NATIONAL LANGUAGES

KUN CHANG

'National languages' are the non-Chinese languages spoken by the various nationali- ties or ethnic groups in : in southern China, the Miao-Yao, Li, Kam-Tai, Tibeto-Burman, and Mon-Khmer languages; in northern China, the Altaic and Iranian languages. Since 1951, with the cooperation of the central and local governments, hundreds of field workers, some of them members of the nationalities concerned, have engaged in extensive surveys of more than forty national languages. (Preparation for this work consists in most cases of a brief training program.) By 1960, they had designed alpha- bets for sixteen languages: Miao, Li, Kam, Chuang, Pu-i, Tai, I, Hani, Lisu, Lahu, Nahsi, Chingp'o, K'awa, Mongolian, Uigur, and Kazax. A great effort has been made to translate works on Communism and government documents into these lan- guages. Newspapers have been published in various national languages. Institutes and schools established for the nationalities have textbooks written in their own lan- guages. Linguistic research less practically directed has focused particularly on Chinese borrowings in the national languages. In this article I shall present a chronological account of work done on the national languages from 1951 through 1961, a general bibliography, and brief accounts of some of the individual languages, together with annotated bibliographies of these languages. In view of the number of languages involved and the unevenness of the published material, I can give here only an indication of their genetic relationships and geo- graphical distributions. I shall, further, omit what may be found elsewhere in this volume: Tibetan, the Mongolian of Outer , and linguistics in are treated in separate chapters; Chinese work on Thai is included in the treatment of linguistics in Thailand. All publications cited in this article are in Chinese (a few are Chinese translations of Russian works); I have translated the titles into English - at times rather freely, of necessity - for the convenience of the reader who may not know Chinese. The * indicates works reported as published which I have not seen. I have left untranslated some terms for administrative units. The common series is PAO, HSIANG, CH'U, district (HSIEN), CHUAN-CH'U, and province (SHENG). In areas where nationalities predominate, the organization is in terms of PAO, HSIANG, CH'U, autonomous district, autonomous CHOU, and autonomous region. 152 KUN CHANG

CHRONOLOGY

1951 March Preliminary work is completed on an alphabet for the 1 languages of the, at that time, Province of Hsi-k'ang (later incorporated into Szu-ch'uan). This alphabet is the product of a combined effort by the I people, the Committee of Military Control in Hsi-ch'ang, Hsi-k'ang, and a visiting delegation from the Central Government. June 11 The Central Institute of Nationalities in Peking establishes its Department of Languages. October 6 The Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences convenes a conference on the national languages of the South and Southwest. October 12 A Steering Committee for Research on National Languages is established within the Committee of Cultural and Educational Affairs of the Central Government's State Council. November 2 The Association for Reform of the Chinese and the Institute of Linguistics convene a conference on the alphabetization of Chinese and national languages. November The Institute of Linguistics dispatches a team of field workers to Szu-ch'uan and Hsi-k'ang to study the I in the area of Liang- shan. (In the next five years, material on the I dialects, including the native syllabic writing system, was gathered from eighteen districts in this area.) 1952 February The Institute of Linguistics dispatches a team of field workers to study the national languages of the Province of Yiin-nan, i.e. the Tai, Chingp'o, Lisu, Hani, I, Lahu, K'awa, Pulang, Ach'ang, Nung, Sha, and Hsifan languages. This team, assisted by the members of the Language Research Center of the Committee of Affairs of Nationalities in the Province of Yiin-nan, is divided into several groups which work on different languages (including their indigenous writing systems). July Ts'ai Mei-piao of Peking University and Liu Lu of the Institute of Linguistics survey the national languages of the Northeast (Man- churia), , and Sui-yiian, as members of the delegation sent by the Central Government to visit these areas. (This trip lasted more than two months; Ts'ai and Liu's findings were reported in Chung-kuo yu-wen [abbr. CKYW] 4.33 [October, 1952] and 6.9-11 [December, 1952].) August Students of the Miao language at the Central Institute of Nationalities are sent to K'ai-t'ang Hsiang in the K'ai-li District of Kuei-chou NATIONAL LANGUAGES 153 Province to practice the Miao language. Ch'en Ch'i-kuang is the leader of this group; Chang Yung-hsiang is their language teacher. (Cf. CKYW 6.32 [December, 1952] for Ma Hsiieh-liang's brief report on this project.) September A newspaper in the I language is published in Hsi-ch'ang as a supple- ment to the Chinese newspaper, Ch'un-chung-pao ("The masses"). September The Institute of Linguistics sends a team of field workers to the province of Kuei-chou to study the Pu-i language. (This trip lasted for a year. The material collected was incorporated in a report published in August, 1959.) September The Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities send Ma Hsiieh-liang, P'an Ch'ang-jung, and T'ai Ch'ang-hou to study the Miao language in Kuei-chou, southern Szu-ch'uan, and western Hu-nan. (During this four-month trip they recorded material in twenty-one places. Ma Hsiieh-liang and T'ai Ch'ang-hou published a part of their results in Yti-yen yen-chiu [abbr. YYYC] ["A journal of linguistic research"] 1.265-82 [December, 1956]: A preliminary comparative study of the Miao dialects in south eastern Kuei-chou.) The Chuang language of the Province of Kuang-hsi was also studied in 1952; a report by Yuan Chia-hua and others was published in November, 1953.

1953

April The local government of the Province of Hsin-chiang establishes a steering committee to reform the writing systems of the national languages of that province. July A Society for Research on the is established in Inner Mongolia. September 14 The Institute of Linguistics holds extensive meetings on national to languages. In addition to the section meetings, two general meetings were held, on September 26 and 27. (A brief report on these meetings October 20 was published in CKYW 17.29, 18 [November, 1953].) The Department of Information of the Central Communist Party November convenes a meeting to discuss the problems of designing writing systems for the national languages.

1954

May 20 The State Council resolves that governmental help be given the nation- alities in developing their writing systems. July 10 Meng-ku yii-wen ("Mongolian language and writing"), a quarterly, 154 KUN CHANG

is founded in the city of Kukuhoto (Huhehot). (Publication changed to monthly January 15, 1957.) July A Society for Research on the Kirgiz Language is established in the Kyzyl Su Autonomous Chou for the Kirgiz people in Hsin-chiang. September The Institute of Linguistics dispatches a team of field workers to Kuang-hsi to study the Chuang dialects. (By 1955 they had recorded the Chuang dialects of fifty-one districts.) September A Committee on Language Research is established in the Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi. October The Soviet linguist G. P. Serdyuchenko comes to the Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities as a consultant. Accompanying him is B. X. Todaeva, a Soviet expert on the Mon- golian language. (Serdyuchenko returned to the Soviet Union in July, 1957. Lo Ch'ang-p'ei describes his activities and achievements during his stay in China in CKYW 65.10-3 [November, 1957]. From 1955 to 1956 he played an active part in the preparation, organization, training, and dispatching of teams of field workers. He himself visited the cities of Nan-ning and Wu-ming, in the Autonomous Chou for the Chuang people [April-May, 1955]; K'un-ming and other cities in the province of Yiin-nan [September-October, 1955, and November- December, 1956]; the cities of Shen-yang, , and Talien in the provinces of Liao-ning and Hei-lung-chiang [April-May, 1956]; the city of Kukuhoto in the Autonomous Region of Inner Mongolia [May, 1956]; Urumchi in the Autonomous Region for the Uigur people in Hsin-chiang [October-November, 1956]; the city of Kuei- yang in the province of Kuei-chou [October-November, 1956]; the city of Ch'eng-tu in the province of Szu-ch'uan [December, 1956]; the city of Kuang-chou in the province of Kuang-tung and the city of T'ung-shih on the Island of Hai-nan [February, 1957].)

1955

April The Hungarian Orientalist L. Ligeti visits China. April 27 A conference on the writing system for the Chuang language is held to May 3 in the city of Nan-ning, Kuang-hsi. May The Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities to dispatch two teams of field workers, one to study the Turkic-Mon- June golian languages in the north, the other to study the Miao languages in central and western Kuei-chou, the Autonomous Chou for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi, and eastern Yiin-nan. June 6 The Institute of Linguistics convenes a conference on the creation NATIONAL LANGUAGES 155 and revision of writing systems for the national languages in Yun-nan, Kuei-chou, Kuang-hsi, and Hsi-k'ang. June 8 Fu Mao-chi delivers a paper on the phonemic system of the Tai of Yun-ching-hung in the Hsi-shuang-pan-na district of the Province of Yun-nan to the members of the Division of Philosophy, Social Sciences, and Linguistics in the Academy of Sciences. (This paper was published in YYYC 1.223-64 [December, 1956].) August J. Schubert, an expert on Tibetan from East Germany, visits China. September 1 The Autonomous Region of Inner Mongolia announces its adoption of a new alphabet for the Mongolian language to replace the old script. (Cf. CKYW39.4-5 [September, 1955]. On March 25,1958, the Region revoked this decision.) September 13 The third section of the Institute of History, Academy of Sciences, establishes a training program for the . December 6 The Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities to 15 organize a joint conference in Peking on national languages. The more than one hundred and sixty participants include linguists, publishers, educators, and officials in charge of the affairs of nation- alities. The Conference approves a long-range plan for research on national languages, to extend from 1956 through 1967. (Cf. CKYW 42.27 [December, 1955] and YYYC 1.113-27 [December, 1956]), December 10 The Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi publishes a tentative version of its alphabet for the Chuang language. December Fu Mao-chi (YYYC 1.116) reports progress made with the alphabet designed for the I language in Szu-ch'uan. Experimental teaching programs using this alphabet have been established in the Central Institute of Nationalities in Peking, the Southwestern Institute of Nationalities in Ch'eng-tu, normal schools in the province of Hsi-k'ang and the chuan-ch'u of Lo-shan, the cadre training schools for mem- bers of nationalities in the chuan-ch'ii of Hsi-ch'ang and the chuan- ch'ii of Lo-shan, as well as in the forty primary and secondary schools established for the I people in the province of Szu-ch'uan. Forty-five books (some of them textbooks) and a biweekly magazine have been published in this alphabet. One hundred and seventy-six people have used the alphabet as teachers, translators, and linguistic workers. Over seven thousand, including the members of the militia corps in Liang- shan, have learned the alphabet.

1956 February 20 The Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities initiate a joint training program for field workers on national languages which continues through June. 156 KUN CHANG March A school teaching the Chuang alphabet is established in the district of Wu-ming in Kuang-hsi. April Mi-sze-ch'ing, Director of the Institute of Linguistics of the Mongolian People's Republic, visits China. April In a gigantic project organized by the Institute of Linguistics and the to Central Committee on the Affairs of the Nationalities, seven teams of June field workers are sent to various areas to study national languages: 1. the Chuang-Kam languages; 2. the Miao-Yao languages; 3. the national languages of Yiin-nan (with the exception of the I language); 4. the I and T'u-chia languages; 5. the Mongolian language (this team included Todaeva, the Soviet expert); 6. the Turkic and Iranian lan- guages ; and 7. the Tibetan language. The more than seven hundred field workers are drawn from the membership of the Institute of Linguistics, the Central Institute of Nationalities, and various local organizations interested in national languages. Those not already trained as linguists are first sent to one of two training programs, either to that of the Institute of Linguistics and the Central Institute of Nationalities in Peking (see above, February 20), or to one held in Ch'eng-tu. May 22-29 A conference on Mongolian is held in the city of Kukuhoto. June R. Tenishev, a Soviet expert on , visits China. (He returned to the Soviet Union in March, 1959.) July to A team of twenty-five field workers surveys the thirty-two Pu-i September dialects. August A Steering Committee on Language Research is established in the Autonomous Chou for the Li and Miao of Hai-nan. A Committee on Language Research is established in the Autonomous Region for the Uigur people in Hsin-chiang. A team of field workers from the Institute of Linguistics, the Central Institute of Nationalities, and the local organizations in charge of language research in Hsin-chiang launch a survey of the national languages of that province: the Uigur, Kazax, Kirgiz, Sibo, and Tajik languages. August 13-22 A conference on linguistic research in the Autonomous Region for the Uigur people is held in the city of Urumchi in Hsin-chiang. (For a brief report on this conference, see CKYW 52.49-50 [October, 1956].) August 16 A Steering Committee on National Languages is established in the province of Szu-ch'uan. September T. N. Pachalina, a Soviet expert on the Iranian language, visits China. (She returned to the Soviet Union in May, 1957.) October 5 A Steering Committee on National Languages is established in the province of Kuei-chou. NATIONAL LANGUAGES 157 October 19-20 At a conference on the alphabetization of the national languages held in the city of Kuei-yang in the province of Kuei-chou, it is recommended that the same principles of alphabetization be used for the national languages as for Chinese. October The Institute of Linguistics' survey of the Li language on the island of Hai-nan is completed. October A Chinese translation of Serdyuchenko's Designing alphabets and establishing standard languages is published. October 31 A conference on the Miao language held in the city of Kuei-yang to approves four tentative alphabets for different Miao dialects. November 7 November 4-7 A conference on the Pu-i language held in the city of Kuei-yang approves a tentative alphabet for the Pu-i language. November 25 Min-tsu yii-yen tiao-ch'a fung-hsin ("News on national-language surveys"), a monthly, is founded. November The Indian Government invites Chang K'e-ch'iang, an expert on to Tibetan, to participate in the celebration of the 500th anniversary of December Buddha's attainment of nirvana. December 18-24 A conference on the I language held in the city of Ch'eng-tu approves a tentative alphabet for the I language of Liang-shan. December 20-27 A conference on the is held in the city of Kukuhoto. December 29 The Academy of Sciences establishes its Institute of National Lan- guages. (Cf. CKYW 55.29 [January, 1957]). December YYYC (1.129-67) publishes a Chinese translation of G. P. Serdyu- chenko's "The Soviet experience in designing alphabets and establish- ing standard languages".

1957

January 26 The Southwestern Institute of Nationalities initiates a training program for teachers of the alphabet for the I language of Liang-shan. February 6 A conference on the languages of the I-li Autonomous Chou for the Kazax people is held in the city of I-ning in Hsin-chiang. February 11 A conference on the Li language held in the city of T'ung-shih in the Autonomous Chou for the Li and Miao peoples approves a tentative alphabet for the Li language. March 16-27 A conference on national languages in the province of Yun-nan held in the city of K'un-ming approves tentative alphabets for the Hani, Lisu, Chingp'o, Nahsi, Lahu, and K'awa languages. April 23 An Institute of History and Language is established in the Autono- mous Region of Inner Mongolia. (In January, 1959, the history section was made an independent institute; in March, 1959, the lan- 158 KUN CHANG guage section adopted the name Institute of Language and Literature.) May 25 Yüan Chia-hua and Chang Yüan-sheng deliver a joint paper on word formation in the Chuang language at the second meeting of the Section of Philosophy, Social Sciences, and Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences. (This paper was published in Shao-shu min-tsu yii-wen lun-chi [abbr. SSMTYWLC] ["A collection of essays on the national languages"] 1.1-40 [June, 1958].) June 1 Fu Mao-chi, Deputy Director of the Institute of National Languages, attends the first meeting of the Soviet Orientalists. July 1 A newspaper in the Chuang language is founded in the city of Nan- ning, Kuang-hsi. September Wu-fi Ch'ing wen-chien, a dictionary in five languages (Manchu, to Tibetan, Mongolian, Uigur, and Chinese), which was compiled during November the Ch'ing Dynasty and preserved in the Royal Palace Museum, is reprinted. October 3-25 The Institute of National Languages holds its first general staff meeting. (For a brief report on this meeting, see CK YW 65.2 [Novem- ber, 1957].) November 29 The State Council approves the Chuang alphabet and certain general principles for alphabetizing the national languages. December 18 The Institute of National Languages and the Central Institute of Nationalities organize a joint study program for Turkic languages. (Cf. CKYW 66.34 [December, 1957].)

1958

January A newspaper is published in the Tai language of Hsi-shuang-pan-na in Yün-nan. March CKYW (69.149) publishes an article describing the achievements of the Department of Languages in the Central Institute of Nation- alities. Nineteen languages are taught in the Department: Tibetan (Lhasa and Amdo dialects), Miao (four dialects), Yao (five dialects), Pu-i (two dialects), Chuang (three dialects), Tai (two dialects), Kam (San-chiang dialect), Sui (Li-po dialect), I (Liang-shan dialect), Nahsi (Li-chiang dialect), Lisu (Pi-chiang dialect), Lahu, K'awa (Lan-ts'ang dialect), Chingp'o (Lien-shan dialect), Tsaiwa (Lu-hsi dialect), Mongolian, Uigur, Kazax, and Kirgiz. There are eleven research groups working on different languages. A Colloquial Tibetan- Chinese dictionary is about to be completed. March 25 The People's Committee of the Autonomous Region of Inner Mongolia resolves that the original be reinstated. (Cf. September 1, 1955.) NATIONAL LANGUAGES 159 March 27 At their second conference on national languages the Academy of to Sciences and the Central Committee on the Affairs of Nationalities April 16 adopt principles for the alphabetization of national languages and a two-year plan (for 1958-60) for work on the national languages. (Cf. CKYW 71.226-9 [May, 1958].) March The Division of Cultural and Educational Affairs of the Central Committee on the Affairs of Nationalities publishes an article, "The struggle to carry out in a proper manner the Party's policy on work on national languages". April 19 Jen-min jih-pao ("The people's daily") publishes an editorial, "Pro- gress is needed in the work on national languages". June The editorial board of CKYW begins publishing SSMTYWLC. (Vol. 1 was published in June, 1958, Vol. 2 in December, 1958.) August 18-23 A conference on the is held in the city of Kuei-yang. August Two linguists from the Academy of Sciences of the Kazax Republic of the Soviet Union, Kenecbaev (Director of the Institute of Literature and Linguistics) and Nominxanov (Director of the Center of Oriental Studies) visit China. (Cf. CKYW 14.119 [August, 1958].) September 27 Representatives from the Institute of National Languages visit the Soviet Union. (They returned to China October 26, 1958.) December SSMTYWLC (2.49-68) publishes Desheriev's article, "Progress in research on the national languages in the Soviet Union after the introduction of alphabetic writing systems for them".

1959

January 6-19 The second conference on the Mongolian language is held in the city of Kukuhoto. January 19 The journal Min-tsu yii-wen kung-tso chien-hsin ("Brief reports on work on national languages") is founded in Peking. January 13-26 Field workers of the Institute of National Languages hold a conference in the city of Nan-ning, Kuang-hsi. March 7-23 The Central Committee on the Affairs of Nationalities convenes a conference on the preparation of dictionaries for national languages, October CKYW (88.451-5) publishes Wang Li-pin and Fu Mao-chi's "A survey of important achievements in the field of national languages". CKYW (88.478) publishes a brief outline of publications in prepara- tion in the Institute of Nationalities. These include linguistic des- criptions, ranging from brief descriptions (KAI-K'UANG) through linguistic sketches (CHIEN-CHIH) to book-length reports (PAO-KAO), treatises on the influence of Chinese on various national languages, and dictionaries of new terminology. 160 KUN CHANG 1961 March CKYW (102.6-8) publishes an article by Pao Er-han reviewing important achievements in the field of national languages.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. General Descriptions and Classifications Lo Ch'ang-p'ei and Fu Mao-chi, "A general description of the national languages and their writing systems", CKYW 21.21-6 (March, 1954). G. P. Serdyuchenko, "Problems in the classification of the nationalities and their languages", CKYW 69.129-33 (March, 1958). Chou, Yao-wen, "How should languages within the same family be classified?", SSMTYWLC 1.49-55 (June, 1958). Yii Shih-ch'ang, "Some problems in the classification of the national languages", CKYW 79.54-7 (January, 1959). , "Opinions on the classification of national languages and dialects", CKYW 92.74-7 (February, 1960).

2. General Discussions of Phonological Features Wang Fu-shih, "How to analyze and record tones in Sino-Tibetan languages", CKYW 48.19-27 (June, 1956). Tai Ching-sha, "Two types of : with and without stricture", SSMTYWLC (December, 1958). Ma Hsueh-liang and Lo Chi-kuang, " length in the Sino-Tibetan languages", CKYW 115.193-211 (May, 1962).

3. General Remarks on the Design or Revision of Writing Systems Fu Mao-chi, "The present situation of the national languages in the province of Yun- nan and the responsibilities of linguistic workers", CKYW 6.7-8 (December, 1952). , "The present situation and problems in the design of new alphabets and the revision of old writing systems for the national languages", YYYC 1.113-27 (December, 1956). G. P. Serdyuchenko, "Work on the national languages in the Province of Yiin-nan", CKYW 56.37-41 (February, 1957). , "Problems concerning the national languages", CKYW 62.37-40 (August, 1957).

4. Chinese Influence on the National Languages Fu Mao-chi, "Problems in rendering new terms in the national languages", CKYW 64.31-4 (October, 1957). , "Further discussion on the problems of rendering new terms in the national languages", CKYW 72.251-3 (June, 1958). NATIONAL LANGUAGES 161 Wang Fu-shih, "Problems of Chinese loan-words in the national languages", CKYW 73.335-7, 346 (July, 1958). Ma Hsüeh-liang and Wang Chün, "Phonemic problems in the Chinese loan-words in the national languages", CKYW 83.216-8, 215 (May, 1959). Yü Shih-ch'ang, "Some problems in the study of the Chinese influence on the national languages", CKYW 110.16-22, 49 (December, 1961).

5. The Comparative Study of Chinese and Tai Hsing Kung-wan, "A comparative study of word-formation in the Chinese and ", Chung-kuo yii-wen ts'an-k'ao tzu-liao hsiian-chi ("Selected reference material on the ") 143-53 (1955). , "A tentative comparison of Chinese erh and tzu and Tai luk", ibid. 154-168. , "The importance of tones in the comparative study of the Chinese and Tai languages", CKYW 111.15-27 (January, 1962).

INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES

Southern China 1. Miao Miao-Yao group 2. Yao (Mien) 3. Li 4. Kam 5. Sui Kam-Sui-Mak subgroup 6. Mak 7. Chuang Kam-Tai group 8. Nung 9. Sha Tai subgroup 10. Pu-i 11. Tai 12. 1 13. Hani 14. Lisu I subgroup 15. Lahu 16. Nahsi 17. Ach'ang Tibeto-Burman group 18. Chingp'o Chingp'o-Tsaiwa subgroup 19. Tsaiwa 20. Ch'iang 21. Jyarung 22. Hsifan 23. Pai 162 KUN CHANG 24. K'awa 25. Penglung Mon-khmer group 26. P'uman Northern China 27. Mongolian 28. Uigur 29. Salar Turkic subgroup 30. Kazax 31. Kirgiz Altaic group 32. Oronchon 33. Solon Tungus subgroup 34. Olcha 35. Sibo 36. Tajik an Iranian language

1. The Miao Language There are three major groups of Miao dialects. In the first, initial stops preceded by homorganic nasals, e.g. mp-, nt-, ijk-, occur with all of the possible tones. This group has about 1,150,000 speakers in southern Szu-ch'uan, western and central Kuei-chou, eastern Yiin-nan, and the western part of the Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi. (The Punu language, spoken by , also belongs to this group [see p. 164].) In the second group, initial stops preceded by homorganic nasals occur only with a limited number of tones. This group has about 440,000 speakers, in the districts of Hua-ytian, Feng-huang, Chi-shou, Ku-chang, Lu-hsi, and Pao-ching in Hu-nan, and in the Sung-t'ao Autonomous District for the in Kuei- chou. The third group has no initial stops preceded by homorganic nasals. This group has about 900,000 speakers, in the districts of K'ai-li, Lei-shan, Ma-chiang, Huang-p'ing, Chin-p'ing, Li-p'ing, Ts'ung-chiang, and Jung-chiang in Kuei-chou; in the Ta-miao-shan Autonomous District for the Miao people and the San-chiang Autonomous District for the in Kuang-hsi; and in the T'ung-tao Au- tonomous District for the Kam people in Hu-nan. Bibliography: Wang Fu-shih, "Problems in reforming the writing systems for the Miao language", CKYW 6.12-3 (December, 1952). A discussion of Samuel Pollard's alphabet for the national languages of Yiin-nan and Kuei-chou, an invention dating from around 1900. Ma Hsiieh-liang and T'ai Ch'ang-hou, "A preliminary comparative study of the twenty- one Miao dialects in southeastern Kuei-chou", YYYC 1.265-82 (December, 1956). This study is based on material Ma and T'ai collected on a field trip in the fall of 1952. NATIONAL LANGUAGES 163 Ai-ch'ing, "A note on the secret language of the women in the Miao community in Chien-chu Hsiang, in the district of Ku-ling in Szu-ch'uan", CKYW 59.15 (May, 1957). In one form of this language, one in the ordinary language is split into two, with y as the vowel of the first syllable and s as the initial of the second syllable. In another form, a nonsense syllable, tSau, is inserted between these two . Wang Fu-shih, "Problems in spelling Chinese loan-words in the Miao dialects", CKYW 59.42-4 (May, 1957). The basic problem discussed is whether new Chinese loan-words should be spelled as in Standard Mandarin. Chu-t'ing, "A comment on Ai-ch'ing's Note", CKYW 62.36 (August, 1957). The secret language described by Ai-ch'ing is not limited to women; it is shared by a small number of men as well. The inserted syllable is tsa, not tsau. Wang Fu-shih, "Auxiliary in the Miao language of Shih-men-k'an in the district of Wei-ning in Kuei-chou", YYYC 2.75-121 (December, 1957). Data for this article, which treats numerals and demonstratives as well as auxiliary nouns, were collected on a field trip in the fall of 1952. Complicated sandhi rules govern the combinations of numerals and auxiliary nouns. Two short texts illustrate the uses of auxiliary nouns. P'an Yuan-en and Ts'ao Ts'ui-yiin, "Four-syllable coordinative constructions in the Miao dialect of Lu-shan in eastern Kuei-chou", SSMTYWLC 1.91-109 (June, 1958). Data collected on a 1952 field trip. The Research Center of the Steering Committee on National Languages in Kuei-chou and the second team of field workers on national languages from the Academy of Sciences, 'The preliminary versions of two concise Miao-Chinese dictionaries, one based on the dialect of eastern Kuei-chou, the other on that of Szu-ch'uan, western Kuei-chou, and Yiin-nan' (October, 1958). Review: Wang Fu-shih, CKYW 88.508 (October, 1959). Li Yung-sui, Ch'en K'e-chiung, and Ch'en Ch'i-kuang, "Problems in the interrela- tionship of tones and initials in twenty Miao dialects", YYYC 4.65-80 (September, 1959)JA scholarly work. Data collected in the field, from|June, 1956, to March, 1957. I Hsien-p'ei, " categories in the Miao dialect of Chi-wei, in the district of Hua-yuan, in western Hu-nan", CKYW 102.40-7 (March, 1961). I classifies nouns by the absence or presence of prefixes: go35, fa35, Pa35, fe35, and ma 31. He also discusses the syntactic behavior of nouns. Ts'ao Ts'ui-yiin, "A preliminary study of adverbs in the Miao dialect of K'ai-t'ang, in the district of K'ai-li, in eastern Kuei-chou", CKYW 103.36-42, 8 (April, 1961). By adverbs Ts'ao refers to the expressions which follow and modify adjectival or verbal expressions. Institute of National Languages, "A brief description of the Miao language", CKYW 111.28-37 (January, 1962). , Chinese loan-words in the Miao language, CKYW 115.218-29 (May, 1962). 164 KUN CHANG 2. The Languages of the Yao People

The Yao people speak three languages: Punu, Mien, and Laka. There are about 220,000 speakers of Punu, which belongs to the Miao family. Five Punu dialects have been reported: 1. That spoken by about 210,000 Yao people in some twenty districts of Kuang-hsi (including Tu-an, Pa-ma, Ma-shan, Shang-lin, Nan-tan, and Ho-ch'ih), in the district of Fu-ning in Yiin-nan, and in the district of Tu-shan in Kuei-chou; 2. The Chiung-nai dialect, spoken in the Ta-yao-shan Autono- mous District for the Yao people of Kuang-hsi; 3. The Pa-heng or Pa-wu dialect, spoken in the districts of San-chiang and Lung-sheng in Kuang-hsi and the districts of Li-p'ing and Jung-chiang in Kuei-chou; 4. The Wu-nai dialect, spoken in the districts of Lung-hui, T'ung-tao, and Hsu-p'u in Hu-nan; and 5. The Yu-no dialect, spoken in the districts of Hsing-an and Lung-sheng in Kuang-hsi. Mien (Yao) is unlike the Miao language, to which it is related, in that it has final -m, -n, -y, -p, -t, and -k. There are three Mien dialects: 1. That spoken by about 260,000 Yao people in more than sixty districts of the Kuang-hsi Autonomous Region for the Chuang people, and in the provinces of Hu-nan, Kuang-tung, Yun- nan, and Kuei-chou; 2. The Tsao-min dialect, spoken in the district of Lien-nan in Kuang-tung and the district of I-chang in Hu-nan (about 29,000 speakers); and 3. The Piao-min dialect, spoken in the districts of Ch'iian-chou, Kuan-yang, and Kung- ch'eng in Kuang-hsi (about 21,000 speakers). The Laka language is spoken by about 6,000 people in the Ta-yao-shan Autonomous District of the Kuang-hsi Autonomous Region for the Chuang people. Mao and Chou ("A brief description of the languages of the Yao people") classify Laka as a Kam language on the basis of similarity in a large number of vocabulary items, but no one has yet established a genetic relationship.

Bibliography. Lo Chi-kuang, "The Yao language in Kuang-hsi", CKYW 9.33 (March, 1953). A superficial survey. Hu Ch'i-wang, "A secret language of the Pan-yao people", CKYW 61.44 (July, 1957). This language is characterized by word-substitution, e.g., dzar/bS 'boat' for a:p58 'duck'. Yen Hsiieh-chiung, "An illustration of the linguistic approach to the study of the his- tory of nationalities", SSMTYWLC1.41-8 (June, 1958). There are linguistic indi- cations that the Miao people on the island of Hai-nan migrated from the Ch'in- chou Chuan-ch'ii and Po-se Chuan-ch'ii several hundred years ago. The dialects of the Miao people on Hai-nan are closer to the Yao dialects on the Mainland than to the Miao. For instance, the Miao dialect of Hung-kou Hsiang in the T'ung-shih Ch'u in the district of Pao-t'ing on Hai-nan has 16.76 per cent of its vocabulary in common with the Miao dialect of Tung-men-k'ou in K'ai-li (in the district of Lu-shan in Kuei-chou). It has 47.7 per cent of its vocabulary in common NATIONAL LANGUAGES 165 with the Yao dialect of Ts'ai-hsi Hsiang (in the district of Hsing-an in Kuang-hsi). These percentages are based on a comparison of 1,628 words. ""Institute of National Languages, A sketch of the Miao-Yao languages (September, 1959). , "The role of the Chinese language in enriching the languages of the Yao people", CKYW 109.62-71, 87 (October-November, 1961). Mao Tsung-wu and Chou Tsu-yao, "A brief description of the languages of the Yao people", CKYW 113.141-8 (March, 1962).

3. The Li Language Ou-yang and Cheng ("A brief description of the Li language") divide the Li language, spoken in the Hai-nan Autonomous Chou for the Li and Miao peoples, into five dialects: 1. The Ha dialect, spoken by about 220,000 people in the districts of Lo-tung, Ya-hsien, Tung-fang, and Ling-shui; 2. The Gei dialect, spoken by about 90,000 people in the districts of Pao-t'ing, Ling-shui, Pai-sha, Ch'iung-chung, and Tung-fang; 3. The Zran dialect, spoken by about 20,000 people in the district of Pai-sha; 4. The Moi-fau dialect, spoken by about 10,000 people in the district of Tung-fang; and 5. The Ka-mau dialect, spoken by about 20,000 people in the district of Pao-t'ing and Ling-shui.

Bibliography: Ch'en Chin, "Suggestions on the translation of new terms into the Li language", CKYW 67.46-7 (January, 1958). Ch'en Shih-min, Huang Chia-chiao, and Chang Yung-yen, "The phonemic system of the Li dialect of Pao-t'ing in Hai-nan", Hsiieh-shu Inn-Van ("Bulletin of Amoy University") 17.1-12 (1958). Ou-yang Chiieh-ya and Cheng I-ch'ing, "A brief description of the Li language", CKYW 126.432-41 (October, 1963).

4. The Kam Language Kam has about 710,000 speakers in south eastern Kuei-chou, western Hu-nan, and northern Kuang-hsi.

Bibliography: Liang Min, "A brief description of the Kam language", CKYW 136.232-51 (June, 1965). The Sui has more than 133,000 speakers in the districts of San-tu and Li-po in Kuei-chou, and the district of Nan-tan in Kuang-hsi, 166 KUN CHANG Bibliography: Wei Ch'ing-wen, "A brief description of the Sui language", CKYW 138.400-12 (October, 1965). 6. The Mak Language

Mak is spoken in Li-po, in the Province of Kuei-chou.

7. The Chuang Language

There are 7,240,000 speakers of the Chuang language in the Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi, 420,000 in the Wen-shan Autonomous Chou for the Chuang and Miao peoples and the districts of K'ai-yiian, Meng-tzu, Ho-k'ou, and Shih-tsung in Yiin-nan, and 120,000 in the districts of Ch'in-hsien, Fang-ch'eng, Tung- hsing, and Lien-yang in Kuang-tung. There are two branches of the Chuang language, a northern and a southern. The northern branch has six dialects: 1. Yung-pei, 2. Hung-ho, 3. Liu-chiang, 4. Yu-chiang, 5. Kuei-pien, and 6. Ch'iu-pei. Seventy per cent of the Chuang people speaks one of these six dialects. The southern branch has five dialects: 1. Yung-nan, 2. Tso-chiang, 3. Te(-pao)-Ching(-hsi), 4. Yen (-shan)-Kuang(-nan), and 5. Wen(-shan)-Ma(-li-p'o).

Bibliography. Yuan Chia-hua, "The distribution of the Chuang dialects in Kuang-hsi and the proper approach to the design of an alphabet for these dialects", CKYW 6.5-1 (December, 1952). In this article Yuan compares the phonological systems of the northern and southern Chuang dialects. Wei Ch'ing-wen, "A writing system in characters used by the Chuang people in Kuang- hsi", CKYW 7.21-2 (January, 1953). This is the writing system reported by Fan Ch'eng-ta in the Sung Dynasty. A stone inscription in these characters was discovered by Hsu Sung-shih in Kuei-p'ing. They are still occasionally used for religious texts, songs, deeds, and correspondence. *Yuan Chia-hua and others, A report on linguistic work on the Chuang language carried out in 1952 (November, 1953). Yuan Chia-hua, "Problems relating to the Chuang language", CKYW 23.12-5 (May, 1954). Yuan emphasizes the importance of the Chuang language as one of the major languages of Kuang-hsi. He describes the 1952 attempt to eliminate illit- eracy among the Chuang people. Listing the dialect differences within the Chuang language, he discusses which dialects should be selected as basic in designing alphabets, and points out what must be done, e.g. in the way of training teachers, before these alphabets can be introduced into the schools. G. P. Serdyuchenko, "Problems in designing an alphabet and selecting a dialect as the for the Chuang people", CKYW 37.15-9 (July, 1955). KUN CHANG 167

A speech delivered April 29, 1955, at a conference of the Steering Committee on the Chuang language in western Kuang-hsi. Wang Hung-Tse, "Word classes in the Chuang language, on the basis of their occur- rence with affixes", CKYW 55.37 (January, 1957). A superficial paper. *The Research Center of the Committee on Language Research in the Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi and the first team of field workers on national languages from the Academy of Sciences, An outline of Chuang grammar (July, 1957). * , A Chuang-Chinese dictionary: preliminary version (February, 1958). Shih-heng, "My views on the Chinese influence in the vocabulary and grammar of the Chuang language", CKYW 72.261 (June, 1958). Shih-heng recommends that widely accepted words borrowed from Chinese and phrases modeled on Chinese patterns be kept. Wu Tsung-chi, "The phonological system of Chinese loan words in the Chuang dialect of Wu-ming", YYYC 3.25-70 (June, 1958). Data collected in the winter of 1935. This is one of the northern dialects. Yuan Chia-hua and Chang Yiian-sheng, "A preliminary study of word formation in the Chuang language", SSMTYWLC 1.1-40 (June, 1958). Data from the district of Wu-ming. The Research Center of the Committee on Language Research in the Autonomous Region for the Chuang people in Kuang-hsi and the first team of field workers on national languages from the Academy of Sciences, An outline of word formation in the Chuang language and A concise Chuang-Chinese basic vocabulary; pre- liminary version (January, 1959). Ts'ao Kuang-ch'ii, "On the new word order in Chuang grammar", CKYW 83.219-21 (May, 1959). By 'new' Ts'ao refers to recent changes in word order due to Chinese influence. Institute of National Languages, "A brief description of the Chuang language", CKYW 109.72-9 (October-November, 1961). , "Chinese loan words in the Chuang language", CKYW 116.251-64 (June, 1962). Yuan Chia-hua, "The letter r in the Chuang alphabet and its correspondences in the Chuang dialects", Yu-yen-hsueh lun-ts'ung (Essays on linguistics) 5.187-218 (Peking University, Department of Chinese, December, 1963). Yuan here reconstructs initials intheProto-Chuang language: *Pr, *thr, *khr, *r,* nr, *y, and *rjr. An excellent article, with ninety-eight examples.

8-9. The Nung and Sha Languages

Both these languages are spoken in the Wen-shan Chuan-ch'ii in Yiin-nan (cf. Lo and Fu, CKYW 21.21 [March, 1954]). Yu Shih-ch'ang CKYW 79.54-7 (January, 1959) considers them dialects of the Chuang language. 168 KUN CHANG

10. The Pu-i Language

There are 3,200,000 speakers of the Pu-i language in the Autonomous Chou for the Pu-i and Miao peoples in southern Kuei-chou and its adjacent areas.

Bibliography. Ts'ao Kuang-ch'u, "A secret Pu-i language", CKYW 45.39-40 (March, 1956). This language reverses the vowels of two adjacent syllables, e.g. instead of pai13 tie31 'to go to market' it has pe13 tsai31. Yii Shih-ch'ang, A study of Pu-i grammar (Peking, May, 1956). In this study, based on material collected in the field from September, 1952, to August, 1953, Yii quotes examples from the dialect of the district of Wang-, which has the highest percentage of Pu-i speakers of the roughly twenty districts in the Province of Kuei-chou, and where the Pu-i language is used both in the city of Wang-mo and in the surrounding area. (As a rule, the national languages are not used in the cities.) , "A comparative study of some initials in the Pu-i dialects", YYYC 1.283-97 (December, 1956). Yii sets up and discusses eight sets of correspondences among the initials of seven Pu-i dialects (those of Kuei-chu, Chen-ning, Wang-mo, Li-po, Hui-shui, P'u-an, and Chen-feng) and two Chuang dialects (those of Wu-mingand Lung-chou). A linguistic map shows the isoglosses. The Pu-i data were collected in 1952 and 1953. , "Why should the writing system for the Pu-i language be related to that of the Chuang language?", CKYW 69.134-7 (March, 1958). Yii advocates that those designing alphabets for these two languages recognize their similarities and adhere to the same principles of alphabetization. Institute of National Languages, A report on the survey of the Pu-i language (Peking, August, 1959). An excellent report on forty Pu-i dialects, this Report covers phonology, grammar, and vocabulary.

11. The Tai Language

There are more than 500,000 speakers of the Tai language in the province of Yun-nan, and a small number in the province of Szu-ch'uan. In Yiin-nan there are two Tai dialects: 1. The dialect, spoken in the Hsi-shuang-pan-na Autonomous Chou for the Tai people and the Meng-lien Autonomous District for the Tai, Lahu, and K'awa peoples; and 2. The dialect, spoken in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou for the Tai and Ching-p'o peoples, and in other districts, e.g. Ching-ku, Shuang-chiang, Keng-ma, Chen-k'ang, and Ts'ang-yiian. Five alphabets are in use among different groups of Tai speakers, all of the same origin as the Burmese script. NATIONAL LANGUAGES 169

Bibliography: Tao Shih-hsiin, "A brief description of the Tai-le dialect", CKYW 49.44-8, 16 (Feb- ruary, 1956). This is the dialect of Yun-ching-hung, in Hsi-shuang-pan-na, Yun- nan ; Tao discusses its phonology and grammar. Fu Mao-chi, Tao Shih-hsiin, T'ung Wei, and Tao Chung-ch'iang, "The phonemic system of the Tai dialect of Yun-ching-hung, in Hsi-shuang-pan-na, Yiin-nan", YYYC 1.223-64 (December, 1956). A scholarly paper. T'ung Wei and Tao Hsiao-chung, "An outline of the personal pronouns in the Tai dialect of Hsi-shuang-pan-na", SSMTYWLC 1.56-63 (June, 1958). Chang Kung-chin, "The origin and usage of the Pau33 in the Tai language: a comparison with Chinese [>^ao51]", ibid. 1.64-73 (June, 1958). Data are from the district of Mang-shih in western Yiin-nan. Tao Yu-liang, "Experiences in improving and promoting the acceptance of the writing system for the Tai dialect of Hsi-shuang-pan-na", ibid. 1.74-81 (June, 1958). Chou Yao-wen, "Experiences in improving the writing system used by the Tai speakers in Yiin-nan", ibid. 2.17-26 (December, 1958). These speakers are found in ten districts in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou for the Chingp'o people: Lu-hsi, Jui-li, Lung-ch'uan, Liang-ho, Ying-chiang, Lien-shan, Lung-ling, T'eng- ch'ung, Ch'ang-ning, and Pao-shan.

12. The I Language

The I languages, in the broad sense, include the I, Hani, Lisu, Lahu, Nahsi, and Ach'ang languages. The I language proper is spoken in Yiin-nan (by 1,960,000 speakers in more than ninety districts and cities), Szu-ch'uan (by 950,000 speakers in the Liang-shan Autono- mous Chou for the I people, the Hsi-ch'ang Chuan-ch'ii, the Kan-tzu Autonomous Chou for Tibetans, the Ya-an Chuan-ch'ii, the Lo-shan Chuan-ch'ii, and the I-pin Chuan-ch'ii), Kuei-chou (by 330,000 speakers in the Pi-chieh Chuan-ch'ii and the An-shun Chuan-ch'ii), and Kuang-hsi (by 2,000 speakers in the Lung-lin Autonomous District for nationalities in the Po-se Chuan-ch'ii). There are six groups of I dialects: 1. The northern dialects, e.g. that of Li-tzu Hsiang in the Hung-ma Ch'ii, in the district of Hsi-te in Szu-ch'uan; 2. The eastern dialects, e.g. that of the Wei-lung-chieh commune in the ninth Ch'ii of the district of Wei-ning in Kuei-chou, and that of Sa-ying-p'an, in the district of Lu-ch'iian in Yiin-nan; 3. The south eastern dialects, e.g. that of the village of T'ai-p'ing in the Hung-ch'i commune, in the district of I-liang, Yiin-nan, and that of the village of T'ai-p'ing-ti in the Hsi-shan Ch'ii, in the district of Mi-le, Yiin-nan; 4. The western dialects, e.g. that of Lung-p'ing Hsiang in the district of Wei-shan, Yiin-nan; 5. The southern dialects, e.g., that of the village of Ni-chia in Hsin-chien Hsiang, in the second Ch'ii in the district of E-shan, Yiin-nan, that of Hsien-chai in the third ch'ii in 170 KUN CHANG the district of Shih-p'ing, Yiin-nan, and that of Wa-lu-ho, in the Ching-hsing commune in the district of Mo-chiang, Yiin-nan; and 6. The central dialects, e.g. that of Chuang-k'o Hsiang in the third ch'ii in the district of Yao-an, Yiin-nan. Some I speakers, particularly the shamanistic priests, use a syllabic writing system, the characters of which resemble .

Bibliography: Ma Hsiieh-liang, A study of the Sani I dialect (Peking, April, 1951). Data collected in the spring of 1948, from the district of Lu-nan, Yiin-nan, under the guidance of Li Fang-kuei. An excellent work. Ch'en Shih-lin, "The development of the I alphabet during the past two years", CKYW 6.30-1 (December, 1952). Yuan Chia-hua, The folksongs and language of the Ahi people (Peking, June, 1953). A scholarly work. Data for this I dialect were collected in 1945 from the districts of Lu-shan and Mi-le, in Yiin-nan. Kao Hua-nien, A study of I grammar (Peking, August, 1958). A scholarly work. Data collected in 1943 from the district of K'un-ming, Yiin-nan. Ch'en Shih-lin, Pien Shih-ming, Li Hsiu-ch'ing, and Lo-hung-wa-k'u, "Causatives in the I dialect of Liang-shan", CKYW 118.412-26 (August-September, 1962). Ch'en Shih-lin, "A brief description of the I language", CKYW 125.334-47 (August, 1963).

13. The There are 81,000 speakers of the Hani language in Yiin-nan. Hu and Tai ("Vowels with and without stricture in the Hani language") assign Hani dialects to three groups, depending on whether and to what degree they have vowels with stricture: 1. Dialects which have equal numbers of vowels with and without stricture, i.e. those spoken in the districts of Yiian-yang, Lu-ch'un, Hung-ho, and Chin-p'ing in the Hung-ho Autonomous Chou for the Hani and I peoples, and in Lan-ts'ang and Hsi-shuang-pan-na; 2. Dialects which have fewer vowels with stricture than without. These are spoken in the districts of Mo-chiang and Chiang-ch'eng in the Szu-mao Chuan-ch'u and some districts in the Yii-hsi Chuan-ch'ii (one such district is Yuan-chiang); and 3. Dialects which have only vowels without stricture. These are found in Mo-chiang in the Szu-mao Chuan-ch'u.

Bibliography: Hu T'an and Tai Ch'ing-sha, "Vowels with and without stricture in the Hani lan- guage", CKYW 128.76-87 (February, 1964). Examples are quoted mainly from the dialect of the district of Lu-ch'un. In their discussion, Hu and Tai compare the Hani dialects with other I languages (e.g. I, Lisu, Lahu, and Nahsi). NATIONAL LANGUAGES 171 14. The Speakers of the Lisu language are found in the provinces of Yiin-nan and Szu-ch'uan. There is little dialect differentiation: the vast majority speak one dialect, the 'Nu-chiang' dialect; in the Ch'u-hsiung Autonomous Chou for the I people, there are perhaps 5,000 speakers of the Lu-ch'iian dialect. In Yiin-nan, there are reported to be 110,661 Lisu speakers in the districts of Pi- chiang, Fu-kung, Kung-shan, Lu-shui, and Lan-p'ing in the Nu-chiang Autonomous Chou for the ; 19,312 in the districts of Chan-hsi, Lung-ling, Lien-shan, Pao-shan, Liang-ho, Ying-chiang, Lu-hsi, Jui-li, T'eng-ch'ung, and Ch'ang-ning in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou for the Tai and Chingp'o peoples; 46,000 in the districts of Li-chiang, Yung-sheng, Hua-p'ing, and Ning-lang in the Li-chiang Chuan-ch'u; 36,328 in the districts of Wei-hsi and Chung-tien in the Ti-ch'ing Autonomous Chou for Tibetans; and 23,500 in the Ta-li Autonomous Chou for the Pai people, the Ch'u-hsiung Autonomous Chou for the I people, the Lin-ts'ang Chuan-ch'u, and the Szu-mao Chuan-ch'u. In Szu-ch'uan, there are 5,000 Lisu speakers in the Hsi-ch'ang Chuan-ch'u.

Bibliography: Institute of National Languages, An outline of Lisu grammar (Peking, 1959). This description is based on the dialect spoken in the district of Pi-chiang.

15. The The 139,000 speakers of Lahu live in southern Yiin-nan, for the most part in the dis- tricts of Lan-ts'ang and Ching-tung; a small number can also be found in the districts of Shuang-chiang, Ts'ang-yiian, Nan-ch'iao, Fo-hai, and Ch'e-li.

16. The Nahsi Language Of the 150,000 speakers of Nahsi 110,000 live in the district of Li-chiang in Yiin-nan; the rest are scattered throughout the districts of Chung-tien, Wei-hsi, Ning-lang, and Yung-sheng in Yiin-nan and the districts of Yen-juan, Yen-pien, Mu-li, and Chin- k'uang in the Hsi-ch'ang Chuan-ch'ii in Szu-ch'uan. The Nahsi shamanistic priests have two writing systems: one is a ; the other is pictorial. Bibliography. Ho Chih-wu, "The Chinese role in the enrichment of the Nahsi language", CKYW 106.24-31 (January, 1961).

17. The Ach'ang Language [Cf. Lo and Fu, CKYW 21.21 (March, 1954).] 172 KUN CHANG 18. The Chingp'o Language There are about 20,000 speakers of Chingp'o in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou for the Tai and Chingp'o peoples in western Yun-nan. Bibliography: Institute of National Languages, An outline of Chingp'o grammar (Peking, September, 1959). Data from the district of Lien-shan in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou for the Chingp'o people in Yun-nan. Liu Lu, "A brief description of the Chingp'o language", CKYW 132.407-17, 406 (October, 1964). Liu considers Chingp'o and Tsaiwa the same language.

19. The Tsaiwa Language The 50,000 speakers of Tsaiwa live in the districts of Lu-hsi, Jui-li, Lung-ch'uan, and Ying-chiang in the Te-hung Autonomous Chou. The four dialects of Tsaiwa - Tsaiwa, Lech'i, Langwa, and Polo - show only minor phonological differences.

Bibliography: Ch'eng Mo, "A short note on the Tsaiwa language", CKYW 53.41-4 (November, 1956). In this note Ch'eng discusses phonology, word formation, and grammar.

20. The Ch'iang Language The 40,000 speakers of southern Ch'iang live in the southern and central parts of the Mao-wen Autonomous District for the Ch'iang people in the A-pa Autonomous Chou for the Tibetans in the Province of Szu-ch'uan; the 30,000 speakers of northern Ch'iang live in the northern part of the Mao-wen Autonomous District and in the district of Hei-shui. Bibliography: Sun Hung-Kai, "A brief description of the Ch'iang language", CKYW 121.561-71 (December, 1962).

21. The Jyarung Language The 70,000 speakers of Jyarung live in Szu-ch'uan: in the districts of Mark'ang, Choska, Ta-chin, Hsiao-chin, Li, and Wen-ch'uan in the A-pa Autonomous Chou for the Tibetans, the districts of Tan-pa and Tao-fu in the Kantzu Autonomous Chou for the Tibetans, and the district of Pao-hsing. Bibliography: Chin P'eng, T'an K'e-jang, Ch'ii Ai-t'ang, and Lin Hsiang-jung, "The phonology and morphology of the Jyarung language (Suo-mo dialect)", YYYC 2.123-51 (December, 1957) and 3.71-108 (June, 1958). NATIONAL LANGUAGES 173

22. The Hsifan Language The Hsifan language is spoken in the northwesternmost part of Yun-nan and in south- western Szu-ch'uan. [Cf. Lo and Fu, CKYW 21.22 (March, 1954).]

23. The Pai Language There are three groups of Pai dialects, all spoken in Yun-nan. The 23,000 speakers of the first group live in the districts of Chien-ch'uan, Ho-ch'ing, Yiin-lung, Er-yiian, Lan-p'ing, Li-chiang, and Lu-shui; the 38,000 speakers of the second group live in the districts of Hsia-kuan, Ta-li, Er-yiian, Pin-ch'uan, Hsiang-yiin, Mi-tu, Yang-pi, Nan- chien, Yung-p'ing, Pao-shan, Nan-hua, Juan-chiang, K'un-ming, and Yiin-lung; the 50,000 speakers of the third group live in the districts of Lan-p'ing, Pi-chiang, Wei-hsi, Yiin-lung, and Er-yiian.

Bibliography: Hsu Lin and Chao Yen-sun, "A brief description of the Pai language", CKYW 131.321-35 (August, 1964).

24-26. K'awa, Penglung, and P'uman Lo and Fu (CKYW 21.22 [March, 1954]) report that along the southern and western borders of the province of Yiin-nan (in the three chuan-ch'ii of Szu-mao, Mien-ning, and Pao-shan), there are speakers of three Mon-Khmer languages: K'awa, Penglung, and P'uman.

27. The Mongolian Language There are three groups of Mongolian dialects in China: 1. The Inner Mongolian dialects, with about 1,500,000 speakers in Inner Mongolia, and the Provinces of Liao-ning, Chi-lin, and Hei-lung-chiang; 2. The Oirat dialects, spoken by about 70,000 in some Autonomous Chou and Districts for the Mongolians in the Hsin- chiang Autonomous Region for the Uigur people; and 3. The Bargu Buryat dialects, spoken by less than 20,000 in the northern part of the League in the Autono- mous Region of Inner Mongolia.

Bibliography: •Society for Research on the Mongolian Language, A concise Chinese-Mongolian dictionary (Kukuhoto, June, 1955). B. X. Todaeva, "A preliminary study of the Mongolian dialects in China", CKYW 63.32-40 (September, 1957). Blo-bzang Dbang-ldan, "On word classes in the Mongolian language", SSMTYWLC 2.69-78 (December, 1958). There are ten of these classes: nouns, adjectives, 174 KUN CHANG numerals, pronouns, , adverbs, postpositions, particles, connectives, inter- jections. , "On the classification of the Mongolian dialects", Pei-ching Ta-hsueh hsiieh-pao, Jen-wen k'o-hsueh ("Peking University Bulletin of the Humanities") 17.123-35 (August, 1959). In this classification there are four basic groups - Central (Khalkha, Chahar, Ordos), Eastern (Kharchin), Western (Oirat), and Northern (Buriat) - and three additional groups lying between the Central and Eastern, the Central and Western, and the Central and Northern groups. Tao-pu, "A brief description of the Mongolian language", CKYW 130.240-53 (June, 1964). Chao-na-szu-tu, "A brief description of the language of T'u-tsu", CKYW 133.477-99 (December, 1964). Liu Chao-hsiung, "A brief description of the Tung-hsiang Language", CKYW 135.153-67 (April, 1963).

28. The Uigur Language The I-kha dialects of Uigur (3,800,000 speakers) extend from Hami to the east to Khashgar in the Autonomous Region for the Uigur people in Hsin-chiang; the Lop dialects are spoken by only 13,000 people in the districts of Wei-li and Ch'iang-no in the Tarim basin, east of the Taklamakan Desert. The writing system the Uigur people in China use is modeled on Arabic. Bibliography: *Pao Er-han Uigur-Chinese-Russian dictionary (January, 1953). Li Sen, "Problems in the revision of the Uigur script", CKYW%2S-% (February, 1953). , "A comparative study of the effectiveness of the Uigur script and Chinese characters in representing the spoken language and in teaching and learning", CKYW 28.33-7 (October, 1954). Keng Shih-min, "The language and script of Old Uigur", SSMTYWLC 1.110-20 (June, 1958). *Mirsulit'ang [Chinese transliteration] and Wei Ts'ui-i, "The Uigur dialect in Lopnor", K'o-hsueh yen-chiu lun-wen chi, yii-yen wen-hsiieh pu ("Collected essays on lan- guage and literature"), (Hsin-chiang University, 1962). Keng Shih-min, "The historical development of written Uigur", CKYW 125.327-33 (August, 1963). Keng takes as his starting point the eighth-century Orxun inscription. Chu Chih-ning, "A brief description of the Uigur language", CKYW 129.153-71 (April, 1964). 29. The There are more than 30,000 speakers of the Salar language scattered throughout the Hsun-hua Autonomous District for the , the Hua-lung Autonomous NATIONAL LANGUAGES 175 District for Moslems, and the district of Ta-ho-chia in the Lin-hsia Autonomous Chou, in the province of Kansu. Salar speakers can also be found, in smaller numbers, in the districts of Hsi-ning, Kung-ho, Kuei-te, and Ch'i-lien in the province of Ch'ing- hai, and in I-ning in the province of Hsin-chiang.

Bibliography: Lin Lien-yun and Han Chien-yeh, "A brief description of the Salar language", CKYW 120.517-23 (November, 1962).

30. The Kazax Language There are more than 500,000 speakers of the Kazax language in the I-li Autonomous Chou, the Balikun Autonomous District, and the Mului Autonomous District for the Kazax people in Hsin-chiang. Kazax speakers can also be found, in small numbers, in the Ak'esai [in Chinese transliteration] Autonomous District for the Kazax people in Kan-su, and in Ardunchuk [in Chinese transliteration] in Ch'ing-hai.

Bibliography: Keng Shih-min, "The Kazax language and its study", SSMTYWLC 2.1-16 (December, 1958). 31. The Kirgiz Language There are some 50,000 speakers of the Kirgiz language in the Kyzyl Su Autonomous Chou for the Kirgiz people. Small groups of Kirgiz speakers can also be found in the districts of Te-kes, Chao-su, I-ning, Nilek, and Ermi in northern Hsin-chiang, and in the districts of Tashgar, Yarkand, Yangi Shahr, Tash-qurghan, Mo-yii, Ush, K'o- p'ing, Aksu, and the Lopnor region in southern Hsin-chiang. There are two groups of Kirgiz dialects, divided by the Kyzyl Su River.

Bibliography: Hu Chen-hua, "The Kirgiz language in China", SSMTYWLC 1.121-35 (June, 1958).

32. The Oronchon Language There are 1,200 speakers of the Oronchon language in the districts of Hu-ma, Ai-hui, and Sun-k'o in the Hei-ho Chuan-ch'ii, in the province of Hei-lung-chiang.

Bibliography: Ts'ai Mei-piao and Liu Lu, "The national languages of ", CKYW 6.9-11 (December, 1952). A brief report of Ts'ai and Liu's July, 1952, field trip Li Shu-Ian, "A brief description of the Oronchon language", CKYW 134.65-83 (February, 1965). 176 KUN CHANG 33. The Solon Language There are 700 speakers of the Solon language in the district of Na-ho, in the Province of Hei-lung-chiang; about 3,500 speakers in the Banner of Huna in Inner Mongolia; and about 2,000 speakers in the province of Hsin-chiang.

Bibliography: Ts'ai and Liu, ibid. 34. The Olcha Language (Ho-che) Olcha is spoken in the districts of Jao-ho, Fu-chin, and Fu-yiian (in the valley of the Sung-chiang River, in ) by some three hundred older people; the younger generation speaks Chinese.

Bibliography: Ts'ai and Liu, ibid.

35. The Sibo Language The Sibo language is spoken only by the Sibo people in the province of Hsin-chiang; those in the province of Chi-lin speak Chinese.

Bibliography: Ts'ai and Liu, ibid. 36. The Tajik Language There are in China about 15,000 speakers of the Tajik language in the Tash Qurghan Autonomous District for the Tajik people, in the southwestern corner of the Autono- mous Region for the Uigur people in Hsin-chiang.

Bibliography: Kao Er-ch'iang, "A brief description of the Tajik language", CKYW 123.161-75 (April, 1963). This description is based on field trips Kao made in 1955, 1956, and 1959.