

4 THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT...... 15 4.1 The need for a balanced approach to costs and benefits ...... 15 4.2 Sustainability initiatives...... 15 The International Hotels’s Environmental Initiative (IHEI)...... 16 Gleneagles Hotel...... 16 Green Audit Kit...... 16 Greening Your Business ...... 16 4.3 Sustaining the nation’s cultural heritage ...... 17 4.4 Sustaining craft industries...... 17 4.5 Tourism in the countryside ...... 18 Recognising benefits...... 19 4.6 Public transport and tourism...... 19 4.7 Conclusions ...... 20

5 CULTURAL TOURISM ...... 21 5.1 General benefits...... 21 5.2 Specific benefits ...... 22 Bradford Tourism Strategy...... 23 5.3 Year of arts and culture ...... 23 5.4 Film tourism and literary trails...... 23 5.5 English language teaching ...... 24

iii 5.6 Street markets ...... 24

iv 5.7 Sports tourism...... 24 Volume...... 24 Major sporting events...... 25 Golf tourism...... 25 5.8 Activity holidays...... 26 An introduction to activities ...... 26 Cycling tourism...... 26 5.9 Exhibition and conference tourism...... 27 5.10 Conclusions ...... 27

6 SOCIAL IMPACTS...... 28 6.1 Social tourism: the personal benefits of holidays...... 28 The health benefits of holidays ...... 28 Patients...... 28 6.2 Tourist motivation and experiences...... 29 6.3 Holidays and inequalities...... 29 Barriers to holiday taking...... 30 Social holiday policy initiatives...... 31 6.4 A ‘time squeeze’...... 31 6.5 Host-guest impacts ...... 32 Local attitudes ...... 32 6.6 Fair trade and tourism...... 33 6.7 Conclusions ...... 33

7 CONCLUSIONS...... 34 7.1 Economic research issues...... 34 Reconciling micro and macro studies ...... 34 Evaluating tourism impacts...... 34 Multipliers and additionality...... 34 Longitudinal studies...... 34 7.2 Environment and sustainable tourism research issues...... 35 Sustainable tourism...... 35 Sustaining local services...... 35 7.3 Cultural tourism research issues...... 35 7.4 Social impact research issues...... 35 Non and infrequent tourists...... 35 7.5 Perception and experience of the UK tourism product...... 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 37

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Distribution of UK hotel and restaurant businesses by size ...... 5 Table 2: Social class of tourist population in the UK ...... 30

vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

Tourism is regarded as having the potential to benefit both national and local economies and aid regeneration in areas where traditional industries or agriculture are in decline. It can also contribute to:

· Maintaining the economic viability of local businesses (through diversification such as farm tourism).

· The preservation and re-use of existing resources (such as historic buildings).

· The protection and enhancement of the local environment.

It covers a broad spectrum of leisure related activities and includes a wide range of specialist markets such as business tourism, film tourism, sports tourism, study courses and language learning.

Key findings

Tourism economy

· The tourism economy has an estimated total expenditure of £63.9 billion. There are 127,000 VAT-based enterprises in tourism-related businesses and the industry employs about 1.86 million people (DCMS, 2000).

· It impacts on a wide variety of service sectors - ranging from those wholly dedicated to tourism to local services which benefit from tourist income.

· The tourist economy is dominated by small and medium sized enterprises, which have a positive impact on the local economy by purchasing and employing locally.

· Tourism development has been a catalyst in obtaining European funding and the viability of many cultural and leisure ‘flagship’ developments rests on tourists.

· It is claimed that tourism has relatively high employment and income multipliers.

· Although concern has been expressed about low pay and working conditions, tourism is a major employer of women, providing entry level jobs and flexible part-time opportunities.

· Many tourism enterprises are among the most innovative and original in their design and use of ICT.

v The environment and sustainable tourism development

· There is an increasing emphasis on ‘sustainable’ tourism development, with a number of industry-led initiatives.

· Because of the need to maintain attractive high quality visitor destinations, tourism can contribute to the protection and maintenance of the built and natural environments.

· Tourism-led initiatives can maintain local culture, crafts and diversity.

· Especially in rural areas, tourism can also support many local services, which might otherwise be unsustainable.

· In 1994, 20 per cent of all UK tourist spending was in the countryside and approximately 300,000 jobs were directly attributable to tourism.

· Tourism is increasingly contributing to improvements in transport design and provision.

· Higher spending cultural tourists contribute to the maintenance of museums and other cultural sites and venues (although these benefits are not evenly distributed).

· The wider community benefits of tourism are not always recognised by residents.

Cultural tourism

· Cultural tourism is a major growth area of the European tourism market, which accounted for over 34 million tourist trips per year in the EU, and over a quarter of all EU international tourism.

· Cultural tourism contributes directly to the maintenance and profile of museums and galleries, theatres and concert halls, and festivals (although such benefits are not evenly distributed).

· A range of themed tourism packages have been responsible for attracting large number of tourists (e.g. film tourism, literary trails, street markets, sports events, activity holidays, exhibition and conference tourism).

· Cultural tourism has also been adopted as a strategy for urban regeneration in support of ethnic minority business and cultural diversity.

Social impacts

· Most GPs believe that holidays enhance the quality of life and have some benefit to health and well-being.

vi · Patterns of holiday-taking continue to reflect wider social differences and inequalities.

· Among those not taking holidays there is a wide range of constraints and factors, which will require a variety of measures to address.

· Some existing ‘social tourism’ initiatives seek to provide opportunities for those from low income households, particularly children.

· Despite concern about the negative impact of tourism on host communities there is some evidence that tourism can reverse the trend of rural depopulation and that the extremes of host-guest impacts experienced in less developed tourism communities are not always present.

Conclusions

Because of its national economic importance and employment potential, there is a much larger volume of quantitative survey data on tourism than any other area of cultural services (including the closely allied area of the arts). Such data amply illustrate the broad financial and employment benefits of the tourism economy and its direct and indirect effects. However, a number of research issues need to be addressed.

Reconciling micro and macro studies

· There is a need to examine the possibility of reconciling local economic impact approaches with macro-economic studies based on national accounting and other indicators.

Evaluating tourism impacts

· There is a need for greatly improved local area tourism statistics and comparative work to evaluate the various tourism impact/models.

Multipliers and additionality

· There is a need for secondary and primary studies to test various multiplier claims and additionality/substitution and appropriate measurement techniques.

Longitudinal studies

· There is a need for longitudinal monitoring and evaluation of employment and economic impacts.

vii Sustainable tourism

· There is a need to test theories and various indicators of sustainable tourism in terms of environmental cost-benefit analysis and changing notions and practices of sustainable development.

Sustaining local services

· More systematic investigation of the potential contribution of tourists to sustaining local services is required to inform planning and provision decisions.

viii 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of tourism

The recent government strategy for tourism emphasises the broad range and complexity of ‘tourism’:

“For most of us ‘tourism’ is simply the business of going on holiday. But tourism covers a multitude of leisure-time activities ranging from sightseeing and shopping to attending sports events or visiting friends and relatives. Now film tourism, farm tourism, specialist activities and interests of every kind are extending tourism in new ways and into new regions. Business conferences, trade fairs, study courses and language learning spread the net wider still.” (DCMS, 1999)

This DCMS (1999) publication suggests that tourism has tremendous potential to benefit local communities, especially in areas where traditional industries or agriculture are in decline. For example, it can contribute to:

· The regeneration of urban and rural areas.

· The preservation and re-use of existing resources (such as historic buildings).

· The protection and enhancement of the local environment.

· Maintaining the economic viability of local businesses (through diversification such as farm tourism).

Nature of available information

The economic and employment importance of tourism means that there is a substantial amount of quantitative data available. Whereas other cultural services tend to lack systematic quantitative data, and often depend on small scale, qualitative and often anecdotal evidence, there is a wide variety of economic, financial and employment data available for tourism. However, whereas other cultural services are increasingly concerned to understand the nature of the individual and social outcomes for participants in their services, such qualitative research is much less developed in tourism (outside academic institutions).

1.2 Tourism and allied sectors

Tourism is presumed to have such widespread, potentially positive, impacts because of the wide variety of activities and service provision on which it depends - transport, accommodation and a wide variety of ‘attractions’. Such services exist on a continuum, ranging from specialist services provided for and wholly dependent on tourism, to local attractions and facilities not aimed at tourists, but which tourists help to sustain (and improve).

1 Tourists are attracted by, and impact on, a range of cultural services - visitor attractions such as theme parks, museums, heritage sites, arts, sport, entertainment venues, festivals and events. For example:

· Overseas tourists account for approximately one fifth of all bednights in serviced accommodation in the UK (Centre for Leisure Research, 2000).

· Tourists account for 25 per cent of all London Underground passengers in the central area and 15 per cent of fare income for public transport (including 25% of all taxi fares). Overseas visitors spend £100 million on tube and bus rides each year (LTB, 1998, p4).

· Tourism, particularly in coastal and rural areas, can support standards of sports facilities that would otherwise not be available to local residents (Jackson and Glyptis, 1992). Marina and dockland facilities provide tourist and sports amenities, alongside hotel and entertainment facilities (most of which are also available to local residents).

Consequently, outside the specialist hospitality, travel and tour sectors, the indirect effects of tourism are considerable. This presents a ‘chicken-and-egg’ problem. Because many tourists are attracted by museums, countryside and the arts, it can be argued that this ‘makes the case’ for such services, as they serve to attract tourist expenditure. On the other hand it is also possible to ‘make the case’ for tourism, as such expenditure often underpins the viability of such services.

1.3 Tourism volumes

Domestic tourism and day trips

· Tourists are distinguished from leisure day visitors by a stay of at least one night in their destination. Day visitors can also include those travelling from a holiday base and on non- regular trips of over three hours or 20 miles.

· In 1998 UK residents took approximately 122 million tourist trips in the UK, which was a five per cent reduction on the previous year (English Tourism Council, 1999b). However the figure of 36 million trips abroad represented an nine per cent increase since 1997.

· Tourism trips, although substantial, are much lower in volume than leisure day visits. In 1998 nearly six billion leisure day visits were made in Great Britain.

Overseas tourism

· The UK is the fifth largest recipient of overseas tourist arrivals and receipts in the world, and fourth in terms of market share.

2 · Over 25 million overseas tourists visited Britain in 1998 (13.5 million of whom went to London).

· Over 25 per cent of overseas tourists were ‘business’ tourists and 20 per cent were ‘visiting friends and relatives’.

2 TOURISM IMPACTS

Measuring the impact of tourism and attributing the associated benefits is generally undertaken under four broad categories (Mathieson and Wall, 1982):

(i) Economic - this includes a wide range of impacts - employment, income, foreign exchange, business development, inward investment, skills/training.

(ii) Environment - this includes the built and natural environment, heritage, conservation, open/green space and urban/rural regeneration.

(iii) Cultural - this includes a wide range of activities included in the arts, heritage, national and civic pride, cultural diversity, “rights” (UN Declaration of Human Rights), ‘European Common Culture’ (EU Maastricht Treaty).

(iv) Social - this is a diffuse category which includes personal and social health, exchange, people with disabilities, social cohesion, education and visiting friends and relatives.

Such effects overlap and vary widely according to the policy or geographic context - it is often difficult to allocate ‘tourism effects’ to any single category. However, these standard headings have been used to organise materials for this review (in part because they reflect the nature of available research data). Since tourism is primarily destination- based, key geographic and activity-types are also highlighted where specific benefits are claimed.

3 THE TOURISM ECONOMY

3.1 World and European tourism economy

The economic benefits of tourism are substantial, with tourism and related transport sectors commonly referred to as the largest industry sector in the world.

· In 1999 travel and tourism accounted directly for 4.4 per cent of the world’s total GDP, worth $1,328 billion, with the tourism economy (including multiplier effects) representing 11.7 per cent of GDP, worth $3,549 billion. This translated to 3.1 per cent of direct employment, or 8.2 per cent in total employment effects (World Travel and Tourism Council, 1999).

3 · In the 15 EU member states, tourism is estimated to represent 5.5 per cent of GDP and six per cent of all employment - equivalent to nine million jobs. When the travel industry is included, this rises to over 13 per cent and accounted for over 15 per cent of capital investment in 1995. Tourism accounts for more than 30 per cent of external trade in services in the EU (CEC, 1996a).

3.2 UK tourism economy

· Tourism expenditure in the UK is estimated at £63.9 billion (DCMS, 2000), whilst the ‘value added’ by the tourism industry is estimated to account for between four and five per cent of UK GDP. Tourism is the UK’s largest invisible export.

· 1.86 million people are directly employed in tourism - seven per cent of all employment in Great Britain (DCMS, 2000) - up from 1.2 million in 1984 (HMSO, 1985).

· Government estimates of the UK tourism industry identify 127,000 businesses, 77 per cent of which are small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (having a turnover of less than £250,000 per annum) (DCMS, 2000). However, this under-estimates the number of firms and sole traders, with trade estimates quoting nearly 150,000 firms in the hotel and catering sector alone (Office for National Statistics, 1997).

Such differing estimates indicate the difficulties involved in the definition and measurement of economic activity in the tourism economy. Such difficulties derive from:

· The seasonal nature of tourism.

· A large hidden economy and employment.

· Multiple and part-time working practices.

· Limitations of the Standard Industry Classification (SIC) of production and employment types.

Self-employment

The expansion of the tourism sector (and allied service sectors) has been accompanied by an expansion of self-employment, with an above-average six per cent increase between 1979 and 1993 (DTI, 1996).

· In hospitality in the UK, 28 per cent of firms are sole traders.

· In Scotland it is estimated that over 17,000 people are self-employed in tourism-related activities (Scottish Tourist Board, 1999).

4 3.3 Small and medium-sized tourism enterprises (SMEs)

In the European Union, over 95 per cent of the 1.3 million hotel and catering (HoReCa) enterprises employ less than 10 staff. Fifty per cent of employees in this sector work for such micro-enterprises, while a further 15 per cent are sole traders (Werthner and Klein, 1999).

However, SMEs account for a disproportionately small element of the average turnover and “value added” per firm, when compared with larger enterprises and transnationals (EC, 1997). A key indicator of tourism enterprises is therefore their size as measured by the number of employees. For example, even in London, with a high concentration of large hotels and restaurant chains, 80 per cent of all hospitality firms are micro-enterprises and as Table 1 shows, 99 per cent of all firms in this sector employ less than 50 staff.

Table 1: Distribution of UK hotel and restaurant businesses by size Hotels and Restaurants 1996 Size (number of employees) 1 2-49 50-249 250+ No. of Businesses 148,866 28% 71% 1% 0.2% Employment (‘000s) 1,469 3.9% 48.9% 9.5% 37.7% Turnover (£ million) £45,788 3% 41% 10% 46% Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Market Trends, October 1997

Consequently, the potential growth in employment through small firms is perceived as a benefit both by UK government and by other agencies (e.g. TEC/LECs) and the EU (CEC, 1996b).

The value of small tourism enterprises was also highlighted in a Scottish study (Tribe, 1995). This found that smaller establishments were more beneficial to local economies because they purchase and employ locally, whilst the centralised buying activities of large organisations take spending out of the local area.

The predominant position of SMEs means that tourism is a diverse and highly fragmented industry. This often results in less coherent policy formulation and ineffective co-ordination at many levels. Wanhill (1997) concludes that there should be an action programme targeted at SMEs to improve their competitiveness and that improved communication and intelligence (particularly through ICT), should underpin any programme in this area.

3.4 Rationales for local authority tourism services and policy

Tourism promotion and development is a non-mandatory activity in the United Kingdom, as with most cultural services and economic development (where most local authority tourism departments are located) (Richards, 1992). As a discretionary public spending area, tourism competes with other mainstream and cultural service budgets and is therefore within the Standard Spending Assessment (SSA) settlement to local authorities by central government.

During the 1980s, rationales for public sector intervention in tourism activity shifted from social to economic motivations, particularly at a national level. However, although local authorities 5 reflect national policies (investment incentives, public-private partnership and inward investment strategies), they also view tourism development through its wider social, environmental and cultural impacts. This results in both complementary and conflicting consideration of tourism growth between central, regional and local tiers of government.

Local policy and planning for tourism

A national survey (Richards, 1992) found that three-quarters (75%) of Labour councils had adopted specific tourism policies, compared to only 50 per cent of Conservative authorities. The main aim of Labour councils has been to increase employment, which was ranked only 12th most important by Conservative councils (Richards, 1992). However, the key priorities of most authorities are the improvement of visitor facilities, increasing visitor spend, reducing seasonality, promoting areas (‘city imaging’) and tourism development.

A recent survey of unitary development plans in all 33 London boroughs (Evans, 2000a), found that 85 per cent had considered tourism in their Strategic (Part I) Plans. Further, all but two had positive policies for hotel development and 60 per cent contained chapters on tourism land- use and development, often as part of arts and leisure planning policies.

Local spending on tourism

Although local authority revenue spending on tourism has been variable (CELTS, 1996 and 1997), the DCMS (1999) emphasises their important contribution to tourism:

· It is estimated that local authorities invest £75 million per annum in the development and promotion of tourism - a 50 per cent increase in real terms since 1987.

Local authorities have adopted a more pragmatic and economic approach to tourism and hotel development. This was evident from the take-up of regional and European development funding in metropolitan areas and regional British cities (Arts Council of England, 2000). This position has been adopted in order to attract regional regeneration investment and grant-aid and as a job creation policy, particularly in the absence of alternative employment sectors in post-industrial service economies.

3.5 Economic benefits of tourism

As with the arts, the economic impact of tourism has been the predominant concern of both policy and research since the 1980s, with macro-economic and local/regional impact studies undertaken to measure and support policy initiatives and investment. In 1991, the National Economic Development Organisation (NEDO) proposed that applicants for planning permission should provide an evaluation of the economic and other related impacts of any proposed development.

However (as in other cultural services), considerations have widened to include a concern with urban and rural regeneration, national and international competitiveness and related skills and 6 training policies. The extent to which the national economy and labour force is predominantly a post-industrial, service economy has focused attention on new or expanding sectors such as tourism, hospitality, cultural and recreational services which have grown as traditional manufacturing and ‘old’ service sectors have declined. The employment potential of tourism was acknowledged by the Association of District Councils in their Current Practice Paper (ADC, 1984), in Pleasure, Leisure and Jobs: The Business of Tourism issued by the Cabinet Office Enterprise Unit (1985), followed by the relocation of tourism from the DTI to the Department of Employment, and subsequently to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Tourism employment was seen as one response to growing unemployment, not least in the industrial cities undergoing restructuring (English Tourist Board, 1980; Polytechnic of Central London, 1990).

3.6 Evaluations of visitor-based regeneration

Evaluations of government initiatives which used the visitor-based regeneration formula included the impact the Garden Festivals, and inner city (urban /city challenge) assistance programmes (PACEC, 1990a; PCL and DRV, 1989).

Garden festivals

The five garden festivals attracted over 20 million visitors to areas not usually associated with tourism. Stoke was the most successful in attracting inward investment worth £100m (Porter, 1990), with Glasgow the least successful. In this report the promotional and image effect of hosting such events was evident in some cases:

· Glasgow’s 1988 festival attracted four million people and, building on its Miles Better campaign, visits to museums reached 2.8 million, out-performing all other UK cities (Boyle, 1993). In 1982 Glasgow received 700,000 visitors, by 1989 (a year prior to hosting the City of Culture) this had reached 2.3 million.

· Liverpool’s 1984 international garden festival attracted 3.4 million visitors and two years from the opening of the Tate in 1988, 1.4 million visited this gallery and five million the Albert Dock complex (Parkinson and Bianchini, 1993).

However, benefits were generally mixed. There were problems of sustaining visitor and development activity after the events ended, especially in less developed locations and regions (e.g. Gateshead, Ebbw Vale, Stoke).

7 3.7 Tourism Funding and Leverage

Attracting funding

Since the withdrawal in England of section 4 of the 1969 Tourism Development Act, (which allowed capital grant aid for tourism projects), tourism development has been able to attract a mixed range and economy of funding, including an increasing amount of European funds for visitor and cultural attractions (PACEC, 1990b).

· Between 1989 and 1999 the UK benefited from ECU 644 billion in European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) structural funds towards tourism, fifth out of 13 eligible EU countries, and above Ireland and France (CEC, 1992 and 1996a).

Flagship developments

Tourism has been a key component in making the case for flagship developments, particularly cultural and visitor-based facilities, especially in major Lottery and ERDF funded projects (Arts Council of England, 2000; Evans, 1998) – with the viability of many new attractions resting on the tourist market. This is most evident where visitor projections were not achieved – e.g. the Sheffield Centre for Popular Music and the Armoury Museum, Leeds.

· Between 1990 and 1996, over £44 million of ERDF funding was secured for arts and cultural attractions (Arts Council of England, 2000; Evans, 2001).

Major projects in receipt of substantial EU grants included the Liverpool Centre for Performing Arts; Philharmonic Hall and Tate (‘of the North’) Gallery, Liverpool; Walsall Art Gallery; Grant Theatre, Wolverhampton; National Centre for Popular Music, Sheffield, and the Sunderland Empire Theatre. In Wales the National Centre for Literature in Swansea received over half the national total for Wales.

Distribution of benefits

A review of the effects of over £1 billion in European, national and private sector investment on the Irish tourist economy concluded that, although volumes had increased dramatically, profit margins and productivity within the tourism sector had not (Deegan and Dineen, 1998). The distributive effects of this new tourism activity did not reflect the areas where project funding had been concentrated (e.g. rural, heritage), with Dublin taking the major share of tourist spending.

This core-periphery and city-fringe divide in tourism and related economic activity is a pattern which is seen in regional cities and towns throughout the UK - making it difficult for traditional resorts and destinations to attract and retain their visitor levels.

8 3.8 Tourism multipliers and spending volumes

Tourist spending can have three types of impact:

· The direct employment and income/spending effects arising from tourism activity.

· The indirect effects of tourism activity in support and supply activities (e.g. food suppliers to hotels).

· The induced effects of such economic activity in the economy (i.e. the trickle-down or ‘ripple’ effect as new income and employment/wages re-circulate in the economy).

On the basis of tourism multiplier studies it is claimed that tourism has a relatively high employment and income multiplier and lower capital entry costs, compared with other forms of employment and investment. Although tourism is labour-intensive, wage costs are relatively low. Further, the economic impact of tourism is also spread through both regional and national economies by significant multiplier effects (Duffield and Long, 1984; Witt, 1992).

Comparative labour costs per hour for selected industries confirmed the low wages associated with tourism. In hotels and restaurants this was £5.35 per hour compared with the insurance and pension sector £14.12 and computing sector £16.55 (Department of Employment Gazette, 1994). This low pay (and low skill) aspect has been criticised (Pond, 1990; Low Pay Unit, 1986), and arguably undermines the high employment creation possibilities of tourism and hospitality.

A large number of ‘tourism multiplier’ studies have been undertaken and a few examples illustrate the issues:

· Tourist spending multipliers were estimated to be between 1.25 in Skye and 1.52 in Edinburgh (Fletcher and Wanhill, 1993) - for every £1 spent by tourists, £1.25 in spending accrued to the local economy. The higher the multiplier the more the local economy retains spending and the lower the multiplier the more that ‘leaks’ out of the economy in imported goods and supplies.

· A study of Exmoor found that the tourism expenditure multiplier was 1.22 (i.e. for every £1 spent a further 22p was also spent in the local economy (Vaughan et al, 2000).

· The 1990 Scottish Tourism Multiplier Study on Edinburgh estimated that domestic and overseas tourists spent £276m in the city.

· For every £1,000 spent by UK-resident tourists approximately £346 in income was generated locally and £127 generated in the rest of Scotland.

· It took about £27,000 of spending by domestic tourists to create one new job in the city (Tribe, 1995). 9

· By 1996, 3.5 million domestic and 5.4 million overseas tourist bed nights were spent in Edinburgh, and tourists generated £165m and £251m respectively in spending (Howie, 2000).

Timeshare

· Around 42,000 timeshare holidays are taken in British resorts annually, generating £30 million of visitor expenditure (Ernst and Young, 1991 in WTO, 1996).

· Timeshare activity sustains 1,500 full-time equivalent jobs (based on one FTE for every £20,000 of expenditure) (WTO,1996).

· Timeshare produces a longer seasonal use of facilities and has higher occupancy (70%) than hotels (60%) and much higher than second homes (10-15%). In urban locations, demand can be as high as 100 per cent.

Impact of capital spending

Multipliers are also used to calculate the impact of capital spending, mainly through construction, and other spending arising through hotels, visitor attractions and so on. Capital investment involves larger sums than revenue, but over a shorter, one-off time period. For instance:

· Buchan (1996) estimated that employment arising from Lottery capital spending between 1995 and 2000 would create 8,500 jobs in tourism and leisure.

However, it is agreed that tourism’s macro-economic impact and value is understated. The WTO (1999) has developed international standards, known as Tourism Satellite Accounts (TSA), which measure the wider economic and employment impacts of tourism which are not recorded in National Accounts (which is why tourism is “invisible”). Tourism expenditure has an impact on a wide range of goods and service sectors and employment (encompassing domestic, outbound and overseas tourism consumption). In countries that have implemented the TSA, the estimate of tourism GDP has increased. For example, in Canada it increased from 2.5 per cent to 4.1 per cent.

3.9 Limitations of economic impact and multiplier studies

Narrow definition of impact

Many writers have commented on the limitations of impact studies (Ritchie, 1984; Fleming and Toepper, 1990; Hughes, 1993). In addition to concerns about methods and the variable quality of data sources, such studies do not attempt to measure social, cultural or environmental impacts - for which other techniques can be applied e.g. EIA, cost-benefit analysis, quality of life indicators, and social impact methods being developed in the sphere of arts and culture (Matarasso, 1997) and community development (Walker, et al, 2000) . 10

Additionality and displacement

Government guidance on the evaluation of capital investment and grant assistance schemes is cautious, because the economic benefits may simply hide ‘displacement’ from other areas (HMSO, 1991; Treasury, 1995). The test of ‘additionality’ is therefore official policy where evaluating the net effects of public sector investment in projects - what would have been the economic effects if the investment had not been made, and what economic dis-benefits will occur as activity shifts from one area to another?

It is difficult to prove true additionality, or to take into account the full effects of investment in a project or area, both locally and nationally. Economic impact studies therefore tend to be local, whilst macro-economic impacts rely on national accounting and other indicators, with no methodology to reconcile these two levels of analysis, or the effect of substitution.

Lack of reliable data

Government and national tourist boards recognised the lack of reliable local area tourism data and have issued a Guidance Pack (DCMS, 1998). However, boroughs and Regional Tourist Boards still face difficulty in funding visitor and tourism data collection (CELTS, 2000), which occurs largely in the private sector (hotels, retail outlets, attractions). Further, there is as yet no standard method of data collection and consolidation, although several computer models are available commercially (e.g. STEAM, Cambridge).

3.10 A catalyst for public-private partnerships

Although reliant on public planning, promotion, amenities and cultural/leisure resources, tourism is primarily a commercial activity. Because of the nature of the ‘mixed economy’ of tourism, it has the ability to act as a catalyst for public/private partnerships and to meet government objectives for public/private funding.

Barcelona’s cruise terminal

After the 1992 Olympics, Barcelona decided to improve the city’s cruise terminal (up until then the city had little cruise business). The project was hampered at the start by the lack of co- ordination between local authorities and industry, and by the negative impacts of lengthy delays for passengers, especially from the USA which offered the main cruise potential. Collaboration between all interest groups improved the flow, including streamlining of airport arrivals from the USA. All feel that their objectives have been achieved and all stakeholders have enjoyed economic benefits.

The number of cruise passengers using Barcelona as a departure or arrival terminal rose from 131,000 in 1992, to 466,000 in 1998 and 550,000 in 1999. The city’s share of ships rose from nine per cent to nearly 50 per cent of all Mediterranean ports. Fifty per cent of passengers starting or ending a cruise in Barcelona now spend a minimum of one night extra in the city, with 11 increased spending in restaurants and shops (WTO, 2000).

3.11 Training - public-private partnerships and employment

Many of the economic benefits of tourism can be only be optimised where a skilled and available labour force exists (Tribe, 1995). Consequently, training has been a particular opportunity for public-private partnership, benefiting public economic development and employment policy, and meeting industry skills shortages and service quality objectives.

London Hotels’ Training Centre

This was opened in November 1997 in a redundant secondary school in Kentish Town, and hosts the New Chances programme serving the hotel industry in London. Founded by the Hotel & Catering Training Company, Camden and Westminster councils, Radisson Edwardian Hotels and Springboard (LTB Manpower), the programme consists of four career paths in Food Preparation/Kitchen, Housekeeping, Waiting/Food Service, Hall Portering, from NVQ level 1 and on to NVQ 2. Training is delivered in a virtual hotel environment on site.

Welcome Host Training

This training programme has been developed by the English and regional tourist boards to provide customer care and related skills training for the tourism and hospitality industry. Each regional tourist board is licensed to promote and deliver the Welcome Host training. In London, the London Tourist Board is the licensee and the training is delivered by a training consultancy (Capital Concepts) on employers’ premises or is arranged by the LTB. Employers can apply to develop Welcome Host for their staff and be accredited by the LTB, and some hotels run their own in-house Welcome Host training for staff. Welcome Host International courses have also been developed to incorporate language skills for international visitor management.

3.12 Women in Employment

Tourism provides entry level jobs and flexible part-time opportunities which can be attractive to women wanting to return to work. Research undertaken by the Hospitality Training Foundation (undated) also suggests that women working in hospitality have better opportunities to obtain management posts than in other industries. A study of tourism in rural Scotland (Boyne, 1999) found that more women were working as a result of employment opportunities in the tourism sector

Although concerns have been expressed about the low pay and low skill aspects of much employment in this sector (Pond, 1990; Low Pay Unit, 1986), it nevertheless is a significant provider of employment opportunities for women:

· There are almost one million women working in tourism-related industries in the UK (Annual Employment and Labour Force Survey). 12

13 · This accounts for about 60 per cent of all employees, and just under half of the full-time employees.

· A study of tourism impacts in Exmoor, found that nearly two thirds (63%) of workers were women, but 36 per cent of these were part-time compared to only seven per cent of men (Vaughan et al, 2000).

· Women make up the majority of part-time staff at around 71 per cent, compared with earlier regional studies which calculated this as only 57 per cent (Shaw et al, 1988).

· Over the last five years, there has been a 25 per cent increase in women working full-time in tourism, many of whom run their own small businesses.

3.13 Information and communication technology (ICT) and tourism

The EU has targeted ‘Information Society Technology’ in their main five year Research Programme ‘Framework V’ (2000-2005), with specific initiatives in ICT and tourism and in relation to small tourism enterprises (CEC, 1996b; Werthner et al, 1997). Networks and research and development consortia across the EU have been established, all dedicated to maximising the opportunities and application of ICT within the tourism sector (ENTER, 1999 and 2000).

ICT is transforming the travel and tourism industry via increased online sales (Evans, Peackock and Richards, 2000). This growth has brought suppliers and tourists together through information, reservation, destination marketing and promotional platforms. These ICT platforms enable tourism firms to locate and re-image their products and to reach new and retain existing markets (Baker et al, 1996).

Further, it is arguable that this is leading to a democratisation of information and customer- influence, which potentially benefits local areas/destinations and tourism enterprises (Evans, Peacock and Richards, 2000). Not only will such technology benefit tourism enterprises, but many small enterprises are among the most innovative and original in their approach and use of design (Evans, Richards and Bohrer, 2000).

· A study of small tourism firms found that between 51 per cent and 58 per cent of UK firms had email/internet, compared with only 33 per cent in Spain.

· Between 22 per cent and 26 per cent of these firms planned to develop ICT capability in the future (Evans, Peackock and Richards, 2000).

· Despite the growth of ICT usage and online sales, concern has been expressed about the possible effects of uneven development in terms of geographic and socio-economic regions (Wanhill, 1997; Evans, Peackock and Richards, 2000).

Web-sites created for local areas, cities and special-interest users can be used to promote other 14 local services, with tourism potentially widening the exposure and market for local firms at a low cost. Further, tourism activity has also been responsible for supporting product development and specialist ICT services, including virtual reality and local area destination marketing systems (Buhalis, 1994; Werthner et al, 1997). One example of this is:

TourISt

Hampshire County Council is a partner in a EU (DGXVI) ERDF programme TourISt which is developing information communication technology within the local tourism sector (HCC, 2000). This includes an inter-regional tourism information system and intranet linking tourism SMEs, to training tourism workers in IT skills. The impacts so far have been new collaborative partnerships, improved customer services, marketing and efficiency and skills transfer. The project predicts a 30 per cent growth in tourism business and a five per cent increase in tourism employment over the next three years.

3.14 Conclusions

· With an estimated total expenditure of £63.9 billion and 127,000 VAT-based enterprises in tourism-related businesses employing about 1.86 million people (DCMS, 2000), the economic importance of tourism is substantial.

· It impacts on a wide variety of service sectors - from those dedicated to tourism to local services which benefit from tourist income.

· The tourist economy is dominated by small and medium sized enterprises, which have a positive impact on the local economy by purchasing and employing locally.

· Tourism development has been a catalyst in obtaining European funding and the viability of many cultural and leisure ‘flagship’ developments rests on tourists.

· It is claimed that tourism has relatively high employment and income multiplier.

· Although concern has been expressed about low pay and working conditions, tourism is a major employer of women, providing entry level jobs and flexible part-time opportunities.

· Many tourism enterprises are among the most innovative and original in their design and use of ICT.

15 4 THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

4.1 The need for a balanced approach to costs and benefits

Many environmental impact studies have focused on the negative aspects of tourism on the natural environment. However, Butler (1999, p5) observes that:

“…one might argue also that a disturbing number of publications on the effects of tourism on the environment take rather simplistic stands on describing impacts and assigning ‘blame’, rather than explaining the process of environmental change and providing a balanced view of the overall effects of tourism”.

The DCMS (1999, p6) strategy states that:

“Tourism is based largely on our heritage, culture and countryside and, therefore, needs to maintain the quality of the resources upon which it depends. Tourism can provide an incentive and income to protect our built and natural environment and helps to maintain local culture and diversity. Where tourism is popular, it underpins local commercial activity and services and it can help to regenerate urban and rural areas”.

It is increasingly recognised that a balanced approach to costs and benefits is required in sustainable tourism development. Tourism activity can claim to provide economic and related benefits which help to preserve the built and natural environment, either by offering an alternative to damaging land-use and threats (e.g. poaching on game reserves, logging etc) and by offering other forms of economic development.

4.2 Sustainability initiatives

In 1998, the Government launched a major consultation exercise on sustainable development - Opportunities for Change. Tourism was part of that exercise and a supplementary consultation paper, Tourism: Towards Sustainability, was distributed to relevant organisations. It asked for ideas on action to be taken to help tourism to move towards a more sustainable future. The government has sought to promote a greater balance between the needs of conservation and development in a range of ways:

· The National Planning Forum’s (1998) guidance, Planning for Tourism, provides information about planning and managing sustainable tourism initiatives. It provides brief examples of good planning practice and of how planning delays can be encountered.

· Planning for Sustainable Development: Towards Better Practice is a good practice guide on sustainable planning (Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, 1998).

· Stabler et al (1996) have developed environmental indicators and standards which can be used to measure environmental impacts. 16

· Tourist-based feedback has been aimed at improving hotel and destination environmental management, with tour operators choosing not to use resorts which do not maintain adequate environmental and safety standards (HEA, 1996).

An example of such a sector initiative is:

The International Hotels’ Environment Initiative (IHEI).

This is an educational charity which encourages continuous improvement in the environmental performance of the hotel industry. IHEI works in partnership with the British Hospitality Association to enable UK small and medium size hotels to address environmental issues. It is a catalyst and a conduit for hotels to pool their resources and share their environmental improvement successes via a non-competitive platform.

Gleneagles Hotel

Gleneagles Hotel is an example of the IHEI in practice. Staff development, allied to improved environmental awareness and energy-saving have achieved significant cost savings to the hotel, and successfully communicated to guests the benefits of environmental awareness and practices. The hotel won the best ‘Management of Environment’ in the 1994 Scottish Environment Awards (Perera, 1997).

Another example of ‘best practice’ is the Green Audit Kit.

The Green Audit Kit

This was produced by the Rural Development Commission (RDC) as a self-help guide for tourism enterprises to improve their business performance, while becoming more aware of their environmental and social responsibilities. A recent evaluation highlighted the potential business benefits to users of the Kit. The RDC, South Devon and the West Country Tourist Board are working to develop new pilot initiatives such as Internet promotion, award schemes for tourism enterprises and specialist advice to users of the Kit. In Scotland the Green Tourism Business Scheme is encouraging groups of local hoteliers to work together to improve their environmental performance.

Greening Your Business

This publication is produced by the Wales Tourist Board (undated) in conjunction with the Countryside Council for Wales. It provides information to businesses about how to enhance the quality of the natural environment in order to make it more appealing to visitors. Measures recommended include:

· Leaving areas natural to provide habitats for wildlife. · Creating natural features such as lakes and woodland. 17 · Planting trees and hedgerows to provide windbreaks and habitats for wildlife. · Delaying grass cutting to allow wild flowers to seed themselves. · Restricting the use of artificial fertilisers or herbicides. · Limiting the use of weedkiller. · Providing bins for recycling.

As well as providing benefits to the local environment, The Wales Tourist Board suggest that tourism businesses can benefit from such improvements by including details of the natural surroundings in promotional materials.

4.3 Sustaining the nation’s cultural heritage

A number of organisations have a remit to preserve and sustain the nation’s cultural heritage sites and buildings (e.g. English Heritage, Scottish Natural Heritage, The National Trust). The income generated by visitors to heritage sites and buildings managed by these organisations is crucial to their ability to maintain the sites and buildings and to acquire further sites and properties.

During 1999/2000, English Heritage:

· Had 11.8 million visitors to its 409 sites, generating £26.2 million in earned income from admissions, sales and membership.

· Allocated £67 million to conservation initiatives and £55.6 million to historic properties.

· Awarded £35.1 million in grants to owners of other properties and sites to help care for the historic environment.

During 1999/2000, The National Trust:

· Generated £60 million through memberships and £8.5 million through admission fees.

· Allocated £92.9 million to routine maintenance and running costs of its sites and £43.1 million to capital projects, £27.5 million of which went on historic buildings.

4.4 Sustaining craft industries

Another aspect of sustainability is the contribution which tourism can make to crafts and other cultural practices (Evans, 2000b). The contribution of tourism to the development of rural industry is a strategy adopted in agricultural and other rural areas. For example, the EU (DGXVI) has supported EUROTEXT - an action research project which has been developing crafts based tourism in peripheral areas of western Europe. This has included marketing and promoting heritage and crafts resources, and establishing joint ventures with tour operators, transport and accommodation providers in order to stimulate economic activity and crafts sales in regions otherwise off of the tourist trail (ATLAS, 1998). 18

A survey of visitors to Scotland (Scottish Tourist Board, 2000) found that:

· Scottish sweets/fudges (47%) and locally produced crafts (39%) were the most popular purchases by English tourists.

· Visitors were satisfied with the quality and choice of craft items, which were considered good value for money.

4.5 Tourism in the Countryside

A study on behalf of the Countryside Commission (Rural Development Commission, 1997) sought to measure the contribution of tourism and recreation in the countryside in England. Its findings include:

· In 1994 20 per cent of all UK tourist spending was made in the countryside, totalling £2.1 billion:

· Spending by overseas tourists was estimated to be 16 per cent of the UK total at £509 million.

· There were an estimated 1,134 million day trips made to the countryside in 1994, which increased to 1,427 million in 1998 (Countryside Agency, 2000).

· In total there was an estimated £8.9 billion in spending by tourists and day visitors in the countryside, half of this on catering and 10 per cent each on attractions and accommodation.

· The volume of spending on countryside tourism was divided between the dominant day trippers at 72 per cent, domestic tourists (23%) and overseas tourists (6%).

· Business turnover arising from tourism in the countryside was £8,370 million and over 300,000 jobs were calculated to be directly attributable to tourism, with another 50,000 jobs indirectly supported.

Other, more localised, data illustrate similar effects:

· The National Parks received 76 million visitor days in 1994 (Coalter et al, 1996).

· Tourism directly supports 500 full-time and 350 part-time jobs and 100 seasonal jobs in the Peak National Park, with others indirectly supported in pubs, shops etc. (Hawkins, 1999). These visitors also ensure that many of the area’s stately homes and houses (e.g. Chatsworth), mills, historic mining sites and local crafts venues stay open and in good repair.

19 Recognising benefits

The benefits of tourism are not, however, always recognised. In a comparative study of rural areas (Devon, North Yorkshire, Northumbria, Norfolk, Dorset) the ‘softer’ economic impacts of tourism were measured in terms of local community benefits, such as the effect on the viability of local services and shops (Edwards, 1997). The wider and community benefits were not well understood and were under-estimated, because beneficiaries failed to recognise the contribution of tourism. Tourism activity was also found to be widely spread, with most residents benefiting in some way. The scale of benefits was directly related to the number of tourists and the size of settlement.

4.6 Public transport and tourism

Public transport is fundamental to the development of tourism. Much attention has focused on the negative impacts of private car usage, the pollution from aircraft and other mass transport and, at a local level, the impact from coach-based tourism and issues of parking and pollution.

However, tourism also has the potential to provide marginal income to public transport and to reduce pollution and local environmental impacts, particularly linked to park and ride schemes.

· At the Millennium Dome, in the first month 70 per cent of visitors arrived by underground, including 12 per cent originating their journey by car.

There are some example of improvements in public transport systems, with attempts to encourage increased usage by leisure and off-peak travellers. This has several benefits:

· Increased passenger income has enabled the improvement and extension of the system.

· Routes kept open, especially in the case of remote or under-used railway (e.g. Fort William railway line, west Scotland) and ferry routes.

· Visits to attractions in the corridor around new stations on the Jubilee Line Extension (JLE) have increased by 38 per cent since 1993, with over a 40 per cent increase in the number of new attractions and hotels in this area (CELTS, 2000).

· In the Bankside regeneration area (SRB partnership area), 80 per cent of visitor attractions saw the JLE and other transport improvements (e.g. pedestrian bridges, signage) as crucial to their success (Monkhouse, 2000).

· In a study of the impact of public transport on urban regeneration in Sheffield, visitors identified the South Yorkshire Supertram as the sixth most attractive development in the city (out of 13) and this was reflected in a Delphi panel exercise with local agents (Lawless and Gore, 1999).

· Increasingly the design, image and ‘sense of place’ of transport gateways is recognised as 20 an important factor in increasing both usage and the quality of the passenger experience. This is evident in cities linking major transport facility design and development to tourism such as Guggenheim Bilbao, Barcelona and Lyons in France (Tesse, 1993), and art on the underground in cities such as Stockholm’s metro which has the ‘world’s biggest art gallery’ - and which is presented as a visitor attraction in its own right (Evans and Shaw, 1999).

· In London, the ‘Poetry on the Underground’ initiative was followed by commissioning poster artists within station platform areas, a programme for the conservation of heritage (‘listed’) stations, and high profile design-commissions for new stations on the Jubilee Line Extension and the award-winning design for EuroStar at Waterloo.

4.7 Conclusions

· There is an increasing emphasis on ‘sustainable’ tourism development, with a number of industry-based initiatives.

· Because of the need to maintain attractive high quality visitor destinations, tourism can contribute to the protection and maintenance of the built and natural environments.

· There are a number of initiatives aimed at using tourism to maintain local culture, crafts and diversity.

· Especially in rural areas, tourism can also support many local services, which might otherwise be unsustainable.

· In 1994, 20 per cent of all UK tourist spending was in the countryside and approximately 300,000 jobs were directly attributable to tourism.

· Tourism is increasingly contributing to improvements in transport design and provision.

· Higher spending cultural tourists contribute to the maintenance of museums and other cultural sites and venues (although these benefits are not evenly distributed).

· The wider community benefits of tourism are not always recognised by residents.

21 5 CULTURAL TOURISM

5.1 General benefits

Cultural tourism is a major growth area of the European tourism market. An Irish Tourist Board (1988) study estimated that ‘general cultural tourism’ (tourists visiting cultural attractions as part of a general holiday) accounted for over 34 million tourist trips per year in the EU, and ‘specific cultural tourism’ (where culture is the main motivation for travel) generated a further 3.5 million trips. Cultural tourism in its broadest sense accounted for over a quarter of all EU international tourism.

The EU has identified the following positive outcomes of cultural tourism:

· Improvement of the socio-economic, seasonal and geographic spread of arts and heritage- related tourism in urban and rural areas.

· Promotion of cultural integration and common identity as promoted through the Maastricht Treaty (1992) of the EU. This followed from the European Parliament’s intervention on cultural tourism and regional development: “The [European] Parliament notes that the tourist activity least subject to seasonal fluctuation is cultural tourism, which has very considerable development potential in Europe since it continues to attract citizens of non- member countries as well as strengthening the feelings of Europeans of belonging to the same community” (EP VI Resolution on a Community Tourism Policy 11/6/91: 88/63).

· The adoption by ICOMOS, the technical assistance arm of UNESCO, of a ‘Charter for Cultural Tourism’ in 1999, in recognition of both the importance of tourism for the resourcing of heritage and monument conservation, and the need to involve local/host communities in heritage tourism planning and management.

Other benefits of cultural tourism include:

· Preservation and enhancement of traditional culture (Grahn, 1991 in Cooper et al, 1998) and enrichment of quality of life (Jafari, 1992 in Cooper et al, 1998).

· Enhancement of cultural exchange between tourists and the hosts. Cooper et al (1998) suggest that the places visited by tourists may have an impact on the food and drink consumed after returning home, the type of clothes worn as well as changes in lifestyles and attitudes.

A number of negative outcomes have been associated with cultural tourism (Richards, 1996) including:

· Social and cultural distance can be created between the cultural tourists and their hosts.

· Tourists can, unwittingly, destroy the social structures and artefacts they come to see.

Although positive and negative impacts of cultural tourism are far reaching, some commentators (Wilson, 1993, in Richards, 1996) have noted the lack of research evidence, especially longitudinal impact studies.

5.2 Specific benefits

The cultural exchange and economic benefits which higher spending ‘cultural tourists’ bring, directly benefit the maintenance and profile of museums and other cultural sites and venues – although such benefits are not evenly distributed. In Britain, Myerscough (1988) estimated that tourists accounted for:

· Forty four per cent of attendances at museums and galleries in London and 26 per cent elsewhere.

· Forty per cent of audiences at theatre and concert performances in London, although only eight per cent elsewhere.

· In London, overseas tourists made up the majority of arts tourists - 70 per cent in museums and 88 per cent in theatres.

· In Glasgow tourists accounted for 25 per cent of museum and gallery visitors, 30 per cent in Ipswich, 20 per cent in Merseyside. With seven per cent, Glasgow had the highest overseas element.

· At the Aldeburgh Festival, 77 per cent of visitors had come specifically for the 1986 festival, including seven per cent from overseas.

· Fifty-three per cent of attenders at the Bath Festival were tourists staying overnight and the RSC Stratford drew over 60 per cent of its audience from over 50 miles away and 16 per cent from overseas.

· Studies of the impact of the Edinburgh Festival (Vaughan, 1977; Gratton and Taylor, 1995) indicate an increase in direct expenditure from £3.7m in 1976 to £43.8m in 1990 - a 369 per cent increase (taking inflation into account). Additional local income in 1990 was almost £9 million and over 1,300 local jobs were supported in 1990. The importance of tourism is indicated by the fact that 75 per cent of tourists cited the festival(s) as the ‘sole’ or ‘very important’ reason in their decision to visit Edinburgh (Gratton and Taylor, 1995).

An economic study of 153 museums in the South West of England (Brand, Gripaios and McVittie, 2000) found that in 1998:

· More than 4.8 million visits were made to the museums.

· Tourist-related spending was estimated at £27.5 million. 23

· Tourist-related spending supported 680 FTE jobs and generated £13.5 million in GDP.

Bradford Tourism Strategy

In Bradford, a tourism strategy was developed in response to a loss of 63,000 jobs and an unemployment rate of 16 per cent. The strategy concentrated on industrial heritage, the Bronte collection, the landscape and the arts. Increased emphasis was placed on the arts and museums, particularly following the opening of the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television in 1983. There was also investment in the Bradford Industrial Museum and Cartwright Hall and redevelopment of the Alhambra Theatre. Within two years, enquiries at tourist information centres increased by over 20 per cent and visitors increased by 12 per cent (Arts Council, 1991).

5.3 Year of arts and culture

The establishment of European Cities of Culture (renamed ‘Cultural Capitals’) is a promotional vehicle for cultural destination marketing and urban renaissance for which Glasgow and Dublin have acted as hosts.

· During 1990, Glasgow attracted nine million visits to 10,000 separate events and performances, with hotel bedroom occupancy increasing by 39 per cent over the previous year (Boyle, 1993).

The British Tourist Authority designated 1995 as the ‘Year of Arts and Culture’ (spending £10 million on promotion in over 50 countries), and the British Arts Festival Association named 1995 ‘British Arts Festival Year’.

· It was estimated that overseas visits to Britain reached a record 19.3 million and their spending on ‘cultural tourism’ was valued at £2 billion.

· Glasgow’s hosting of the 1999 Festival of Architecture saw the refurbishment of the Grade I Macintosh Herald Building. Of the attendances at exhibitions, 31 per cent were from outside Glasgow, 17 per cent from outside Scotland and seven per cent from overseas. Over 33 per cent of exhibition visitors cited them as the sole or main reason for visiting Glasgow (DTZ, 1999).

5.4 Film tourism and literary trails

These are now common marketing and promotion strategies employed by urban and countryside locations, both to attract visitors and to serve as locations in their own right. This can generate additional income for local and parks’ authorities, as well as for local suppliers, while the subsequent production can generate a destination for new visitors (e.g. the influence of Notting Hill and Braveheart).

24 5.5 English Language teaching

English Language teaching is one of the fastest growing sectors of the visitor economy, using seaside and urban locations both ‘off-season’ and as core tourist markets.

· The Association of Recognised English Language Services (ARELS), with 224 members across the UK, estimate that over 750,000 students come to Britain to learn English each year.

· On average, they stay for 42 days and spend £1,300 each, contributing over £1 billion to the economy.

· Each year, ARELS holds an International English Language Fair, attracting delegates from over 40 countries.

5.6 Street markets

Urban tourism has been associated with the increase in the importance of informal and open attractions from street markets to parks. Street markets (antiques, food, popular culture, street theatre) are features of areas such as Covent Garden and Camden Lock in London and act as visitor attractions.

· Camden Lock attracts 100,000 visits each weekend, with a total of 10 million a year to this area of open and covered markets.

· Greenwich Crafts markets attract an estimated 50,000 each weekend.

· Piece Hall in Halifax serves as a local and visitor market, alongside museum, retail and council offices for Calderdale’s Arts and Heritage department.

Such a volume of visitors benefits local traders, stallholders, entertainment and catering establishments. Tourism promotion now highlights street and other markets, including multi- cultural areas, where tourism has been adopted as a strategy for urban regeneration in support of ethnic minority business and cultural diversity. An example is in the Spitalfields and Whitechapel areas of east London (‘Bhangratown’, see THET, 1998).

5.7 Sports Tourism

Volume

· It is estimated that sports tourism in the UK is worth £1,477 million, made up of £504 million domestic holidays, £142 million overseas visitors and £831 on day trips (Collins and Jackson, 1998). The inclusion of ‘day trips’ activity obviously exaggerates the tourism impacts from sports-based recreation, although it is still a significant contribution.

25 · It was estimated that 2.5 million Britons watched outdoor sport, and a further one million indoor sports, while on holiday in the UK (NOP, 1989).

It has been argued that tourism, particularly in coastal and rural areas, supports standards of sports facilities that would otherwise not be available to local residents (Jackson and Glyptis, 1992).

· A study of Scottish rural facilities estimated that between 10 per cent and 60 per cent of users were tourists, with the highest proportion in facilities in well-established tourist areas.

· Golf courses and swimming pools in remoter areas attracted more than 30 per cent tourist use, compared with less than 10 per cent in urban pools (System Three, 1998).

Sport has also been included in a broad notion of ‘cultural tourism’, particularly linked to major sporting events and games, with a recent emphasis on their potential as tourist attractions and an aspect of national and regional cultures (Andreff, 1995).

Major sporting events

· EURO ’96 held in England attracted 280,000 visitors, spending £120m in the eight host cities and surrounding regions (English Tourism Council, 1999a).

· The three matches in Leeds attracted 30,000 visitors, spending over £15 million in the city during the three week tournament. Leeds/Bradford airport had 11,000 passengers in one day - their busiest ever - and 100 Portuguese fans spent more during one visit to a Leeds museum than 35,000 visitors over the previous month (Beresford, 1999).

· In Manchester, accommodation revenue increased by 57 per cent during the games.

· The Masters swimming championships in Sheffield attracted 6,500 competitors and officials - 80 per cent stayed at least one night, with an average of 5.4 nights. Daily spending by overnight visitors was £80.

· The 1997 junior boxing championships at the Birmingham Arena attracted 1,223 spectators who spent £224,000, in addition to the organiser’s cost of staging the event.

Golf tourism

· The worldwide golf travel industry is worth an estimated US$10 billion per annum, the largest sports-related tourism industry (Town, 2000).

· It is estimated that 1.2 million rounds of golf were played by overseas tourists in the UK in 1986 - 41 per cent of overseas golf tourists in the UK were from North America and 15 per cent from Japan (Priestley, 1995).

26 · In 1993, over 250,000 golf tourists visited the UK, with a further 168,000 domestic tourists taking golf holidays.

5.8 Activity holidays

· The British are estimated to have taken 13.2 million activity holidays in 1997 (UK and/or abroad), which represents 16 per cent of domestic and nine per cent of overseas holidays (MINTEL, 1997a).

· The domestic activity holiday market represents 10.7 million holidays (the market share of activity holidays excludes skiing, which has been considered part of mainstream tourism since the 1980s).

Multi-activity holidays reflect the group/family market in both domestic and leisure holiday trends (Leisure Forecasts, 1996). At 12 per cent participation (up from eight per cent in 1993), they are as prevalent as walking, rambling and climbing amongst the British taking activity holidays (MINTEL, 1997a).

The demand for more active and healthy holidays has also fuelled the development of holiday centres such as Scottish and Newcastle’s Center Parcs chain and Rank Leisure’s Oasis Forest Holiday Villages, which focus on outdoor pursuits in an environmentally-friendly setting (Horner and Swarbrooke, 1998). It is estimated that 12 per cent of all holiday centre visitors now use this type of holiday village (MINTEL, 1997b).

An introduction to activities

Holidays can serve to introduce people to activities which may lead to subsequent participation. For example, sailing, fishing, golf and walking are some of the most popular outdoor activities undertaken for the first time while on a UK holiday (Glyptis and Jackson, 1993).

Cycling tourism

Cycling holidays are increasingly popular – up from two per cent for those who have ‘ever been’ in 1993, to seven per cent in 1997 (MINTEL, 1997a).

· Cycling tourism in the UK is forecast to increase from 71 million trips in 1994 to between 137 million and 275 million in 2000 (Lumsdon, 1998).

· The National Cycling Network is estimated to generate £350 million from cycling tourism, and it is claimed, supports 14,000 jobs (based on a non-validated multiplier), mostly in rural areas (SUSTRANS, 1995).

27 5.9 Exhibition and Conference Tourism

The provision of exhibition, conference and convention facilities has been a key part of the economic strategy of cities (e.g. Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow) and seaside towns and resorts (e.g. Brighton, Harrogate). Conference tourism can complement other tourism usage and seasons - it can be linked to special facilities, hotels and leisure centres, and allied to activities such as casino tourism and college and university programmes such as summer schools.

· Visitor attendance at UK exhibitions increased from 9.3 million in 1991 to 10.75 million in 1997 (at 841 exhibitions) (EVA, 1998).

· Nearly 10 per cent of all visitors were from overseas.

· It is estimated that more than £472 million is generated by 844,000 attendances at over 8,700 conferences each year (British Tourist Authority, 1997). Visitors from North America represent 14 per cent of the total and 24 per cent of spending (TRM, 1997).

5.10 Conclusions

· Cultural tourism is a major growth area of the European tourism market, which accounts for over 34 million tourist trips per year in the EU, and in its broadest sense accounted for over a quarter of all EU international tourism.

· Cultural tourism contributes directly to the maintenance and profile of museums and galleries, theatres and concert halls, and festivals - although such benefits are not evenly distributed.

· A range of themed tourism packages (film tourism and literary trails, street markets, sports events, activity holidays, exhibition and conference tourism, and English language teaching) have been responsible for attracting large number of tourists.

· Cultural tourism has also been adopted as a strategy for urban regeneration in support of ethnic minority business and cultural diversity.

28 6 SOCIAL IMPACTS

6.1 Social tourism: the personal benefits of holidays

The health benefits of holidays

A survey of 271 English GPs (with two million patients), designed to quantify the health benefits of holidays to their patients (English Tourism Council, 2000a), found the following:

· Eighty-nine per cent believed that holidays can help alleviate depression, stress-related illness, alcohol and drug dependency and insomnia.

· Eighty-two per cent felt that a family holiday alleviated medical symptoms; 89 per cent that individual holidays did so.

· Fifty-nine per cent believed that not taking holidays can negatively affect family health; 65 per cent felt that it can have a negative effect on individual health.

· Eighty-three per cent cited instances where holidays might negatively impact on health and well being - stress arising from financial worries (32%), families forced to be together for an intensive period (20%).

· The main benefits of holidays were regarded as physical relaxation (48%), stress relief (47%), emotional/well being (46%), physical well-being (45%), better relationships/bonding (39%).

· Twenty-five per cent claimed that taking holidays would reduce visits to health professionals and 22 per cent felt it would reduce medication needs.

· Ninety per cent thought that most types of holiday had some benefit to health and well- being, particularly those with an element of engagement (physical, social or intellectual). In terms of the type of holiday felt to be most beneficial to health - sport/physical activity, family seaside and educational/special interest holidays were rated the highest, whilst club/hedonist and visiting friends and relatives were rated the least health beneficial. Surprisingly spas and health farms were not rated highly.

Patients

A survey of 1002 adults (16 and over) (English Tourism Council, 2000b) found that they had less positive evaluations of the benefits of holidays.

· Only 69 per cent felt that holidays improved their overall quality of life.

· Only 19 per cent cited ‘improved health and well-being’ as a motivation for going on holiday, although this was more likely to be referred to by older respondents. 29

However, Smith and Hughes’ (1999) study of families in the North of England found that they attached importance to holidays, which, unlike many other leisure pursuits, has a meaning for those without work.

6.2 Tourist motivations and experiences

Although there is much data on volumes of tourism, employment and direct and indirect tourism effects there is a general lack of more qualitative research into the ‘tourist process’ – the nature of the tourist experience and the associated outcomes. There is a substantial volume of academic work on tourist’s motivations and ‘tourist types’ (Dann, 1981; McIntosh, Goeldner and Ritchie, 1995; Cohen, 1984; Smith, 1990; Urry, 1990), however, there is relatively limited information about tourists’ perceptions of the UK tourism product. Although Foley (1996) suggests that the UK tourism product is strongly associated with culture (based on the findings of the British Tourist Authority’s Overseas Visitor Survey 1990), there is a lack of research into the reasons why people choose to visit the UK.

Recent research into tourists’ motivations includes the Tourism Attitudes Survey 1999 commissioned by the Scottish Tourist Board (STB), which explored the reasons why visitors choose to take a holiday in Scotland (Scottish Tourist Board, 2000). Although the survey sought to understand the tourist decision-making and planning process, their experience and their likes and dislikes, the data is largely standard market research information:

· For English visitors the three main reasons for enjoying their trip were: weather (better than expected), friendly people and the scenery.

· For English visitors, the peace and quiet/wilderness, freshness of the air, the feeling of safety and the people were all important factors.

· The factors influencing their decision to visit were landscapes/countryside (see the Parks and Countryside Report in this series for an evaluation of the benefits of countryside), been before/born in Scotland and the social motivation of visiting friends and relatives.

· The tourist experience led to 29 per cent increase in those who felt that Scotland was a good place relax and get away from it all; a 21 per cent increase in the perception of it as a good destination for activity holidays and 20 per cent for having good places to eat out.

6.3 Holidays and inequalities

The social differences and inequalities evident in many leisure sectors are also present in tourism. Despite the expansion of tourism opportunities:

· In any one year, about 40 per cent of the UK population do not take a holiday of longer than three days (English Tourism Council, 1999b).

30 · More than one third of the population do not take any holiday - a proportion that has not changed since 1971.

· However because of the diversity, short duration and low cost of day trips, more people take day trips, with only 15 per cent of adults not doing so in 1998 (Countryside Agency, 2000).

The United Kingdom Tourism Survey 1998 (English Tourist Board et al, 1999) illustrates that the more affluent socio-economic groups are both absolutely and proportionately more likely to participate in domestic tourism. In terms of the composition of the UK tourist market, socio- economic groups AB and C1 are proportionately ‘over-represented’ compared to their representation in the population (see Table 2 below).

Although socio-economic group AB account for 21 per cent of the population, they account for 26 per cent of UK tourists. Conversely, 21 per cent of tourist trips were taken by those in socio-economic group DE, although they represent 29 per cent of the population.

Table 2: Social class of tourist population in the UK Percentage of the UK population Percentage of tourists (%) (%) AB 21 26 C1 28 32 C2 23 20 DE 29 21 Source: English Tourist Board (1999) UK Tourist Statistics 1998

‘Non-holiday-makers’ are most likely to be in socio-economic group DE, of whom nearly 60 per cent do not take a holiday, compared to AB, 60 per cent of whom take two or more (20% three or more).

Barriers to holiday taking

Recent research on the 40 per cent who did not take a holiday of more than three days in the past year revealed the following (English Tourism Council, 2000c):

· Eleven per cent go to visit friends and relatives.

· Fifteen per cent had not taken a holiday in that particular year, but had done so relatively recently.

· Fourteen per cent had not taken a holiday during the previous three years and did not plan to do so in the coming year.

31 · Among the 14 per cent there were eight groups - holiday motivated, but poor; poor with large families; poor with little transport; disinterested in holidays; holidays not an expenditure priority; too busy; elderly disheartened, many disabled or with special needs; more affluent, older, interested but recently stopped taking holidays.

· The research concluded that a wide range of different measures will be needed both to motivate and facilitate non-holiday takers (English Tourism Council, 2000c):

Social holiday policy initiatives

The health and well-being benefits of holidays have been officially recognised in some countries. For example, in Spain and France, pensioners and benefit claimants are able to transfer their allowances to holiday resorts, who offer cheap, off-peak accommodation. Social tourism has also been applied to local authority policies: “what is good for visitors must also be good for residents” (SEEDS 1989), with examples such as school/student exchange programmes, community festivals and special needs tourism. Montgomery (1990) suggests that:

“…. tourism and visitor exchange should properly be seen as an extension to citizenship, about improving the quality of life for residents and visitors alike”

In the UK such recognition is expressed via charitable provision, such as The Family Holiday Association (FHA). This national charity specialises in the provision of holidays to low income families with children. In 1997 it launched the Time to Care appeal to raise £1 million to provide a holiday in the year 2000 for every child in local authority residential care. A number of major tourism companies pledged cash donations or offered free holidays, and the appeal was adopted as the Association of British Travel Agents President’s charity project. The FHA has been working with the Local Government Association with a view to researching local authority activity to aid “social tourism”.

6.4 A ‘time squeeze’

Time is also a barrier to holiday-taking (11% in a English Tourist Board (1985) study) and is a particular issue for the self-employed and shopkeepers who may lack paid holidays or adequate staff cover.

Although the growth of holiday-taking has been facilitated by increased paid holiday entitlement and a shorter working week, there has been a levelling out and reversal of this growth in leisure time.

· Since the late 1980s there has been an increase in average working hours in the UK (Martin and Mason, 1998; WTO, 1999).

· The incidence of ‘under-taking’ of holidays by employees, with consequential fears of increased stress and the loss of the benefits of recuperation.

32 · A survey by Henley Centre found that UK non-working time had decreased from 67 hours in 1992 to 65 hours in 1996 (WTO, 1999).

· Twenty-five per cent of people did not take their full holiday entitlement (pressure of work, self-employment and cost) and weekend working was commonplace.

· A recent study of leisure time and the impact on tourism envisaged no substantial increase in holiday entitlement, although European (Working Time) directives were expected to help enforce statutory rights. This and flexible working were expected to increase the incidence of short breaks, already a major growth sector in tourism. (WTO, 1999).

6.5 Host-guest impacts

There has been a growing concern about the impact of tourism on host communities, particularly in less developed countries and small islands. This has included the issues of acculturation - the extent to which ‘western’ habits take root in indigenous communities and cultural and other practices may be lost, and where the economic impact from tourism causes social and structural problems in fragile or subsistence-based economies (Smith, 1978; MacCannell, 1992; Harrison et al, 1996).

Such impacts are not unique to less developed countries, with areas such as National Parks, rural and coastal communities and urban tourism honeypots experiencing problems of overcrowding, pollution and price inflation.

However, a study of tourism in rural Scotland (Boyne, 1999) found that tourism, rather than aggravating problems of rural depopulation, was helping to reverse this trend:

· Only three out of 33 respondents indicated that family members had moved out of the area for tourism employment.

· Because 85 per cent of tourists in Scotland are from elsewhere in the UK, there may be little cultural disparity between hosts and guests. The extremes of host-guest impacts experienced in less developed tourism communities are not such a threat.

· Evidence in Scotland suggests that tourism has supported the re-population of rural areas and strengthened women’s employment, in contrast to other sectors.

Local attitudes

Research into the impact of tourism in historic towns and heritage sites has sought to assess the attitude of, and effects on, local residents, and to develop notions of the tourist carrying capacity that these areas can sustain (Van der Borg, 1992; Ashworth and Tunbridge, 1990). In a comparative study of Canterbury ( Kent) and Guildford (Surrey), Gilbert and Clark (1995) found:

33 · Seventy-five per cent of Canterbury’s residents responded positively to the notion that tourism had created greater employment opportunities, compared with only 20 per cent in Guildford, who felt that tourism was far less important to their city.

· Whereas Canterbury residents perceived a stronger link between crime and tourism, there was little evidence of any perceived serious negative physical/ecological impacts due to tourists (apart from litter).

The authors conclude that urban centres are far more durable and able to absorb tourism’s impact than areas that are more rural, exotic or previously underdeveloped.

6.6 Fair trade and tourism

The notion and practice of Fair Trade is most associated with branded foodstuffs (e.g. coffee) and crafts, in a successful campaign of consumer awareness of producers’ conditions in developing countries. Premium prices are paid for quality products which ensure greater and steadier income for small traders.

Given tourism’s low pay, seasonal and large operator-dominated structure, the application of fair trade principles is being applied to tourism, as it has already been in respect of green or eco-tourism as awareness-based market niches (Evans and Cleverdon, 2000).

Tourism that is ‘fairly traded’ seeks to guarantee employment conditions and the growth and survival of smaller enterprises, and to work toward greater transparency in tour pricing and host-guest impacts. It is argued that, if more ‘fairly traded’, tourism can contribute to local economic development and diversification in destinations, as well as raise awareness amongst consumers of the impact of their spending and holiday choice.

6.7 Conclusions

· Most GPs feel that holidays enhance the quality of life and that certain types of holiday make a positive contribution to health and well-being.

· Patterns of holiday-taking continue to reflect wider social differences and inequalities.

· Among those not taking holidays, there is a wide range of constraints and factors, which will require a variety of different measures to motivate and facilitate non-holiday takers.

· Existing ‘social tourism’ initiatives seek to provide opportunities for those from low income households, particularly children.

· Despite concern about the negative impact of tourism on host communities, there is some countervailing evidence that tourism can reverse the trend of rural depopulation and that it can be managed so that the extremes of host-guest impacts experienced in less developed tourism communities may not be such a threat. 34

7 CONCLUSIONS

Despite the availability of a large volume of quantitative data related to the tourism industry, there are a number of important gaps.

7.1 Economic research issues

Reconciling micro and macro studies

Economic impact studies have tended to concentrate on a relatively local areas, with macro- economic impacts relying on national accounting and other indicators. There is a need to develop a methodology to reconcile these two levels of analysis.

Evaluating tourism impacts

The DCMS has acknowledged the need for improved local area tourism statistics by issuing the Guidance on Local Area Visitor Statistics. However, there is also a need for publicly available comparative work to evaluate the various tourism impact/models (e.g. STEAM, Cambridge, Input-Output) and to test their validity and transferability at a local area level. This may require primary surveys of a range of destination areas/types to act as a control against these computer-based models.

Multipliers and additionality

There is a need for comprehensive impact analysis (secondary and primary studies) to test:

· The various multiplier claims. · The nature and extent of additionality/substitution and appropriate measurement techniques.

Longitudinal studies

There is a need for longitudinal monitoring and evaluation of employment and economic impacts (as many tourism impacts, such as festival attendance, will be short-term).

35 7.2 Environment and sustainable tourism research issues

Sustainable tourism

There is a need for research to test theories and various indicators of sustainable tourism in terms of environmental cost-benefit analysis and changing notions and practices of sustainable development.

Sustaining local services

Although there are some indicative data on the potential contribution of tourists to sustaining certain local services (e.g. various types of sports facilities), more systematic investigation of these potentially positive impacts is required to inform planning and provision decisions.

7.3 Cultural tourism research issues

Most of the research into the benefits of cultural tourism relate to the economic benefits of specific areas of cultural tourism (e.g. the economic value of sport tourism, or of conference and exhibition tourism). There is a lack of research evidence into the wider impacts of cultural tourism, such as the extent to which cultural tourism can develop a positive understanding of national and other cultural characteristics between countries and within countries. Much current evidence is anecdotal in nature.

To examine the strength of such claims, there is a need for more robust research approaches, a greater use of qualitative research methodologies and more longitudinal impact studies.

7.4 Social impact research issues

Non and infrequent tourists

The research by the English Tourism Council (2000a,b,c) provides the basis for a more systematic exploration of the potential health-related benefits of a variety of holiday types for different groups in the population, including the relationship between local recreation, leisure day visits and ‘tourism’ activity.

A systematic exploration of the strength and weaknesses of current ‘social tourism’ programmes would provide useful information in ‘making the social case for tourism’. Such work could be undertaken in co-operation with the Health Education Authority.

In addition to original research it would be useful to draw on other areas of research (some of which are contained in other papers in this series) including the relationship between social capital and health (Campbell et al, 1999) and research on transport, mobility and accessibility.

36 7.5 Perceptions and experience of the UK tourism product

Although there is much data on volumes of tourism, employment and direct and indirect tourism effects, there is a general lack of more qualitative research into the ‘tourist process’ – the nature of the tourist experience and the associated outcomes. The substantial volume of academic work is not supported by policy-oriented research

Existing research (e.g. Scottish Tourist Board, 2000) is simply relatively traditional market research information on reasons for visiting and the extent to which the experiences either met or surpassed expectations. While such information is useful (and certainly needs to be undertaken in other parts of the UK), there is also a need for further, in-depth, research which will provide information on the perceived personal benefits of tourism and specific locations/attractions. Such information would allow tourism providers to adopt strategies which maximise the benefits of tourism (e.g. economic, environmental, cultural and social benefits).

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