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Home , Operation Unthinkable

Who was to blame for the ?

Focus Points Specified Content

• Why did the USA–USSR alliance begin to • The : break down in 1945? – the 1945 summit conferences and the • How had the USSR gained control of breakdown of the USA–USSR alliance in Eastern Europe by 1948? 1945–46 • How did the USA react to Soviet – Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe to expansionism? 1948, and American reactions to it • What were the consequences of the Berlin – the occupation of Germany and the ? Blockade • Who was the more to blame for starting – NATO and the the Cold War: the USA or the USSR?

Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?

WIRENA

1. Wartime tension ​ ​ During the war, there had been growing tensions: ● Stalin refused to join UN ● Stalin did not share battle plans with Britain and the USA ● Churchill wouldn't share knowledge of the enigma code with the USSR ● Stalin was angry that Britain and America kept delaying D-Day, believing it was a plot to allow Germany to weaken the ; ● At the (1943) Stalin and Churchill clashed over how much control Stalin would have over the countries of eastern Europe.

2. Ideologies ​ ​ ● America was ideologically opposed to the USSR as they were a democratic capitalist county whereas the USSR was a communist dictatorship. Both countries thought their system was the best and tried to spread their ideologies to the rest of the world.

3. Resentment about History ​ ​ ● The Soviet Union could not forget that in 1918 Britain and the USA had tried to destroy the . ● Britain and the USA could not forget that Stalin had signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Germany in 1939. ● They were still suspicious of each other

4. Events ​ ​

Against this background of underlying differences in ideologies, and aims, and historical resentments, there were a series of events which bit-by-bit broke down the alliance and turned the allies of the war into enemies. Neither side trusted the other. Because they were so different, each side saw each event differently, and believed they were in the right ... and that the other side was in the wrong. So every action they took made them hate each other more:

John D Clare: http://www.johndclare.net/cold_war3.htm ​

5. No common enemy ​ ​ The USA and USSR’s common enemy - Japan and Germany were no longer a threat. Their common goal had already been achieved nothing uniting them.

6. After the war: ​ ​ Both superpowers emerged victorious- another cause for tension Main reasons the USA-USSR alliance began to break down ● Personalities ● Actions by the USA ● Actions by the USSR ● Misunderstandings

Tehran, 1943 Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt.

Major Agreements Major Disagreements ● USA and Britain would open a ● Churchill wanted to begin an second front to split the German invasion of the Balkans to stop the ​ ​ defences and take some pressure Soviet’s advance in Eastern Europe off of the USSR and the spread of . ● USSR would declare war on Japan Roosevelt and Stalin disagreed. once Germany was defeated This was because it would have ● should be given more land weakened the Allied forces by from Germany but lose some to splitting them up too much.

Yalta, Feb 1945 Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt.

Major Agreements Major Disagreements

What to do with Germany after its defeat Poland ● Only unconditional surrender ● Stalin wanted Poland’s border to accepted move west into Germany so USSR’s ● Germany and Berlin would be border could move west into Poland

divided into 4 temporary zones ● Churchill did not approve, but ● Eastern border be moved Stalin’s was in control of westwards Poland and eastern Germany ● Reparations would total $20 billion ● Roosevelt was persuaded by half going to the USSR Churchill to accept, as long as ● Demilitarized USSR stayed out of Greece as the

Getting the USSR in the war against Japan British were trying to stop ● Stalin agreed to enter the war after communism taking over. Stalin Germany was defeated agreed. ● In return, Soviet was given territory Japan took in the 1904-5 Russo Japanese war and Outer Mongolia and Manchuria would become Soviet spheres of influence

Elections ● Once countries were liberated from Germany, free elections would be held to choose the government they wanted

Eastern Europe ● Easter Europe should be seen as a Soviet sphere of influence as the USSR had suffered 20 million casualties in the war and were afraid of another invasion however were to be allowed to run on a ‘broader democratic basis’

Poland ● Free and fair multi party elections held ASAP ● Temporary government - members of the pro Soviet “Lublin” government and exiled “London Poles”. ● However dominated by socialists and refused to acknowledge the authority of the exiled Polish government based in London

Establishing the United Nations (replacing LON)

Nazi Party would be banned and war criminals tried

A number of changes had taken place since Yalta that would affect the :

● Stalin’s armies were occupying most of Eastern Europe and had set up a communist government in Poland saying it was a defensive measure. Also no free elections had been held anywhere.

● Roosevelt had died in April, replaced by his Vice-President, Harry Truman. He was inexperienced in dealing with international affairs and was more anti communist than Roosevelt. He was also suspicious of Stalin and his actions in Eastern Europe.

● July 1945 the Americans successfully tested an atomic bomb and Truman informed Stalin at Potsdam.

● Churchill was defeated in the election in Britain, and so in the middle of the conference was replaced by a new Prime Minister, Clement Attlee.

● Potsdam did not go as smoothly as Yalta, mostly because of the new people causing suspicion and rivalry for example between Truman and Stalin.

Potsdam, July 1945 Churchill/Attlee, Stalin and Truman.

Major Agreements Major Disagreements

● The Polish/German border was to ● The Allies didn't agree over the be settled at the Oder-Neisse Line future government of Poland. Soviet and the size of Germany reduced. controlled government at Lublin still ● Germany to denazify and war crime in charge. trials to be held in Germany and

Japan. ● Disagreed over the future of ● Germany governed by an Allied Control Council in Berlin - decisions Germany. Stalin wanted to prevent it unanimous developing its own industry and wanted access to Germany's rich ● Council of Foreign Ministers set up industry in the Ruhr. Also Stalin to deal with defeated European wanted Germany to pay countries reparations.This was rejected. Truman didn't want to repeat TOV. ● Each country allowed to take

reparations from its zone in ● Stalin also wanted to gain a foothold Germany. USSR could have a quarter of industrial equipment from in Japan which Truman denied. other 3 zones in Germany as it's zone was the least developed. 1947 British and USA zones merged to be Bizonia, then Trizonia with France in 1949.

Iron Curtain: Border between USSR controlled countries and the west.

THE COLD WAR HAS BEGUN

Clarifications: Why would Stalin be reluctant to move his army out of Eastern Europe? Stalin wanted to create the buffer zone to defend his nation. The USSR had a history of being invaded - Germany in WW1 and 2 as well as with Napoleon. After WW2, the USSR’s population was severely affected as they had lost at least 20 million soldiers. Obtaining the to form a buffer zone would replenish his population, allow him to spread communism and gain armies to defend himself against Germany and the Allied Powers if they attacked. He also wanted to spread communism and use the resources of others to help his war-damaged country.

Why was Stalin untrustworthy? ● Communist ● Large Country ● Dictator ● Large army ● Allied with Germany (Nazi-Soviet Pact) ● Loss a large portion of his population ● Revenge ● Killed 20 million Russian people ● Had a poor background unlike Churchill and Roosevelt

Why was Churchill untrustworthy to Stalin? ● Rich background unlike Stalin who was poor and had to work his way up ● Anti Communist (Hated communists) ● Difference in political views

Why would Roosevelt and Churchill be frightened that Stalin’s army was now stationed throughout Eastern Europe? It was a large army that could attack the Allies and made it difficult to invade Russia. It also expanded Communist views and ideals. The bufferzone looked like expansionism and came across as aggressive.

Why are the USA in such an advantageous position to spread democracy throughout the post-war world? ● The USA were extremely rich. By 1944, GDP in America had doubled. This suggests that democracy and worked. ● Provided a good image that they were powerful and strong which allowed people to have faith in them ● Many were scared of the communist ideology ● Did not want dictatorships

● Russia lost more than 20 million people whilst the USA lost 400,000 ● Did not lose many resources ● Far from Europe ● Stalin killed 20 million people

Aftermath of the conferences:

Telegram to USA - A telegram that entailed Stalin delivering a speech calling for destruction of capitalism and the armament of the Soviet Union. Novikov’s Telegram (To USSR) - A telegram entailing how America desired to dominate the world, and that they no longer wanted to cooperate with the USSR - Preparing for war against them The - In 1947, this doctrine was published that stated that the world had a choice between communist tyranny or democratic freedom. It also stated that the USA had a responsibility to fight for liberty wherever it was threatened and that the USA would send troops and economic resources to help governments that were threatened by communists and communism shouldn’t be allowed to grow. The - After the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan was published in 1947 - detailing how the USA would give money to countries in Europe to help rebuild their economy. The USA did this to ensure future trade partners in Europe.

How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948?

Country Background Methods used by USSR

Poland Peasant based economy Soviet troops remained after liberation

Traditional hatred of USSR Government in 1945 dominated by Lublin Poles

Two governments: in London Opposition leaders arrested and murdered and Lublin Rigged elections in 1947 gave communists 80% of Status in WW2 vote Divided between Germany and USSR, but then fully Germany’s

Romania Monarchy Soviet troops remained after liberation Little support for communism Coalition government in 1945, key positions for Status in WW2 communists

German ally Gradually took over police Rigged elections - 1946- communists 90% of vote

King Michael forced to abdicate December

Bulgaria Monarchy Soviet troops remained after liberation Historically close to Russia Joined a coalition with other parties - Fatherland Status in WW2 Front German ally Purged rival groups from the Fatherland Front

Monarchy abolished in 1946

New constitution in 1947 destroyed parliamentary democracy and opposition parties disbanded

Hungary Agriculture based economy Soviet troops remained after liberation Little support for communists Communists only 17% of vote in November 1945, Status in WW2 but given control of Ministry of the Interior Germany ally Used secret police to discredit and persecute rivals

Rigged elections in 1947 gave communists control

Social Democrat and Communist party merged in 1948

Czechoslovakia Democracy before 1939 Soviet troops left after the war ​ ​ Strong support for communists President Benes prepared to Post war elections - communist leadership of cooperate with Stalin balanced coalition government

Status in WW2 Gradually controlled key government ministries- Invaded by Germany in March allowed to arrest opponents 1939 Foreign Minister, Jan Masaryk - popular non communist politician “suicided” in May 1947

All non communist members in government resigned February 1948

The USSR did grant some countries more freedom. It gave up control to Finland’s government. In Yugoslavia, Tito established a communist state with close ties to the Soviet Union but not controlled by it.

However Stalin did not get everything he wanted. In 1945-46 he pressured the Turkish government for the naval base on the Dardanelles (a narrow strait linking the Mediterranean

and the Black Sea). Truman was prepared to support the Turkish government and so Stalin backed down. 1947 Greece also stayed a monarchy. Common methods Stalin used to takeover countries SCREG ​

Soviet troops remained after liberation (except Czechoslovakia) ​ Control of the police ​ Rigged communist elections ​ Eliminating rivals and banning opposition parties ​ Government positions - placed communists in positions of power ​ How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?

The USA were not interested in the areas taken over by the USSR but then started to notice it was similar to Nazi aggression in the 1930s and 1940s. At first Truman was confused and uncertain but then the “long telegram” and Churchill’s speech provided him with a sense of direction.

Why Truman introduced ● George Kennan’s telegram ● Churchill’s speech ● Growth of Soviet empire ● Economic Crisis - Threat of communism (Turkey, Greece, France, )

George Kennan’s “long telegram” February 1946

Points in the telegram ● Russia was hostile ● The way to defeat the Soviet’s was by the policy of containment. Russia would stop if there was resistance. Basically the USSR would keep trying to take over the world but would stop if there were points of pressure. ● Kennan believed the USSR would collapse one day with an internal struggle for control. Therefore, the USA only had to contain the USSR when it was aggressive and wait for it to collapse on its own.

Churchill’s Speech Missouri 1946 ​ ● Highlighted the extent of Russian control in eastern Europe and the threat to Europe that would happen if action wasn’t taken. ● The rising of Communist parties in the Eastern Europe states ● Soviet sphere of influence ● Iron curtain

Development of the containment doctrine 1947 Britain said it would no longer support Greek government in war against Yugoslav backed communists since the liberation of Greece in 1944. If USA wanted to prevent Greece and maybe Turkey to becoming communist it had to take action. Also fears that communist parties in France and Italy would take over (both countries experiencing economic hardship after the war). In response Truman introduced 2 policies of containment: the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Truman Doctrine March 1947 Truman persuaded Congress to provide $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece. Also a commitment to defend any country threatened by aggressive neighbours.

European Recovery Program (Marshall Aid) June 1947 Aims were to stabilise the economies of Europe and prevent communism growing and improve US economy. 16 countries accepted Marshall Aid including the western zones of Germany (breaking the Potsdam agreement) Lasted for 4 years and provided $13.3 billion for European recovery. Marshall (US Secretary of State) hoped that with the loans there would be stronger markets for US exports. Stalin did not allow Soviet blocs to participate. USA’s trade also benefited.

Stalin’s Response Was not concerned about the Truman Doctrine but worried about Marshall Aid. Undermined his control over Eastern Europe and worried the US was trying to dominate states by making them dependent on dollars. Stalin forbade Eastern European countries to apply.

September 1947 Conference with Communist Party leaders and created COMINFORM which ensured communist parties of in Europe followed the Soviet model of communism. COMINFORM also tightened Stalin’s control over Czechoslovakia, the only country who still retained some political independence.

Consequences of the Berlin Blockade

Potsdam agreed that ● Germany divided into 4 zones ● Berlin which was part of USSR’s zone also divided into 4 ● Soviet Union can take reparations from Germany ● Polish border on the Oder Neisse line ● Denazify, demilitarize and democratize Germany ● Control council from the 4 zones would govern over Germany

1945- USA refused to give loans to USSR to cover the cost of occupying eastern zone of Germany

Western powers wanted Germany to recover, Stalin didn't. 1947 Jan - Britain and USA zones combine to make Bizonia. Stalin felt threatened. 1947 March - France’s zone merged to make Trizonia Marshall aid then made available to all Western zones. In response, Soviet inspect all freight shipments into West Berlin. 1948 June - Western powers create a new currency for the 4 zones (Deutschmark) Soviet refused to allow it in their zone.

The blockade June 1948 Stalin's response to the new currency was cutting off West Berlin’s roads, trains and supply lines. Increased pressure on the city by turning off gas and electricity. Wanted to force 3 powers out of Berlin and make Berlin dependent on USSR.

Truman was conflicted. If he did nothing, the Truman doctrine would seem an empty promise. But armed conveys would make the US the first to fire.

Britain, France and USA decided not to back down over West Berlin and supplied city's inhabitants via air lift called Operation Vittles. Lasted for 11 months, 300,000 flights and two million tons of coal,food and petrol. Soviets did not directly fire but obstructed the planes, for example jamming radios or shining searchlights to blind pilots. Stalin lifted blockade in May 1949, failing to unite the city under Soviet control. Huge propaganda success for Western powers. Germany became 2 republics, East and West.

Consequences

Political, military, economic and territorial

A divided Germany May 1949: Creation of Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). Capitalist. West Berlin not a part of it so western forces remained stationed there. October 1949: Soviet created Democratic Republic of Germany. (East Germany) Communist

Pattern for the Cold War Showed how the 2 powers were suspicious of each other and how they were willing to obstruct each other, especially propaganda. Also shows they were not willing to go to war with each other. Tense balance.

NATO and the Warsaw Pact April 1949: USA pledge to join NATO (western military alliance against the Soviet Union) May 1955: West Germany joined NATO and rearmed. In response, USSR Warsaw Pact Warsaw Pact : 8 communist countries agree to unite armies under one command

June 1947: Berlin mayor election won by Ernest Reuter, strong critic of the USSR. Jan 1949: created to direct economies of Soviet bloc

Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War: the USA or the USSR? 1945-49

USSR

Communist ideology was expansionism, USSR intended to impose communism throughout the world ● Stalin did not follow the agreements at Yalta. Between Yalta and Potsdam he had installed communist governments in Poland and Romania and then the rest of Eastern Europe in the following years. ● COMECON ensured each country followed Soviet economic policies ● COMINFORM showed he intended to undermine capitalism ● Testing an atomic bomb?

USA ● Strong personalities - Truman - Potsdam conference didn't go so well ● Testing an atomic bomb ● Truman Doctrine - containment of communism ● Marshall Plan ● Uniting West Germany and new currency and constitution ● Airlifts in response to Berlin Blockade ● NATO- excluded USSR

Bibliography Ben Walsh, Modern World History John Cantrell, Complete 20th Century History for Cambridge IGCSE

The Cold War (1947 -1989)

USA vs USSR

The Cold War[not a hot war which means it is passive aggressive and played ​ with other countries] was basically between America and the Soviet’s, but they controlled other countries instead of theirs to fight the war. It was the clash between the two countries’ political ideas. Communism and capitalism. “It was the biggest waste of money in the history of mankind”

General Timeline

1945 - End of WWII / The Potsdam Conference 1946 - 1948 - The Marshall Plan 1948 - Berlin Blockade 1949 - NATO and Warsaw Pact 1950’s - America’s Golden Age (Economy does so well that everyone wants to become America) 1954 - Beginning of 1956 - Hungarian Revolution 1962 - The 1968 - Czechoslovakian Revolution 1975 - End of Vietnam War 1980 - Polish Revolution 1989 - German Revolution

The Potsdam Conference (June/July 1945) - The Big Three (UK US and USSR) decided what to do after the war was over. - Truman (U.S.) - Blunt - Churchill/Attlee (U.K.) - (USSR) - (1927 -1953) ​ - Very strong character and was hard-line communist (Stalinist) - Was the USSR’s leader during WWII. USSR joins the allies and helps defeat the Nazis from the Eastern European countries. However, after the war, he drops the ‘Iron Curtain(stopping Western Influences and capitalism)’ on the Eastern European countries and held power over them (Communism). - Wants to destroy Germany but the others don’t want to repeat T.O.V.

- They decide the fate of Germany which was destroyed. Each country took a region of the country. Germany was now divided into two halves, the Allies’(US, UK, France) part (West Germany) and the Soviet’s part (East Germany). Berlin was also divided into East and West Berlin in the same concept. - West Germany being influenced by the Western capitalist ideas, they were rich. - East Germany being influenced by the Russian Communist ideas, they were less economically successful.

- During the war USSR advances all the way to Germany through Eastern Europe. After the war, they do not return. Churchill knew that USSR was not going to let go of the control. - So he planned “Operation Unthinkable” just incase. It was a plan for U.S. and the U.K. to attack and continue into USSR after Germany was fallen. The U.S. and U.K. thought USSR was spreading the communist ideas around the world. Thankfully this did not go into action.

Greek Civil War (1946-1949) There is a civil war in Greece between the government and the communists. U.S. and U.S.S.R. both supported respective sides and poured money into the country. This started the rivalry between them. Truman Doctrine is created in the US to allow money to be spent on Greece and Turkey for war.

The Marshall Plan (1948) Some Americans still at this time did not believe the communist threat. They did not see the importance and the threat. However, in 1948, in Czechoslovakia, a pro-American minister Jan Masaryk is killed by a Soviet. American people now realised the real threat and urgency to defeat communism.

So the Marshall Plan was created, which was basically a plan to rebuild Europe(but mainly to defeat communism). It allowed the European countries to use $17 billion to restore their country and become capitalists to defeat communism.

Countries’ Allies after the War(WWII) (1949) NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation - The countries (America and ) are allies and are all militarily responsible for each other.

Warsaw Pact - Basically like NATO with Eastern European countries and the USSR (controlled by USSR)

The creation of these two alliances made the countries assign themselves to the sides. US or USSR.