Veget Hist Archaeobot (2007) 16:139–156 DOI 10.1007/s00334-006-0082-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Reconstruction of the Allerød vegetation of the Basin, western , and its surroundings at 12,900 cal b.p.

Felix Bittmann

Received: 17 August 2006 / Accepted: 26 September 2006 / Published online: 5 December 2006 C Springer Verlag 2006

Abstract During the late-glacial eruption of the Laacher Introduction See volcano 12,900 b.p. the whole area of the Neuwied Basin, middle region, was covered by several metres The Neuwied or Central Rhineland Basin (Fig. 1)formsa of the Laacher See Tephra (LST) damaging but also partly geomorphological basin in the Rhenish Shield, and is a part conserving the former vegetation. This gave the unique op- of the West European Rift system running from the Alps portunity to study plant remains in situ and to estimate the through the Rhine valley to the North Sea. Since the Ter- spatial biodiversity of plant taxa within the area investigated tiary and more intensively during the Quaternary the Rhen- at the end of the last glacial as if in a snapshot of 12,900 ish Shield has been uplifted while the Neuwied Basin has years ago. Different kinds of plant material can be found be- remained unaffected or the uplift has been less pronounced. cause of different preservation conditions namely imprints, This uplift was or is accompanied by volcanic activity, lim- charcoal and waterlogged remains. Investigations of this ma- ited during the Pleistocene to the uplands west of the terial from several places within the Neuwied Basin and the basin. There are two fields of activity, the West and the East Brohl valley north of it allowed the reconstruction of the Eifel Volcanic Fields, both active since 700–600 ka b.p. The former vegetation at different scales from local to regional. late-glacial eruption of the Laacher See volcano was the last This resulted in a large scale draft of a vegetation map of the and most powerful in the East Eifel Volcanic Field up to studied area also based on the distribution and the stage of the present (Schmincke et al. 1999). This was dated to ca. soil development at that time. As to whether thermophilous 12,900 cal b.p., 200 yr before the onset of the Younger Dryas trees were already present is discussed but largely rejected. (12,880 cal b.p., based on varve counts, Brauer et al. 1999; 12,900 ± 560 b.p. by 40Ar/39Ar dating, van den Bogaard Keywords Late-glacial . Vegetation cover . Laacher See 1995; 12,836 cal b.p. in the GRIP ice core, Schwander et al. Tephra . Pollen analysis . Macro remains . Biogeography . 2000). The Laacher See tephra (LST) covered the whole Rhineland vicinity of the eruption centre to a thickness of up to 50 m and even at a distance of 120 km ENE up to 1 m (Schmincke et al. 1999; Baales et al. 2002). It was transported in two directions, down to northern Italy and up to Scandi- navia (van den Bogaard and Schmincke 1984, 1985) and is a well-known and widespread marker horizon in sediment pro- Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at http:// files of late-glacial age, above all in lake sediments and mires. dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00334-006-0082-6 Implications for the environment therefore can be traced at great distances: e.g. Kaiser (1979, 1993); Lotter and Birks Communicated by L. Dupont (1993); Birks and Lotter (1994); Lotter et al. (1995). Sig- F. Bittmann () nals of the event have even been detected in the Greenland Lower Saxony Institute for Historical Coastal Research, ice records GRIP and GISP2 (Taylor et al. 1993; Zielinski Viktoriastr. 26/28, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany et al. 1996; Johnsen et al. 1997). Near to the eruption cen- e-mail: [email protected] tre the massive tephra layers covering the former vegetation

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Fig. 1 Site map of the localities where macro-remains, and in some places pollen, covered and conserved by LST (Laacher See tephra) were investigated; green circles, localities investigated in the course of the present study; red squares, localities from the literature; dashed line, margin of the central Rhineland (Neuwied) Basin; map basis by O. Joris,¨ Neuwied

and conserving it at some places with excellent preservation many older volcanic layers known from the area, also bear- conditions give a great opportunity for studying it in detail – ing imprints. In a detailed study Schweitzer (1958)revised it is like a snapshot of 12,900 years ago. and corrected much of the older identifications in so far as The question for archaeology was how did the landscape the material was still extant and not lost during the two world look like at the time when people of the late Palaeolithic wars. The most recent and comprehensive investigation was Federmessergruppen lived in the area, hunting and gathering done by Waldmann (1996) with further citations therein. at the time of the eruption and before. From the botanical The aim of the present study was to characterise the former and biogeographical point of view it was most interesting vegetation at many sites representing different habitats de- to trace the development of the landscape during the de- pendent on different soils and microclimates and to draw a glaciation process at the end of the last glacial and to record (large scale) palaeovegetation map of the area at the time the biodiversity of plant taxa. The unique opportunity to of the eruption. In particular two sites where good preserva- study plant remains in situ by macro-remain analysis leading tion conditions occurred, Miesenheim 4 and Brohltal 1 in the in most cases to the species level allowed a deep insight into Brohl valley to the north of the Neuwied Basin (Figs. 1 and the ecology of the area investigated. 5), could be investigated in detail by pollen and/or macro- Due to large-scale industrial exploitation of the LST since fossil analysis. Therefore this paper is focussed largely on the middle of the 19th century many sites have become these two sites. Results from other sites, mostly with less known where such in situ plant remains from the former good preservation conditions, and from the literature give vegetation cover could be investigated. Different preserva- additional ecological information leading to a relatively pre- tion conditions led to different kinds of material: leaf imprints cise picture of the former vegetation of the Neuwied Basin and charcoal included in and covered by the LST, and occa- and the surrounding slopes. sionally well preserved organic material beneath the LST. Above all both the former and most recent studies of leaf The leaf imprints especially have been subject of many imprints raised the question of whether thermophilous trees studies since the 19th century, e.g. Zeiler (1850) Populus and like Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus, Alnus and Corylus had already Quercus and others; Wirtgen (1864) Pinus, Quercus, Alnus reached the area during the Late-glacial. This is discussed and others. However, it is not always clear if in every case in the light of the macrofossil and pollen analysis presented imprints from the LST have been described because there are here.

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Fig. 2 Overview of the site Miesenheim 4, showing the sampled transect; in the foreground the LST is partly uncovered for archaeological investigation, in the background the LST is being quarried

Material and methods was 475 (98–1141), for percentage calculation the total sum of terrestrial pollen excluding Poaceae and Cyperaceae was At the site Miesenheim 4, a former small shallow lake, cov- used. From a trench crossing the area 5 profiles for pollen ered by about 3–4 m of LST, a nearly complete skeleton analysis were extracted, but these are not the topic of this pa- of an elk was found in the course of industrial exploita- per (the simplified main profile is given in Scharf et al. 2005). tion of the LST (Street 1995). During an archaeological During an excavation in the Brohl valley (Brohl 1, Fig. 1) search for possible artefacts around the site samples of about in 1986, 41 blocks of about 10 × 10 × 10 cm3 representing 20 × 20 × 5cm3 were taken at 1 m intervals along a transect an area of about 0.41 m2 were taken (Area A in Table 2). from near the centre to the bank (18 samples in 17 m, Fig. These consisted of about the uppermost 5 cm of the Allerød 2). In the laboratory the remaining LST was removed from soil and about 5 cm of the overlying “Trass”(a local name for the sample and the upper 3–5 mm of the remainder removed the fine grained ashes deposited in the valley). An additional (ca. 100–200 ml, 1–2 ml were left for pollen analysis of the 17 smaller samples (in total 5.6 l, not as blocks; also Area A same samples for comparison) and treated with 5% KOH for in Table 2) were taken. During a second sampling campaign at least 24 h. Most samples showed only a very thin (about at the site in 1997 a further 14 samples (fresh material) were 3 mm) layer of well-preserved remains, most probably repre- taken at about 10 m from the former sampled site (total senting the vegetation at the time of the eruption. It covered 12.4 l, representing about 1 m2; Area B in Table 2). All more strongly decomposed material. For each second sam- the samples were processed in the same way as described ple these layers were sampled separately as far as possible above, by soaking in 5% KOH and sieving. The dried-out to see if there was any difference (therefore two bars are samples from the excavation in 1986, which could be easily shown in Figs. 3 and 4 for each second sample). Afterwards split along the contact zone between the Allerød surface and the samples were sieved with sieves of 0.8 and 0.25 mm the overlying volcanic ash (“Trass”) were also treated in this mesh size. The remains were counted and standardised to way to gain the organic material. Therefore the area not the 100 ml, the quantity of moss species was estimated accord- volume is given for these samples in Table 2. ing to 3 classes - single, some and many/dominant: 1, 10 At the site Brohltal 3, pieces of LST (diameter up to and 100 respectively in the diagram (Fig. 3). Preparation of 50 cm, in total about 2 m2) with scattered leaf imprints were pollen samples followed the standard preparation procedure collected. The visible parts of the imprints, usually only including HF. The average sum of pollen and spores counted small, were enlarged in the lab with the help of needles.

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Often the leaves were crumbled or folded or lying on top of 5 from the literature. For the vegetation map the distribution each other at different orientations. of (palaeo)soils mapped by Ikinger (1996) for the area was Charcoal pieces collected in the course of different ex- also used. The nomenclature of plant names follows Ober- cavations of the late-glacial Federmessergruppen were from dorfer (1994), that of pollen taxa Beug (2004). All botanical -Martinsberg, Niederbieber and Kettig (Fig. 1). (and zoological) data obtained are available in the PAN- At the latter site also some pieces of uncharred wood were GAEA database, http://www.pangaea.de/. found and pollen analyses conducted. Additional charcoal pieces were determined from quarries (Grube Geilen) and caves dug into the tephra since Roman times (). Results From the site Fraukirch one small sample (250 ml) out of an organic layer from a trench cut into the tephra has been Miesenheim 4 is one of the few sites below the LST where investigated for macro-remains (Baales et al. 1998a)using good preservation conditions led to the presence of water- the same procedure described above. logged remains. Here the local vegetation belts surrounding , a site with upright standing remains of trees (Baales a small lake or pond could be traced by macro remain and et al. 1998a) provided additional ecological information. The pollen analysis in great details. most important localities are shown in Figs. 1 and 5; alto- The results of the macrofossil analyses from the site gether 15 sites were used for the reconstruction, among them Miesenheim 4 are given in Fig. 3, the pollen results from the

Fig. 3 Macrofossil diagram of the transect samples at Miesenheim 4; values are given as concentrations (n/100 ml), whereas the white bars show estimated values in 3 classes: 1, 10, 100 (single, some and many/dominant)

Springer Veget Hist Archaeobot (2007) 16:139–156 143 same samples are shown in Fig. 4. Table 1 shows the total in this way. Characeae and Potamogeton were predominantly recorded species list from just below the LST for Miesen- recorded in this zone; some oogons of Chara were also found heim 4 and the other important sites where a successful in the following sample 5. macro remain analysis has been conducted. Towards the shore there followed a telmatic zone (samples The surface directly beneath the tephra at the site Miesen- 5–9) largely dominated by species which are characteristic heim 4 was dated at the AMS facility Utrecht, the Nether- of the recent Phragmition and Magnocaricion plant commu- lands, to 11,040 ± 60 b.p. (UtC 4815), cal 11,075– nities. At the immediate transition from open water to reed 10,952 B.C. (1 σ -range) using Calib 5.0.2 (Stuiver et al. bed stands grew Carex pseudocyperus, Cicuta virosa, Hip- 2005) and intcal04.14c (Reimer et al. 2004). This agrees well puris vulgaris, Schoenoplectus lacustris, Typha angustifolia with other dates obtained for the eruption of the Laacher See and T. latifolia, with, among them, Lemna sp. (not shown in volcano. Fig. 4). There were also probably floating communities of The first 3 m (samples 1–4, coarse detritus mud and Drepanocladus aduncus and Calliergon giganteum in the Phragmites-Cyperaceae-peat) of the transect represent more transition zone and intermingled with the reed belt. The reed or less open water conditions. This is reflected in high bed was characterised by Carex spp. (C. appropinquata, C. values for Cladocera, particularly for Daphnia ephippia, diandra, C. rostrata), Epilobium palustre and Phragmites and also for Chironomidae. The high values for the Chi- australis. A remarkably high number of charcoal particles, ronomids in both sub-samples of sample 1, especially sub- charred seeds and fruits have been found in this transition sample 2, are because 10 ml of the material were also sieved zone. Charred fruits of Carex pseudocyperus give evidence with a 0.1 mm sieve to extract head capsules smaller than of a fire in this part. The charred particles in the pollen sam- 0.25 mm. Mandibles of Chaoborus flavicans were also found ples were mostly epidermis fragments of Phragmites.

Fig. 3 Continued

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Fig. 4 Simplified pollen diagram of the transect samples at Miesenheim 4 (calculation sum total land pollen, excl. Poaceae and Cyperaceae)

Next followed a bryophyte belt (10–11), dominated by fire site as artefacts were totally lacking and no hints of hu- Aulacomnium palustre, Helodium blandowii and Homa- man activity were found despite careful investigation by the lothecium nitens typical of fens and peat bogs. This totally archaeologists (Fig. 2). lacked any remains of aquatic species, but showed maxi- Remains of trees such as bud scales, fruits, and fruit scales, mum values of the rhizopods Arcella, Assulina muscorum which had been dispersed by the wind were found to be and Centropyxis aculeata in the pollen samples. rather evenly distributed, reaching highest concentrations in The distal part (samples 12–18) was covered by a vegeta- the area of the open water. Most frequent was Betula, per- tion type resembling present day Molinion and Filipendulion haps due to the better preservation conditions in aquatic envi- plant communities with stands of Populus tremula (samples ronments. Wood fragments were mainly present in samples 16–18, in the following referred to as Populus) and Salix sp., 12–16, Salix being more often recorded in samples 13–15 shown by a lot of wood fragments from Populus and some and Populus in 15 and 16. Salix. Only a few small pieces of wood were from Betula but It is uncertain whether Betula nana and Betula humilis trunks were recovered during the fieldwork in this part of the were present at the time of the eruption. Small nutlets with transect (Fig. 9, ESM). The analysis of plant macro-remains damaged wings and fruit scales similar to those of Betula shows that at Miesenheim 4 a small mesotrophic to eutrophic nana/humilis were found regularly, but in low numbers. shallow body of water was set in open woodland of aspen However no typical Betula nana fruit scales were recorded and willow between which a mosaic vegetation of wet mead- at all sites investigated. Comparisons with recent Betula ows, sedge and reed beds, and fen was growing. Along the pubescens material from several European sites showed that transect the whole hydroserial succession could be traced. this type of small nutlet is also present in B. pubescens.As A second maximum of charred macro remains was the vast majority of the Betula remains found at Miesenheim recorded in samples 14–16, in particular Populus wood up 4 belonged to B. pubescens, these aberrant types are most to1cm3. On many of them the moss Funaria hygrometrica probably also from this species. However B. humilis and B. was growing, and Dicranella cerviculata, a pioneer species nana are reported from the Allerød of the eastern Eifel re- of open places (and peat) was recorded in the samples. There- gion (Fruchtl¨ 1998). No efforts were made to identify them fore the wood had not been charred during the eruption, but by measurements as described in Freund et al. 2001.Atsev- some time before (up to some years). It was not a human eral sites Cerinthe glabra was found which grows today in

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Fig. 5 Draft of a vegetation map at 12,900 cal b.p., reconstructed from the botanical analyses at the numbered sites and distribution of late-glacial soils (Ikinger 1996)

alpine areas as does Epilobium duriaei, found in the Brohl than 50 m and it was probably largely terrestrialised at the valley (Table 2) and E. cf. alpestre reported from Miesenheim time of the eruption, the source area of pollen (Sugita 1994) 2 (Staiger 1988). Thus alpine elements were still present in is much larger than the catchment of the macro-remains. In the Allerød at low elevations ( < 150 m a.s.l.) in western spite of this the pollen spectra largely represent the local Germany. vegetation (for example the Poaceae curve clearly shows The blanket of mosses in the Molinion/Filipendulion the reed belt with Phragmites) and perhaps only a smaller communities (samples 12–18) was dominated by Brachythe- component of the regional vegetation (Conedera et al. 2006). cium mildeanum accompanied by other species of wet places The percentages of the tree taxa fluctuate and Betula such as Calliergonella cuspidata, Campylium stellatum especially is overrepresented in some spectra leading to and Plagiomnium ellipticum. In the driest part (anmoor small values of all other taxa. This is because of the presence soil surrounding the former lake or pond, Ikinger 1996) of anthers evidenced by clusters of Betula pollen recorded in Brachythecium rutabulum became important and beginning the pollen slides, and also found occasionally in the samples with sample 14, sclerotia of Cenococcum geophilum were from the macrofossil analysis. Although Populus remains regularly found at high values. Through the decreasing were very common and Populus was one of the dominant and wetness the preservation of the pollen grains also decreased, ubiquitous taxa, only a few pollen grains were found. This is leading to almost total oxidation of pollen; firstly Betula and a well-known phenomenon caused by low pollen production then also Pinus were heavily influenced by corrosion in the and/or low resistance to oxidation. No macroscopic evidence outermost samples, where also the pollen sum counted was of Pinus was found at Miesenheim 4 or at the other sites rather low (107–436). The increasing percentages of pine in the whole low-lying area of the basin. This is despite pollen are therefore interpreted as the result of differential the increasing Pinus pollen percentages during the Allerød preservation. (Scharf et al. 2005) or even its dominance close to the The pollen analytical results supplement the macrofossil surrounding slopes (, Bittmann et al. 2000;,¨ analyses. Although the diameter of the lake was not more Brunnacker et al. 1982). A few pieces of Pinus charcoal were

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Table 1 Species represented by macrofossils (fruits, seeds, Mie 4 Br 1 Mie 2 Fk Mel plants, wood and others) found Trees, shrubs directly beneath the LST in the •• Neuwied Basin and Brohl Betula cf. nana •• valley, Miesenheim 2 (Mie 2, Betula cf. pubescens/humilis Staiger 1988), Miesenheim 4 Betula pendula ••• • (Mie 4), Brohltal 1 in the Brohl Betula pubescens ••••• valley north to the Neuwied Betula sp. ••••• Basin (Br 1), Fraukirch (Fk, Betula cf. tortuosa • Baales et al. 1998a), Melsbach Clematis vitalba • (Mel, analysed by J. Wiethold; Populus sp. •••• Bittmann et al. 2000) Populus tremula •• • Prunus padus ••• Prunus sp. • Salix caprea type •• Salix pentandra •• Salix repens type • Salix sp. ••• Sambucus nigra • Terrestrial herbs • Angelica sylvestris •• Anthemis cf. arvensis • cf. Calamagrostis arundinacea • Campanula cf. trachelium • Carduus cf. defloratus •• Carex muricata agg. •• Carex umbrosa •• cf. Carum carvi • Cerinthe glabra ••• Conium maculatum • Epilobium cf. alpestre • Epilobium cf. angustifolium • Epilobium duriaei • Epilobium hirsutum type • Epilobium palustre •• Festuca cf. altissima • Festuca rubra agg. • Filipendula ulmaria ••• Galeopsis tetrahit •• Galium aparine •• Galium verum • Hieracium sect. Euhieracium • Lychnis flos-cuculi • Melandrium rubrum •• Mercurialis annua • Myosotis palustris • Peucedanum cf. palustre • Peucedanum officinale • Phalaris arundinacea • Picris hieracioides •• • Plantago major • Poa palustris • Poa cf. trivialis •• Polemonium caeruleum • a Ranunculus repens •• • Ranunculus sceleratus • Rubus caesius •• Rubus fruticosus agg. • Rubus idaeus •

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Table 1 Continued Mie 4 Br 1 Mie 2 Fk Mel

cf. Rumex sp. •• Scutellaria galericulata • Senecio aquaticus • Senecio erucifolius • cf. Senecio vulgaris • Solanum dulcamara • Sonchus asper • Stellaria graminea/palustris • Taraxacum sp. • cf. Tussilago farfara • Urtica dioica •• Valeriana officinalis agg. •••• Viola alba type •• Aquatic species (and transition zone) Alisma plantago-aquatica • Alisma sp. • Caltha palustris • Chara contraria type • Chara sp. • Chara tomentosa • Carex acuta/elata • Carex cf. acutiformis • Carex appropinquata • Carex cf. paniculata • Carex diandra •• Carex flava agg./pendula • Carex lasiocarpa •• Carex pseudocyperus • Carex riparia • Carex rostrata • Carex cf. vesicaria • Cicuta virosa • Eleocharis multicaulis • Galium palustre •• Galium uliginosum • Hippuris vulgaris • Lemna sp. •• Menyanthes trifoliata • Phragmites australis • Potamogeton natans • Potamogeton filiformis • Ranunculus aquatilis agg. • Sparganium sp. • Typha cf. angustifolia • Typha latifolia • Schoenoplectus lacustris •• cf. Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani • Mosses, ferns Amblystegium riparium • Amblystegium serpens •• Amblystegium varium • Antitrichia curtipendula • Atrichum undulatum • Aulacomnium palustre • Barbula unguiculata • Brachythecium mildeanum • Brachythecium rivulare •

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Table 1 Continued Mie 4 Br 1 Mie 2 Fk Mel

Brachythecium rutabulum • Bryum cf. turbinatum • Bryum pseudotriquetrum • Calliergon giganteum • Calliergonella cuspidata • Campylium calcareum/sommerfeltii •• Campylium stellatum • Cirriphyllum piliferum •• Dicranella cerviculata • Drepanocladus aduncus • Enthostodon fascicularis • Equisetum cf. arvensis • Eurhynchium sp. • Eurhynchium praelongum • Eurhynchium hians var. swartzii • Eurhynchium speciosum • Fissidens taxifolius • Funaria hygrometrica • Helodium blandowii • Homalia trichomanoides • Homalothecium nitens • Isothecium myosuroides • Plagiomnium cuspidatum • Plagiomnium ellipticum •• Plagiothecium succulentum • cf. Pseudoleskeella nervosa • Pylaisia polyantha • Rhodobryum roseum • Rhytidium rugosum • Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus • Sphagnum imbricatum • atop of profile 2, Scharf et al. Thelypteris palustris • (2005). found at the site Andernach-Martinsberg (see below) and of heliophilous herbs. The open (light) character is con- at Urbar (Schweingruber 1976). Schweitzer (1958) reported firmed by finds of molluscs like Vallonia spp., typical of open imprints of needles from the Brohl valley where several sites grasslands. have been described but the material no longer survives. At Fraukirch (Baales et al. 1998a) Populus-Betula wood- Obviously Pinus could grow only at higher elevations on the land with a dense cover of herbs and shrubs including Carex surrounding drier slopes and mountain areas as was likewise umbrosa, Filipendula ulmaria, Picris hieracioides, Rubus typical at comparable sites from the Allerød and the Prebo- caesius and Valeriana officinalis (s.l.) could be reconstructed real (e.g. Rittweger 1997; Bos and Urz 2003; Bos et al. 2005, (Table 3). 2006) At the site Melsbach (Bittmann et al. 2000; Table 1) there The results for the site Brohltal 1 in the Brohl valley was a small body of water in a depression, characterised by aresummarisedinTable2. The Brohl valley was totally floating plants (Potamogeton, Myriophyllum verticillatum, filled in by fine-grained ash (“Trass”) during the eruption. Ranunculus aquatilis) in the open-water zone and dominated Today little remains of it because of exploitation and ero- by Sparganium and Typha in the terrestrialisation zone. A sion. During the excavation in 1986 five trees were recov- highly compacted, dark brown peat was formed of sedges and ered, all identified as Populus. During the recent study rem- mosses, in particular Calliergon stramineum. This contained nants of Prunus trunks were found upright in the bed of numerous seeds of Menyanthes. the stream and washed free by it as it shaped Miesenheim 2 (Street 1986), investigated by Staiger the valley. The site can be characterised as a stream side (1988), is situated on the valley slope opposite to Miesen- Populus-Prunus padus woodland with Betula and a rich heim 4. Staiger’s analyses showed a Populus woodland with cover of shrubs, herbs and mosses. Nevertheless even in some Salix and rarely, Betula, with a rich cover of herbs and this narrow valley the forests permitted a rich understorey shrubs (Table 1). Some fresh material (tree trunks) was sam-

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Table 2 Macro-remains from the site Brohltal 1, areas A and B. For one series of samples from A only the area has been measured, from the remaining their volumes

Brohl valley, site 1 Area A Area A Area B No. of samples/volume 41/4100 cm2 17/5.6 l 14/12.4 l n Ubiq n Ubiq n Ubiq

Trees Betula cf. humilis fr 1 2 17 21 Betula pendula fr, frs 3 7 4 14 Betula pubescens fr, frs 43 51 2 12 61 100 Betula sp. div rem 65.5 61 3 18 487 100 Populus tremula div rem 1864 100 99 100 2606 100 Prunus padus div rem 241 98 3 47 673 100 Prunus padus kernel 93 100 Salicaceae wo, cc (ml) 15 59 3 59 x 7 Salix caprea type budsc 1 7 Salix pentandra fr 12 36 Salix sp. budsc 3 14 Sambucus sp. wo x 7 Sambucus nigra seed 1 7 Herbs Agropyron/Hordelymus ca 2 14 Angelica sylvestris frr 1 2 12 43 cf. Calamagrostis arundinacea ca 1 7 Campanula cf. trachelium seed 2 7 Carduus sp. (cf. defloratus) achene 3 7 15 64 Carex muricata agg. nutlet 12 24 2 12 44 79 Carex sp. nutlet, ch 1 2 Cerinthe glabra fr 14 24 2 12 17 93 Epilobium duriaei seed 2 7 Epilobium palustre seed 2 7 Equisetum sp. stem 5 10 1 6 Galeopsis tetrahit fr 1 7 Galium aparine fr 131 88 4 24 58 100 Lamiaceae indet. fr 1 2 Lychnis flos-cuculi seed 1 2 Melandrium rubrum seed 40 54 3 18 45 100 Phalaris arundinacea ca 5 14 Picris hieracioides achene 1 7 Poa cf. trivialis ca 2 5 1 7 Poa pratensis/trivialis ca2516 Ranunculus repens type nutlet 336 93 Rubus idaeus kernel 1 7 Solanum dulcamara seed 1 2 Taraxacum sp. achene 1 2 Urtica dioica seed 786 100 Valeriana officinalis agg. seed 1 2 1 7 Viola alba group seed 5 12 Mosses Amblystegium serpens stem 3 2 4 7 Antitrichia curtipendula stem 24 5 Atrichum undulatum leaflet 29 Campylium calcar./sommerfeltii stem 5 7 21 Eurhynchium praelongum stem 7 Eurhynchium hians var. swartzii stem 47 56 42 24 29 Cirriphyllum piliferum leaflet 29 Fissidens taxifolius stem 49 10 7 Homalia trichomanoides steml46171118 Plagiomnium ellipticum leaflet 7

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Table 2 Continued Brohl valley, site 1 Area A Area A Area B No. of samples/volume 41/4100 cm2 17/5.6 l 14/12.4 l n Ubiq n Ubiq n Ubiq

Plagiothecium succulentum stem 14 cf. Pseudoleskeella nervosa branch 7 Pylaisia polyantha branch 7 Rhodobryum roseum leaflet 3 2 Rhytidium rugosum leaflet 0 7 Molluscs Arianta arbustorum 615 Clausilidae 3 5 Clausilia bidentata 4106 Cochlicopa lubrica 12 6 Columella edentula 25 Fruticicola fruticum/ 12 Arianta arbustorum Punctum pygmaeum 37 cf. Helicidae (Arianta?) 12 Pupilla muscorum 410 Succinella oblonga 1,5 5 Trichia hispida 19 37 Vallonia costata 26 41 1 6 Vallonia pulchella 12 Vallonia sp. 3 7 Fungi Cenococcum geophilum scl 48 17 7 35 3225 100

Abbreviations: budsc: bud scale, ca: caryopsis, cc: charcoal, ch: charred, div rem: diverse remains (mostly buds and budscales), fr, frs: fruits, fruit scales, scl: sclerotia, ubiq: ubiquity, wo: wood.

Table 3 Macro-remains from Fraukirch (sample 250 ml, Baales et al. Table 4 Charcoal from the late palaeolithic site Andernach- 1998a) Martinsberg

Species Remains type n Total fragments 225 (274) n %

Betula cf. nana fr 2 Betula sp. 82 36.4 Betula pubescens frsc 1 Populus sp. 47 20.9 Betula sp. fr 76 Salicaceae indet 35 15.6 Betula sp. frsc, ch 1 Pinus sp. 11 4.9 Betula sp. budsc 1 Salix sp. 7 3.1 Populus sp. wo, cc x Daphne sp. 2 0.9 Populus tremula budsc 313 Prunus sp. 2 0.9 Carex umbrosa nutlet 62 indet. (too small) 24 10.7 Carex sp. nutlet 5 indet. (angiosperm) 15 6.7 Filipendula ulmaria fr 3 indet. (lignimbrite) 39 17.3 Picris hieracioides achene 1 bone 8 3.6 Ranunculus repens type nutlet 3 mineral 2 0.9 Rubus caesius kernel 5 Valeriana sp. fr 1 Viola alba type seed 8 pression or hollow with an anmoor soil formation), mosses Cenococcum geophilum scl 390 and grasses came to light. Several short pollen profiles were analysed, but although only Betula trunks were present, the For abbreviations see Table 2;x = present. Betula pollen representation was poor (Pinus pollen dom- inant). As the pollen preservation was described as good, pled down slope of the site after quarrying of the LST. This it cannot be determined whether this was due to differen- was all from Betula and Salix. tial preservation, as described above from the anmoor of At Thur¨ (Brunnacker et al. 1982), a site in a small val- Miesenheim 4, or whether Pinus stands existing on loess ley, finds of Betula trunks (“birch grove” in a shallow de- soils in the immediate vicinity, as postulated by Brunnacker

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Table 5 Charcoal from the late palaeolithic site Niederbieber, differ- Table 6 Charcoal from the late palaeolithic site Kettig ent campaigns % n Excavation Up to 1992 1997 1998 Total n % n % n % n % Populus 75 15 Salicaceae 10 2 Betula sp. 6626133057 8423 Betula 51 Salix/Populus 44 17 3 7 28 38 75 20 indet. (angiosperm) 10 2 Populus sp. 10461423185 Populus, uncharred 10 2 Salix sp. 104 9 12195 cf. Pomoideae 1 r 2 5 3 + Prunus sp. 2 1 2 + relatively well-spaced trunks certainly had a rich cover of indet.(toosmall)6525112510148623 herbs and shrubs, although these were not preserved. indet. (angiosperm) 58 23 9 20 19 26 86 23 There are additional sites not mapped where charcoal was Sum 256 100 44 100 73 100 373 100 also collected. At Plaidt close to Miesenheim, 22 samples of charcoal were taken from caves dug into the tephra since et al. (1982) were the reason for the dominance of Pinus Roman times – all from Betula sp. At the site Brohltal 2, a pollen. Betula tree several meters long was found, and from many At three archaeological sites of the late-glacial Feder- other places in the Brohl valley pieces of Populus and Salix messergruppen, charcoal was investigated. The results are charcoal were collected and identified. shown in Tables 4–6. In the Geilen quarry, Niedermendig, close to Kruft, some The upper find horizon of Andernach-Martinsberg pieces of Salicaceae charcoal, mainly Populus, were found. (Kegler 1999; Baales 2001) is dated to the Allerød but does Sites from the literature (Fig. 5, 11–14) follow below. not represent exactly the time of the eruption (ca. 13,200 cal Krufter Ofen, where the tephra reaches a thickness of more b.p., about 300 years earlier). Only charcoal was preserved than 50 m (Fig. 11, ESM) and many fragments of leaves can (Table 4) and some pieces of lignimbrites. The recovered be found at its base. charcoal suggests the presence of Populus-Betula woodland Glees, where a rectangular broken tree is preserved, but containing some Salix and Pinus. The soil type had been survives only as a hole in the tephra. Pararendzina on loess (Ikinger 1996). This locality was the Another site in the Brohl valley (Br 4) where Kleinertz only one in this study where macro-remains of Pinus were (1993) described some leaf imprints including Alnus incana, found. which later turned out to be Betula pubescens (Baales et al. At Niederbieber (Table 5) situated on the eastern upper 1998a). Grasses and herbs were dominant, among them Gal- slope of the valley, about 10,000 m2 have been exca- ium sp. and an inflorescence of Apiaceae (cf. Chaerophyllum vated during different campaigns (Baales and Street 1998). villarsii?). However in this case also, only fragments are pre- The results suggest a Salicaceae-Betula woodland, Betula served and some more of the identifications may turn out to being somewhat more common than Salicaceae, and with be incorrect on closer examination. Populus possibly more important than Salix (poor preserva- Urbar (Schweingruber 1976; Baales et al. 1998b), where tion). Very few remains were from Rosaceae (Prunus and cf. on a plateau tiny and badly preserved charcoal pieces were Pomoideae), the soil had been a Pararendzina on loess. recovered from within a palaeosoil on loess. Schweingruber Kettig (Baales 2001, 2002) was the lowest lying of the (1976) identified these as being predominantly Salix (the vast localities investigated and lies within the area affected by majority), with some Betula and Pinus, and also among them the Rhine. Pebble layers and clear signs of re-deposition in one piece of Acer,twoofTilia, four of Quercus and some the pollen spectra (Bittmann 2002), especially from tertiary Corylus. Unfortunately the material no longer survives for clay exposed upslope and exploited in the Karlich¨ clay pit dating (Schweingruber, pers. comm.). The stratigraphy has (Bittmann 1992) suggest the area was at least occasionally been disturbed by reworking and the deeper layer contained subject to colluvial and fluvial dynamics. Populus, with some pollen from the lower Pleistocene (the upper was sterile). Betula dominated the woody species (riverside vegetation) The Salix charcoal has been interpreted as from arctic-alpine (Table 6). species growing together with the thermophilous taxa. At Kruft (Baales et al. 1998a) standing trees up to more Analyses of loess deposits from the last glaciation in than 4 m height and about 5 m apart were recorded but some of the craters of the East Eifel volcanoes also re- their diameters were not more than 20 cm (Fig. 10, ESM). vealed charcoal from Quercus, Acer and Ulmus (Bittmann Often only empty tubes were found but sometimes they still 1995), but there these were from a colluvial reworked Eemian contained charred wood. Seven trees could be identified (4 palaeosoil as may also have been possible in the case of Ur- Populus and 3 Betula). The soil type had been Pararendzina bar. All in all the evidence from Urbar cannot be regarded as a on loamified loess. The Populus-Betula woodland with its reliable indicator of the presence of thermophilous elements.

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Time of the eruption among the first imprints described from the LST (Zeiler 1850; Wirtgen 1864). Most recently Waldmann (1996) There are a number of indications as to the season when the reported, in addition to leaf imprints of Quercus robur and eruption took place. These are the huge number of preserved Alnus glutinosa, charcoal from Corylus and Tilia (identified bud scales (especially from Populus), the many immature by Gelius-Dietrich). Re-examination of the Corylus wood fruits of Prunus padus at Brohltal 1 (Table 2) preserved in (diameter about 15 cm) resulted in re-identification as the stage just after flowering and the imprints of its withered Betula sp. (Baales et al. 1998a). The Tilia charcoal from inflorescences (Waldmann 1996). At , to the south the Brohl valley, although not re-examined, is assumed to of the Neuwied Basin, on top of middle LST deposits there be from Prunus (padus), very common in the valley during are numerous animal tracks made during a pause in the erup- the Allerød as is evidenced by many leaf imprints, bud tion, among them the tracks of young foals (Baales and von scales, wood and kernels. The features of the wood are quite Berg 1997, Baales et al. 2002). In distant lakes the LST sedi- similar and may be confused (depending on preservation). mentation interrupted the late spring/early summer biogenic Alnus incana (Kleinertz 1993) turned out to be Betula production (Merkt and Muller¨ 1999). All these hints suggest pubescens (Baales et al. 1998a). As noted above, it is not an eruption during late spring/early summer. easy to find good imprints with the most important features like leaf margin and base preserved, because normally only fragments are found, often folded or crumbled, thus Discussion lacking the typical and necessary features (as in the case of Alnus glutinosa and Quercus robur of Waldmann 1996)for All the results of this study, summarised in Fig. 5,show an unequivocal identification. The Quercus identifications at the time of the eruption Populus and Betula spp. (pre- from such imprints as were still available did not survive dominantly B. pubescens) dominated the woodland of the the revision by Krausel¨ and Weyland (1942), and in turn Central Rhineland and Neuwied Basin. In the low-lying area these authors’ own Quercus voucher was identified as being of the basin, directly affected by the Rhine, mainly Sali- probably Cirsium oleraceum and their Acer pseudoplatanus caceae (Salix spp. and Populus) with a little Betula were as Ribes sp. (cf. alpinum) by Schweitzer (1958). These few dominant. In the valleys along the tributaries of the Rhine examples show the pitfalls and difficulties with this kind and a little way upslope Prunus padus and Salix spp. (e.g. of material, Figs. 6 and 7 showing clearly that complete Salix pentandra) were also present and on drier locations leaves, which are almost never found, are needed for a other willow species (e.g. Salix caprea, Waldmann 1998) reliable identification (Fig. 12, ESM). In this sense neither were found. In the latter situation Betula pubescens was the drawing of Quercus (Fig. 7) nor the photograph given in probably replaced by Betula pendula to a large extent. Re- Waldmann (1996) can be regarded as evidence for the pres- mains of Pinus were found only once during this study (at ence of Quercus in the area of the Neuwied Basin during the Andernach-Martinsberg) and additional finds are rare e.g. Allerød even if there is some similarity to Quercus leaves. Schweitzer (1958) from the Brohl valley and Schweingruber (1976) from Urbar although at the latter site the taphonomy is unclear. Therefore at least within the basin, Pinus was absent and was restricted to the surrounding hills and slopes. The demonstrably small number of tree species was able to colonise all available locations suitable for tree growth. Populus and Betula remains are recorded at all localities, often in large quantities. The bud scales of Populus are es- pecially widespread and ubiquitous. Although all sites with good preservation conditions had been predominantly wet- land situations (but with differences in slope and exposure), and were therefore not representative of normal conditions, no other tree species, especially those more thermophilous with higher demands on soil conditions, were found. Even at higher elevations Populus and Betula spp. were the most important woody taxa. Claims of the occurrence of taxa of mixed oak forest (Acer, Quercus, Tilia and Ulmus, together with Alnus and Fig. 6 Drawings of recent leaves of Corylus and Rubus (terminal Corylus) must be rejected, insofar as the evidence has been frond) to show the importance of leaf margins and bases for reliable re-examined. From the outset Quercus and Alnus were listed identification to species/genus level; drawings by U. Grothmann

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quite often occurred among the fragments. All of these taxa were found at the site Brohltal 1 as seeds or fruits, which could be identified unambiguously. Therefore these imprints were not investigated further. What is the pollen evidence with regard to the presence of thermophilous trees? Commonly single pollen grains of “unexpected” anemophilous trees are interpreted as long dis- tance transport (or reworking from older sediments). Insect pollinated taxa are interpreted as being of more local ori- gin. Figure 8 shows all these pollen grains from Miesenheim 4, in Fig. 8A those found in a profile spanning the period from the Pleni-glacial up to the LST (Scharf et al. 2005) and in Fig. 8B in the transect samples 1–18 just below the LST. Most grains can be found at the base of the profile. There is no suggestion of any increase visible throughout and in the transect samples also only single grains of Corylus and Quercus are present. According to Sugita et al. (1999) Quercus pollen productivity is rather high and the pollen is well dispersed, the same is true for Corylus. Therefore these have to be seen not as local but either as long dis- tance transported or reworked from the surrounding loess sediments. Another important point to be considered is that lags in vegetation changes are also caused by the rate of soil develop- ment, which is an important limiting factor for the growth of many tree species (Pennington 1986). Ikinger (1996)showed Fig. 7 Drawings of modern leaves of Quercus robur (A–C) compared with a fragment of Q. robur (D) described by Waldmann (1996), where that the soils in the area were poorly developed up to the a short piece of the leaf margin seems to be preserved at the top right time of the eruption. Nevertheless many other factors like only; drawings of the recent leafs by U. Grothmann competitive success, dispersal ability and other ecological aspects are decisive and control immigration (Eide et al. The imprints from Brohltal 3 are derived mainly from 2006). Holzer¨ and Holzer¨ (1994) assumed the immigration grasses (Poaceae and probably Cyperaceae). Another often of Corylus and Quercus to the southern part of the upper recorded type resembled Urtica (or Lamium) and Galium sp. Rhine valley in the Allerød, both disappearing again dur-

Fig. 8 Record of pollen grains of “thermophilous” taxa in pollen spectra from Miesenheim 4: A from a profile spanning theperiod from the Pleni-glacial up to the LST (Scharf et al. 2005), chronology according to Litt and Stebich (1999); AL—Allerød, D2—Older Dryas, BØ—Bølling, D1—Oldest Dryas, ME—Meiendorf, PG—Pleni-glacial; B from samples from a transect just below the LST (Fig. 4)

Springer 154 Veget Hist Archaeobot (2007) 16:139–156 ing the following Younger Dryas. This however is not con- celerated by the river itself could have enabled a scattered firmed by any macrofossils and is based mainly on an early growth of these species not recordable by pollen analy- investigation by Oberdorfer (1937). Very low values of Cory- ses. However no unequivocal macrofossil evidence has lus and Quercus in the profile from the Lautermoor, upper been found to date, such evidence as there is either turn- Rhine valley (Holzer¨ and Holzer¨ 1994), during the Allerød, ing out to be wrong or at least unreliable through unclear are also considered to be reworked pollen from interglacial stratigraphy and taphonomy. deposits nearby. South of the Alps both taxa show a mass – The trees are too young to produce pollen. This likewise expansion during the Allerød (e.g. Schneider 1978; Magri cannot be excluded but in this case the new species are not and Sadori 1999), so the source for long distance transport yet established and cannot form an important part of the was not that far away. existing vegetation. They could be detected only by chance Nonetheless as demonstrated by e.g. Kullman (1998a, b), and through macrofossil evidence like wood, leafs or leaf Willis et al. (2000) and Giesecke (2005) taxa such as Quer- imprints. But as shown above such a (reliable) evidence cus, Tilia, Ulmus, Picea and Alnus may be present although does not exist. pollen percentages are very low, sometimes discontinuous so their local presence cannot be inferred from the pollen. Latałowa and Borowka´ (2006) reported charred macrofossils of Alnus sp. (small, thin branch wood pieces and an axis of a Conclusions female cone) from the Allerød on the Wolin Island, Poland, although only single pollen grains were found. However it is Before being covered by tephra the soils present in the not clear whether the macro-remains are from the sub-alpine Neuwied Basin were only poorly differentiated. In terres- - alpine Alnus viridis from which also single pollen grains trial locations they were dominated by a pararendzina, while have been recorded. close to water or within anmoor, peats and gyttjas formed the Hicks (2006) also discussed scenarios “when no pollen soils, and in valley bottoms groundwater gley-pararendzinas does not mean no trees”: or occasionally gleyed muck humus soils existed (Ikinger 1996) The development of the vegetation shows the same – It is too cold and/or dry for the trees to produce pollen. tendency. Woodland was still not strongly differentiated. No This can be ruled out for the Allerød of the Neuwied Basin. reliable evidence for taxa of the mixed oak forest (Acer, – The trees are cut or damaged so that they do not flower. Quercus, Tilia and Ulmus,aswellasAlnus and Corylus) There is no evidence for such activity in the surroundings could be found and their occurrence is rejected, as far as the at that time. evidence has been re-examined. – There are very few individuals of that tree in the region. The small number of immigrant tree species already This cannot be definitely excluded. Due to the small diam- present was still able to colonise all available locations suit- eter of the lake or pond the source area of pollen (Sugita able for tree growth. Populus-Betula woodland is therefore 1994) is small and the pollen spectra of Miesenheim 4 recorded at all localities. Major differences in the shrub veg- may therefore be considered of mainly local origin, re- etation (mainly Salix spp.) were also scarcely recognisable, presenting the reed and surrounding tree belt and filter- although the localities at which these species were recorded ing/thinning out of regional pollen. According to Jackson are predominantly wetland situations (admittedly with dif- (1990) for example and recently again shown by Coned- ferences of slope and exposure). Nevertheless, a relatively era et al. (2006) the proportion of distal species increases lush understorey of herb and shrub vegetation was appar- with increasing lake size and vice versa. This means in turn ently present independent of position and exposure, even that single specimens of a taxon, e.g. outposts, can be de- in the narrow Brohl valley, which, in places, can almost be tected by pollen analyses only if they are growing directly termed a gorge. in the vicinity of very small sites such as forest hollows At the time of the eruption the woodland of the Central were the local pollen component is predominant. This is Rhineland Basin was dominated by aspen and birch (pre- discussed by Hofstetter et al. (2006) for instance for pre- dominantly Betula pubescens). In the valleys bird cherry Roman pollen grains of Castanea sativa in the Insubrian (Prunus padus) and willows (e.g. Salix pentandra)werealso Alps, southern Switzerland. At small scale sites such as present, on drier locations other willow species (e.g. Salix Miesenheim 4, single or a few regional scattered Corylus caprea, Waldmann 1998) were found. In the latter situation and Quercus specimens may be not detected, nor might Betula pubescens was to a large extent replaced by Betula their expansion up to a certain threshold. If for example pendula. Corylus and Quercus had already reached the southern Evidence for Pinus is scarce and present only from locali- part of the valley, as discussed by Holzer¨ and ties at the edge of the Neuwied Basin (Andernach and Urbar, Holzer¨ (1994), a rapid spreading along the river valley ac- with some finds that no longer exist from the Brohl valley).

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Acknowledgements This contribution is dedicated to Prof. H.-J. Beug Bogaard P van den, Schmincke H-U (1984) The eruptive center of the on occasion of his 75th birthday. My cordial thanks go to Prof. Beug late Quaternary Laacher See Tephra. Geol Rundsch (Internat J who led this project and who introduced me to pollen and macro-remain Earth Sci) 73:935–982 analyses and vegetation history. Bogaard P van den, Schmincke H-U (1985) Laacher See Tephra: a The study was financed by a grant (Be 169/14) of the German Re- widespread isochronous late Quaternary tephra layer in central search Council (DFG) in the frame of the priority program “Changes in and northern Europe. Geol Soc Am Bull 96:1554–1571 the Geo-Biosphere of the last 15,000 years”. O. Joris,¨ RGZM Mainz, Bos JAA, Urz R (2003) Late Glacial and early Holocene environment in Forschungsstelle Altsteinzeit Monrepos, Neuwied, delivered the sub- the middle river valley (Hessen, central-west Germany) and structure of Fig. 1 and 5, U. Grothmann, University of Gottingen¨ made the local impact of early people - pollen and macrofossil the drawings of the recent leaves; both are gratefully acknowledged. evidence. Veget Hist Archaeobot 12:19–36 J. Gerber, Field Museum, Chicago, is thanked for the identification of Bos JAA, Geel B van, Groenewoudt BJ, Lauwerier RCGM (2005) Early the molluscs from the Brohl valley. My sincere thanks go also to L. Holocene environmental change, the presence and disappearance Dupont and two reviewers whose comments helped a lot in improving of early Mesolithic habitation near Zutphen (The Netherlands). an earlier draft of this paper. Veget Hist Archaeobot 15:27–43 Bos JAA, Bohncke SJP, Janssen CR (2006) Lake-level fluctuations and small-scale vegetation patterns during the late glacial in The References Netherlands. 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