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Early Modern English Lexis and Semantics

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Early Modern English Lexis and Semantics EARLY MODERN ENGLISH LEXIS AND SEMANTICS Terttu Nevalainen 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Overview Despite the long life and stability of core vocabulary, the rate of language change is no doubt greatest in the lexicon. Lexical words differ from pho- nemes and grammatical morphemes in that they can be freely added to the existing stock. As we shall see in more detail below, the Early Modern English period is marked by an unprecedented lexical growth. It is achieved both by extensive borrowing from other languages and by exploiting native resources by means of word-formation. One of the most obvious differences between Old English and Present- Day English is the increase in borrowed lexis. According to one estimate, loan words take up a mere three per cent of the recorded vocabulary in Old English, but some seventy per cent or more in Present-Day English (Scheler 1977: 74). In Early Modern English their share varies between forty per cent and fifty per cent of the new vocabulary recorded (Wermser 1976: 40). This large-scale borrowing no doubt reflects both the various foreign contacts of the period and the growing demands made on the evolving standard language. This is the period in the history of English when for the first time the vernacular extends to practically all contexts of speech and writing. Borrowed lexis supplies new names for new concepts, but also increases synonymy in the language, thus providing alternative ways of saying the same thing in different registers. The means by which words are formed are increased by a number of new productive elements that owe their existence to borrowed lexis. Towards the end of the Early Modern English period the set of negative prefixes, for example, includes not only the native un- but also four ele- 332 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Princeton Univ, on 12 Oct 2017 at 19:28:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/termsCambridge Histories. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521264761.006Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Lexis and semantics ments of foreign origin, a-, dis-, in- and non-. They are largely used to form new words from the borrowed section of Early Modern English lexis, as in asymmetric, dissimilar, infrequent, and non-member. The reverse side of borrowing is that it contributes to lack of trans- parency in the lexicon. It had started to build up with the French element in Middle English, and continues especially with the intake of Latinate vocabulary in the Early Modern English period. As a result, English shows no formal connection between a large number of seman- tically related words, such as amatory and love, audition and hearing, and anatomy and cutting up. Against this background it is not surprising that vocabulary building is one of the concerns of Early Modern educationalists. Charles Hoole, a London schoolmaster and author of a number of educational treatises, strongly recommends the study of Latin even for such children ‘as are intended for Trades, or to be kept as drudges at home, or employed about husbandry’. Hoole argues that they would find it: to be of singular use to them, both for the understanding of the English Authors (which abound now a dayes with borrowed words) and the holding discourse with a sort of men that delight to slant it in Latine. (Hoole 1659: 24) The introduction of new words does not preclude semantic change, and words often acquire new senses in the course of time. When John Chamberlain wrote to his friend Dudley Carleton in 1608 saying that ‘I am sory to heare Sir Rowland Lytton is so crasie’ (Chamberlain 1939: 251) he was not referring to Sir Rowland’s state of mind, but rather to his impaired physical health. It is often the older meanings of words that present prob- lems to modern readers of Early Modern English texts. The cumulative effect of the various lexical processes can be seen in the ways in which lexical fields are enriched in our period. A case in point is (up)rising. There are no fewer than twenty partly overlapping terms to describe this ‘horrible sin against God and man’ in Shakespeare alone. Nine of them go back to Middle English (commotion, conspiracy, discord, dissension, insurrection, rebellion, riot, subversion, tumult), five acquire the meaning in Early Modern English (broil, chaos, confusion, revolution, sedition), and seven are new words introduced after 1485 (disorder, faction, mutiny, revolt, turbulence, turmoil, uproar) (Pugliatti 1992). Sometimes the pace of change was so rapid as to be commented on by near-contemporaries. ‘Words and phrases of ancient usage’ and ‘of doubt- ful signification’ are cited by the revisers of the Second Edwardine Book of 333 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Princeton Univ, on 12 Oct 2017 at 19:28:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/termsCambridge Histories. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521264761.006Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Terttu Nevalainen Common Prayer (1552) to be among the principal reasons for publishing a new edition in 1662: That most of the alterations were made . for the more proper express- ing of some words or phrases of antient vsage, in terms more suteable to the language of the present times; and the clearer explanation of some other words and phrases that were either of doubtfull signification, or otherwise liable to misconstruction. (Brightman 1921: 31–3) Unique insights into Early Modern English lexis are provided by contem- porary dictionaries. The earliest are bilingual Latin dictionaries, but bilin- gual and multilingual dictionaries of living languages also begin to be compiled for the benefit of language learners in the first half of our period. The first monolingual dictionaries of English emerged in the early seven- teenth century. Their main task was to provide glosses for the increasing stock of learned vocabulary, or ‘hard words’. As the period advanced, monolingual English dictionaries extended their coverage to include ordi- nary everyday usage. A milestone in this long march was Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (1755), which set a model for posterity both in content and in form. At the beginning of the Early Modern English period neither orthogra- phy nor the patterns of word-formation were tightly regulated. Private writings varied more than the printed word, and spellings were not just a matter of learning but of choice. Well into the seventeenth century, the number of spelling variants that a word could have in print was much larger than in the eighteenth. As Vivian Salmon (this volume) shows, the process of spelling standardisation was only nearing its completion towards the end of our period. For the better part of the period, several formally related words could be coined without any clear difference in meaning. This freedom of choice led to a large number of doublets such as frequency (1553) and frequentness (1664), immaturity (1540) and immatureness (1665), immediacy (1605) and immediateness (1633). In the course of time one variant usually became established at the expense of the other, or variant forms acquired different senses, as in the case of light, lighten and enlighten. The three hundred years from William Caxton to Dr Johnson constitute a period of transition during which the spelling and the morphological shape of words became to a great extent fixed. Although large numbers of new words have been added, the forms that were codified in grammars and dictionaries in the eighteenth century have changed relatively little in the course of the last two hundred years. However, as Barbara Strang (1970: 131) reminds us, the change of tone may be extensive. Many words which 334 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Princeton Univ, on 12 Oct 2017 at 19:28:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/termsCambridge Histories. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521264761.006Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Lexis and semantics now may be only a little colloquial, or have no stylistic colour at all, were for Johnson ‘low’, including banter, coax, dodge, flippant, fop, frisky, fun, fuss, and simpleton. 5.1.2 Words and lexemes This chapter discusses the various ways in which the lexicon was enriched and stratified in the formative centuries of the emerging standard language. Where no ambiguity arises, I use the term word in the technical sense of lexeme. In everyday usage word usually refers to an orthographic or phono- logical word-form, and forms such as sing, sang and sung would count as three separate ‘words’. In the more technical sense of ‘lexeme’, word corresponds to a more abstract unit, basically the combination of a form and the sense(s) associated with it in a dictionary entry. A lexeme subsumes all its inflectional word-forms; sing ‘to make musical sounds with the voice’ is realised by five: sing, sings, sang, sung, and singing (present participle). Derivationally related words, such as singable ‘that can be sung’ and singer ‘person who sings’, are separate lexemes. A lexeme may be morphologically simple (sing) or complex. Complex lexemes are made up of two or more elements. Compounds consist of free morphemes (lovesong of love and song), and derivations are made up of a free morpheme and one or more bound affixes (unsung of the prefix un- and sung; singable of sing and the suffix -able). It is also possible to coin words by means of ‘zero’ derivation. By this process a word is converted to another word class without the addition of an affix. This is how the verb clean (‘to make clean’) derives from the corresponding adjective clean.
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