From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization

Journal of Archaeological Science (2001) 28, 127–141 doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0545, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization: Interpreting the Lithic Distribution and Raw Material Composition at the Final Palaeolithic Site of Kettig (Central Rhineland, Germany)

Michael Baales*

Forschungsbereich Altsteinzeit, Ro¨misch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, Schloss Monrepos, D-56567 Neuwied, Germany

(Received 10 October 1999, revised manuscript accepted 8 December 1999)

During the Final Palaeolithic Federmessergruppen period, a wide range of siliceous raw materials was used in the Central Rhineland (Germany). Beside materials from the immediate region, exogenous resources such as flint from up to 100 km away in the Meuse drainage area and the moraines of the Saalian glaciation were exploited. At Kettig, the spatial distribution of different lithic raw materials and analysis of several categories of burnt finds allow the characterization of the settled area in space and time. While adequate, good-quality raw material was available in the Central Rhineland, the regular use of exogenous raw materials at Central Rhineland sites also demonstrates the necessity of maintaining regular social contacts with other groups in neighbouring regions. 2001 Academic Press

Keywords: FINAL PALAEOLITHIC, FEDERMESSERGRUPPEN, SPATIAL ANALYSIS, RAW MATERIAL ECONOMY, SOCIAL CONTACTS, WESTERN GERMANY.

Introduction the end of the late glacial Allerød interstadial c. 12·9 ky cal- in what is today the Laacher See caldera (Street t Kettig, in the Neuwied Basin (Central et al., 1994; Jo¨ris & Weninger, 2000). The massive Rhineland, Western Germany), it was possible Plinian eruption covered the late glacial Central to investigate a Final Palaeolithic Federmesser- Rhineland landscape (Ikinger, 1996) with layers of ash Agruppen site which is of importance for two major and pumice (Laacher See tephra=LST), often several reasons. One of these is given by artefacts of red deer metres thick (van den Bogaard & Schmincke, 1985), antler of types previously unknown for the Feder- and so protected archaeological sites from erosion and messergruppen; the other is the possibility of a detailed destruction. Pumice quarrying, which began in the spatial analysis of the site, which gives new insights middle of the 19th century and has been carried out on into the internal organization and division of a an industrial scale since the Second World War, has relatively large habitation area of the period some  repeatedly uncovered well-preserved sites, especially of 13·2 ky cal- . Allerød age. Furthermore, the overall spectrum of lithic raw The conserving effect of the volcanic sediments has material observed at Federmessergruppen sites in the protected not only sites of human settlement but also Central Rhineland permits a final statement of general numerous botanical localities with preserved trees, importance for human behaviour. While materials imprints of leaves in ash layers of the LST, etc. All this suitable for producing lithic tools were available in the allows us to draw a very detailed picture of the region, an important amount of material was brought vegetation and environment of the final Allerød to the sites from exogenous sources up to 100 km (Baales & Street, 1996; Baales et al., 1998a; Street & and more distant. This is interpreted as reflecting Baales, 1997). Generally, the Central Rhineland was a regular social contacts with people in neighbouring lightly forested region with aspen, birch, willow near regions, which were of great importance for small the rivers and some pine on higher, drier grounds. The hunter–gatherer groups in a largely uninhabited regular presence of horse at Allerød sites may also landscape. indicate more open areas, perhaps at higher elevations During the Pleistocene, the Central Rhineland and, surrounding the Neuwied Basin. in particular, the Neuwied Basin to the northwest of The first archaeological investigation beneath Koblenz, was repeatedly the scene of major volcanic the LST was carried out in 1883 by Hermann eruptions. The most recent eruption occurred towards Schaaffhausen at the Martinsberg in Andernach. More *E-mail: [email protected] recent excavations have been carried out there in the

127 0305–4403/01/020217+15 $35.00/0 2001 Academic Press 128 M. Baales

Table 1. The Allerød fauna from Kettig (without molluscs identified by (Bolus, 1992; Baales, 1998; Baales & Street, 1998). Mania) Kettig (District Mayen-Koblenz), which is the subject of this paper, lies south of the Rhine and was investi- Species NISP MNI gated over an area of 242 m2 during 6 months following its discovery in April 1993 (Figure 2). Perissodactyla Horse Equus sp. 17 3 Artiodactyla Large bovid (aurochs?) Bos primigenius?172 Chamois? Rupicapra rupicapra 11 The Kettig Site Red deer Cervus elaphus 259 8 During the Allerød, the Kettig site occupied a prom- Roe deer Capreolus capreolus 24 3 Carnivora ontory of land (the Rhine middle terrace) raised some- Bear Ursus arctos 5 what above the banks of the Rhine. A channel at the Wolf Canis lupus 21 foot of the promontory was either permanently water- Red fox Vulpes vulpes 22 1 (2?) filled or at least occasionally flooded. A west–east Weasel Mustela nivalis 11 oriented trial trench established that archaeological Marten Martes sp. 6 1 Rodentia material was located not only on the promontory itself, Beaver Castor fiber 29 2 but also extended downslope into the Rhine valley- Yellow-necked bottom (see Figure 4). There is one conventional field-mouse Apodemus flavicollis 31 14C-date for the site of 11·31450  (Hd-18123; B. Large Pleistocene mole Talpa europaea magna 62 Common hamster Cricetus cricetus 11 Kromer, pers. comm., Heidelberg), carried out on Bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus 120 18 bulked bones of red deer size. The data was calibrated Water vole Arvicola terrestris 40 6 (‘‘converted’’ following Jo¨ris & Weninger, 2000) to Root vole Microtus oeconomus 95 c.13·2 ky cal-. Field vole Microtus agrestis 83 Unique to Kettig are two artefacts of red deer antler. Voles Microtus arvalis/agrestis 22 14 Voles Microtus sp. 83 — One of these is a barbed point which morphologically Insectivora and technologically resembles Magdalenian specimens Common shrew Sorex ex. gr. araneus 32 11 but is defined by J. Tinnes (in Baales, in press)as Pygmy shrew Sorex cf. minutus 21 an independent ‘‘Kettig type’’. The other artefact is an Water shrew Neomys fodiens 11 Chiroptera antler hammer (percuteur), a form of tool otherwise Noctule Nyctalus sp. 3 1 unknown from a Federmessergruppen context. Despite Aves the protective covering of LST, Final Palaeolithic Tit Parus sp. 1 1 artefacts of organic materials have only been rarely Pisces found in the Central Rhineland (Baales, 1994, 1997, Pike Esox lucius 51 Cyprinids Leuciscus sp. >100 — 1999; Bolus, 1992; Baales & Street, 1996). This is a striking difference to the preceding Upper Identifications: Baales (1998) and Kalthoff (1998) and Krey (in Magdalenian dated at Go¨nnersdorf and Andernach to Baales, in press). NISP: Number of identified specimen; MNI: around 15·5 ky cal-. Minimum number of individuals. The animals certainly exploited by The list of large mammal species is dominated by red man are red and roe deer, horse, a large bovid (aurochs?), a caprid (if deer (Cervus elaphus), which is represented by a mini- identification is correct) and beaver. Possibly exploited were brown bear, wolf, red fox, weasel, marten and the fishes, which are only mum of eight individuals. The remains of other large represented by pharyngeal teeth. mammal species are much less common and represent fewer individuals (Table 1). A number of remains of red and roe deer, especially 1980s and from 1994 to 1996 (Baales & Street, 1998). teeth (particularly the analysis of the cement structure Further important late glacial sites have been dis- of a red deer tooth by Kierdorf [in Baales, in press]) covered since, especially during the second half of the allowed the identification of the season of occupation 20th century, among them the well-known Late Upper of the site as late summer or early autumn. Palaeolithic Magdalenian site (c.15·5 ky cal-)of The Kettig lithic assemblage is typical of the Go¨nnersdorf (see Bosinski et al., 1995). Particularly Rhineland Allerød sites. It is dominated by more than important are four major (late) Allerød settlements 100 short end scrapers, followed by projectile points of the Final Palaeolithic Federmessergruppen (including both classic Federmesser points, other types (Schwabedissen, 1954)(Figure 1). Urbar, discovered in of backed pieces and simple microliths), burins, trun- 1966, lies to the northeast of Koblenz (Baales et al., cated and laterally retouched pieces, borers and splin- 1998b). At Andernach-Martinsberg, an extensive Fed- tered pieces (pie`ces esquilleés). The spectrum of raw ermessergruppen horizon (Veil, 1982; Stapert & Street, materials is generally similar to that of other Central 1997) overlies a Magdalenian settlement equivalent Rhineland sites and is particularly close to that from to Go¨nnersdorf. Niederbieber, a suburb of Neuwied, Andernach-Martinsberg (Figure 3; see Floss, 1994). covers an area of some 10,000 m2 and is the largest site The assemblage is made not only of regionally avail- known from this period in the Central Rhineland able materials, such as Tertiary limno-quartzite and From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 129

BROHL 300 300 3 200 200 100 100 0200

WIED km 2 Neuwied Laacher 300 13 RH IN See 200 E 400 100

10 11 1 9 500 100

4 200 Koblenz 100 400 MOSELLE 300 12 8 NETTE 5 200 6 300

03 km 7

Figure 1. Location of Central Rhineland (Neuwied Basin) Federmessergruppen sites. Settlement (large ): 1—Kettig; 2—Andernach- Martinsberg; 3—Niederbieber; 4—Urbar. Isolated hearth (only two were associated with artefacts, ): 5—Bassenheim; 6—Kobern; 7—Polch; 8—Ochtendung; 9—Meisenheim 3; 10—Nickenich. Single ﬁnds ( ): 11—Miesenheim 2; 12—Thu¨r. Human skeleton (): 13—Weissenthurm (see Baales & Street, 1996).

Figure 2. Kettig. View of the site from the south. In the background, the Mu¨lheim-Ka¨rlich nuclear power plant (some 1·6 km distant) marks the south bank of the Rhine at the present day. 130 M. Baales

1279

40 9112 9173 931 30

20 4558

Percentage present 245 10 193 870 64 57 8 7 0 337 0 17 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 33 0 VT KS TQ VK CH F KOO F KA LIM Q VTO A/J ? W. Euro Baltic/ (Meuse) Tétange Local Eifel + “Meuse egg” Material Figure 3. Lithic raw material composition of the Kettig assemblage in comparison with the Federmessergruppen assemblage from Andernach-Martinsberg (1980s excavations). Leaving aside several smaller categories of material, only siliceous slate is distinctly more common at the Kettig site (numbers above the bars indicate numbers of artefacts). VT: siliceous tuff; KS: siliceous slate; TQ: Tertiary limno-quartzite; VK: siliceous chalk; CH: chalcedony; F: flint; KOO: siliceous oolite; KA: carneol; LIM: limonite; Q: quartz; VTO: siliceous clay stone; A/J: agate/jasper; ?: unidentified. Andernach ( ), N=2·793; Kettig ( ), N=24·098. siliceous slate (Kieselschiefer or lydite), but also trast, the rest of the site presents an undifferentiated includes chalcedony from Bonn-Muffendorf, some picture. This is due to the fact that any smaller 40 km to the north (Floss, 1992), and large quantities concentrations present are ‘‘swallowed up’’ by the of several types of Cretaceous flint, particularly from disproportionally large number of artefacts of the the Meuse region c. 100 km to the northwest of the southwestern concentration. site (see Baales & Street, 1996). Spatial plotting of In order to obtain a better resolution for potentially the different raw material clusters provides a range smaller lithic concentrations, a second plot was pro- of information on the occupation history of the duced (Figure 4(b)) by dividing the site into several settlement. independent sectors (areas A–F) and using the ‘‘equidistance method’’ independently for each of these. The Joining the Dots? Site Formation at Kettig densest concentration to the southwest (area E) and the northeastern part of the site characterized by three Shown by the Lithic Artefacts distinct concentrations (area B) are again clearly vis- Plotting lithic artefacts at a Stone Age site commonly ible. In contrast with Figure 4(a), several previously reveals horizontal clusters, generally interpreted as invisible concentrations of artefacts now appear. To material left over by the settlement process (mainly in the south (area D), a smaller concentration is visible, the form of waste products or de´bitage). At Kettig, the which ‘‘fades out’’ to the northeast and was unfortu- conserving effect of pumice of the LST resting above nately partially destroyed by LST quarrying. A further the find horizon has preserved such evidence for the loose scatter of finds to the west (area F) shows no activities of the Federmessergruppen inhabitants in a clear structuring and is recognizable by only a re- more or less undisturbed condition. Although mapping stricted number of artefacts. It is noticeable that the lithic artefacts is one of the basic methods used in the densest concentration of this area lies at the boundary reconstruction of occupational histories of Palaeolithic to area E. This is an unusual distribution which is and Mesolithic sites, there is almost no consensus as to repeated by other categories of material (e.g. burins, how to do this or of how to represent them on a map, burned artefacts). Another small concentration with a a problem discussed in detail by Cziesla (1990). Here I few retouched forms is found down the eastern slope of follow Cziesla’s proposal in using an ‘‘equidistance’’ the promontory (area C), a situation hard to interpret level for interpreting artefact distributions, and the due to limited excavation in this area. The interpret- following maps are based on this procedure. ation of the northernmost part of the site (area A) is A ‘‘equidistance’’ plot of the distribution of the now particularly clear and a major concentration entire flaked stone assemblage (Figure 4(a)) shows a of artefacts can be recognized. Unfortunately, the major dense concentration of artefacts at the southwest southern margin of this area was truncated by of the site. Further concentrations with fewer artefacts quarrying. can be recognized at the northeast, and a still smaller Figure 4(b) characterizes Kettig as a site comprising accumulation is also visible to the northwest. In con- various small concentrations of greatly varying density. From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 131

Promontory edge

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m

One equidistance 1–73 74–146 147–219 220–292 293–365 >365 26/21 (a)

A All lithic artefacts

C D F Variable equidistances A–35 B–73 E C–20 D–4 E–56 F–12 26/21 (b)

Figure 4. Kettig. Distribution of all lithic artefacts for (a) the entire site with an ‘‘equidistance’’ of N=73 and for (b) the artiﬁcial sub-areas (A–F) with variable ‘‘equidistances’’.

Plotting the artefacts by diﬀerent size groups (e.g. contrast, plotting the diﬀerent raw materials produces <1 cm or 1–4 cm) merely mirrors the results for the more interesting results and allows an interpretation of overall distributions and will not be presented here. In the development of individual artefact accumulations. 132 M. Baales

A plot of the artefacts of Tertiary quartzite (Figure northeastern parts of the site (areas A to D). These 5(a)) shows that the densest concentration is at the locations are mostly represented by single raw ma- southwest of the excavation (cf. the densest concen- terials (especially areas A, C, D and some spots in B) tration of all artefacts, Figure 4(b), area E). The and, furthermore, are situated in area B close to the majority of the Tertiary quartzite comprises very small hearth(s) discussed below. chips (<1 cm). In contrast with this situation, the The very dense concentration of lithics in area E is pronounced concentration at the north of the site clearly separated from the hearth(s) in area B. Follow- shown by the plot of all materials (area A in Figure ing Behm (1983), the pronounced concentration of 4(b)) disappears completely in Figure 5(a), since this material and the close spatial clustering speak this concentration consists mainly of artefacts of clearly for an interpretation as a ‘‘secondary dump’’. siliceous slate (Figure 5(b)). Further artefacts of sil- Although a hypothetical knapping episode at this iceous slate are found particularly to the northeast location cannot be ruled out (or recognized), the (area B) and, much less commonly, at the southwest subsequent use of area E as a ‘‘dump’’ where lithic (area E) of the site. Siliceous slate occurs only rarely waste was discarded can be definitely recognized. This in the eastern test trench, where Tertiary quartzite interpretation is supported by subsequent, more dominates again. detailed spatial analyses of individual nodules of the Two clear concentrations of West European flint raw materials. (Figure 5(c)) are present at the northeast of the site The variable characteristics of the broad raw (area B). The most extensive of these overlaps with that material types allow the identification of specific units of the siliceous slate at this position. Two smaller (‘‘nodules’’) which can be subjected to a further stage concentrations are visible to the south, one in the area of analysis. Three examples are given here for Tertiary of the overall densest concentration of artefacts (area quartzite. The main occurrence of a dense—in struc- E) and another to the west of this in area F. The ture and colour—homogeneous, grey quartzite (Figure majority of finds in the latter concentration are small, 7(a)) is in area B and the dense, southwestern concen- normally fire-cracked chips. They probably represent tration (area E). A few crested blades in area B identify the remains of only a limited number of artefacts which the knapping area of this material, although a core of were burnt elsewhere and dumped at this location this ‘‘nodule’’ was not found. The presence of this where no other traces of fire were found. distinct Tertiary quartzite in the dense concentration of A translucent type of flint can only be described as area E shows that some waste, particularly flakes and either of Baltic or Te´tange type. Both materials appear chips, produced at the knapping spot near a hearth at very similar, although their respective source would be the northeast of the site (area B) was subsequently c. 100 km to the north in Saalian moraines or at a dumped several metres away to the southwest. lesser distance in the region west of Kettig. This flint A yellow–grey Tertiary quartzite with large yellow shows a very specific distribution pattern (Figure 6(a)), inclusions and a coarse, off-white weathered cortex with two clear scatters at the northeast (area B), well shows a totally different situation (Figure 7(b)). The outside the concentration of West European flint (see material is concentrated at the south of the site (area Figure 5(c)). D) and practically absent from the adjacent dump The distribution of chalcedony artefacts (Figure (area E). The presence of two cores allows the location 6(c)) is also very distinct and reveals a dense accumu- to be interpreted as a small knapping area at which low lation again at the northeast of the site (area B), intensity, primary flaking activities took place. This unfortunately partially disturbed by quarrying activi- area lies some distance away from the main, northeast- ties before the discovery of the site. Further single ern occupied area with the hearth(s) (area B) and it was artefacts of chalcedony are scattered to the west and therefore not ‘‘cleaned up’’ or significantly disturbed south, but the bulk of the chalcedony lies at the same by subsequent human activities. location as the small northeastern concentration of A third situation is represented by a variety of brown West European flint (see Figure 5(c)) and peripheral to quartzite with yellow flecks and water-rolled cortex. the accumulation of Baltic/Te´tange flint to the north This material is concentrated at the very east of the site (Figure 6(a)). (Figure 7(c)) and the artefacts include a roughly pre- In summary, several, mostly distinct concentrations pared and still viable core with a refitting flake, which of different lithic raw materials could be observed at was nevertheless discarded. It is believed that the Kettig. Such dense scatters of de´bitage at Stone Age knapping of the brown quartzite was one of the last settlements are generally attributed to two primary activities carried out at Kettig, and artefacts were types of activities. Firstly, they can mark the actual found clustered tightly together, rather than dispersed, sites of knapping activities, i.e. the locations at which since the site was deserted shortly afterwards. Only a nodules were worked. A second possibility is that they single scraper of this material was found in the eastern represent sites (‘‘dumps’’) at which material worked trench some distance from the concentration. This elsewhere was discarded or deposited. distribution parallels that of the chalcedony (Figure Knapping locations are suggested as the explanation 6(b)), which is therefore also associated with the for the concentrations of artefacts in the north and last phase of site activity, an interpretation further From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 133

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m

Tertiary quartzite 1–38 39–76 77–114 115–152 153–190 >190 26/21 (a)

Siliceous slate 1–32 33–64 65–96 97–128 129–160 >160 26/21 (b)

West European (“Meuse”) flint 1–56 57–112 113–168 169–224 225–280 >280 26/21 (c)

Figure 5. Kettig. Distribution of all lithic artefacts of Tertiary quartzite, siliceous slate and West European (‘‘Meuse’’) ﬂint. 134 M. Baales

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m

Flint of Baltic/Tétange type 1–12 13–24 25–36 37–48 49–60 >60 (a)

Chalcedony 1–6 7–12 13–18 19–24 25–30 >30 (b)

Figure 6. Kettig. Distribution of all lithic artefacts of Baltic (Erratic)/Te´tange type flint and chalcedony. supported by the concentrated accumulation of this (1986, 1990). This gives a total of 40 sequential refits material. (Aufeinanderpassungen), 21 breakage refits (Anein- anderpassungen), five modification refits (Anpassungen) and one thermal refit(Einpassung eines Hitzeauss- Refitting prunges). The sequential refits thus dominate. (This applies to all raw materials.) Although only a small amount of lithic material could The 65 plotted conjoining lines are mainly concen- be refitted, analysis of the conjoining lines provides trated in two areas (Figure 8). The majority (37 lines) some further interesting information on the settlement lies to the northeast (area B), while 18 are found to the history and activities which took place at Kettig. southwest, mainly linked to the dump (area E). The One hundred and twenty-two of the total of 24,098 two areas are connected by a c.7·5 m long sequential artefacts (3,834 artefacts >1 cm) were refitted, a pro- refit of Tertiary quartzite, conjoining a small bladelet portion of only 0·5% (3·18%). They form 55 refitting fragment at the southwest with a long and thick blade complexes and provide a total of 67 conjoining lines at the northeast (Figure 8(a)). This is representative which were plotted following the system of Cziesla for the transportation of material knapped at the From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 135

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m Cb Cb Cb Cb

(a) Homogeneous grey Tertiary quartzite

Ct C C

(b) Yellow–grey Tertiary quartzite

S S

Figure 7. Kettig. Distribution of the larger artefacts of three raw material units (‘‘nodules’’) of Tertiary quartzite. C: core; Ct: core tablet; Cb: crested blade; S: end scraper. 136 M. Baales

2 1

a 2

1 2 < < Figure 8. Kettig. Refitting lines of conjoining lithic artefacts. , 4 m find; —1, sequential refit; —·—2, breakage refit; ·· ··3, modification refit; ––< ––, thermal refit. northeast to the dump at the southwest of the site. A bone splinters and lithic artefacts at the northeast of conjoining line from the southwest dump extends some the site (area B). The plot of white, calcined bone 8·25 m to the northwest, an area in which only a splinters (representing the burning of bones at high few long conjoins were recognized, and is difficult to temperatures: Figure 9) shows that most of this interpret. material lies at the northeast of the site, with its major The northeast of the site (area B) is interpreted as the distribution in square 47/42. Most burnt fragments of main area of site activity (as shown in more detail in mammal teeth as fire-cracked artefacts lie in the same the following chapter), not least due to the types of area. Plotting the centres of distribution of the burnt conjoins found here. While 20 of the 37 lines (54·05%) bone, tooth and artefacts, and also of thermally altered represent sequential refits (knapping), a further 17 porphyry, quartz and quartzite confirms the location (45·95%) are due to breaks, which suggests that subse- of a hearth at this part of the site (Figure 10). quent human settlement activities at area B, especially A few metres to the southwest of this heart is a ‘‘trampling’’, also influenced the artefacts by breaking second, less clearly defined accumulation of burnt lithics lying on the surface. material (Figure 10). Although many calcined bone The situation at the southwestern part of the site fragments are present (Figure 9), they are here less (area E) is different. The 12 (66·66%) sequential refits concentrated than in the hearth and form a more represent the disposal of series of knapped waste at the diffuse satter. The same is true for burnt tooth frag- dump. Only two of the 18 conjoining lines (11·11%) are ments, while burnt artefacts were very uncommon. due to breaks, suggesting that, once deposited at this This situation might have two different explanations: part of the site, the artefacts were not subsequently greatly modified as a result of human activities such as (1) It is possible that a fire burned here (not necessar- trampling. ily for long time) at the beginning of the occupation of the Kettig site, before the hearth in The Question of Hearths square 47/42 was in use and the remains of the earlier hearth were dispersed and distorted by Unlike at the Federmessergruppen site of Niederbieber later activities on the site. In this hypothesis, the (Bolus, 1992), it was not possible to identify hearths at unburned material found at this part of the site Kettig as small areas of recognizably burned sediment. (especially lithic artefacts) would have been sub- Nevertheless, it was already possible during excavation sequently deposited when the older hearth was no to observe two concentrations with numerous burnt longer in use. From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 137

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m

Calcined bone splinters 1–102 103–204 205–306 307–408 409–510 >510

Figure 9. Kettig. Distribution of calcined bone splinters.

N Kettig “Im Rauental” 03 m

Burnt lithic artefacts Calcined bone splinters Thermally altered quartzite cobbles, etc. Thermally altered quartz and porphyry

Hearth (square 47/42)

Hearth/dump of burnt materials?

Figure 10. Kettig. Distribution of diﬀerent burnt materials (lithic artefacts, calcined bone splinters, thermally altered cobbles of Devonian quartzite, quartz, porphyry, etc.).

(2) Alternatively, this area contains only material Another category of burnt material is provided by intentionally cleared out (cleaning, maintenance) numerous fragments of quartz cobbles shattered by from the hearth in square 47/42, only a few metres their repeated use as pot-boilers (Batchelor, 1979; to the northeast, which would have been in use Dittmann, 1990). Thermally altered quartz is particu- during the entire settlement process at Kettig. larly common in the same area as the majority of the burnt lithic artefacts. At the northeast of the site, they It is difficult to decide which hypothesis is correct, can be interpreted as the waste from the final episodes but to the author, the first one appears more plausible. of water-heating activity around the hearth in 138 M. Baales square 47/42 (see Figure 10). Other, more restricted (1) In the area of the hearth in square 47/42, certain concentrations of burnt quartz fragments to the south raw materials used for stone tool production are (e.g. in area E, which is otherwise characterized as a found in relatively discrete concentrations. dump for lithic artefacts) can be interpreted as due to Among these are a small but dense concentration similarly discarding ‘‘exhausted’’ quartz fragments left of Tertiary quartzite artefacts directly to the over from earlier episodes of boiling using the hearth(s) southeast of the hearth and the vast majority of at the northeast of the site. the artefacts of Baltic/Te´tange flint. These artefacts are demonstrably the result of tool production around the hearth. Since the material is still Interlude—Locating the Tent? The ‘‘Ring and very clearly concentrated (i.e. has not been dis- Sector’’ Method at Kettig persed by a long subsequent period of human activity) and contains numerous fire-cracked The question whether the hearth identified in square specimens, it is suggested that it represents a 47/42 was within or outside a dwelling structure can be younger phase of the occupation of the site while investigated by application of the ‘‘ring and sector’’ this hearth was in use. method developed by Stapert (1992). This analysis was Although concentrations of artefacts of chal- Federmesser- performed earlier in Central Rhineland cedony and a particular type of brown Tertiary gruppen contexts at Niederbieber (Bolus, 1992; Stapert, quartzite somewhat to the southeast are located 1992), with negative results, and for two hearths at close to the area of greatest human activity Andernach-Martinsberg (Stapert & Street, 1997), around the hearth, they are not dispersed, and it is where, as at Kettig, no evident tent structures could be believed that these raw materials also belong to recognized. The analysis at Andernach showed that the younger phase of settlement. one hearth was inside a tent of some 4 m in diameter. (2) Concentrations of artefacts of West European At Kettig the ‘‘ring and sector’’ analysis of the cores flint and siliceous slate cover a larger, diffuse area and retouched artefacts (tools), with the centre of the to the south of the hearth in square 47/42 (Figure hearth in square 47/42 and using distance increments of 5(b)). They are believed to derive primarily from 0·5 m, shows that it is not possible to recognize a ‘‘wall ff an older phase of settlement, possibly centred e ect’’, showing that this hearth was not located inside around an associated hearth, and to have been a tent. dispersed by ‘‘trampling’’, etc. during the entire Furthermore, the analysis did demonstrate that vari- ff succeeding phase of occupation. ous categories of tools behave in di erent ways. End The absence of artefacts of Baltic/Te´tange flint, scrapers tend to be found closer to the hearth than brown Tertiary quartzite and chalcedony (assigned to projectile points, a feature already described for the younger occupation phase) in area E suggests that Niederbieber Area I by Stapert (1992: 83). As an expla- the dump site reconstructed here should be associated nation, Stapert suggests that, unlike the scrapers at the with earlier settlement activities. Burnt quartz frag- somewhat older Upper Palaeolithic sites, their location ments found at the dump can most probably be Federmessergruppen at sites does not reflect the spot of attributed to early stone boiling events. The knap- their use. Rather, the end scrapers were removed ping areas of siliceous slate, and those of Tertiary from their hafts (‘‘hafting and re-tooling’’) by softening quartzite on the periphery of the site (e.g. Figure 7(b), their adhesive in a fire and discarded in the ‘‘drop (c)), probably also represent the older phase of zone’’ close to the hearth. They would also be relatively occupation. frequently burned, a situation clearly substantiated at Kettig around the hearth at square 47/42. While the interpretation seems plausible for hearth 47/42, the absence of adhesives on a sample of five Summary of the Spatial Analysis and some scrapers from Kettig investigated microscopically General Remarks on the Raw Material (although traces of adhesive were found on all five Economy investigated projectile points; see Pawlik [in Baales, in ff This paper could only give a brief summary of certain press; Baales, 1999]) and the overall di use distribution aspects of the Federmessergruppen site of Kettig, the of scrapers, in more or less similar frequencies full analysis of which will be presented in the final across the entire site, might speak against its general publication (Baales, in press). The main emphasis was applicability. laid on the possibilities of using lithic artefact distributions for the recognition of internal site spatial Occupation Division at Kettig organization and fine chronological division of occupation phases. It was possible to differentiate several On the evidence of the flaked stone artefacts and, to a discrete knapping areas of lithic artefacts, some of limited extent, on the basis of the other discussed which clearly relate to a hearth, and a ‘‘dump’’ where materials, at least two phases can be identified during numerous lithic artefacts knapped elsewhere on the site the occupation of the Kettig site: were discarded. From Lithics to Spatial and Social Organization 139

1279 with other hunter–gatherers in neighbouring regions. The need for such social interaction is made clear by a 50 X recent study of European population density during 10 042 diﬀerent pre- and protohistoric periods (Zimmermann, 40 9112 948 1996). Data presented by Vencl (1991), based on 30 Federmessergruppen site density in Eastern Cen- tral Europe, suggest that the population of Central 2 20 4563 Europe comprised some 0·02–0·03 individuals/km (Zimmermann, 1996: 58), only a tenth of a thousand of

Percentage present 250 10 245 881 the recent value. This is, of course, only an estimate, 71 337 but seems to be supported by data from sub-recent 0 up to 1 20 40 60 > 60–c.100 hunter–gatherer societies. Even without a detailed Raw material resource distance (km) study, one can find in Pfizenmayer (1926: 248) a notice that North Siberian reindeer hunters at the beginning Figure 11. Raw materials classed by their source. Kettig in compari- of the 20th century showed a population density of son with Andernach-Martinsberg (Federmessergruppen assemblage 2 of the 1980s excavations). , with Baltic/Te´tange flint. Andernach some 0·04 individuals/km (close to the data discussed ( ), N=2·793; Kettig ( ), N=24·098. here for the Federmessergruppen), although even smaller values are known (cf. Weniger, 1982: 153, 207). Site history at Kettig can be divided into two succes- In order to survive in such a sparsely inhabited sive phases of occupation (which are, however, closely Late Glacial landscape, the small hunter–gatherer linked), the younger of which is represented by series of groups needed regular contact with other groups. artefacts still located at the place where they were These social networks allowed hunter–gatherers to knapped, while the older stage is demonstrated by raw interact with other similar, local hunter–gatherer materials found either more diffusely across the site units, creating a form of higher-level ‘‘group iden- due to their dispersal by subsequent human activity or tity’’. Knowledge of and intermarriage between differ- in a secondary dump. Apart from these insights into ent local groups would in turn have provided a the spatial organization of a large Final Palaeolithic form of ‘‘insurance’’ in times of local subsistence settlement in the Central Rhineland, analysis of the crisis by temporarily making available regions different lithic raw materials at Kettig allows some occupied by other (now ‘‘related’’) people, and also conclusions of a more general nature. have made it possible to avoid inbreeding of the Final Palaeolithic Federmessergruppen sites in the ‘‘own’’ local group. Although established for social Central Rhineland show a striking use of exogenous reasons, once in existence, the networks also raw materials (Figure 11) for manufacturing all kinds enabled the exchange and diffusion of knowledge of of tools, even though good quality raw material was new technological innovations and thus incidentally present locally. ‘‘Exogenous’’, as used here, means led to the development of archaeologically recog- raw materials (cretaceous flint) obtained from sources nizable inter-regional technocomplexes (e.g. the some 80 km (and more) distant, especially those Federmessergruppen). located in the Meuse drainage area (Belgium and In this model, lithic raw material curation and The Netherlands) to the northwest, or from moraines transportation was simply a by-product of the move- of the Saalian glaciation to the north. The intro- ments initiated by highly necessary regular social duction of flint into the Central Rhineland can be contacts between the Central Rhineland Federmesser- observed from the early Middle Palaeolithic onwards gruppen groups with others in neighbouring regions of and is particularly pronounced for the Upper Palaeo- Northwestern Europe. All Federmessergruppen sites lithic Magdalenian and for the Final Palaeolithic in the Neuwied Basin have produced artefacts of Federmessergruppen (Floss, 1994; Baales & Street, cretaceous flint from the Meuse catchment area to 1996). the northwest. Although no Central Rhineland raw Seasonal information for both the Magdalenian and materials have yet been found on contemporary sites in the Federmessergruppen sites in the Central Rhineland Belgium or The Netherlands, a few Dutch sites of the shows the availability of large game animals as a food preceding Magdalenian have produced small numbers resource on a year-round basis. This implies that of Tertiary quartzite artefacts (often backed bladelets) hunter–gatherers at both periods (separated by some presumed to have a Central Rhineland origin (Arts & 2 ky) were potentially able to remain all year round Deeben, 1987: 55 f) and brought in by people from the in the Neuwied Basin and its vicinity (Baales & south. Street, 1996, 1998). In this case, we need to ask why Whereas the Federmessergruppen contacts between did people change location and transport exogenous the Central Rhineland and the northwest have long materials? been known, the recent recognition of Niederbieber It is very probable that the reason for this mobility of several nodules of Muschelkalkhornstein (Triassic was the necessity of maintaining regular social contacts chert; H. Lo¨hr, pers. comm.) provides new evidence 140 M. Baales for contact on a similar scale to the region around zur Vegetation der Allerød-Zeit am Mittelrhein. Archaölogisches Saarbru¨cken, almost 200 km to the southwest. Korrespondenzblatt 28, 191–204. Baales, M., Mewis, S. U. & Street, M. (1998b). Der Federmesser- Fundplatz Urbar bei Koblenz (Kreis Mayen-Koblenz). Jahrbuch des Ro¨misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 43 (1996), 241–279. Acknowledgements Batchelor, D. (1979). The use of quartz and quartzite as cooking stones. In (G. Bosinski, Ed.) Die Ausgrabungen in Go¨nnersdorf My thanks are specially due to the Deutsche Forsc- 1968–1976 und die Siedlungsbefunde der Grabung 1968. Der hungsgemeinschaft in Bonn-Bad Godesberg, which Magdaleńien-Fundplatz Go¨nnersdorf 3. Wiesbaden: Franz made possible the analysis of the Kettig site within the Steiner, pp. 154–165. framework of a DFG Priority Programme Wandel der Behm, J. A. (1983). Flake concentrations: distinguishing between flint working activity areas and secondary deposits. Lithic tech- Geo-Biospha¨re wa¨hrend der letzten 15.000 Jahre.Afirst nology 12, 9–16. draft of this paper, intended as a contribution to this Bogaard, P. van den & Schmincke, H.-U. (1985). Laacher See research programme, was presented in 1995 at the Tephra—a widespread isochronous late quarternary tephra layer ‘‘Analithic’’ meeting in Groningen, The Netherlands in Central and Northern Europe. Geological Society of America, (Dr D. Stapert). Finally, many thanks to my colleague Bulletin 96, 1554–1571. Bolus, M. (1992). Die Siedlungsbefunde des spa¨teiszeitlichen Fund- Dr M. Street, Neuwied-Monrepos, for discussion and platzes Niederbieber (Stadt Neuwied). Monographien des improvement of the text and for many fruitful past Ro¨misch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 22. Mainz & Bonn: (and future) debates, and two unknown JAS referees Dr. Habelt. for their useful, critical comments on the first draft of Bosinski, G., Street, M. & Baales, M. (Eds) (1995). 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