CONTACT Action on Armed Violence COUNTING THE COST 5th Floor, Epworth House 25 City Road Casualty recording practices and realities around the world TLondon EC1Y 1AA ( ) F +44 0 20 7256 9500 ( ) E +44 0 20 7256 9311 [email protected] www.aoav.org.uk Contents Armed violence is a global problem affecting millions of people every year. Deaths and injuries, whether they are due to conflict, interpersonal violence, clashes between rival organised groups or religiously motivated attacks, are the human testimony to the scourge of armed violence. Foreword 1 The Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development estimates that in 2011, 526,000 people lost their lives due to armed violence, 390,000 of them were because of intentional homicides. Only 10% Infographic 3 of these occurred in conflict. Cleary, violence is a problem that affects people in many areas beyond conflict zones. In addition to the human loss and suffering, negative consequences of armed violence Overview 5 affect entire communities and states, undermining social and economic development. Methodology 9 The United Nations General Assembly Report A/64/228 of 2009 considers insecurity, along with poverty,economic crises and climate change, to be a critical challenge to the goal of humanitarian pro- Terminology 10 tection, poverty reduction, and development. Damage to infrastructure and properties, limited delivery of public services, undermined investment in human, social and economic capital, and high expenditures Challenges 12 on security services are just a few consequences of this problem.

Governments, civil society and international organisations are increasing their efforts to address the Benefits 20 problem of armed violence through the Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development, the Oslo Commitments on Armed Violence, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's Case studies 30 (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC), and the UN General Assembly, amongst others. Conclusion 40 Casualty recording can offer relevant, accurate and reliable data that in turn can inform how governments and civil society, among others, actually tackle the problems of armed violence. But in order for these Recommendations 41 actors to act truly effectively, it is also clear that more evidence is needed to show how casualty recording can contribute to reducing armed violence worldwide. This is the objective of this report. Notes 43

Report by Mirko Miceli and Serena Olgiati

With contributions and research by Gabriela Gutierrez, Jorge Restrepo, Julia Knittel and Serena Olgiati

Editor Iain Overton

With thanks to Elizabeth Minor and Jacob Beswick (Oxford Research Group); Gabriela Gutierrez and Jorge Restrepo (Centro de Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos); Eileen Ipulan-Bautista, Ariel Hernandez and Charlito Z. Manlupig (Balay Mindanaw Foundation Inc.); Jasmin Nario Galace (Center for Peace Education, Miriam College); Srisompob Jitpiromsri (Deep South Watch); Natacha Cornaz (Geneva Declaration Secretariat); Cate Buchanan (Surviving Gun Violence Project); Nerina Čevra, Jacob Parakilas and Robert Perkins (AOAV), and all who agreed to talk to us about their casualty recording practices. We hope that their views are properly reflected in this report.

Copyright © Action on Armed Violence (March 2014)

Cover illustration Members of the Special Police Operations Battalion (BOPE) participate in a mission in the alleys of a slum in the area of Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on December 7, 2009. Spencer Platt/Getty Images News/Thinkstock.

Infographic Sarah Leo

Clarifications or corrections from interested parties are welcome. Research and publication funded by the Government of Norway, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Design and printing Tutaev Design 1 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 2

Foreword

IAIN OVERTON Of course, there is a distance between ideals and record civilian casualties as part of broader efforts to Director of Policy and Investigations, realities. The practice of casualty recording, despite monitor and report on violations of international hu- Action on Armed Violence quite clear demands under international law for it to manitarian and human rights law, drawing on good be implemented in conflict situations, is far from uni- practice and expertise from within the United Nations, “There is a painting by Klee called Angelus Novus. It versal. It is, and often has been, subject to political Member States and civil society5”. shows an angel who seems about to move away from abuse. But more and more states, civil society and something he stares at. His eyes are wide, his mouth the international community as a whole appreciate Of course, there are still growing pains. And to this is open, his wings are spread. This is how the angel of the relevance of recording deaths and injuries from end, AOAV has produced this report designed at help- history must look. His face is turned toward the past. armed violence. African Union peacekeepers in So- ing states and organisations realise the ideal. We ex- Where a chain of events appears before us, he sees on malia, for instance, have recognised the importance amine the benefits and challenges of casualty record- single catastrophe, which keeps piling wreckage upon of their own comprehensive data on civilian casualties ing practices taking into account examples from differ- wreckage and hurls it at his feet. The angel would like and so have decided to set up their own civilian track- ent countries. to stay, awaken the dead, and make whole what has ing mechanisms. Whilst casualty recording and casu- been smashed. But a storm is blowing from Paradise alty tracking differ in certain aspects, they both True, nobody can restore what has been lost through and has got caught in his wings; it is so strong that the address the fundamental advantages of counting violence. But counting the cost of this violence at least angel can no longer close them. This storm drives him casualties of violence. gives us a glimpse of what Walter Benjamin calls ‘the irresistibly into the future to which his back is turned, pile of debris’, and that glimpse helps understand the while the pile of debris before him grows toward the Perhaps it is even fair to say that casualty recording true impact of violence. And it provides an incontest- sky. What we call progress is this storm1”. might be coming of age. The latest UN Secretary able argument for society to respond. General Report on the Protection of Civilians in armed The philosopher Walter Benjamin wrote these words conflict reflects this by recommending that “United in 1940 as he saw Europe engulf in flames. Within the Nations actors should work together to establish a year he had taken his own life on the French-Spanish common United Nations system to systematically border, the threat of deportation to a Jewish concen- tration camp seemingly too great for him to bear.

They are words that resonate as much today as they did then. Syria is engulfed in flames, Iraq descends back into the abyss and gun violence takes thousands gun control there. The recording of over 3,000 people of lives a week. The single catastrophe the Angelus dead in Pakistan following drone attacks3 has trig- Novus sees in the 21st century has to be the terrible gered a United Nations investigation into the use of harm caused by armed violence, a harm estimated to drones and a consequent call on states to launch in- take over half a million lives a year.2 quiries into drone attacks that kill civilians.4 Witness- ing the impact of armed violence has consequences. Seeing this harm in its entirety is a gruelling task. Re- cording the true toll of armed violence reveals hard This report lays out the importance of counting the truths: it tells of underlying prejudices, of racism, of true cost of armed violence. It focuses mainly on state sexism: humanity’s ugliness. But only by turning be- practices but also looks at some efforts by civil society. hind us and calculating how many people have died AOAV has collaborated with the ever-vigilant Oxford and have been injured in a conflict, in a slum area, in Research Group who are working on a parallel report a city in the grip of violence, can we ever begin to looking at how the United Nations helps count the address the impact that armed violence has. mounting dead.

Counting the cost of armed violence holds a mirror Action on Armed Violence is a proud member of the up to any society and allows both its citizens and the Every Casualty Campaign and we echo that cam- wider international community to ask themselves: is paign’s call here, because it is an ideal that should not this the world we want to live in? To this end, the fact be forgotten: we ask states to promptly record, cor- that over 30,000 people die every year in the United rectly identify and publicly acknowledge casualties of States from gun violence has framed the debate on armed violence, wherever and whenever this happens. THE HUMAN TOLLOLLT OF ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTINGCOOUNTINGUNTING THE COSTTOSC T 711,216 CASUALTYTYALASUC TYY RECRECORDINGORDING PRAPRACTICESCTICES AND REALITIES AROUND THE WORLDWORLDTHE VIOLENT DEATHSDEA ATHSTHS BETWEEN 24,763 220,000220 0000 1985 AND MARCH 2014 VIOLENT DEATHSDEAATHSTHS VIOLENT DEATHSDEAATHSTHS IN 2013 BETWEEN 1997 AND 2003 CONFLICTONFLICC CCTT & ARMED VIOLENCE COLOMBIA VENEZUELA MEXICO

+37%+3 % HOMICIDESHOOMICIDES SINCESIN INCE 2007

33.2 HOMICIDESDICIMOH ES PER 100,000 IN 2011 23.7 HOMICIDESSEDICIMOH PER 100,000 IN 2011

79 HOMICIDESSEDICIMOH PER 100,000 IN 2013

+60%+6 % PEOPLEPE TREATREATEDATEDTEDD FORF GUNSHOTGUNSGUNSHOT 178,000 THAILAND ATTACKSAATTTTTACKSACKS FROM 2002 0002 TTOO 2012201 DISPLACEDCEDDISPLA 13,571 IN 2012 PEOPLE KILLED USA AND INJURED BETWEENBBE N 2004 ANDND 2012 PHILIPPINESP PINNEESS BETWEEN 2004 AND 2,20022002 000 0 INCIDENCEI NNCID ID DENCE -5.5%-5 5% 2012 IN THE PATTANIPPAAATTTTTANIANI GUNN HOMICIDES INVOLVEDINVVVOLOLLLVEDVEDE EXPLOSIVE PROVINCEVINCEPRO FROMM 20022 TOTO 2012 WEAPONSAPP

VER AGE AAVERAGEVERAGE ANNUALAL HOMICIDES RARATES ATESTES PER 100,000 (2004-2005) 4.7 HOMICIDESDICIMOH ES PER 100,000 IN 2011 5.4 HOMICIDESSEDICIMOH PER 100,000 IN 2009 4.8 HOMICIDESDICIMOH SED PER 100,000 IN 2011 < 3 HOMICIDES 3-10 HOMICIDES 10-20 HOMICIDES 20-30 HOMICIDES > 30 HOMICIDES

GLOBAL AVERAGEAVERAGE 7.9 HOMICIDES PER 100,000 PEOPLE THE ECONOMICECONOMIC IMPIMPACTPA PACCTT OF ARMED VIOLENCE

FIREARM-CASUALTIESFIREARM-CASUALLTIESTIES CAUSEDCAUSED A LOSS OF EL SALSALVADOR ALLVVVADORADOR 61.9 HOMICIDES PER 100,000 PEOPLE $95 BILLIONBIL N N HIDDEN OOSTS CO SPENDINGSPEENDING DING ON ON HIDDEN HIDDENHID CO COSTS DUEDUUE TO TO O VIOLENCE VIOLENCE 90 BBY BY 90 $37$7 BBILLIBILLIONBILLIO IL LLL L LYY AFFECTED FECTED TRI IES COUNT COUN DUE TO MEDICMEDICAL IC CAALL EXPENSES X PPENSES E NSNNSES S AND LOST PRODUCTIVITY RODUCTIVITY IRAQ 59.4 HOMICIDES PER 100,000 PEOPLE HIGHLYHIGHL AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN 2005

USA JAMAICAJAMAICA 58.1 HOMICIDES PER 100,000 PEOPLE MEXICO

90% OF COUNTRIESCOUNTRIES THATTHAT 40% OF COUNTRIES HAD CIVIL WARSWARS IN THE MANY OF THESE COST OF ARMED CONFLICT COMING OUT OF VIOVIO- - $ 1515$ 21ST CENTURYCENTURRYY WENTW FOR 23 AFRICANAFRICAN COUNTRIES MALARIA LENCE RELAPSE WITHIN EMERGENCIESEMERGENCIES ARE OF ZAMBIAZ M TREATMENTTREAATMENTTMENT THROUGH CIVIL WWARSARS IN } $ 0 3,000 10 YEARS $284 BILLION ION THE PREVIOUS 30 YEARS TREATMENTTREAATMENTTMENT OF A GUNSHOT $335BN $137BN CHRONICONIC NANATURE.ATURE.TURE. BETWEEN 1990 AND 2005 OR ANTIPERSONNEL VICTIM ECONOMIC IMPACTIMPPACTACT APPROXIMATEAPPROXIMAATETE OF VIOLENCE GOVERNMENT IN 2013 FUNDING TO HEALTHHEALLTHTH & EDUCATIONEDUCAATIONTION Data: Full list of sources availableavailable on aoav.org.ukaoa .org.ukv 5 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 6

OVERVIEW

CHALLENGES simpler technique to highlight particularly deadly Under-reporting forms of violence. This project monitors English- Under-reporting is the greatest challenge faced by language media reports of explosive weapons in- recording mechanisms. This is due mostly to: cidents in which at least one casualty was identified. Whilst it does not aim to be comprehensive in the u Challenging environments for casualty recorders; number of incidents recorded, it has been instru- u A lack of willingness and capacity of casualty mental in generating evidence to help shape the recording practitioners to share and compare international debate on the use of explosive datasets; weapons in populated areas.9 u Fear of retaliation against the victims; and u Lack of trust in the public authorities. All these techniques, with their strengths and weaknesses, ensure the debate on the human Limited resources impact of violence remains high in international Most of the systems have very limited resources to agendas and that victims of violence do not go record casualties. Outdated computer programmes, unaccounted. few experienced staff and availability of only basic analytical tools often hamper the capacity of these LIMITATIONS OF THIS REPORT institutions to produce utilitarian analyses. New tech- AOAV has focused on identifying key issues with the nologies can go a long way to remedy these short- mechanisms for casualty recording and to provide comings. The report shows examples in Thailand and examples of how the data has been used practically. Jamaica where technology has advanced analytical It has looked at the main challenges of the data re- capacities (see states’ practices, challenges, box 1). corded, but has not carried out an extensive and thorough analysis of the quality of this data. Limited scope Among the recording mechanisms there is a general AOAV research in the Philippines and Thailand focus- tendency to adopt a narrow scope. In Colombia for

An anti-government protester ‘Red Shirt’ knees down as he runs away from the gunfire in central Bangkok, ed on particularly violent hotspots in the south of the example, almost 80% of recording systems focus on Thailand, on May 16, 2010. Athit Perawongmetha/Getty Images News/Thinkstock. countries – Mindanao and the Deep South – respec- gathering data solely on victims of conflict. In contrast, tively. This has limited the number of experts inter- it is estimated that as little as 13% of the casualties of Recording deaths and injuries caused by violence is viewed by AOAV, especially in the case of Thailand. violence are caused by the conflict.11 Similarly in the Practices to record casualties a challenging and often contested practice. Practition- Philippines, over two thirds of the data collection sys- In addition to casualty recording, there are other ers around the world use various techniques to count KEY FINDINGS tems focus on monitoring violations of human rights counting techniques that have been invaluable in casualties. This report focuses on the practice of ca- The vast majority of the recording systems included and neglect the high numbers of people victim of illustrating the impact of violence. Among those, sualty recording understood as the comprehensive, in this research record both injuries and deaths from common crime, of clashes between clans and vio- tracking casualties6 has been pivotal in informing systematic and continuous recording of individual armed violence. This challenges the general narrative lence linked to the trade in illegal goods. This narrow military strategies and reducing the number of civil- deaths and injuries of armed violence. that injuries are too difficult to record and are not reli- approach often fails to produce a full understanding ians killed in conflict. This technique has been suc- able enough in providing an overview of the problem. of the interconnection between different types of vio- cessfully implemented by the International Security It looks in particular at states practices to record ca- This study shows that focusing only on deaths can lence – which can reduce the impact of actions to Assistance Force in Afghanistan and will be imple- sualties within their borders, but also at civil society give a misleading picture of what is actually happen- address the problem. mented by the African Union Mission in Somalia. mechanisms and how the two can work together. ing in a country. A clear example of this comes from the USA: whilst homicides between 2002 and 2012 Reliability of the data Another technique for measuring casualties was METHODOLOGY have continued to decline, injuries due to gun shots Reliable information is essential to any recording mech- developed by academics and focuses on mathe- For this study, AOAV has interviewed 33 institutions and to a lesser extent to bladed weapons have in- anism that uses evidence to inform practices. There matical estimations. This approach was used in recording casualties of conflict and armed violence in creased steadily during the same period.10 Recognis- are a number of indicators that help to assess reliabil- estimating that in Iraq between March 2003 and Colombia, Indonesia, Liberia, Mexico, the Philippines, ing existing challenges in the reliability of data on ity. For this report AOAV has looked at three elements: June 2006, 601,027 people died due to violence.7 and Thailand. Through desk research AOAV has iden- injuries, AOAV believes that states and international tified further examples in Brazil, Burundi, the former organisations should pay more attention to this aspect u The presence of validation mechanisms to verify the Since 2010, the Explosive Violence Monitoring Proj- Yugoslavia, Guatemala, Iraq, Jamaica, Nigeria, So- by strengthening injury recording practices. data that is gathered; ect8 at Action on Armed Violence has been using a malia, Sudan, the UK, the USA, and Venezuela. 7 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 8

u The use of multiple sources to increase the compre- that international and national actors should consider most frequently used for advocacy purposes and to Inform legal procedures hensive scope of the database; and from the start is the legacy of the recording systems inform public debates. In the former Yugoslavia, Peru and Guatemala, casu- u The transparency of the systems. once the mission is over. The example of the chal- alty recording has informed legal proceedings and lenges faced in maintaining a functional observatory in The desktop research carried out by AOAV in this facilitated the prosecution of war criminals and dicta- Validation mechanisms Burundi shows just how difficult it is to ensure record- study highlights an additional number of benefits: tors. The recent case of the ex-military ruler Efrain Seventy three percent of the mechanisms investigated ing mechanisms can continue to produce and analyse Rios Montt in Guatemala shows how evidence on here validate their data through a number of techniques data after the conflict is over (see states’ practices, Prevent and Reduce Armed Violence casualties can be used to convict perpetrators (see – from corroboration of sources to on-the-ground in- challenges, box 7). Casualty recording improves armed violence preven- states’ practices, benefits, box 9). Data to inform legal vestigations. Stronger mechanisms combine several tion and reduction. For example, this report shows procedures requires a high degree of reliability and validation techniques. This figure, however, fluctuates Use of the data how data is used to highlight specific homicide pat- long investigations. Recording systems therefore greatly. In Colombia, for instance, most systems vali- A major challenge is to ensure that recording mecha- terns. These then facilitate the design of adequate re- should be clear from the start on the purpose of the date their data whereas only half of them do so in the nisms produce data that can be analysed and used sponses tailored specifically to the identified issues. data they are collecting in order to balance accuracy Philippines and Thailand. practically. This means that sufficient resources need An evaluation of such a policy in Cali, Colombia has and verification with the urgency of making the infor- to be available to casualty recording practitioners for shown a decrease in homicide rates of 14% through- mation available. Use of multiple sources of data them to interpret the information they are gathering out the periods when the policy was implemented 14 Collaboration between agencies is fundamental to en- and to develop concrete recommendations. (see states’ practices, benefits, box 1). Facilitate international cooperation sure that there is comprehensive data collection and Casualty recording can enhance international cooper- analysis. Each agency has access to a particular set of Even in cases where this data is being used, there are Evaluate the economic impact ation in various ways. If high numbers of casualties information that – when joined – helps to paint a fuller still issues that can prevent effective action. In the In several cases casualty data has been used to evalu- are recorded and brought to the attention of the pub- picture of the problem. AOAV found that just under Philippines for example, AOAV has witnessed how ate direct and indirect economic costs of violence. In lic, the United Nations (UN) Security Council might 70% of the systems surveyed use multiple sources of senior officials in the army embraced a new approach 2004, for example, the Geneva Declaration on Armed seek a resolution to prevent further abuses. Data on information. Again, this percentage fluctuates between to warfare aimed at reducing abuses against the civil- Violence and Development showed that armed vio- casualties can also be used as evidence to seek inter- countries. The research highlights challenges related ian population. This new doctrine, whilst positive, is lence had cost the 90 most-affected countries in the national financial and technical support to address to the use of multiple sources, for example the risk of nevertheless slow in trickling down to the soldiers at world more than 95 billion USD.15 specific challenges. double-counting specific incidents, or the danger of the front and its impact is consequently reduced (see over-reporting a specific type of armed violence due to states’ practices, challenges, box 8). Often institutions the mandate of the agencies providing the information. are also slow in responding to armed violence cases brought to their attention. This time lag can lead to Transparency people taking matters into their own hands in the form Transparency when recording data on violence is par- of private retaliation and so not prevent the spiral into ticularly challenging. Protection of the victims and the more violence. informants providing the information, as well as the casualty recorders themselves is essential. A recent BENEFITS event in Syria, where a casualty-recording practition- Most institutions interviewed by AOAV use data to er was abducted because of her work,12 shows just inform political debates and to evaluate policies. how difficult this is. Syria also, however, illustrates Around 40% of them use data to improve military increased efforts towards greater transparency about strategies and to support victims’ rights. Whilst in the numbers that are published. The large swathes Colombia, most of the systems (83%) use data to of data on civilian casualties, and methodological ap- enable international cooperation, only a third of proaches that can be found on websites of various them do so in the Philippines and Thailand. recording organisations are a promising step forward.13 In contrast, very few organisations interviewed by It appears from AOAV’s investigation the reliability of AOAV have clear and transparent methodologies data directly determines its use. In Colombia, where and datasets available to the public. most data providers validate the figures and use multi- ple sources of information, over 50% of the systems Legacy of the systems use data to enhance victims’ rights, inform academic Armed violence does not abide to timetables and in- research and evaluate policies. In Thailand and the ternational agendas. It does not begin when a conflict Philippines, where fewer data collectors use multiple The “Parliament of Trees against War and Violence”, a memorial for the 258 people who died at the Berlin Wall. begins and end when a conflict ends. A key element sources and validation mechanisms, information is iStock Editorial/Thinkstock. 9 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 10

METHODOLOGY TERMINOLOGY

AOAV has approached this project in two ways: Of the three main countries in which AOAV conducted ARMED VIOLENCE through desk research and through case studies field research, the Philippines is the only place where As defined by the OECD, armed violence is “the use deaths, or concentrate on establishing and recording comprising of targeted interviews with local actors. more civil society organisations (58%) were interviewed or threatened use of weapons to inflict injury, death or the fate of the missing or the identification of unknown than governmental bodies (25%) (Fig.2). psychosocial harm, which undermines development.”16 victims. The goal for all, though, is the same: a record DESK RESEARCH For this research, the concept of armed violence in- that is as thorough and complete as possible. Casu- Desk research included a review of academic publi- This study mainly polled data collection systems – cludes armed conflict, defined by Uppsala University alty recording will do more than provide a few illustra- cations, media reports, national legal frameworks and those receiving information directly from people as “contested incompatibility that concerns govern- tive cases for a specific situation. information gleaned from international organisations. affected by violence and other primary sources – ment and/or territory where the use of armed force Included in this report are examples from Brazil, accounting for some 63% of all interviewees. The between two parties, of which at least one is the gov- SYSTEMATIC Burundi, the former Yugoslavia, Guatemala, Iraq, rest of the organisations use data for various pur- ernment of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related Casualty recording aims to apply a methodology, Jamaica, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, the UK, the USA poses but do not record it directly. deaths in one calendar year17.” It also includes violence which the casualty recorder has defined, in a consis- and Venezuela. Examples identified through desk that happens outside of conflict situations, such as tent way to every case/incident. Casualty recording research complement field investigations to illus- interpersonal violence. methodology may include putting in place: standard Philippines Thailand trate particular aspects of this issue. definitions and categories, procedures for corrobora- CASUALTY tion and evaluation of the information gathered, inter- INTERVIEWS WITH LOCAL ACTORS This term is understood to include both individual nal quality control procedures etc. AOAV carried out a series of interviews with people deaths and injuries caused by armed violence. Injuries who are currently recording data on casualties. The include incidents that did not cause direct death but CONTINUOUS focus was primarily on three countries: Colombia, the had a demonstrable physical or psychological impact Casualty recording aims to give a continuous, case- Philippines and Thailand. The choice was based on on the victims. by-case record of deaths and/or injuries across a the existence of well-established casualty recording specified time period. This time period may not neces- mechanisms and the existence of areas highly affect- VICTIMS sarily be the entire duration of a conflict or a specific ed by armed violence. Geographical representation Academic For AOAV victims killed and injured by armed violence period with high rates of armed violence. This might was also taken into account. AOAV carried out the CSO include not only direct victims, but also families and be because the system to record casualties was only interviews of practitioners in the Philippines and Colombia Govt communities impacted by armed violence, such as recently established, or because casualty recording Thailand. The Colombian organisation Centro de displaced communities. AOAV uses a definition of vic- had to stop for various reasons. The key feature is the Figure 2: Proportion of types of organisations interviewed Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos collected per country tims adapted from the 1985 UN Declaration of Basic continuous documentation of a case-by-case or inci- the data in Colombia. Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse dent-by-incident record across time. Casualty record- LIMITATIONS OF THIS REPORT of Power. “Victims means persons who, individually or ing will do more than give a snapshot of a situation – In addition to the examples captured through desk AOAV has focused on identifying key issues and collectively, suffered harm, including physical or mental it will give detailed information over time and place. research, AOAV has interviewed 33 academic, civil find examples of how data has been used practically. injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substan- society and government institutions: 12 in Colombia, It has looked at the main challenges of the data re- tial impairment of their fundamental rights”18 due to Casualty recording involves documenting as much of 12 in the Philippines, 6 in Thailand and one each from corded, but has not carried out an extensive and acts of armed violence. the distinguishing information about incidents or indi- Mexico, Liberia and Indonesia. thorough analysis of the quality of this data. viduals killed and/or injured as possible. This informa- CASUALTY RECORDING tion includes: DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTITUTIONS In the Philippines it is also important to note that Casualty recording strives to achieve the comprehen- In terms of the type of organisations interviewed di- whilst AOAV spoke with people recording data on sive, systematic and continuous documentation of in- u The date of the incident that caused deaths, and/ rectly by AOAV, the majority are governmental bodies human rights violations in other parts of the country, dividual deaths and/or injuries from armed violence, or injuries, expressed as precisely as possible (55%). Civil society organisations (CSOs) and academic most of the interviewees were focused on docu- and/or the incidents in which these occur. (e.g. with time if known); research centres account for 36% and 9% of the total, menting human rights violations in Mindanao. u The location of the incident that caused deaths respectively (see Fig. 1). COMPREHENSIVE and/or injuries, expressed as precisely as possible; In Thailand, AOAV gathered information of casualty Casualty recording aims to give as comprehensive a u The number of people killed/injured in a given inci- recording mechanisms in the southern provinces. picture as possible of the deaths and/or injuries from dent, if individual identities are not known. As much Type Violence and data recording in the North was not the type of violence that is being documented, given detail (e.g. combatant status, type of victimization) Academic considered. This choice was based on the existence the constraints of any particular situation. Some casu- about casualties as possible should be recorded; CSO of several recording mechanisms in the south of the alty recorders may only record casualties in one par- u A description of the means of harm involved (the Govt country. The restricted geographical area considered ticular area of a country in conflict. Some may only type of weapons that were used); 0 246810 12 14 16 18 20 by AOAV has limited the number of interviewees in record violence committed by one perpetrator or from u A record of the sources used to document the Figure 1: Types of organisations interviewed Thailand compared to the Philippines and Colombia. one type of weapon. Others may only record civilian incident or individual casualty. COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 12 CHALLENGES STATES’ PRACTICES INTRODUCTION In the last few years, different types of recording Numerous obstacles undermine the implementation systems have been established around the world. of comprehensive and accurate casualty recording These include early warning systems, crime and systems. Depending on the settings and actors in- violence observatories and public health injury sur- volved, difficulties may arise at different stages of the veillance systems, among others. Regardless of process, from the data collection process itself to the the type of monitoring system, close collaboration misuse (political and otherwise) of the final findings. with the respective national government seems Based on its research and the national cases analys- to be a common element that ensures their long- ed here, AOAV has identified general and specific term effectiveness.19 areas that threaten to limit the relevance and impact of casualty recording mechanisms. This section looks at some of the challenges of recording systems that have been identified in this UNDER-REPORTING research. They are illustrated using specific exam- A major problem common to the many recording ples that AOAV has identified from different experi- mechanisms reviewed by AOAV is the under-report- ences around the world. ing of violent incidents. Even in countries with efficient casualty recording systems, many violent deaths and Recording deaths and injuries injuries go unreported. In Singapore, for example, Homicide data is generally considered the most re- estimating the number of homicides is still quite liable indicator of the impact of violence on people. challenging since over 20 per cent of the deaths This is due to very practical considerations: it is are classified as ‘undetermined intent’.23 In several easier to define and count dead bodies than to high-income countries, the tools used to commit identify and record injuries. However, recent ap- homicides “cannot be estimated because a high proaches are highlighting the importance of record- proportion of homicides are coded to ‘unspecified ing injuries in order to accurately measure the mechanism’: Portugal (27 per cent), Spain (22 per extent of the problem. cent), and Israel (43 per cent)24.”

“The millions of deaths that result from injuries rep- In areas affected by high rates of armed violence, resent only a small fraction of those injured. Tens AOAV noticed several factors that influence under- of millions of people suffer injuries that lead to hos- reporting rates. Violent incidents often take place in pitalization, emergency department or general hard-to-reach areas for data collectors, either due practitioner treatment, or treatment that does not to the lack of infrastructure or because the situation involve formal medical care20.” in the area is life-threatening. People may also not report incidents because they live far away or they Recording injuries is not only a matter of producing fear retaliation from the perpetrators. Under-reporting a full picture of the problem but also a question of is also linked to a lack of trust in authorities and a economics. In Zambia, one malaria case treatment failure by authorities to respond to the reported inci- costs between 10 and 15 USD.21 “In contrast, a dents. Sometimes it is simply a matter of a lack of gunshot or antipersonnel mine-injured patient re- capacity and willingness of data recorders to share quires a minimum of 100 USD for a minor injury, to and compare data. an average of 3,000 USD22.” These are significant challenges to overcome but The general narrative tends to equate a reduction when incidents are not properly reported, assessing in homicides with a decline in the overall rates of the real impact of violence is made much harder. It armed violence, neglecting the relevance of injuries can lead to a misinformed analysis and result in ill- in this equation. This can be a dangerous practice. informed responses to the problem.

Members of the Thai military shield themselves during a gun battle Such an approach can be very costly, both in with red shirt protesters in Bangkok, Thailand, on April 28, 2010. human and financial terms. Paula Bronstein/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. 13 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 14

systems record the broader category of casualties of tiation, armed actors on both sides tend to be more armed violence. This is the case even though recent considered in respecting the terms of any peace data from this country suggests that only 13% of the agreement. They know that possible violations will victims since 1985 have been due to the conflict.28 be reported and they will have a negative impact on their position at the negotiation table. When casualty-recording focuses only on one specific type of violence (such as violence in conflict zones), it On the other hand, mechanisms with less reliable can provide a misleading picture of the main victimisa- and transparent information use figures on deaths tion factors. The 2011 Global Burden of Armed Vio- and injuries for purposes that require a lower level lence report affirms: “In the majority of the countries of accuracy, for example to inform political debates experiencing or having emerged from armed conflict, and for general advocacy messages. the incidence of homicide is actually greater than the number of direct conflict deaths29.” In order to assess the reliability of the data AOAV has considered three elements: the existence of validation So while the data collected may shed light on a cer- mechanisms, the use of multiple sources of data and tain, specific phenomenon, the picture it portrays is the transparency of these mechanisms. partial. A more complete understanding of the overall level of armed violence is needed in order to reveal VALIDATION MECHANISMS how different types of armed violence are intercon- Recording systems should have strong protocols in A Filipino forensic expert shows the identification card of massacre victim Daniel Tiamson as they dig bodies nected – something that could never be achieved place to verify the data that is being gathered. This and evidence at the massacre site in the southern Philippine town of Ampatuan on December 6, 2009. Jeoffrey Maitem/Getty Images News/Thinkstock. through a narrow analytical focus. challenge is especially hard for systems that rely on secondary data culled from primary sources, for ex- ample in the monitoring of media reports. AOAV re- LIMITED RESOURCES In certain parts of the Philippines recording reduc- The computer programmes that are used to manage In Jamaica, the Healthy Lifestyle Project started search has found that in Colombia, most of the re- tions in the number of violations of peace agree- casualty data can often be out-of-date or obsolete using geospatial instruments to record crime. The cording mechanisms validate their information, while ments reflects a corresponding reduction in human and only permit simple and basic analysis. In many project has culminated in the formation of a crime only half of them do so in the Philippines and Thailand. rights abuses. However, deaths and injuries caused cases data is incomplete, unreliable or simply pre- observatory that uses these tools to plan, imple- The most common validation mechanisms identified by clashes between rival clans or due to other com- sented in such a way that prevents any useful analy- ment and monitor actions to fight crime. The suc- by AOAV include independent on-the-ground investi- mon crimes are not always accounted for by exist- sis. Of course, these issues are often due to scarce cess of this experience has prompted the police to gation of the cases, the corroboration of sources and ing monitoring systems. This is because these funding, technical limitations and infrastructure that also keep their records for analytical purposes and the comparison of datasets. Systems often use a systems were designed to focus exclusively on the restrict access to better technology. Sixty percent of to introduce Global Positioning Systems (GPS) de- combination of these validation techniques to violations of peace agreements. A narrow focus armed violence measuring systems analysed by the vices at crime scenes. Furthermore, the use of ge- strengthen accuracy. can have dangerous consequences. On the one Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Develop- ographical information systems (GIS) has informed hand, it gives a misleading picture of the overall ment in 2011 were running with an annual budget of strategic operations to address violence and helped rates of violence in a given setting. On the other In Colombia certain organisations rely on second- less than 100,000 USD.25 the police to better administer crime records. hand it hampers efforts to comprehensively ad- ary data, such as the Observatory of Human Rights Box 1 dress the causes of, and harm by, armed violence and International Humanitarian Law (Observatorio However, new technological innovations26 means eas- in the region. de Derechos Humanos y Derecho Internacional ier access to cheaper solutions, which can be incredi- Box 2 Humanitario, DDHIDH) and the National Network bly helpful in managing and processing information In addition to these general challenges, there are also for Information (Red Nacional de Informacíon) but and in helping to explain on-going patterns of violence a number of specific issues related to the scope of the do not have verification processes in place. Other through a more accurate and elaborate analysis. Using systems, the ways in which data is collected and man- RELIABILITY OF THE DATA organisations, however, recognise that strong vali- new technologies can also help better allocate limited aged, the relationship between the actors that are in- The absence of any ways to ensure that data is accu- dation procedures are necessary. Mostly these are resources to implement effective crime prevention volved in gathering information as well as to the use of rate raises significant questions as to the reliability of systems that aim to support reparation for victims. strategies. In order to remedy the limited analytical ca- the data. the figures. AOAV’s research shows that instruments pacity of their existing recording system, Deep South producing reliable data are more inclined to use that The first stage of their verification procedures con- Watch in Southern Thailand, for example, is working LIMITED SCOPE evidence to inform legal procedures, support victims’ sists in identifying the alleged victim, including per- with a European university to develop a Global Posi- AOAV research shows that almost 60% of the sys- rights, evaluate policies and programmes and inform sonal details that are certified through other existing tioning Systems (GPS) mapping tool that will facilitate tems in Colombia, the Philippines and Thailand record academic research. When reliable casualty recording official sources. Then they seek to certify that the geographical visualisations of ‘hotspots’ of violence.27 data on victims of conflict solely. In Colombia only two mechanisms are established as part of a peace nego- 15 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 16

Lack of a clear system to share data and transparent Many organisations do not disclose their data at all, because they were clear in their biases and shortcom- person has really been affected by a specific violent methodologies on how data is recorded increases the or only do so to a select group of other internal gov- ings. Methodological transparency gave UNHCR2 event. This analysis is based on: news reports that danger of duplication of the cases recorded. It can also ernmental agencies. Very few organisations disclose confidence in how they might use report findings32.” can confirm that a certain violent event really hap- hamper collaboration between recording systems and information on the methodology they use to collect the pened, specific information that is provided by the hence cause a duplication of efforts. “One of the major data. Even when data is disclosed, it can be presented local authorities in the areas where the event has challenges posed within clusters is that each partner in summaries that do not help the analysis. Only one happened, or by looking at information provided by may have its own set of definitions and methodologies, third of the systems recorded by AOAV publish the those bodies in charge of supporting victims of the making the harmonisation of information difficult, if not datasets with a level of disaggregation that allows for conflict, such as the National Victims Database impossible30.” independent analysis. (Registro Único de Víctimas, RUV). This rigorous system goes a long way to ensuring that informa- Lack of transparency and limited disaggregation ham- The Liberia Armed Violence Observatory (LAVO) is tion on victims is reliable and verified. per the reliability of the information and reduce the an independent institution established in 2011 by Box 3 chances for analysis and practical application of the Action on Armed Violence in collaboration with sev- data. The Oxford Research Group’s report on UN ca- eral local partners to provide an accurate picture of USE OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA sualty recording systems states “UNHCR2 [UN High armed violence in Liberia. LAVO gathers relevant Collaboration between different organisations and Commission for Refugees] valued UNAMA [UN Assis- A body of a victim, killed after a homemade bomb exploded information from the police, the Ministry of Health on a passenger bus, on 21 October, 2010 in the southern agencies is fundamental to ensure there is compre- tance Mission in Afghanistan] human rights reports and Social Welfare, non-governmental organisa- Philippine township of Matalam. Jeoffrey Maitem/Getty hensive data collection and analysis. For example, not only because of the information produced, but also Images News/Thinkstock. tions and national media. LAVO is also seeking to the morgue will have details about the deaths and the collaborate more with the Ministry of Gender, as police might have information about the perpetrators. this Ministry keeps a database on gender-based vi- A good example of how institutional transparency can be increased comes from Mexico, where it is estimated Hospitals will have information on the injuries, whilst a olence. Having access to this database is important that between 1997 and the first half of 2013, 7,000 people died violently each semester. There have been many local civil society organisation might have records of for improving the understanding on a relevant as- complaints from institutions and the public about lack of transparency in the numbers of people affected by vi- violence in the area where the killing occurred through pect of the violence in Liberia, an understanding so olence published by official databases. This situation led to the creation of several civil society initiatives, for its engagement with local communities. Similarly, dif- far limited due to the lack of specific data. example the Movimiento por la Paz con Justicia y Dignidad. This citizens’ movement, established in 2011 by ferent ministries or international agencies will have the journalist and poet Xavier Sicilia after his son was killed, aims to challenge the military response to organised different information on a specific theme, depending An additional problem encountered by LAVO in crime in favour of peaceful solutions that avoid civilian casualties. on their area of expertise. Liberia is the absence of a centralised patient data- The lack of information also triggered the adoption of the 2008 National Agreement for Security, Justice and base for information provided by Liberia’s health in- Among the recording mechanisms captured by this Lawfulness committed to create citizen observatories across Mexico to address public security issues. This stitutes. Since each hospital keeps its own separate research, just under 70% use multiple sources of in- led in 2009 to the creation by different civil society organisations, universities and research centres of the Se- records it is more challenging for them to be able to formation. The numbers differ considerably between curity, Justice, and Legality National Citizen Observatory (Observatorio Nacional Ciudadano de la Seguridad, share the information with other partners. countries. In Colombia, all the mechanisms do, whilst la Justicia y La Legalidad, ONC). The Observatory releases updated casualty information through its website. Box 4 none of the mechanisms recorded in Mindanao use For instance it gives official figures on homicides, kidnappings, extortions and violent thefts. multiple sources of information. If the final analysis of Furthermore, in February 2013, the recently elected Mexican government responded to a call for increased trans- the event lacks all or part of the overall information, TRANSPARENCY parency by announcing a revision of the official database on persons missing or disappeared. Recognising sub- the end data set would be incomplete. In turn, this Transparency is one of the key challenges when deal- stantial challenges with the actual database, the government has stated it is committed to building a unified would limit the identification of specific problems. ing with sensitive data concerning armed violence. national register that should address previous inconsistencies and unify existing state registries into a unique However, care must be taken. Multiple source record- Whilst it goes without saying that the protection of federal one. ing systems can enhance reliability of the data. But both the victims and the people recording and collat- they also increase the risk of double-counting the ing the information is essential, institutions still ought In addition, the Mexican Institute for Statistics, INEGI, has made available online the micro data of the National same incident. And, even in cases where validation to be transparent about the numbers they publish. Survey on Victims and Perception of Public Security (Encuesta Nacional de Victimización y Percepción sobre mechanisms are in place, different databases are They should produce disaggregated information and Seguridad Pública). This includes listing specific types of violence, weapons used and event-based information often not uniform in the presentation of the data, share information on the methods that are used to regarding violent incidents experienced by the victims. Whilst data on homicides was available also before the which makes corroboration very challenging. Some- collect and code the data. Transparency reinforces surge in violence, the war against organised criminal gangs has influenced the level of disaggregation, the type times multiple source systems might also exaggerate the position of casualty recorders when challenged of information recorded and the public availability of the information. the impact of a certain type of violence, or the num- about the figures. “When our data was politically at- Detailed and raw information is rarely shared by casualty recording practitioners but it is incredibly helpful to ber of incidents in a specific geographical region. tacked, people who came [journalistically and academ- support independent analysis. This occurs when multiple recorders focus on the ically] to our defense were able to cite our transparent Box 5 same area or type of violence. methodology and sourcing31.” 17 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 18

the establishment of new recording mechanisms. As successful, changes in approaches need to be inte- 15–24 were treated in emergency departments for In Nigeria, military records on civilian casualties are reflected by Oxford Research Group in their report on grated into bottom-up military and police doctrines non-fatal injuries sustained from firearms assaults.36 strictly confidential, used for internal security as- UN casualty recording practices “ (…)This highlights and become an integral part of the training curriculum To respond to this problem, a number of initiatives sessment, and almost always inaccessible for the need for UN programmes whose relevance may for all security officers. were implemented throughout the country. For exam- media and the general public. Sometimes the Chief continue beyond the lifetime of UN involvement to ple, the “Safe Street programme” introduced in certain of Army Staff issues general figures but more de- develop a workable plan for their legacy34.” neighbourhoods of Baltimore between 2008 and 2010 In the Philippines, the Internal Peace and Security tailed information is rarely obtainable. has led to a decrease in homicides varying between Plan of 2011 highlights the commitment of the army 34% and 53% depending on the neighbourhood In Burundi data from the Office for the Coordina- to respect human rights, international humanitarian The Baga case shows how controversial casualty where it was implemented.37 tion of Humanitarian Affairs shows that in 2012, 0.3 rules and good governance. This commitment to figures can be in cases where obscure methodolo- million people were still displaced by the violence. tackle the problem of violence seems to have been gies are used. In April 2013, violent clashes be- The United Nations Development Programme embraced in the higher ranks of the army. As one tween rebels of the Boko Haram group and In Venezuela at least 24,763 people were killed vi- (UNDP) helped establish a National Observatory on official told AOAV “We went from wanting to win governmental security forces in the village of Baga, olently in 2013 (79 for every 100,000). A qualitative Armed Violence. The Observatory has monitored war, to wanting to win peace.” Many civil society in the northeast part of the country, killed many study from 2011 looked at the impact of gun vio- the incidences of armed violence across country organisations interviewed stated that the Philippine civilians and left a large number of houses burnt lence in low-income neighbourhoods of the capital since 2008. In addition, UNDP supported a joint military today is friendlier towards civilians and and destroyed. However, the exact number of peo- city Caracas. It found that even when the victims study on the impact of armed violence in Burundi more open to non-governmental organisations than ple that died is still debated. The International Red or their relatives lodged an official complaint, the with League Iteka, a local organisation. This was before. There is also evidence that suggests a de- Cross and Human Rights Watch estimate a death competent authorities often assumed the shooting carried out by the Small Arms Survey in 2009. How- crease in impunity among soldiers who commit vi- toll of more than 180 bodies, whilst a local senator was associated with personal grudges, and on ever, national authorities and UNDP encountered olations. Training on human rights for the lower claims that more than 200 persons have been many occasions failed to handle the case properly. challenges in transferring the observatory to the ranks is, however, not compulsory. This means that killed. Based on official sources, the army consid- Official investigations were delayed, the crimes government under the Ministry of Public Security. doubts remain on the extent to which the new doc- ered these figures as grossly exaggerated and ar- were unpunished and the families who sought jus- Without the financial and technical support and trine has been embraced by lower ranks engaging gued that only 37 people, including six civilians, tice were often targeted for further retaliation by the multiple data sources available to the UN system, in field operations. have been killed in Baga. The debate around this perpetrator/s. Due to this institutional inability to the National Observatory had limited capacities to Box 8 incident has not been settled yet and it is causing address the original crime, survivors experienced effectively implement its mandate to monitor and additional tensions between local communities and secondary victimisation, including frustration, sad- to record armed violence. ness and fear. The study pointed out that young the army. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIVENESS man, angry about the seeming impunity given to Box 6 The fact that data is recorded does not automatically Consequently, the current system has few data those who committed the crime, were prone to re- mean that there is the capacity, skills or even motiva- sources. It relies on police reports and some infor- taliate, fuelling the cycle of violence in the outskirts LEGACY OF THE SYSTEMS tion to analyse and use the compiled information. mation gathered through the media. But cases are of Caracas. International organisations or states supporting casu- Recording systems often do not have the means to often under-reported and there are limited re- Box 9 alty recording systems should ensure, where possible, analyse the data in a way that produces concrete rec- sources to verify the data. This situation does not that there is established local ownership of recording ommendations for policy makers. Those managing allow for a full analysis of the impact of violence in systems and should provide sufficient training and fi- data are also often unable to promptly respond to Burundi based on data recorded by the Observa- nancial resources to avoid the project failing. A study problems identified, such as in the rapid addressing tory. The current National Observatory would be in from 2010 by the Geneva Declaration affirms that 55% of victims' needs. Long assessment procedures, the a much stronger position if the handover to national of the funds used by monitoring systems come from lack of coordination and, to a certain extent, mistrust ownership had been more comprehensive and pro- national states and 28% of them are funded by inter- between responsible institutions all can undermine vided for the necessary training and resources to national organisations.33 their effectiveness. As a consequence, people might continue developing the surveillance system. resort to alternative means of justice such as private Box 7 Armed violence, clearly, does not abide by timetables: retaliation – which, in turn, can result in more violence. it does not begin when a conflict begins and ends when a conflict ends. Recording mechanisms should USE OF THE DATA On the contrary though, if institutions react fast and continue to monitor violence after a conflict is officially HIERARCHICAL GAP coherently to the challenges highlighted by the evi- declared over. A better understanding of post-conflict In cases where data is used to change the attitude of dence, they can implement successful programmes violence can also prevent countries from falling back actors engaged in preventing and reducing violence, and tackle armed violence effectively. In the USA, as into open conflict. The question of legacy is something for example among security forces, a shift in opinions an example, homicides in 2008 were the second lead- Pierce O'Farrill who was wounded during the Century 16 35 movie theater shooting receives a hug as he attends a service that international organisations and donor countries at senior level does not mean automatically that the ing cause of death among persons aged 15 to 24. at The Edge church in Aurora, Colorado, on July 29, 2012. need to take into account at the time of planning for attitudes of officers in the field will also change. To be In the same year, over 26,000 young people aged Joe Raedle/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 20 BENEFITS STATES’ PRACTICES

People leave tributes at the site of a gun and grenade attack in central Liege, Belgium, on December 14, 2011. GettyImages News/Thinkstock.

INTRODUCTION Casualty recording has several benefits. Solid and ac- of violence. According to Professor Michael Spagat, curate data on the numbers of people killed or injured conflicts “present some sort of regularities”38 and within armed violence contexts might fulfil different therefore collecting detailed information might lead goals. Collecting personal information about deaths to a better understanding of the conflict itself. Once a and injuries brings about a certain degree of dignity to probable pattern and causes are identified, changing the victims, and helps families know what happened or improving current practices might lead to an effec- to their loved ones. Both personal and event-based tive reduction of the lethal consequences. information supports further analysis of the causes and consequences of violence. It can help identify patterns of violence and shed light on the possible In the city of Cali, Colombia, the Development, drivers of violent clashes. In turn, the ability to point Safety and Peace Programme (Programa de De- to a specific trend enables policy makers to tailor sarrollo, Seguridad y Paz, DESEPAZ) was estab- initiatives that tackle armed violence. Or it can help lished in 1992 to address the soaring rates of law enforcement agencies to improve their tactics crime and overall violence. An epidemiologist co- for combating widespread-armed violence. ordinated the programme, whilst the permanent working group included representatives from the In the following pages, the benefits of recording police, the district attorney’s office, the forensic deaths and injuries are illustrated through practical medicine institute, municipal government depart- examples based on experiences in different violent ments of traffic and public health. According to the contexts around the world. data collected by the members of these pro- grammes, homicides presented a specific pattern US Army First Armoured Division soldiers survey the scene where a car PREVENT AND REDUCE VIOLENCE and they were concentrated during the holidays bomb exploded in front of a hotel killing at least four people January 28, 2004 in Baghdad, Iraq. Mario Tama/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. Information on casualties, both deaths and injuries, and in nightlife areas. In response to this evidence, can be used to highlight specific patterns and trends 21 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 22

EVALUATE THE ECONOMIC IMPACT the mayor of Cali designed a comprehensive pro- The negative effects of armed violence on an economy In the United States in 2005 it was estimated that gramme, which included a ban of firearms on can be devastating and can lead to deep and lasting firearm-related casualties caused a loss of 37 billion weekends, public holidays and election days, and economic deprivation in both the societies involved USD due to medical expenses and lost productiv- an aggressive confiscation policy for those who and in neighbouring countries.39 A recent study by the ity. If other factors are added to this cost, like loss violated it. Institute for Economics and Peace calculated that the of quality of life, psychological and emotional global costs of violence containment, which is under- trauma, decline in property values, legal expendi- An evaluation found that, in 1993 and 1994, the stood to be any direct and indirect action aimed at ture and social consequences, in 1998 the annual homicide rate was 14% lower during times when preventing violence or addressing its consequences, costs of gun violence in the U.S. were estimated at the ban was in effect, as compared to times when are over 2.4 times the size of the total gross domestic around 100 billion USD. Another study has exam- it was not. The information and reporting system product (GDP) of Africa.40 ined the direct and indirect costs of violent crime in has been copied and implemented since in other different cities in the USA. It puts the average an- cities across Colombia. There are two main categories of costs that are often nual costs of violent crime at more than 1,300 USD Box 1 used to evaluate the economic impact of violence on per person. society: direct and indirect costs. Box 4

Like other cities in Brazil, Belo Horizonte saw at the Direct costs include destroyed infrastructure, factor- INFORM POLITICAL DEBATES turn of the century a steep rise in homicide rates. ies, machinery, farmland and military expenditure to In politics there is a need for evidence-based data. Between 1997 and 2011 homicide numbers grew an economy. The Mexico Peace Index project puts Governments need data to prove the outcomes of the direct cost of violence in that country in 2013 at Mary Long holds a picture of her son Eric Williams murdered policies and in so doing, seek to reinforce public by one hundred percent. 3,256 deaths occurred on March 12, 2012 in Chicago, Illinois. Scott Olson/ 41 between 1998 and 2002. approximately 45.9 billion USD. GettyImages News/Thinkstock. support for their actions. Of course, the other side of the coin is that political opponents may also use data In light of this rise in violence, casualty recording The second is more controversial, in part because it is In 2004, their analysis of 90 countries with high levels to show the downsides of political decisions, and in data in Brazil has been fundamental towards the difficult to evaluate and includes things like economic of armed violence showed that 95 billion USD was so doing garner votes for proposing alternative ways 46 identification of the most violent urban areas, for losses to tourist industries, the emigration of skilled expended in hidden costs. to address various social issues. understanding the characteristics of victims and workforce or the often hidden costs of health care for 42 perpetrators, and to inform implementation of spe- victims. The same study has assessed the total eco- Casualty recording can play a real role in calculating Data however, can be political in and of itself. Today, cific programmes to reduce the violence. nomic cost of violence in Mexico for 2013 at over 334 these economic costs of armed violence. Besides the new digital communication networks enable conflict- billion USD, more than 27% of Mexico’s GDP and moral imperative in counting the numbers of dead and ing data sources to emerge and challenge the status The Stay Alive project was developed in 2002 by almost double the level of government funding pro- injured, the numbers also provide useful data towards quo. The digital age, with leaked documentation and 43 the Study Centre on Crime and Public Safety vided to health and education. more fully understanding the long-term economic im- data that is less controlled by a central force, has cre- (CRISP) and the Federal University at Minas pact of armed violence as well as the quantification of ated a new relationship between political elites and Gerais (UFMG). It was implemented in partnership Analyses of these costs can often be undertaken the direct and indirect costs of such violence. public opinion. with the City Council. The violence reduction through the employment of sophisticated accounting strategies it employs includes crime mapping and techniques, by calculating the total value of goods de- In 2011, a team of academic researchers investi- Responding to this in part, politicians are increasingly focusing on young males under the age of 24. It stroyed or using techniques such as considering the gated the economic costs of the war in Darfur. opening up their governments to transparency and also provided social support programming, as well fiscal gap between a hypothetical conflict-free country The study looked at data over a five years period, scrutiny. Specific agencies or independent organisa- 44 as violence prevention training to those commu- and the actual situation of the country in question. between 2005-2009. Their findings concluded that tions are being tasked to collect pertinent data to nities and groups most affected by armed vio- the government of Sudan spent 24 billion USD on demonstrate the political will to be open and their lence. In so doing it has been identified as being A variety of studies provide different perspectives on the war in Darfur. This included 10 billion USD in ability to produce tangible results. part of the reduced levels of violence in Belo Hor- this issue. For instance, Oxfam estimates the cost of direct military expenditure, 7.2 billion USD in pro- izonte, with a reported 47% decrease in homi- armed conflicts for 23 African countries between ductivity lost by the displacement of internal In all of this, casualty recording still remains highly 45 cides and 65% decrease in attempted homicides 1990 and 2005 at more than 284 billion USD. refugees, 2.6 billion USD in the loss of lifetime political. But a growing societal understanding of the thirty months after the start of the programme. In earnings of the dead, and 4.1 billion USD in infra- importance of reliable data and increasing access to the same period, in other areas of the city less These costs should not be ignored. Indeed, the structure damage. In particular, casualty data has new technologies, for both governments and the gen- prone to violence there was an 11% increase in Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Devel- been essential to assess the third category con- eral public, are changing things for the better. Today, violent deaths. opment claims that non-conflict armed violence pro- cerning the loss of earnings. the ways by which official numbers on casualties of Box 2 duces direct and indirect economic effects that can Box 3 violence are reached are being challenged and ques- far exceed the costs of more explicit armed conflict. tioned. 23 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 24

The numbers of deaths and injuries by armed violence SUPPORT VICTIMS’ RIGHTS remains a major political topic on all political levels. As On a daily basis, the police, the military, the Emer- In the year 2004, there were 1,253 violent insur- Of all the consequences of armed violence, its impact such, when casualty figures emerge that highlight how gency Call Center and local media all pass on de- gency-related incidents recorded in southern on victims and their families is without doubt the most violence is harming a specific community, and espe- tails relating to any violent episodes to Deep South Thailand. These resulted in at least 573 people concerning. Data on death and injuries is vital to achi- cially when such figures hit the international press, Watch. This information is checked and processed being killed and left another 524 people injured – eving a better understanding of the impact that armed politicians are often more inclined to take very con- so as to create a database that contains details figures that include civilians, police, soldiers, and violence has on communities. The Victim Unit in charge crete steps to reduce the levels of armed violence. about the victims (name, gender, religious beliefs), other government officials. of supporting victims of conflict in Colombia has regis- the incident (time and place) and any weapons tered 6,073,453 victims killed and injured up to 21 Jan- In 2005, realising the severity of the situation and used. Summaries of the incidents are then made uary 2014. More than five million of them have been The Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace fearing the spread of violence to other parts of the available on the Deep South Watch website. displaced by the conflict; 636,184 were victims of hom- Process (OPAPP) in the Philippines, set up in country, the Thai government imposed an Emer- icide, and just over 10,500 are landmine survivors.49 1993, is tasked with managing the peace negotia- According to Srisompob Jitpiromsri, director of gency Decree: State of Emergency (BE 2548/ 2005) tions between the government and various armed in Narathiwat, Pattani and Yala. This special order Deep South Watch and the Center for Conflict In certain places, such data is now intrinsic to the opposition groups. At the moment, the Office is needs to be ratified every three months by the Studies and Cultural Diversity, the data produced structure of the state’s operations. The establishment engaged in five peace talks with different armed Prime Minister, along with the approval of the by them is used in parliamentary debates, helping of law enforcement and judicial authorities in many groups active in the Philippines. Data on deaths Council of Ministers. impartially shape and evaluate security and peace Western countries during the late eighteenth to mid- and injuries that are caused by any violation of the policies that have been implemented in the south- nineteenth century has as a result highly sophisticated peace agreements is a powerful tool that helps The Emergency Decree greatly extends powers to ernmost regions. the systems to collect homicide data.50 To date, data create a level of trust between the government and search and arrest, and enables power of censor- Box 6 on homicides is widely available and international the armed opposition groups. It was, for example, ship to those relevant authorities working in the comparisons across more than 200 countries are now key in the implementation of the 2012 Bangsamoro identified areas. It also grants civil, criminal and dis- possible.51 Despite this, for many countries homicide Framework between the government and the Moro ciplinary immunity to these authorities when per- EVALUATE POLICIES data is still based on incomplete datasets and – in Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). forming their duties ‘in good faith’ and driven by Reliable casualty data can play a crucial role in shap- many cases - estimates. ‘the necessity of the circumstances’. ing policies. The number of persons killed or injured This agreement addressed demands for more au- can be used to evaluate the implementation of specific The Surviving Gun Violence Project has produced tonomy in establishing a new independent political The Emergency Decree has been repeatedly ex- policies designed to reduce levels of violence. To this a list of existing international standards relevant to entity in Mindanao. Several actors are closely mon- tended in most areas for the last fifteen years – end, a range of actors uses casualty recording meth- survivors of gun violence.52 It mentions, for example, itoring any violations of this agreement since, if leading to organisations such as Human Rights ods: governments, international organisations, the the UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for peace is maintained, it will likely strengthen public Watch and the Asian Human Rights Commission to media and civil society organisations as well as re- Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (1985) which support for the government during the 2016 pres- express concern at this controversial practice. search centres and universities.47 It appears that enumerates the rights of victims to access justice, idential elections. systems with fairly comprehensive and reliable casu- restitution and compensation. This Declaration pro- Deep South Watch was hired by the central govern- alty recording systems often use data to this end. vides a relevant definition of victims as well as a num- To this end, the number of deaths and injuries in the ment to analyse the impact of the emergency de- In Colombia for example, 83% of the recording sys- ber of good practices to support their rights. region can become a central indicator of success cree on the Southern Provinces. Their data from the tems use data to evaluate policies and programmes. for the peace process and the government. areas most affected by violence, alongside popula- Expanding on this effort, AOAV has compiled existing Box 5 tion surveys, caused them to conclude that the Data on casualties can also draw attention to specific international standards on armed violence victims’ Muslim majority opposed the decree, whilst the patterns of violence that require new policies to ad- Buddhist minority, as well as the army, believed that rights, including an overview of the main obligations dress them. The use of explosive weapons in popu- 53 lifting the decree would endanger them. These re- concerning casualties recording. It shows that the 54 Deep South Watch was established in 2006 at the lated areas, the threat of suicide bombers or the illegal sults led Deep South Watch to advise the govern- Geneva Conventions of 1949 have had a deep and Prince of Songkla University, in southern Thailand. smuggling of weapons are but a few examples. There- ment to lift the decree in those districts impacted lasting impact. Counting casualties in situations of After the escalation of insurgency-related violence fore, casualty recording, in addition to providing evi- by lower levels of violence. armed conflict has increasingly become more system- in southern Thailand in 2004, there was an in- dence-based evaluation of existing policies, also atic, although initially the focus of the Conventions creased public demand for evidence of levels of highlights the impact of new or recurrent threats that The government is slowly responding to these rec- was mainly on soldiers that were killed and injured. violence in the area. To this end, since its establish- have not yet been addressed. Although it seems self- ommendations and at the time of publication has Respect for the deceased, the need for humanitarian ment, Deep South Watch has been working to im- evident that policies benefit from accurate casualty lifted the emergency decree in two districts. There relief operations and general support for those families prove and bolster understanding of the violence in recording data, more research is needed to establish is still much more to be done, but this seems a ten- that have been impacted by armed conflict are just 48 the South of Thailand both nationally and interna- this connection. In its research AOAV has found tative step in the right direction. a few of the principles of International Humanitarian tionally. one example that illustrates the benefits of casualty Box 7 Law that were enshrined in the Geneva Conventions recording on policy formation. and its Protocols. 25 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 26

Today, other international political instruments have A key element that needs to be considered here is that been established, such as the Geneva Declaration on infractions. It also recognises the rights of victims recording information to support legal procedures is In May 2013, the former Guatemalan military ruler Armed Violence and Development (2006) and the Oslo to ‘justice’, ‘truth’ and the guarantee of a non-re- very time-consuming and requires in-depth investiga- Efrain Rios Montt was convicted for genocide and Commitments on Armed Violence (2010). Both of these currence of the suffering caused by the parties to tions that can last a very long time. This is not ideal if crimes against humanity. He was found guilty of recognise that there is a need for countries to strength- the internal conflict. It contains an extensive sec- data is at the same required urgently to inform humani- the massacre of the Ixil, an indigenous group, in en their understanding of the impact of armed violence tion on land restitution that contemplates the re- tarian action in affected areas, for example. It is there- 1982 and 1983. During the trial, testimonies of on civilians. The 2015 review of the Geneva Declara- turn of the land to the victim who lost it as a fore of the utmost importance that casualty recording forensic experts of the Guatemalan Forensic An- tion is an opportunity to reinforce states’ commitment consequence of the armed conflict. If returning the practitioners cautiously balance accuracy and strong thropology Foundation contributed vital evidence towards the people affected by armed violence and land is not possible, the State has the obligation to reliability with the urgency of publicising the informa- about casualties. Collating evidence from exhuma- to improve the inclusion of victims in relevant policy offer a financial compensation to the victims. tion. The purpose of recording mechanisms needs to tions and interviews, they were able to identify re- arenas and programmes on their rights. be clearly established from the beginning. In cases mains of Ixil victims, and details about the traumas To be recognised as a victim under the above def- where those systems have more than one purpose, suffered. Casualty recording helps fulfil these international com- inition, individuals have to submit a formal applica- the procedures to gather and verify the data need to mitments and conventions. Casualty recording is the tion to the ‘Special Administrative Unit for the be clearly thought through. Their statements enabled witness testimonies to be first step in the recognition of human rights. Without Comprehensive Attention and Reparation to the backed with scientific fact. Despite this, on 20 May data on the people who have been killed and injured, Victim’. This unit will cross-check the information the verdict was overturned by Guatemala’s consti- states cannot ensure access to services needed by submitted against the National Information Net- In Guatemala, the Commission for Historical Clari- tutional court due to issues with the proceedings. the victims. Being recognised as a person, and having work for the Care and Reparation of Victims – a na- fication estimates that over 200,000 people were The forensic evidence, however, remains valid and your victimisation recognised is in itself a human right. tional and regional database on violations killed or forcibly disappeared in the civil war be- is now being used by lawyers of the victims to seek committed under the Victims' Law. If the claimed- tween 1960 and 1996. Of the victims identified by a ruling by the Inter-American Commission on Recording any data on deaths and injuries is very sen- for violations and damages are confirmed, victim the Commission, 83% were indigenous Maya. State Human Rights that would enforce the overturned sitive and as such casualty recorders should be partic- status is granted and the individual accordingly in- forces and paramilitaries were responsible for 93% conviction. ularly careful in protecting the victims, making sure cluded in the Register of Victims. of the violations documented by the Commission. Box 9 that they give their informed consent to provide the requested information and ensuring that the process To cite other examples, the registration of victims of gathering the data does not provoke unnecessary of terrorism and of any significant displacement is trauma in the victims. also mandatory by law in Colombia. The register should – at the very least – record the identity of the victim and the location and description of the event. In 2011, the enactment of Law 1448 in Colombia, A new law enacted – 1639 - also requires any known more popularly as the Victims' Law, repre- health agency that treats victims of acid attacks to sented a milestone in attempts to redress in part held similar comprehensive records. the suffering of victims and internally displaced Box 8 persons that was caused by the country’s armed conflict. INFORM LEGAL PROCEDURES Law 1448/11 considers a victim to be any person Accuracy and reliability of information are essential el- who suffered serious violations of their human ements if data is to inform legal procedures. Detailed rights under international humanitarian law as a and solid information is of utmost importance. It can consequence of the internal armed conflict since make the difference between accountability and im- 55 January 1st, 1985. It also extends the same recog- punity. Court decisions directly impact the future of nition and rights to victim’s spouses, permanent the victims and the perpetrators, but they also have partners, and first-degree family members. broader implications. For instance, by punishing the perpetrator the court reaffirms the validity of the set The Law also provides for reparations. These in- of legal rules promulgated by the state and reinforces 56 clude financial compensation and the offering of the trust in the institutions. If these considerations social services (education, healthcare and psycho- are true for petty crimes, the role of casualty recording logical support) to those victims of human rights vi- is even bigger in major legal cases tackled by interna- Nine-year-old August Larsen makes a crayon rubbing of his father's name where it appears on the bronze plaques that olations and of international humanitarian law tional criminal courts that often deal with numerous surround the edges of the 9/11 Memorial pool during the tenth anniversary ceremonies of the September 11, 2001 terrorist victims and several perpetrators. attacks at the World Trade Center site, in New York City. Chip Somodevilla/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. 27 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 28

In reality, however, this is a controversial area of data The prosecution of Slobodan Milosevic at the In- collection. Data in the wrong hands might be used to It also began the process for the establishment of Tracking Cell set up by the International Security As- ternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yu- inform an armed response that is aimed primarily at a civilian tracking-cell with the mandate to identify sistance Force played a fundamental role in chang- goslavia provides an example of how casualty ensuring short-term and result-focused successes, trends, respond to incidents and facilitate assis- ing the directives concerning escalation of force at recording may influence the court. rather than supporting any longer-term strategy de- tance to victims. Accurate casualty figures are still check points. By the Tracking Cell’s own account, signed at addressing the underlying causes of vio- difficult to obtain because the civilian tracking-cell this directive was successful in reducing civilian ca- As President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, lence. A classic example is the militarisation of public was not functional at time of press. Nevertheless, sualties. Escalations of force, it found, “produced Milosevic exercised control over numerous institu- security throughout Latin America. The Plan Patria the Centre for Civilians in Conflict, a civil society 50% less deaths in the eight months following the tions essential to support the crimes for which he Segura in Venezuela relies on military forces to carry organisation supporting AMISOM in building up new directive, compared to the same amount of was indicted: one count of war crimes (murder) and out police duties. It was expanded by President Nico- the cell, says there has been an evident decrease time in 2009.” three counts of crimes against humanity (murder, las Maduro to include over 40,000 members of the in civilian casualties since the application of the Box 12 deportation and persecution). For the parts of the security forces to be deployed in the streets of Cara- new policy. The new tracking mechanism will be trial concerning Kosovo, Milosevic's defence was cas and main cities in the country. Whilst this tactic able to corroborate this claim. FACILITATE INTERNATIONAL based on the assumption that the Kosovars had might offer short-term rewards, the long-term effects Box 11 COOPERATION fled the country because of the NATO military op- are often less positive. As Sarah Kinosian from the Casualty recording and the data it produces can facili- erations and not due to the actions of the Serbian Centre for International Policy has observed: “While tate and influence international cooperation and inter- military units under his control. the presence of the armed forces can slow violence The USA military in the recent Iraq conflict has been action on many levels. For instance, the data collected initially, it often just displaces crime to another area, confronted with unacceptably-high rates of civilian on the numbers of deaths and injuries and the circum- The Office of the Chief Prosecution commissioned 57 which can return once the troops leave .” casualties at check points. stances of the violence in which these events occurred a research to investigate the pattern of deaths and can, at a certain point, draw attention from the interna- migration in relation to NATO air strikes and the ac- The African Union Mission in Somalia’s (AMISOM) In September 2008 an elderly civilian driver with tional community and, in particular, from the UN Secu- tivities of the Kosovo Liberation Army. The research mandate has a strong military focus. This militaris- cataracts was unable to see the warning signals rity Council. Under Chapter VII of the United Nations team, composed by experts in data management, tic approach to peace keeping in response to Al- given by the military to slow down. The soldiers fired Charter, the Security Council is mandated to investi- statistics, data matching and international relations Shabaab attacks in the region has had a high warnings shots but the driver, unable to stop his gate any threat to peace, breach of the peace or any found that the patterns of both refugee flow and 58 civilian impact, particularly as AMISOM’s has fre- truck owing to poor brakes, was fired upon and act of aggression. As such, if evidence of any viola- killings exhibited characteristics consistent with the quently been carrying out operations in Somalia’s killed. In another case, a USA marine opened fire at tion is found and peaceful measures are not effective, existence of an external cause but not caused by cities. Human rights groups have accused AMI- the front grille of a car that was failing to slow down the Security Council may resort to military actions the NATO airstrikes or the Kosovo Liberation Army’s SOM of being indiscriminate in their shelling of approaching a checkpoint. This stopped the car, but (Artt.41-42). activities. Instead, the analysis based on casualty populated areas and claimed that scores of civil- also killed seven people inside, including two chil- recording data found that the Yugoslav forces were ians have been killed in incidents. Between 2010 dren. These are but two incidents that came to light Recent events in Syria have highlighted, despite ample responsible for systematic campaign of killings and and mid-2011 an estimated 1,000 civilians have when whistleblower organisation Wikileaks released proof of significant harm to civilians, how difficult get- expulsions causing numerous deaths among the died and 4,000 were injured in such shelling. The the Iraq War Logs, the confidential military logs ting consensus on international action can be. It is civilian population. This evidence was used to dis- World Health Organisation reported over 6,000 in- showing 13,963 checkpoint incidents across Iraq nevertheless undeniable that casualty data triggers in- mantle the arguments used by Milosevic’s defence dividuals admitted to hospital in Mogadishu for in- from 2004-2009. ternational attention and can strengthen collaboration team. juries incurred by armed violence in the first six between donor countries and affected communities. Box 10 months of 2011. Many of these were victims of ar- In 2006, the USA Army issued the Traffic Control In 2012 alone, approximately 38% of all overseas di- tillery fire. Operations Handbook presenting new rules to han- rect assistance— or 50 billion USD—was devoted to 59 ENHANCE LAW ENFORCEMENT dle escalation of force situations. Dr. Wakeman, fragile and conflict-affected states. High rates of PRACTICES Such figures led the Chairperson of the African from the USA Army Training Doctrine Command, armed violence have also influenced the approach of Casualty recording often provides important strategic Union Commission to express “concerns about said the handbook aimed at improving training and the USA to Latin America. Between 2009 and the be- information to both military and law enforcement au- the high number of civilian casualties” and that this increase awareness of Iraqi culture “to teach sol- ginning of 2014, the USA will have provided 6.1 billion thorities. Around 40% of the systems recorded by could harm AMISOM’s credibility and erode public diers something other than a kinetic response”. The USD for military and police aid to countries in the re- AOAV use data for this purpose. Data about rebel trust in the organisation. In response to such death rate of civilian casualties dropped after this gion. This is more than half the total amount allocated groups, for instance, can be used to decide what recorded casualty figures, AMISOM adopted new introduction of alternative non-lethal solutions for for the same period by the USA for economic and so- 60 tactics can be more effective against the insurgency. rules of engagement. In 2011, a new ‘indirect fire’ soldiers to stop vehicles approaching checkpoints, cial purposes in Latin America. Ideally, too, data can be used to inform the deploy- policy tightened the rules governing the use of ar- though it is hard to definitely prove cause and effect. ment of legal and military force so as to better pre- tillery and made measures of provision for assis- A similar situation has also been identified in AOAV believes that casualty recording is fundamental vent further violence involving civilian casualties. tance to civilian victims. Afghanistan, where the data of the Civilian Casualty to promoting international cooperation in various forms. It should be acknowledged, however, that casualty 29 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 30

NATIONAL CASE STUDIES

recording alone is not enough to stimulate interna- In order to gather specific and first-hand information updated. The sources are primarily press and tional interest. In the case of southern Thailand, ques- on casualty recording practices, AOAV carried out Population (2010) tions remain as to why, even with publicly available media reports integrated with data provided by in-depth analysis in three countries: Colombia, and reasonably comprehensive data on the impact of official and government agencies. Thailand and the Philippines. 46,445 millions violence, the international community fails to focus or concern itself rigorously to what is happening there. The Iraq Body Count team collects data broken COLOMBIA Religion (2000) down into 18 variables (data, time, place, target, 90% Roman Catholic min/max deaths, min/max injuries, weapons, killers, The National Violence Monitoring System in In- media sources, primary witnesses) and person 10% Other donesia is an innovative effort to provide data and (name, age, gender, marital status, parental status, analysis regarding conflict and violence across occupation). Economy several regions. The project is led by the Coordi- GDP 7,752 USD per capita (2012) nating Ministry for People’s Welfare, with support Their data at time of going to press reported that GINI 56 (2010) from the World Bank and The Habibie Center. The there were between 121,506 and 134,802 docu- BOGOTÀBOGOTTÀÀ World Bank mainly provides financial support and mented civilian deaths from violence since the Homicides (2011) collaborates with the monitoring system in efforts beginning of the Iraq mission. The victim-centric to share global good practices and expertise. data produced by this project has informed analy- 33.2 (deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) ses and commentaries on the war in Iraq, but has 15,572 Total The National Violence Monitoring System has col- also promoted a wider discussion on the moni- lected data on violence, primarily using media toring of casualties in conflict situations. A num- sources, since 1997. It currently covers 13 Indone- ber of studies, for instance, have used this COUNTRY PROFILE61 sian provinces. After collating information from rel- database to investigate patterns of violence or This case study is based on research carried out by u 5,712,506 persons have been displaced between evant and reliable sources, the data is processed trend in conflicts. A 2011 study for example es- the Centro de Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos 1985 and 2012 and inputted into templates with specific cate- tablished that suicide bombers in Iraq killed sig- (CERAC). An extended report on the case of Colombia u 27,023 kidnappings happened between 1970 and gories, such as location, date, actors and the type nificantly more Iraqi civilians than coalition is available separately.62 2010. 90% of them were carried out by guerrilla of violence. Processes of standardisation and sys- soldiers and that civilian children were more vul- groups.66 tematic quality controls at every stage help ensure nerable than civilian adults. For over 40 years, Colombia has experienced an inter- the reliability of the information publicised on the nal armed conflict that has been responsible for wide- Whilst ongoing peace negotiations between the gov- website. It is undeniable that Iraq Body Count’s data spread civilian suffering.63 Different actors have been ernment and the FARC, along with demobilisation ef- helped provide evidence in the international de- responsible for atrocities committed across the coun- forts, are all promising steps forward, Human Rights The public availability of information is one of the bate on the war in Iraq. Their findings were used try: the leftist FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Watch (HRW) sees the situation as still critically main strengths of this system. The data provided by by international and regional organisations like the de Colombia) and ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacion- volatile. the system brings violence issues into the public Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs al), drug traffickers, government troops, right-wing debate, overcoming the traditional limited flow of in- (OCHA), UN High Commissioner for Refugees paramilitary groups64 and various criminal gangs. Each Human rights defenders, community leaders, trade formation between people and government. (UNHCR), World Health Organisation (WHO), the group competes for political, economic, and military unionists, journalists, indigenous leaders and displac- Box 13 European Asylum Support Office (EASO), which control over resource-rich areas of the country, where ed persons all regularly receive death threats.67 Armed helps European states formulate and discuss pol- the state’s grasp on power is often weak.65 The Na- groups resort to violence, or threaten it, to displace icy on asylum requests, and many others that di- tional Centre for Historical Memory published a report Colombians from their homes, and use the land in vari- Iraq Body Count (IBC) is a UK-based non-gov- rectly operate in Iraq. More broadly, Iraq Body that helps understand the conflict in Colombia. It sum- ous ways: to undertake illegal mining; for drug prod- ernmental organisation founded with the specific Count has helped inform how to bring together marises that: uction and trafficking; to give plots of land to farmers goal of continuously tracking and analysing Iraqi quality data – using a system that both quickly that support them; or to sell the land to multinational civilian deaths since the USA military intervention 68 captures and includes new reports into an evolv- u A total of 218,094 people have been killed between agribusinesses for commercial crop production. in 2003. The database contains information on ing database that helps minimise the risk of dou- 1958 and 2012 documented civilian violent deaths and figures are ble-counting. u 177,307 (81%) of them were civilians and 40,787 The epicentres of violence have also moved to urban publicly available on the website and constantly Box 14 (19%) were combatants areas where drug trafficking, youth delinquency and u A total of 25,007 forced disappearances happened a culture of violence and impunity are rife. In addition, between 1985 and 2012 an increased supply of arms among the civilian popu- u 1,754 people were victims of sexual violence be- lation means all these drivers pose extra challenges tween 1985 and 2012 to stability and security.69 31 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 32

MAIN FINDINGS Casualty recording influences new laws methodologies and accurate verification procedures, Funding and staff are often limited Differing statistics exist on the number of victims of Information and data on deaths and injuries has led to when victims do not report an event to the relevant Many institutions stress the need for more funding the conflict in Colombia. Whilst the National Centre the enactment of a new Colombian law that specifi- authorities, or where data sources are deemed un- to support organisations in charge of collecting infor- for Historical Memory reports over 200,000 people cally deals with crimes using acid as a weapon. Law reliable, important information and data on armed mation on the people affected by violence. Funds are killed in the conflict between 1958 and 2012, the Vic- 1639, passed in 2013, raises the prison sentence for violence are often not captured. said to be needed in particular to invest in technology tims’ Unit in charge of recording victims of the conflict perpetrators, compels medical centres that treat vic- and to hire experts to improve quality and analytical has registered over 600,000 homicide victims from tims of acid attacks to keep a register of victims, and capacity. 1985 to January 2014 (see page 24). This discrepancy clearly defines the support that must be given to vic- is partly due to different recording timelines, but differ- tims in terms of psychological and physical rehabilita- ing definitions and methodological approaches as well tion and regulates the use and distribution of certain as varying levels of capacity and resources could also acid substances.72 be part of the explanation. This case illustrates the many challenges that still exist at the time of record- A narrow scope can limit an understanding of the ing casualties of violence in areas affected by conflict causes of violence and armed violence. The main challenge in Colombia is one of relying too heavily on the data that is collected. According to the In its research, CERAC identified several roles for data elaborated by CERAC, 75% of the Colombian casualty recording practices in Colombia, as well organisations collecting information on deaths and as certain limitations of the systems in place. injuries do so only for casualties of the conflict. How- ever, armed conflict, as opposed to all armed violence, Casualty recording supports academic research accounts for only 13% of the overall national victims In December 2012, the Colombian Institute of Family of violence. Organised crime, drug trafficking, inter- Welfare (Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar), personal violence and other types of criminality ac- with the Observatory on Children Welfare (Observa- count for 87% of the total number of affected people. torio del Bienestar de la Niñez), published a report in- vestigating youth involvement in armed groups. Using This focus on conflict has been mainly dictated by the victim data that looked at the youngsters involved, heavy human toll due to fifty years of internal fights. the findings helped underline how cultural attitudes Nowadays, other forms of armed violence are increas- towards arms among youths play a key role in explain- ingly prominent. Unfortunately, the understanding of ing their vulnerability to joining armed groups. The the main drivers of violence is often still limited and report asserts that masculinity in Colombia is linked too narrowly focused. to a ‘warrior attitude’ and the need for men to provide economically for their families. This makes them more A focus on victims should not lose sight of issues susceptible to involvement with armed groups.70 relating to armed violence Most Colombian monitoring systems focus mainly Casualty recording is used to prevent violence on victims but few focus on the perpetrators. This Data provided by the National Institute of Legal Medi- means, often, that information that is collected fails cine and Forensic Sciences (Instituto Nacional de Medi- to take into account important data on the drivers cina Legal y Ciencias Forenses) has been used by the behind a violent event, such as the circumstances government to roll out preventive policies. Based on by which it occurred, the weapons used or any insti- this data, in 2012 numerous cities in Colombia applied tutional response to the underlying problems. restrictions to the right to carry weapons. Following from these restrictions, there have been in both 2012 Under-reporting is a common challenge and 2013 reductions across the board, compared to CERAC’s research underlines that under-reporting is 2011, in the numbers of homicides registered by the the most common problem for organisations and insti-

Crime Observatory of the National Police (Observato- tutions collecting information on deaths and injuries Arauca, Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), Front of eastern war, September 2012. From the book rio del Delito de la Policía Nacional de Colombia).71 due to armed violence in Colombia. Despite rigorous ‘Walking Colombia. From the heart to the head’. (© Oscar Paciencia, DFARC https://flic.kr/p/jdpJJ8) 33 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 34

THAILAND MAIN FINDINGS way to monitor casualties of violence. Deep South Casualty recording is feasible even with limited Watch receives daily reports from the army, the police THAILAND Population (2010) resources and other local data providers, such as media and 66,402 millions Deep South Watch, a research centre, began casualty hospitals, and gathers all this information into one recording in 2004 with very few resources available. central, publicly accessible database. These actors (2000) PPAPATTANIAATTTTTANIANI Religion Through the use of Excel and Access software, they recognise that possessing reliable data on casualties 94.6% Buddhist record a vast number of violent incidents and produce is, ultimately, in their own interest and can be used 4.6% Muslim simple summaries that starkly illustrate the impact of to efficiently tackle the problem on the ground. the conflict. Whilst this does not allow for in-depth .7% Christian analysis, it is enough to show the extent of the prob- Security concerns do not impede transparency lem and produce basic trends – even on a limited Whilst not all disaggregated information is public, YALAYALA .1% Other budget. As demonstrated by the research of Oxford the police and the army share daily reports with civil NARATHIWATNARAATHIWTHIWWAAATT Economy Research Group on UN casualty recording practices, society organisations. This includes information on basic trends and general counts are “viewed as useful, the location of the event, the number of victims, the per capita (2012) GDP 5,480 USD in principle, to drawing attention to the realities in a type of violence and other relevant information that GINI 39 (2010) conflict environment83.” is then published on the Deep South Watch website and made public through regular bulletins. Such Homicides (2011) Cooperation among different actors can happen openness has not posed a security risk. AOAV even while the conflict is ongoing has found that generally there is a good balance 4.8 (deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) The army, police and civil society organisations such between security concerns and the need for trans- COUNTRY PROFILE73 3,307 Total as Deep South Watch have established an effective parency, with some caveats presented below. The Thai provinces of Yala, Pattani and Narathiwat, as well as part of Songkla, are considered among the most dangerous areas of Thailand, owing to high lev- The levels of violence in the southernmost provinces els of insurgency-related violence. Clashes between have, however, gradually declined since 2006 with the the authorities and rebel groups in the southernmost implementation of several programmes to reduce the provinces are linked to historical issues and social- economic disparity and improve communication and cultural differences.74 In this area of roughly 13,500 dialogue with local communities.79 In 2012, a promis- square kilometres, 80% of the population is Muslim ing three-year policy issued by the National Security and speaks Malay as a first language, as opposed to Council acknowledged the political dimension of the the Buddhist majority and Thai-speaking population in violence and codified both political decentralisation the rest of the country.75 Forced attempts to assimilate and greater dialogue as official strategies.80 the Deep South population with the rest of Thailand, and discriminatory policies against the local Muslim In February 2013, the Thai Prime Minister Yingluck community over the years, are seen as the main Shinawatra signed a peace deal with the Barisan causes of the unrest in the southernmost provinces.76 Revolusi Nasional rebel group. However, leadership failures within the group and the simultaneous pres- In the 1960s over sixty armed groups were active in ence of numerous other rebel groups in the region the Deep South, but three principal groups have em- has cast doubts on how successful this initiative will erged to date as particularly powerful: Barisan Revo- be in ending the violence in the Deep South. lusi Nasional, Pattani United Liberation Organization, and New Pattani United Liberation Organization.77 The latest reports on violence in the region, along After a decline in armed clashes in the 1980s and with reported high rates of impunity enjoyed by the 1990s, there was a rise in violence in the southern- perpetrators of violence, are of concern.81 most provinces peaking in 2004, when armed attacks jumped from 119 in 2003 to over 1,000.78 In 2005, The truth remains that, between January 2004 and following some particularly violent incidents, the September 2012, at least 5,377 people have died government enacted an Emergency Decree Law and another 9,513 were injured due to the conflict Anti-government protesters from the nationalist Pitak Siam group clash with riot police at a barricade for the Deep South. in the Deep South alone.82 on Makhawan Bridge, in Bangkok, Thailand, on November 24, 2012. Akabei/iStock Editorial/Thinkstock. 35 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 36

Even if data is publicly available, it might not Obscure definitions hamper transparency and THE PHILIPPINES raise international attention reliability of the data Population (2010) Even though data on the impact of the conflict in One major challenge AOAV identified in the way southern Thailand is publicly available and, compared casualties are classified by the police and the army, 99,440 millions to other similar situations, quite comprehensive, there and subsequently by Deep South Watch, is the ob- is still relatively limited international media interest in scure criteria used by police headquarters to deter- Religion (2000) the violence in the south. One reason given for this mine whether an incident is caused by insurgency 82.9% Roman Catholic lack of international attention is self-imposed censor- groups or whether it is due to common crime. Since MANILAMANNNILAL 5% Muslim ship by some international journalists living in Thai- the criteria used by the police are classified, there is land. Since they need to renew their permits to work a risk that a number of violent incidents actually link- 4.5% Other Christian in the country every few months, they are – some ed to the insurgency are reported as common crime, 7.6% Other human rights observers note – less keen to report on and vice versa. Local journalists that report on every regular violent clashes, unless they are particularly major incident are key in limiting errors and bias that Economy horrific. It is also, in part, believed to be linked to a could be caused by this practice. per capita (2012) general attitude of international editors to view Thai- GDP 2,587 USD land as a tourist destination rather than a country that Transparency does not extend to the method- GINI 43 (2009) is facing important security challenges. Finally, it was ologies used and the raw data suggested that international media attention tends to Since the data that is available is made public only Homicides (2009) focus on conflicts that cause higher number of casual- through summaries and bulletins, experts find it diffi- 5.4 (deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) ties per incidents and where western countries have a cult to produce in-depth analysis of the conflict and direct stake in it. Nevertheless, further research would look at the methodological approaches that are used 4,974 Total be needed to identify reasons why publicly available to record the data. It would be useful for Deep South data on casualties in this particular case does not Watch to provide further information on the method- COUNTRY PROFILE84 raise the same level of international outcry that other ologies that are used and to be able to share disag- Resistance movements and violence in the southern In addition to the main groups, there are many other conflicts appear to do. gregated data before having analysed it. Philippines island of Mindanao can be traced back armed groups active in Mindanao and in other regions in part to the Spanish attempts to colonise the coun- of the country. Among them are the Bangsamoro Is- try.85 The local peoples, the Moro, are a collection of lamic Freedom Front, the fundamentalist Abu Sayyaf tribal groups with a common belief in Islam.86 The Group and the leftist guerrilla group the New People's country has seen the death of over 100,000 people Army.91 and in excess of 2 billion USD in economic losses over the past four decades due to internal fights.87 Armed violence in the Philippines is complex.92 De- In 2012 alone, 178,000 people were displaced by spite efforts by the central government, such as the conflict in Mindanao.88 peace negotiations and agreements with different rebel groups, levels of violence are still very high, The Moro Islamic Liberation Front and Moro National particularly in Mindanao. Efforts to address violence Liberation Front are the two main armed opposition have often focused on negotiations with armed groups fighting for autonomy in Mindanao. The Moro groups but have sometimes neglected to address National Liberation Front emerged in the early 1970s, other factors that cause both victims and increase and was mostly active until a peace agreement with insecurity. For example, focus should be placed on Manila was signed in 1996. This agreement included disarming members of the Civilian Armed Forces the creation of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Geographical Units.93 Mindanao. The Moro Islamic Liberation Front split from the Moro National Liberation Front in the late The Civilian Armed Forces Geographical Units are 1970s and has been pursuing a path of violence ever civilian auxiliary forces often armed by the regular since, with an eye towards establishing an Islamic army so as to offer support in law enforcement oper- state in the Philippines.89 Peace negotiations with the ations against insurgency groups.94 They are essen- Moro Islamic Liberation Front are ongoing, although tially a form of militia. The Philippines know different

A major street in Bangkok is seen with tires burning during violent protests in central Bangkok, Thailand, sporadic clashes show just how fragile these achieve- types of them, those that work with the military and on May 16, 2010. Paula Bronstein/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. ments are.90 the police but also those supporting armed opposition 37 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 38

groups. Following a 2009 massacre in Maguindanao, leaders that had not been captured previously by in- iate humanitarian action. This ensures that relevant Institutional responsiveness can be slow even an Independent Commission against Private Armies ternational organisations and media. MinHRAC is information used by humanitarian agencies can be if the data is available was created in recognition of the proliferation of exporting its experience to neighbouring countries verified and published as soon as possible instead Even when victims properly file cases of violations groups of armed civilians and the threat they were in order to improve the impact of their respective of needing long and thorough investigations before in the Philippines, relevant institutions are often very posing to civilians.95 Casualty recording mechanisms casualty monitoring systems. being made public. Doing so should not prevent slow in responding to these. This is particularly chal- should not overlook this phenomenon. any initial evidence that is used for humanitarian lenging because it breaks down the trust in the institu- Technology helps purposes, to be used to inform legal cases at a tions, increases impunity and can lead people to seek Underlying issues such as land resources96 and the Text messages are commonly used to communicate later stage.100 justice through other means. In a country with such high availability of firearms (estimated at roughly possible violations of the peace agreement to the main easy access to weapons, along with very high num- 610,00097) are also key elements that should be organisations recording data, even in remote areas. bers of militia and civilian armed groups, this alterna- considered in efforts to reduce violence. Good mobile phone coverage in the Philippines and tive justice is often the cause of renewed violence. the fact that many people have a cell phone makes MAIN FINDINGS this system effective and fast. This is particularly important since casualty recording is often used to PHILIPPINES inform humanitarian action, and a rapid humanitarian response can depend on the promptness by which an incident is reported and verified. Platforms such as Ushahidi99 provide direct support to casualty recorders in setting up incident reporting systems DAVAODAVVAOAO using mobile phones and other technologies.

A narrow scope gives a limited understanding of the causes of violence The main limitation identified among casualty record- ing mechanisms in the Philippines is that they mostly focus on monitoring violations of the peace agree- Map of Mindanao ments. This means they record violations committed Data recording mechanisms indirectly help to by one or the other party in the conflict exclusively. maintain peace Very few of them record other forms of violence such When reliable and credible casualty recording mech- as clashes between clans or drug-related violence. anisms, recognised by both main parties, have been Those that do include such forms of armed violence, established in the Philippines, armed actors on both often fail to make their information publicly available. sides have tended to be more considered in respect- Unfortunately, this single-minded focus can give a ing the terms of any peace agreements because they biased view of the causes of violence in the country, know that possible violations will be reported and which in turn might inform responses to violence that could have a negative impact on their position at the fail to properly address other driving factors. negotiation table. Documentation for building legal cases is very Local communities can be key in supporting casu- difficult to verify alty recording practices Whilst the verification of data recorded in violent sit- Organisations interviewed by AOAV, such as the Min- uations can be a challenge, this task becomes even danao Human Rights Action Centre (MinHRAC)98 that harder if data is used to inform legal cases against monitors most of the violations of the peace agree- perpetrators. The aim of casualty recording systems ment in Mindanao, provide training in human rights to needs to be clearly established from the beginning, local communities so that they can support them in since different verification mechanisms are required recording violations in remote areas that most humani- depending on the intended use of the data. For in- tarian agencies cannot access. In certain regions of stance, it might be useful to separate, or clearly mark,

Mindanao this has resulted in an increase in the num- data that aims to inform legal action and needs to be The bodies of victims are recovered following the massacre of 58 kidnap victims in Ampatuan town, ber of violations recorded through local community further investigated from data used to inform immed- Maguindanao Province, Philippines, on November 24, 2009. Jeoffrey Maitem/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. 39 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 40

CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATIONS

Counting civilian casualties matters. The number of STRENGTHEN POLITICAL COMMITMENT resources to support affected countries in setting up people killed and injured by armed violence provides Having recognised the benefits of casualty recording, locally-owned and sustainable casualty recording sys- vital evidence in helping assess the impact of violence the international community should come together tems. A 2011 study from the Geneva Declaration on on society. As Peter Drucker, a management consult- to discuss avenues to promote and strengthen these Armed Violence and Development shows that most ant who contributed to the foundations of modern cor- practices. In addition to improving recording of deaths, of the systems captured in their research were funded porations,101 once said: “What gets measured, gets particular attention should be paid to strengthening by national states (55%), followed by multilateral fund- managed102.” As the examples documented in this re- injury surveillance systems. ing (28%).108 A key challenge that AOAV has identified port demonstrate, recording civilian casualties plays is the pervasive lack of trained personnel in casualty an important role in reducing the lethal consequences States should commit to recording deaths and in- recording and the impact that this has on sustaining of armed violence. juries from armed violence systematically and com- recording initiatives in the longer term. Training more prehensively. They should ensure that these systems personnel will also go a long way towards addressing This report reasserts that casualty recording happens are set up as early as possible in order to be able the issue of under-reporting. in very challenging environments. It shows that casu- to facilitate the verification of the cases, provide an alty recording is increasingly being recognised as opportunity for trend analysis and inform well-timed Academics and researchers can support a call for useful by state authorities. And it shows that, whilst action.106 Systems should also have the capacity to stronger casualty recording practices by stressing recording efforts still face major challenges, practices record information on the injured after their hospitali- how counting the cost helps society understand the to record casualties are improving. sation in order to provide evidence on the long-term deep causal relationships between violence and other impact of armed violence.107 variables. Research such as the analysis of the trends Several techniques to estimate casualties exist, from and patterns of conflicts, as undertaken by Professor mathematical estimations to media monitoring, from Donor countries, international and civil society org- Michael Spagat,109 is very useful in advancing the un- casualty tracking to casualty recording. All these tech- anisations should commit financial and personnel derstanding of conflict dynamics. niques are often at the centre of heated debates; with their strengths and weaknesses they are beneficial in keeping the international community alert to the dev- astating impact of violence on the people affected. Most systems record both deaths and injuries, al- though certain approaches consider injuries to be too difficult to measure and tend to focus their attention exclusively on deaths. The bodies of victims are recovered following the massacre of 58 kidnap victims in Ampatuan town, Maguindanao Casualty recording represents the first and fundamen- Province, Philippines, on November 24, 2009. tal step to publicly acknowledge the suffering of those Jeoffrey Maitem/GettyImages News/Thinkstock. killed and injured. It helps societies meet the rights of victims by informing legal cases and facilitating social, publicly-known casualty recording organisations.103 psychological and economic reintegration. Moreover, Many more have been included by AOAV in a sep- casualty recording indicates areas where humanitarian arate annex to this report.104 aid, relief operations or interventions to help affected communities are most needed and helps evaluating In conclusion, casualty recording presents vital op- policies and programmes. Therefore accounting for portunities for reducing armed violence and for effec- the injured and not only the dead is key. tively addressing its consequences. Practices around the world nevertheless need to be strengthened in It is undeniable that casualty recoding practices face order for this data to properly inform action. To this several challenges often linked to a lack of human end, AOAV is working with a group of committed civil and financial resources and limited capacities to society organisations to call upon states to improve analyse and use the data that is recorded. This does their practices to record casualties to ensure that vic- not prevent practitioners around the world from con- tims are promptly recorded, correctly identified and tinuing their work. And their number is growing. Alone, publicly acknowledged.105 Only through such a rigor- A member of the Special Police Operations Battalion (BOPE) participates in a patrol searching homes the International Practitioners Network established ous approach to casualty recording will the challenge for guns and drugs in the slum Cantagalo in Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on December 8, 2009. in 2009 by the Oxford Research Group counts 48 of acting on armed violence ever be properly realised. Spencer Platt/GettyImages News/ Thinkstock. 41 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 42

RECORD INJURIES AS WELL AS DEATHS ciently protect civilians, it is important to understand Recording injuries as well as deaths is essential for how different types of violence are interconnected. In any recording system that aims to use the informa- this light, it is recommended that actors in casualty tion to enhance responses to the problem, support recording gather information about any form of vio- victims’ rights and evaluate the impact of policies and lence that is happening in areas of concern. programmes. Too much weight is still put on deaths alone as a proxy for the overall impact of violence. PROFIT FROM TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES This study shows that a reduction in homicide rates New data products and technological devices can does not automatically correspond to a decrease greatly improve casualty recording. They allow for in the overall rates of violence. Knowing the extent the fast recording of incidents, safe data storage, and of non-fatal consequences of armed violence influ- easier sharing of information with different actors. In ences adequate responses in the long-term. addition, using more sophisticated software allows for elaborated statistical analysis that can better underline DEFINE A COMPREHENSIVE SCOPE trends and features of the armed violence. Although Often casualty recording is set up to respond to politi- it should be acknowledged that the latest in techno- cal necessities and international obligations. It might logical tools cannot be used in all situations, it remains collect information only on cases that constitute a nevertheless often a very accessible and relatively violation of human rights, or only record victimisation cheap way to enhance analysis of the data. Jamaica’s due to a certain type of weapon. Some systems focus experience in using geospatial instruments to record exclusively on deaths and injuries due to conflict. Ca- crimes is but one example of how technology can sualty recording structures set up to support victims support casualty recording. Platforms such as Ush- ahidi110 provide direct support to casualty recorders sometimes fail to consider the processes that have People visit the roadside memorial set up for victims of the Colorado theater shooting massacre across the street from led to the violent event, such as the circumstances in in setting up recording systems supported by the Century 16 movie theater in Aurora, Colorado, on July 29, 2012. Kevork Djansezian, Getty Images News/Thinkstock. which it occurred, the type of weapon used and the latest technology. institutional response to the problem. In order to effi- ENHANCE RELIABILITY OF THE DATA Disaggregated information on deaths and injuries and This research has highlighted important shortcomings the methodologies used to gather this data should when it comes to the strength of the collected data. be transparent and publicly available. Transparency A number of responses can address this challenge. in the data helps local organisations and humanitarian AOAV has focused on three of them: strong validation agencies in identifying the areas where relief opera- mechanisms, the use of multiple sources of data and tions and humanitarian aid are the most needed. transparency. Transparency also shows that things are working – and in so doing reinforces the running of effective Combined validation mechanisms – from cross-refer- programmes to prevent and reduce violence. encing of data sources to on-the-ground investiga- tions of each case – are directly correlated to the use DETERMINE HOW TO USE THE DATA of data for purposes that require very solid evidence, Recording data is only one step towards defining for example support to the victims of violence, aca- effective responses to the problem of armed violence. demic analysis and evaluation of policies and pro- Since the information concerning armed violence can grammes. be very sensitive and open to political and other abuse, it is imperative that any use of the data is not based Multiple sources of information are fundamental to only on individual result-oriented initiatives but that getting the most detailed and systematic classification it also aims to address broader structural and social of deaths and injuries possible. Depending on the role changes that can sustainably reduce violence. From and activities of each agency, it will have information the start, the recording mechanisms should carefully that others might not be able to get. Sharing of ex- balance accuracy and reliability of the data with the periences among national and external actors can urgency of providing evidence to inform action. They also prove instrumental in overcoming limits within should also include personnel that have the technical capacity to analyse the data that is recorded. These A protester from the nationalist Pitak Siam group pushes against a police riot shield during a large anti-government the systems by adapting or referring to experiences rally on Makhawan Bridge, Bangkok, Thailand, on November 24, 2012. Akabei, iStock Editorial/ Thinkstock. in similar contexts elsewhere. are essential pre-requisites to effective use of the data. 43 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 44

NOTES 41 Vision of Humanity, Mexico Peace Index, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact- http://visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/MPI%20 book/; and UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Report%202013_0.pdf Accessed 04 December 2013 World Population Prospects. The 2012 Revision GENERAL NOTES Valenti, M., Ormhaug, C.M., Mtonga, R., Loretz, J., Armed 42 Lindgren, G., The Economic Costs of Civil War, in Lindgren, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm 1 Benjamin, W., On the Concept of History. Gesammelte Violence: A Health Problem, a Public Health Approach, G., (ed.), Studies in Conflict Economics and Economic Accessed 11 February 2014 Schriften I, 691-704, 1974. Translation: Zohn, H., from Journal of Public Health Policy, no. 28, pp. 389-400, 2007 Growth, Uppsala, 2006 62 Please contact Action on Armed Violence or the Centro de Walter Benjamin, Selected Writings, Vol. 4: 1938-1940, http://www.ippnw.org/pdf/ValentiOrmhaugMtongaLoretz.pdf 43 Vision of Humanity, Mexico Peace Index, Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos if you would like to pp. 392-393, 2003 Accessed 12 February 2014 http://visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/MPI%20 receive a copy of the full report on Colombia. 2 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Global Burden of Armed 23 Small Arms Survey, Tracking national homicide rates. Report%202013_0.pdf Accessed 04 December 2013 63 International Justice, Brief Summary of the Armed Violence Violence, 2011, http://www.genevadeclaration.org/ Generating estimates using vital registration data, 2012 44 De Groot, O. J. et al., How Many Bucks in a Bang. On the Conflict in Colombia, 2012, measurability/global-burden-of-armedviolence/global- 24 Bhalla et al., p. 833, 2010. In Small Arms Survey, Tracking Estimation of the Economic Costs of Conflict, Economics http://internationaljusticeathunter.wordpress.com/2012/ burden-of-armed-violence-2011.html national homicide rates. Generating estimates using vital of Security Working Paper 21, 2009 03/18/brief-summary-of-armed-conflict-in-colombia-3/ Accessed 11 December 2013 registration data, 2012 45 International Action Network on Small Arms, OXFAM, Accessed 30 October 2013 3 Bureau of Investigative Journalism, Drone strikes in 25 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Contributing evidence to Saferworld, Africa’s missing billions, 2007 64 Moloney, A., FACTBOX: Colombia's Armed Conflict in Pakistan, http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/ programming. Armed Violence Monitoring Systems, 2011 46 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Global Burden of Armed numbers, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 2013 category/projects/drones/drones-pakistan/ 26 A research carried out by AOAV in 2013 further illustrates Violence, 2008 http://www.trust.org/item/20130725084306-jf8sy/ Accessed 06 February 2014 how new technologies help preventing and reducing vio- 47 Oxford Research Group, Towards the Recording of Every Accessed 28 October 2013 4 UN Special Rapporteur, UN SRCT Drone Inquiry, lence. See AOAV, How technology is helping reduce Casualty. Analysis and policy recommendations from a 65 Ibanez, A. M., Muñoz, J. C., The Persistence of Land http://unsrct-drones.com/ Accessed 12 March 2014 armed violence, 2013 http://aoav.org.uk/2014/technology- study of 40 casualty recorders, 2012 Concentration in Colombia. What Happened Between 2000 5 United Nations Security Council, Report of the Secretary- reducing-armed-violence/; and AOAV, A picture of violence, 48 Krause, K., Challenges To Counting and Classifying Victims and 2010?, in Distributive Justice in Transition, 279, p. 295, General on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, 2013, http://aoav.org.uk/2013/picture-violence-data- of Violence in Conflict, Post-conflict and Non Conflict 2010 S/2013/689, p.17, 2013 visualisation/ Accessed 10 February 2014 Settings. In Seybolt, T.B, Aroson, J.D., Fischoff, B. (Ed.), 66 Centro Nacional de Memoria Historica, Dimensiones y 6 Civilian harm tracking is “the process by which a military 27 Deep South Watch website, http://www.deepsouthwatch.org/ Counting Civilian Casualties. An introduction to Recording modalidades de violencia, Chapter 1, or peacekeeping operation gathers data on civilian harm Accessed 10 February 2014 and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict, 2013 http://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/descargas/ caused by its operations and uses that data to improve 28 Centro de Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos (CERAC), 49 Unidad de Victimas, Reporte general sobre victimas, informes2013/bastaYa/capitulos/basta-ya-cap1_30-109.pdf operations and properly respond to civilian losses”. See Pérdidas humanas de la violencia: métodos y prácticas de http://www.unidadvictimas.gov.co/index.php/en/ and http://www.centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/ MuhammadAlly, S., Holewinski, S., Civilian Harm Tracking, registro de víctimas en Colombia, unpublished, 2013 Accessed 11 December 2013 micrositios/informeGeneral/estadisticas.html 2013. In AOAV, Harvard Law School, Acknowledge, Amend, 29 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Global Burden of Armed 50 Easton, M., The history of homicide, BBC, 2008 Accessed 07 November 2013 Assist. Addressing Civilian Harm Caused by Armed Conflict Violence, Chapter 2, 2011 http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2008/ 67 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2013. Country Chapter and Armed Violence, Section 1, 2013 30 Beswick, J., Minor, E., The UN and casualty recording: good 12/the_history_of_homicide.html Colombia, 2013 http://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/ 7 Burnham, G., Lafta, R., Doocy, S., and Roberts, L., Mortality practice and the need for action, Oxford Research Group, Accessed 2 September 2013 country-chapters/colombia?page=1 after the 2003 invasion of Iraq: a cross-sectional cluster 2014 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/ 51 United Nations Office on Drug and Crime, Global Study on Accessed 28 October 2013 sample survey, The Lancet, October 11, 2006 briefing_papers_and_reports/un_practice Available at this Homicides, 2011 68 Summers, N., Colombia’s Victims’ Law. Transitional Justice 8 Action on Armed Violence, The Explosive Violence Monitor- link from 16 April 2014 52 Buchanan, C. (Editor), Gun Violence, Disability and Recov- in a Time of Violent Conflict? Harvard Human Rights Journal, ing Project, 31 A research by the Oxford Research Group illustrates existing ery, Surviving Gun Violence Project, pp. 263-287, 2014 Vol. 25, 2013 http://aoav.org.uk/explosive-violence-monitoring-project/ transparency practices among civil society organisations. 53 AOAV, Writing the rights. Highlighting international standards 69 AOAV, Thoughts on violence. Interview with Álvaro Jiménez Accessed 11 February 2014 Minor, E., Towards the Recording of Every Casualty: on the rights of victims of armed violence, 2014 Millán, http://aoav.org.uk/2013/thoughts-violence-alvaro- 9 See International Network on Explosive Weapons, Policy Recommendations and Analysis From a Study of 40 54 Geneva Convention I, Artt. 15 and 16; Geneva Convention II, jimenez-millan/ Accessed 28 October 2013 http://www.inew.org/ Accessed 11 February 2014 Casualty Recorders, Oxford Research Group, 2012 Art. 18; Geneva Convention III, Art.120, 70 Observatorio del Bienestar de la Niñez, Vulnerabilidad, 10 See text box Recording deaths and injuries in section on 32 Beswick, J., Minor, E., The UN and casualty recording: good http://www.icrc.org/eng/war-and-law/treaties-customary- reclutamiento y utilización de niños, niñas y adolescentes states’ practices for further information. practice and the need for action, Oxford Research Group, law/geneva-conventions/ Accessed 25 October 2013 por grupos armados organizados al margen de la ley, 2012 11 Centro de Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos (CERAC), 2014 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/ 55 Seybolt, T.B., Significant Numbers. Civilian Casualties and http://www.icbf.gov.co/portal/page/portal/Observatorio/ Pérdidas humanas de la violencia: métodos y prácticas de briefing_papers_and_reports/un_practice Available at this strategic peace building. In Seybolt, T.B, Aroson, J.D., publicaciones?id=26 Accessed 07 February 2014 registro de víctimas en Colombia, unpublished, 2013 link from 16 April 2014 Fischoff, B. (Ed.) Counting Civilian Casualties. An intro- 71 Centro de Recursos para el Análisis de Conflictos (CERAC), 12 Every Casualty Campaign, Update on Syrian IPN member 33 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Contributing evidence to duction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths Pérdidas humanas de la violencia: métodos y prácticas de abducted, 2013 http://www.everycasualty.org/newsand programming. Armed Violence Monitoring Systems, 2011 in Conflict, 2013 registro de víctimas en Colombia, unpublished, 2013 views/Feb-update-syrian-ipn-member-abducted 34 Beswick, J., Minor, E., The UN and casualty recording: good 56 Hough, M., et al., Public Attitudes to the Principles of 72 Universidad de los Andes, Por fin en Colombia una ley Accessed 12 February 2014 practice and the need for action, Oxford Research Group, Sentencing, Research Report-6, Sentencing Advisory para víctimas de ataques de ácido, 2013, 13 Dardagan, H., Salama, H., Stolen Futures. The hidden toll of 2014 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/ Panel, 2009, http://www.icpr.org.uk/media/10369/ http://www.congresovisible.org/agora/post/por-fin-en- child casualties in Syria, Oxford Research Group, 2013 briefing_papers_and_reports/un_practice Available at this Attitudes%20to%20principles%20of%20sentencing.pdf colombia-una-ley-para-victimas-de-ataques-con- 14 See box 1 in the section on Benefits of casualty recording link from 16 April 2014 Accessed 17 October 2013 acido/5373/ Accessed 12 November 2013 for further information 35 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Leading causes 57 Kinosian, S., Countering militarized public security in Latin 73 World Bank, GDP per capita, http://data.worldbank.org/ 15 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Global Burden of Armed Vi- of death report. National and Regional, 1999-2010 America. Understanding the trend in Venezuela, 2013 indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD; and World Bank, GINI Index, olence, 2008 http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10_us.html http://sustainablesecurity.org/2013/11/12/militarisation-of- http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/table- 16 OECD, Armed Violence Reduction. Enabling Development, Accessed 14 February 2014 public-security-in-venezuela/ Accessed 13 February 2014 view.aspx?isshared=true&ispopular=series&pid=8; and UN Conflict and Fragility, 2009 36 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nonfatal Injury 58 Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VII: Action with Office on Drugs and Crime, UNODC Homicide Statistics, 17 Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala Reports, 2001- 2012 http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ Respect to Threats to the peace, breaches of the Peace, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/ University, http://www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/definitions/ ncipc/nfirates2001.html Accessed 14 February 2014 and acts of aggression, homicide.html; and Central Intelligence Agency, The World Accessed 05 October 2013 37 Webster, D.W., Whitehill, M.J., Vernick, S.J., Parker, E.M., http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- 18 United Nations General Assembly, Declaration of Basic Evaluation of Baltimore’s Safe Streets program. Effects on Accessed 03 November 2013 world-factbook/; and UN Department of Economic and Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of attitudes, Participants’ Experiences, and Gun violence, 59 OECD-DAC International Network on Conflict and Fragility Social Affairs, World Population Prospects. The 2012 Revi- Power, A/RES/40/34, 1985 John Hopkins School of Public Health, 2012 (INCAF), Fragile states 2013: Resource flows and trends in sion http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm; 19 Small Arms Survey, Armed Violence Monitoring Systems, http://www.jhsph.edu/sebin/u/p/2012_01_11.SafeStreets a shifting world, 2012 and Value Walk, Analyzing the Muslim Insurgency in South- Research Notes, N.27, 2013 Eval.pdf Accessed 06 December 2013 60 Just the Facts, A civilian’s guide to U.S. defense and ern Thailand, http://www.valuewalk.com/2013/02/analyzing- 20 World Health Organisation, Injuries and Violence. The Facts, 38 AOAV, Thoughts on violence. Interview with Michael Spagat, security assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean, the-muslim-insurgency-in-southern-thailand/ 2010 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/ University of London, 2013, http://aoav.org.uk/2013/ http://justf.org/All_Grants_Program Accessed 11 February 2014 9789241599375_eng.pdf?ua=1 Accessed 11 February 2014 thoughts-on-violence-michael-spagat-royal-holloway- Accessed 13 February 2014 74 Chalk, P., The Malay-Muslim Insurgency in Southern 21 Government of Zambia, Annual Health Bulletin, Ministry of university-of-london/ Accessed 03 October 2013 61 World Bank, GDP per capita, http://data.worldbank.org/ Thailand. Understanding the Conflict’s Evolving Dynamic, Health, 2006. In Valenti, M., Ormhaug, C.M., Mtonga, R., 39 Brauer, J., Dunne, J.P., On the Cost of Violence and the indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD; and World Bank, GINI Index, RAND Counterinsurgency study, Paper 5, 2008 Loretz, J., Armed Violence: A Health Problem, a Public Benefits of Peace, Fourteenth Annual International Confer- http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/ 75 International Crisis Group, Thailand: The Evolving Conflict Health Approach, Journal of Public Health Policy, no. 28, ence on Economics and Security, Izmir, Turkey, 2010 tableview.aspx?isshared=true&ispopular=series&pid=8; in the South, Asia Report N°241, 2012 pp. 389-400, 2007 http://www.ippnw.org/pdf/Valenti 40 Institute for Economic and Peace, The Global Cost of and UN Office on Drugs and Crime, UNODC Homicide 76 International Crisis Group, Southern Thailand. Insurgency, OrmhaugMtongaLoretz.pdf Accessed 12 February 2014 Violence, 2014 Statistics, http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and- not jihad, Asia Report N°98, 2005 22 Mtonga R., International Physicians for the Prevention of http://visionofhumanity.org/#page/news/851 analysis/homicide.html; and Central Intelligence Agency, 77 Chalk, P., The Malay-Muslim Insurgency in Southern Thai- Nuclear War, One Bullet Story series. Zambia, 2005. In Accessed 25 February 2014 The World Factbook, land. Understanding the Conflict’s Evolving Dynamic, RAND 45 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE COUNTING THE COST: CASUALTY RECORDING PRACTICES AND REALITIES | 46

Counterinsurgency study, Paper 5, 2008 96 Vellema, S., Borras, S, M., Lara, F., The Agrarian Roots of http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/11/12/mexico-build- Promising Strategies and Programmes from around the 78 Thomas Reuters Foundation, Thailand Southern Violence, Contemporary Violent Conflict in Mindanao, Southern accurate-database-disappeared World, prepared for the 11th United Nations Congress Briefing Notes, 2013 http://www.trust.org/spotlight/ Philippines, Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol. 11 No. 3, Accessed 15 November 2013 on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 2005 Thailands-southern-violence/?tab=briefing pp. 298–320, 2011 http://issuu.com/unhabitat/docs/2466_alt Accessed 27 October 2013 97 Small Arms Survey, Captured and Counted. Illicit weapons Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, Encuestas Accessed 12 November 2013 79 Insight Thailand Review, Southern Border Provinces in Mexico and the Philippines, Everyday Dangers, Chapter y microdatos, http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/ Administrative Center Restructured to Improve Peace- 12, 2013 microdatos/encuestas.aspx?c=34501&s=est Text box 3 building Operations, http://thailand.prd.go.th/ebook/ 98 Mindanao Human Rights Action Centre, Accessed 12 November 2013 Hamid, E. A., Estimate of the Economic cost of Armed review/content.php?chapterID=179 http://blog.minhrac.org Accessed 11 November 2013 Conflict. A Case Study From Darfur, Defence and Peace Accessed 04 November 2013 99 Ushahidi’s website http://www.ushahidi.com/ Accessed Movimiento por la Paz con Justicia y Dignidad, Economics, Routledge, 2012 80 International Crisis Group, Thailand: The Evolving Conflict 10 March 2014 http://movimientoporlapaz.mx/ Accessed 13 March 2014 in the South, Asia Report N°241, 2012 100 See also Oxford Research Group, Towards the Recording of Text box 4 81 Human Rights Watch, Thailand: Failure to ensure justice Every Casualty. Analysis and policy recommendations from Observatorio Nacional Ciudadano http://onc.org.mx/ Webster, D.W. and al., The Case for Gun Policy Reforms in the South fuels reprisals, 2013 http://www.hrw.org/ a study of 40 casualty recorders, Chapter 2, pp.8-16, 2012 Accessed 11 November 2013 In America, John Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and news/2013/09/09/thailand-failure-ensure-justice-south- 101 The Drucker Institute, About Peter Drucker, Research, 2012 fuels-reprisals Accessed 11 November 2013 http://www.druckerinstitute.com/link/about-peter-drucker/ Observatorio Nacional Ciudadano, Estudio del mes de 82 Deep South Watch, 9 months into the 9th year. Amidst the Accessed 10 March 2014 junio 2013 sobre las denuncias de los delitos de alto Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cost of injury enigmatic violence, the Pattani Peace Process still keeps 102 Drucker, P., Inspirations quotes, http://www.entheos.com/ impacto, 2013 reports. Data and statistics, and Centers for Disease Control on moving, 2012 quotes/by_teacher/Peter%20Drucker and Prevention, Injury Prevention and Control. Data and 83 Beswick, J., Minor, E., The UN and casualty recording: good Accessed 07 November 2013 Rawlins, A., Mexico’s Drug War, Backgrounder, Council statistics, http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/nonfatal.html practice and the need for action, Oxford Research Group, 103 International Practitioners Network, on Foreigner Relations, 2013, http://www.cfr.org/mexico/ Accessed 12 February 2014 2014 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/ http://www.everycasualty.org/practice/ipn/members mexicos-drug-war/p13689 Accessed 12 November 2013 briefing_papers_and_reports/un_practice Accessed 13 February 2014 Text box 5 Available at this link from 16 April 2014 104 In the pdf version, the annex is included in the report. Sabet, D.M., Police reform in Mexico. Informal Politics AOAV interview with Jennifer Santiago Orieta (OPAPP), 84 World Bank, GDP per capita, http://data.worldbank.org/ In the printed version, the annex is printed separately and and The Challenge of Institutional Change, 2012 Manila, Philippines, 19 September 2013 indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD; and World Bank, GINI Index, inserted in the report or available upon request. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/table- 105 Every Casualty Campaign, The Campaign Call, Vision of Humanity, Mexico Peace Index, Text box 6 view.aspx?isshared=true&ispopular=series&pid=8; and UN http://www.everycasualty.org/campaign http://visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/MPI%20 AOAV interview with Srisombop Jitpiromsri, Deep South Office on Drugs and Crime, UNODC Homicide Statistics, Accessed 07 November 2013 Report%202013_0.pdf Accessed 04 December 2013 Watch, Pattani, Thailand, 13 September 2013 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/ 106 Beswick, J., Minor, E., The UN and casualty recording: good homicide.html; and Central Intelligence Agency, The World practice and the need for action, Oxford Research Group, Text box 6 Text box 7 Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- 2014 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/ Knittel, J., Counting the Costs in Nigeria, unpublished, 2013 Amnesty International, Thailand Human Rights. Human world-factbook/; and UN Department of Economic and So- briefing_papers_and_reports/un_practice Rights Concerns, http://www.amnestyusa.org/our- cial Affairs, World Population Prospects. The 2012 Revision Available at this link from 16 April 2014 Text box 7 work/countries/asia-and-the-pacific/thailand http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm; 107 Buchanan, C. (Editor), Gun Violence, Disability and Recov- Pézard, S. and de Tessières, Insecurity is also a war. An Accessed 10 October 2013 and Adriano, F., Parks, AT., The Contested Corners of Asia: ery, Surviving Gun Violence Project, pp. 263-287, 2014 assessment of armed violence in Burundi, Small Arms Subnational Conflict and International Development Assis- 108 Geneva Declaration Secretariat, Contributing evidence to Survey, 2009 Asian Human Rights Commission, Thailand. Arbitrary tance. The Case of Mindanao, Philippines, 2013 Accessed programming. Armed Violence Monitoring Systems, 2011 detention and harassment under the Emergency Decree 11 February 2014 109 AOAV, Thoughts on violence. Interview with Michael Spagat, United Nations Development Programme, Burundi Report in Thailand, 2010 http://www.humanrights.asia/news/ 85 Bara, H., The History of the Muslim in the Philippines, 2011 University of London, 2013 http://aoav.org.uk/2013/ 2008 towards 2010, 2010 alrc-news/human-rights-council/hrc15/ALRC-CWS- http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/ thoughts-on-violence-michael-spagat-royal-holloway- 15-14-2010/ Accessed 12 October 2013 articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=4&i=232 university-of-london/ Accessed 03 October 2013 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Accessed 10 November 2013 110 Ushahidi’s website http://www.ushahidi.com/ Affairs (OCHA), World Humanitarian Data and Trends 2013 Croissant, A., Muslim Insurgency. Political Violence and 86 Vinck, P. & Bell, E., Violent Conflicts and Displacement in Accessed 10 March 2014 http://www.unocha.org/what-we-do/policy/resources/ Democracy in Thailand, Terrorism and Political Violence, Central Mindanao. Challenges to Recovery and Develop- world-humanitarian-data-and-trends-2013 vol. 19, 2007 ment, World Food Programme and the World Bank Group, NOTES ON TEXT BOXES Accessed 10 December 2013 2011 Emergency Decree on Public Administration in State of 87 Adriano, F.; Parks, AT., The Contested Corners of Asia: CHALLENGES Text box 8 Emergency, BE 2548, 2005 http://www.icnl.org/research/ Subnational Conflict and International Development Text box 1 AOAV interview with Good Wednesday Group, Cotabato library/files/Thailand/Emergency.pdf Assistance. The Case of Mindanao, Philippines, The Small Arms Survey, Geospatial Technologies in Jamaica. City, Philippines, 17 September 2013 Accessed 12 October 2013 Asian Foundation, 2013 The Jamaican experience. Issue Brief, Number 3, 2013 88 International Displacement Monitoring Centre, Philippines AOAV email exchange with Jasmin Nario Gallace, Human Rights Watch, Letter To the Prime Minister Abhisit country page, http://www.internaldisplacement.org/ Text box 2 24 February 2014. on Thailand’s Emergency Decree Extension, 2010 idmc/website/countries.nsf/(httpEnvelopes)/A01DB3 AOAV interview with Jennifer Santiago Orieta (OPAPP), http://www.hrw.org/news/2010/07/11/letter-prime-minister- AC980C9A22C125772600312329?OpenDocument#37.2.1 Manila, Philippines, 19 September 2013 Text box 9 abhisit-thailands-emergency-decree-extension Accessed 11 November 2013 Amnesty International and INCOSEC, The impact of gun Accessed 13 October 2013 89 Anti Defamation League, The Philippines and Terrorism, AOAV interview with Karen Tañada, Peace Institute, Manila, violence on families in low-income neighbourhoods of Terrorism update, 2004 http://archive.adl.org/terror/ Philippines, 16 September 2013 metropolitan Caracas. A qualitative study of crime victims, International Crisis Group, Thailand’s Emergency Decree. tu/tu_0404_philippines.asp Accessed 09 November 2013 Viewpoints, No.1, 2013 No Solution, Asia Report N° 105, 2005 http://www.crisis- 90 BBC, Philippine rebels in deadly attack in Zamboanga, 2013 Text box 3 group.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-east-asia/thailand/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24012348 CERAC, Pérdidas humanas de la violencia: métodos y Observatorio Venezolano de Violencia, Informe de Diciembre 105_thailand_s_emergency_decree_no_solution_web.pdf Accessed 11 November 2013 prácticas de registro de víctimas en Colombia, 2013 http://observatoriodeviolencia.org.ve/ws/informe- Accessed 11 October 2013 91 Duhnam-Scott, L., Understanding and Engaging the Muslims unpublished, 2013 del-ovv-diciembre-2013-2/ Accessed 14 February 2014 of the Southern Philippines, Dissertation Rand Graduate Text box 8 School, 2012 Text box 4 BENEFITS Human Rights Watch, Colombia: Victims Law a Historic 92 Adriano, F., Parks, AT., The Contested Corners of Asia: Liberia Armed Violence Observatory, Second Report, 2012 Text box 1 Opportunity. Measures Needed to Protect Beneficiaries, Subnational Conflict and International Development http://www.aoav.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/ Knittel, J., How the counts reduce the casualties, 2013 2010 http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/06/10/colombia- Assistance. The Case of Mindanao, Philippines, The Second-Progress-Report-on-the-Liberian-Armed-Violence- victims-law-historic-opportunity Asian Foundation, 2013 Observatory-July-2012.pdf Accessed 11 November 2013 Preventing and Reducing Armed Violence. What Works?, Accessed 13 October 2013 93 International Crisis Group, The Philippines: Dismantling Background Paper In Oslo Conference on Armed Violence. Rebel Groups, Asia Report N°248, 2013 Text box 5 Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, 2010 Government of Colombia, Ley de víctimas y restitución 94 Torres, W.M., Rido: clan feuding and conflict management AOAV email exchange with Hector Guerra, 13 March 2014 de tierras, http://www.derechoshumanos.gov.co/ in Mindanao, The Asia Foundation, 2007 Text box 2 Documents/130220-1-cartilla-ley-victimas-restitucion- 95 Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Armed Violence in Human Rights Watch, Mexico: Build accurate database of International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, Urban tierras.pdf Accessed 20 October 2013 Mindanao: Militia and private armies, p. 49, 2011 disappeared, 2013 Crime Prevention and Youth at Risk. Compendium of 47 | ACTION ON ARMED VIOLENCE

Universidad de los Andes, Por fin en Colombia una ley para víctimas de ataques de ácido, 2013 http://www.congresovisible.org/agora/post/por-fin- en-colombia-una-ley-para-victimas-de-ataques-con- acido/5373/ Accessed 12 November 2013

Text box 9 Commission for Historical Clarification, Guatemala Memory of Silence, https://hrdag.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/ 01/CEHreport-english.pdf Accessed 11 December 2013

Knittel, J., How the counts reduce the casualties, 2013

Text box 10 Ball et al., Killings and Refugee Flow in Kosovo, March- June 1999. A report to the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, American Bar Association Central and East European law Initiatives, 2002

Ball, P., Asher, J., Statistics and Slobodan. Using Data Analysis and Statistics in the War Crimes Trial of Former President Milosevic, CHANCE, 15:4, pp. 17-24, 2002

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Case No. IT-99-37-I, http://www.icty.org/x/cases/ slobodan_milosevic/ind/en/mil-ai010629e.htm Accessed 10 October 2013

Seybolt, T.B., Significant Numbers. Civilian Casualties and strategic peace building, In Seybolt, T.B, Aroson, J.D., Fischoff, B. (Ed.) Counting Civilian Casualties. An introduction to Recording and Estimating Non military Deaths in Conflict, 2013

Text box 11 Knittel, J., How the counts reduce the casualties, 2013

Text box 12 Peck, M., When to Drop the Hammer. Escalation of force training gets bigger role in the U.S. Army, 2008, http://www.defensenews.com/print/article/20080225/ TSJ01/802250337/When-drop-hammer Accessed 06 November 2013

Slater, E., Bell, J., The impact of escalation of force on civilians in Iraq, republished by AOAV, 2013 http://aoav.org.uk/2013/the-impact-of-escalation-of- force-on-civilians-in-iraq/ Accessed 06 November 2013

Text box 13 AOAV, Thoughts on violence. Interview with Sana Jaffrey, 2013 http://aoav.org.uk/2013/thoughts-on-violence-sana- jaffrey/ Accessed 06 November 2013

The National Violence Monitoring System website, http://www.snpk-indonesia.com/Methodology/ Index?lang=en&randdo=473ee1c7-4bd6-4ad9-a941- d4a9e8683ff9&userid=7118160 Accessed 06 November 2013

Text box 14 Sloboda, J., Dardagan, H., Spagat, M., Hicks, M.H-R., Iraq Body Count. A case study in the issue of incident- based conflict casualty data. In Seybolt, T.B, Aroson, J.D., Fischoff, B. (Ed.) Counting Civilian Casualties. An introduc- tion to Recording and Estimating Non-military Deaths in Conflict, 2013 http://www.iraqbodycount.org/ Accessed 16 October 2013