VOL.1 MINISTRYOF WORKS and TRANSPORT DEPARTMENTOF ROADS Public Disclosure Authorized

E-257 HIS MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENTOF NEPAL VOL.1 MINISTRYOF WORKS AND TRANSPORT DEPARTMENTOF ROADS Public Disclosure Authorized

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ROAD MAINTENANCE AND _ , DEVELOPMENTPROJECT

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"SMEEC

SMECInternational Pty. Ltd.,

Public Disclosure Authorized Cooma,NSW, Australia in associationwith CEMATConsultants (Pvt.) Ltd., Nepal

April 1999 Table of Contents

Project Proponent

Executive Summary ii

Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Project Description 1 1.3 Aims of Environmental Assessment 3

2. Legislation, Policies and Standards 5 2.1 Environmental Assessment Requirements 5 2.1.1 National Legislation 5 2.1.2 World Bank Requirements 6 2.1.3 Department of Roads Standards 7 2.2 Road Development Requirements 7 2.2.1 National Legislation 7 2.2.2 International Conventions and Treaties 9 2.2.3 National Policies 9

3. Methodology 11 3.1 EIA Scoping 11 3.2 Aligrnent Inspection 12 3.2.1 Alignment Selection 12 3.2.2 Collection of Alignment Information 13 3.3 District Interviews 14 3.4 Inspection of Existing Roads 14 3.5 Assessment of Environmental Issues 15

4. Analysis of Alternatives 20 4.1 Alternative Roads 20 4.1.1 Priority Investment Plan Project 20 4.1.2 RMD Project Screening 21 4.2 Alternative Road Alignments 28 4.3 Alignment Refinement 31

9 5. Existing Access, Proposed Alignments and Projected Traffic 33 5.1 Existing Access 33 5.1.1 Darchula Access 33 5.1.2 Martadi Access 34 5.1.3 Mangalsen Access 34 5.1.4 Jumla Access 35 5.1.5 Jajarkot Access 35 5.2 Existing Traffic Volumes 36 5.3 Proposed Alignments 6 5.4 Projected Vehicle Traffic 37

6. Bio-Phvsical Environment 38 6.1 Physiographic Regions 38 6.2 Topography 39 6.3 Climate 40 6.4 Geology 41 6.5 Soils 44 6.6 Seismicity 45 6.7 Land Use 45 6.8 Forest Cover and Use 47 6.8.1 District Forest Cover 47 6.8.2 Forest Cover in the Region of Influence 48 6.8.3 Forest Use 52 6.9 Wildlife and Fish 54 6.10 Protected Areas 55 6.11 Rivers Basins, Wetlands and Water Quality 57 6.12 Archaeological, Religious and Cultural Sites 58 6.13 Noise and Air Quality 59

7. Socio-Economic Environment 60 7.1 Regional, District and VDC Context 60 7.2 Demographic Profiles and Settlement Patterns 62 7.3 Economic Activities and Subsistence 66 7.4 Kev Social Services and Facilities 72 7.4.1 Education 72 7.4.2 Health 74

8. Potential Environmental Impacts 75 8.1 Direct and Indirect Environmental Impacts 75 8.2 Extent of Environmental Impacts 76 8.3 Duration of Environmental Impacts 76 8.4 Primary and Secondary Environrental Issues 76 8.5 Bio-physical Environmental Impacts 77 8.5.1 Land Use 77 8.5.2 Land Stability 80 8.5.3 Ecology 84 8.5.4 Archaeology, Religious and Cultural Sites 89 8.5.5 Noise and Vibration 90 8.5.6 Air Quality 91 8.5.7 Other Pollution 92 8.5.8 Drinking Water Catchments 93 8.5.9 Future Likely Impacts 94 8.6 Socio-economic Impacts 95 8.6.1 Loss of Buildings and Structures 96 8.6.2 Loss of Cultivation Land and Other Natural Resources 99 8.6.3 Population Displacement 101 8.6.4 Road Construction Emplovment 103 8.6.5 Impact of Foreign Construction Workers 106 8.6.6 Social Change and Development 106

9. Design, Construction and Maintenance Mitigation Measures 112 9.1 Alignment Planning 112 9.2 Road Design Mitigation Measures 114 9.2.1 Excavation and Road Formation 114 9.2.2 Drainage 116 9.3 Road Construction Mitigation Measures 119 9.3.1 Construction Programme 119 9_3.2 Construction Methods 120 9.3.3 Construction Management and Certification of Works 121 9.3.4 Training 122 9.3.5 Worksite Survey, Pegging and Approval 123 9.3.6 Additional Road Design 123 9.3.7 Vegetation Clearance 124 9.3.8 Retaining Wall Construction 124 9.3.9 Excavation and Embankment Construction 125 9.3.10 Topsoil Saving and Re-use 125 9.3.11 Fill Disposal 126 9.3.12 Reinstatement of Services 126 9.3.13 Quarries and Borrow Pits 127 9.3.14 Stockpiling 128 9.3.15 Workforce Camp 128 9.3.16 Workforce Management 129 9.3.17 Noise Pollution 129 9.3.18 Hazards and Hazardous Materials 129 9.3.19 Revegetation 130 9.3.20 Ancillary Site Rehabilitation 131 9.4 Maintenance Recommendations 131 9.5 Mitigation of Direct Socio-economic Impacts 132 9.5.1 Objectives 132 9.5.2 Entitlement Policy 133 9.5.3 Land Acquisition 137

* 10. Improvement Proposals 138 10.1 Improvement of Degraded Environmental Features 139 10.1.1 Community Forest Establishment and Support 139 10.1.2 Trail Improvement 143 10.1.3 Revegetation of Degraded Land 144 10.1.4 Landslide Stabilisation 145 10.2 Improvements Relating to the Proposed Roads 145 10.2.1 Road Head and Market Centre Planning 145 10.2.2 Cash Crop Development 147

11. Project Benefits and Costs 148 11.1 Project Benefits 148 11.2 Project Costs 148 11.2.1 Road Construction Costs 148 11.2.2 Environrnental Mitigation Costs 148 11.2.3 Environmental Improvement Costs 150

12. Public Consultation 151 12.1 EIA Scoping 152 12.2 Data Collection and Alignment Selection 152 12.2.1 Data Collection 152 12.2.2 Alignment Selection 154 12.3 Formulation of Mitigation and Improvement Measures 154

13. Conclusions 155

14. References 158

Appendices 1. Design Standards for Road Construction 2. District Officials and Others Interviewed 3 Scoping Workshop Participants 4. EIA Scoping Issues 5. Road Alignment Recommendations 6. Alignment Data Sheets 7. Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets 8. District Interview Sheets 9. Proposed Road Alignments 10. Forest Species Associations in the ROIs 11. Community Forests Within the ROIs 12. Protected Plant Species Reported Within the Road ROIs 13. Mammals Reported Within the Road ROIs 14. Protected Birds Reported Within the Road ROIs 15. Wetlands in Road Districts 16. Historical/CulturallArchaeological Sites in the Road Districts 17. District Cultivation Areas and Average Crop Yields 18. Improvement Proposal Cost Estimates

Figures

1. Proposed New Roads 2. Proposed Darchula Road 3. Proposed Martadi and Mangalsen Roads 4. Proposed Jumla Road 5. Proposed Jajarkot Road 6. Pysiographic Regions 7. Example of a Preliminary DesigLnDrawMing 8. Impact Areas of Different Road Construction Techniques 114 9. Location of Road Drains at Natural Drainage Lines 118 10. Sequence of Construction Activities 124 11. Replacement of Existing Water Supply Line with a Standpipe 127

Diagrams

1. Project Incorporation of Environmental Mitigation Measures 4 2. Main Constraints, Mitigation Measures and Likely Benefits and Impacts 156

Tables

1. Roads Proposed for Construction 2 2. Survey Social Sarnple 14 3. Initially Viable Roads Proposed in the PIP Study 21 4. Candidate Construction Roads Screened 22 5. Environmental Screening Scores for Candidate Construction Roads 25 6. Social Screening Scores for Candidate Construction Roads 27 7. Overall Screening Scores 27 8. Average Daily Traffic 36 9. Projected 'Normal' Vehicle Traffic Composition 37 10. Projected 'Normal' Daily Vehicle Traffic Volume 37 11. Physiographic Regions of Nepal 38 12. Physiographic Regions of Proposed Roads 38 13. Topographic Features Along the Proposed Alignments 39 14. Climatic Zones Along the Proposed Roads 40 15. Recorded Seismic Activity Along the Proposed Road Corridors 45 16. District Land Use 46 17. District Forest Cover 47 18. District Forest Cover Type by Physiographic Region 48 19. Forest Stock Change 1979-1994 48 20. Forest Types Within the Region of Influence 49 21. Forest Density Within the Region of Influence 50 22. Forest Maturity Within the Region of Influence 50 23. District Per Capita Fuelwood Consumption by Enduse 53 24. Major River Features 58 25. Road Districts and Potentially Influenced Districts 60 26. VDCs Crossed by Proposed Roads 60 27. Road Districts by Key Development Indicators 61 28. District Population Figures 62 29. Households and Population in the Road VDCs, 1991 and 1998 63 30. Ethnic/Caste Composition of the Road Districts Population (1991) 64 31. Demographic Features of the Household Population 64 32. Out-Migrants in the Mid-. West-, and Far-Western Census Regions (1981-1991) 65 33. Residential Status of the Household Population (n = 1,558 persons) 66 34. Occupational Status of Economically Active Population by, Road District 66 35. Occupational Status of the Household Population 67 36. Landholdings by Road District 68 37. Reported Household Landholding Size 68 38. Livestock Ownership 69 39. Nominal Household Income and Per Capita Income by Development Region 70 40. Income by Source and Development Region 70 41. Reported Sources of Income During the Previous Year 71 42. Expenditure by Type 72 43. Schools and Students in the Road Districts (1996) 73 44. Educational Levels of the Household Population. 6 years and older 73 45. Health Facilities in the Road Districts (1996/97) 74 46. Primary Environmental Issues and Associated Impacts 77 47. Land Use Types Within the Right-of-Way 78 48. Forest Types and Densities Within the Right-of-Way 79 49. Regional Fuelwood and Wood Conversion Factors 80 50. Estimated Fuelwood Yield Within the Right-of-Way 80 51. Estimated Wood Yield Within the Right-of-Way 80 52. Rock Slope Hazard Ratings 81 533. Soil Slope Hazard Ratings 82 54. Slope Hazard Classification 82 55. Alignment Slope Ha7zrds 83 56. Archaeological, Religious and Cultural Sites Within Aligmnent VDCs 90 57. Approximate Annual Exhaust Emissions From Vehicle Traffic 92 58. Houses and Other Private Buildings in the Two Corridors 96 59. Distribution of Affected Houses by VDC 97 60. Distribution of Commercial Establishments by VDC 97 61. Distribution of Sheds by VDC 98 62. Other Structures in the 15 m ROW 98 63. Buildings by Construction Types 99 64. Private Land by Proposed Road 100 65. Distribution of Land Losses by VlDC 100 66. Affected Property Owners by Category of Loss in the 15 m ROW 103 67. Embankment Design Guidelines 115 68. Forester Man-month Requirement per Road ROI 140 69. Jumla Trails for Improvement 144 70. Internal Rate of Return of Project Roads 148 71. Road Construction Cost Estimates 148 72. Cost Estimates of Environmental Mitigation Measures 149 73. Bio-engineering Cost Rates 149 74. Cost Estimates of Environmental Improvement Measures 150 75. Summarvof Public Consultation 151 76. Summary of Major Potential Environmental Impacts and 157 Associated Mitigation Measures List of Abbreviations

AADT Annual average daily traffic.

CBS Central Bureau of Statistics. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. CDC Compensation Determination Committee. CITES The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. dBA Unit of noise measured in decibels, weighted for human hearing. DDC District Development Committee. DFO District Forest Office. DMG Department of Mines and Geology, Ministry of Industry. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. DNIPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. DOA Department of Archeology, Ministry of Sports and Culture, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. DOF Department of Forests, Ministrv of Forests and Soil Conservation, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. DOR Department of Roads, Ministry of Works and Transport His Majesty's Government of Nepal. DOSC Department of Soil Conservation, His Majesty's Government of Nepal.

EA Environmental Assessment. ELK Environmental Impact Assessment. EMAP Environmental Management (or Monitoring) Plan. EP Entitled Person.

FRN Major Feeder Road. The Major Feeder Roads are the roads linking the National Highways to the District Headquarters and Zonal Headquarters as well as to the major places of industry, tourism, public utilities and power stations. FWDR Far-Western Development Region. FY Fiscal Year (in Nepal, this is from mid-July to mid-July).

GDP Gross Domestic Product. GEU Geo-Environrnental Unit, Department of Roads, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. GNP Gross National Product.

IEE Initial Environmental Examination. Preliminarily analvsis undertaken to ascertain whether there are likely significant adverse impacts to warrant a 'full' EIA. IUCN The World Conservation Union (formerly International Union for Conservation of Nature).

LRMIP Land Resource Mapping Project (HMG-Canada). Aerial photo survey of land use in Nepal in 1978/79, published from 1982-86. MCT Main Central Thrust. MOALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. MOFSC Ministrv of Forests and Soil Conservation. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. MOLD Ministry of Local Development, His Majesty 's Government of Nepal. MOPE Ministry of Population and Environment. His Majesty's Government of Nepal. MOWT Ministry of Works and Transport, His Majesty's Government of Nepal. MWDR Mid-Western Development Region.

NBAPP National Bio-diversity Action Plan Project. NBCP National Bio-diversity Conservation Project. NGO Non Governmental Organisation. NH National Highway. National Highways are the main arterial routes passing through the length and breadth of the country as a whole. The roads connecting the National Highways to Regional Headquarters are also classified as National Highways. These highways directly serve the greater portion of the long distance travel, provide consistently a higher level of service and serve the inter-community transport needs of regional interest.

PAP Project Affected Person. PIP Priority Investment Plan.

RAP Resettlement Action Plan. RMD Project Road Maintenance and Development Project. ROI Region of Influence. The area over which long-term, indirect enviromnental impacts are likely to occur. In this report the area is defined as 5 km linear either side of the road alignment, roughly equivalent to half a day's walk. ROW Right of Way. The legally reserved corridor of land within which the road is constructed. This land is legally acquired and owned by HMGN. A minimum ROW width of 15 m is proposed for all RMD Project roads, with the width increasing where necessary to accornmodate the road formation (carriageway, road shoulder, side drains and cut and fill embankments). Rs. Rupees. Nepalese rupees at the conversion rate of Rs. 68 to US$1 as of 1/1 1/98.

SCF Seasonal correction factor. SMIEC Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation International Pty. Ltd. SRN Strategic Road Network. The National Highways and Feeder Roads constitute the Strategic Road Network and command top priority in the allocation of the government resources.

TOR Terms of Reference.

VDC Village Development Committee.

WB World Bank. WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat. WDR Westem Development Region. PROJECTPROPONENT

The proponent of the Road Maintenance and Development Project (RMD Project) is His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Works and Transport. Department of Roads.

The Ministry of Works and Transport, Department of Roads, is proposing the RMD Project as part of its responsibilities to develop and maintain National Highways and Feeder Roads throughout Nepal.

The RMD Project will provide road access to five non-road connected District Headquarters in the districts of Darchula, Martadi. Mangalsen. Jumla and Jajarkot.

Road Maintenance and Development Project Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 EXECUTIVESUMMARY

1. Background

The policy of His Majesty's Government of Nepal Government (HMGN), as detailed in the Eighth Plan (HMGN, 1992), includes the construction of motorable roads to all non-road connected District Headquarters. The Priority Investment Plan (PIP) Project, completed in 1997, identified 10 potential new roads that would provide connections to 12 districts. The PIP Project screened and prioritized these potential roads, most of which were under construction as earth roads.

The Road Maintenance and Development Project has the primary objective of advancing "the planning and preparation of selected components from among the recommendations of the PIP Master Plan to form the basis of a further Road Project" for World Bank funding (DOR, 1998).

In the RMD Project Inception Report (SMEC, 1998), seven candidate construction roads (356 krm)and five candidate upgrading roads (281 kxn) were screened, based on economic, environmental and social factors. From this, five roads totalling 204 km were recommended for detailed construction design to fair weather earth standard, whilst four roads totalling 265 km were recommended for upgrading design to fair weather gravel standard. The Department of Roads (DOR) and the World Bank subsequently approved these roads for design.

2. ProjectDescription

This Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) assesses the potential impacts that are likely to result from the construction of the five selected construction roads (see Table 1). These five proposed roads were verified at 196.4 km due to recent construction. The environmental assessment of the selected upgrading roads has been undertaken separately in an Initial Environmental Examination (TEE).

Table 1: RoadsProposed for Construction

Road Length DOR Road Classification* Road Districts 1 (km) I_Number Crossed Chameliya- Darchula 35.4 National Highway H14 Darchula I Sanfebagar- Martadi 36.9 Classificationnot available - Bajura Sanfebagar- Mangalsen 14.7 Classification not available - Achham Kalikot - Jumla 88.4 National Highway H13 Kalikot, Jumla Dhaira - Jajarkot 21.0 Major Feeder Road F47 Jajarkot t Total 196.4 * Source: Classificationand DesignStandards, DOR, 1994.

Road Maintenance and Development Project ii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The five roads are proposed for construction to "Construction Development Stage (11i) (FWET) - Fair Weather Earth Track" standards (DOR. 1977) for hillv terrain. to provide a "basic level of dry season vehicular access".

During the preparation of the EIA. environmental mitigation measures have been incorporated in the project design, as indicated in Figure 1. Detailed road design measures will be incorporated during the second phase of road design, whilst construction and maintenance mitigation and management measures have been proposed in the EMAP and will be incorporated into the construction contract conditions.

Figure 1: Project Incorporation of Environmental Mitigation Measures

Impact Mitigation Measures Project Stage

Alignmentrefinement Incorporatedduring walkover surveys and detailedsurveys.

Preliminaryroad design Incorporatedduring preliminary road measures design.

Detailedroad design To be incorporatedduring detailed final road measures design.

Roadconstruction Proposedin the EnvironmentalManagement measures ActionPlan and incorporatedinto Construction Contractconditions.

Roadmaintenance Proposedin the EnvironmentalManagement Roadmaitenasres ActionPlan and incorporatedinto Maintenance measures Contractconditions.

3. Environmental Impact Assessment Requirements

The primary HMGN statutory requirements that have to be adhered to for the environmental assessment of the proposed roads are the Environment Protection Act (EPA) 1996 and the Environment Protection Regulations 2054 (1997). Under the Act and Regulations, an EIA is required due to the significance and extent of impacts, including resettlement.

The World Bank also requires a project-specific, EIA-level assessment of the proposed roads as the proposed roadworks have major environmental issues. Furthermore, where population displacement is unavoidable, resettlement planning should be undertaken in accordance with the Bank's Operational Directive 4.30/Operational Policy 4.12.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject iii EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 4. Methodology

The EIA was completed by undertaking EIA scoping, alignment inspection, district interviews, additional fieldwork inspections and the assessment of issues.

4.1 EIAScoping

EIA scoping was undertaken in accordance with the Environment Protection Regulations 2054 (1997) to inform stakeholders about the proposed project, receive their comments on relevant enviromnental issues and identify priority environmental issues for assessment in the EIA. Scoping included a literature review, publication of a Public Notice, inspections of the proposed alignments and discussions with local people, discussions with Government officials at destination district headquarters, convening a Scoping Workshop in Kathmandu and formal preparation of a Scoping Report.

4.2 AlignmentInspection

Walkover inspections of the 196 km of proposed road alignments were undertaken by the Environment and Social teams, a Road Engineer, Geologist, Surveyor and associated professionals. The inspections by the Environment and Social teams were used to assist in the selection of the best possible road alignment, collect local data, formulate site-specific and generic road design recommendations and identify practical environmental mitigation measures and improvements.

4.3 AlignmentSelection

The general alignments proposed by DOR were refined generally in accordance with environmental alignment selection criteria. The proposed alignrnents were discussed by the walkover team and agreement was reached on the preferred siting. Occassionally major alignmnentchanges were made to sections of the proposed DOR alignments when steep, difficult or unstable terrain was encountered. The walkover alignment was generally selected to within 20 m horizontal and 10 m vertical of the final alignment as refined by the Detailed Survey teams.

4.3.1 Collectionof AlignmentInformation

Local information was collected by physical and social site assessments of the proposed alignment and right-of-way (ROW) during the walkover inspections. Standard Alignment Data Sheets were used to collect data on land use, forest type, landfonn, geology and other significant features along the full length of each alignment. In addition, Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets were used to interview local people about forest and other natural resource use, and the conservation significance of local ecology.

Sumrnary descriptions of the proposed alignments and major local features were prepared including current local access, archaeology, developments and electricity.

Road Maintenance and Developrment Project iv Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 In addition,social assessmentROW fieldworkconsisted of: l Recording of property and assets located in two bands: 15 m and 30 m (i.e. 7.5 m and 15 m fromthe centerlineof the traverse line);

* A questionnairesurvey of a sample of 197 potentiallyaffected households;

* A questionnairesurvey of a sample of 90 potentiallyaffected business owners, and

* 19 group discussionswith residents of settlementslocated in the ROW.

4.4 District Interviews

Consultationand information collection at the district level was undertaken based on the District InterviewSheets. Interviewswere conductedwith key GovernmentDepartments at all destination District headquarters, including the Administration Office, Development Office, AgriculturalOffice and Forestry Office- Interviewswere also conducted with VDC and communityrepresentatives.

4.5 Inspectionof Existing Roads

Existing roads in the locality of the proposed roads were inspected to identifv the local environmentalimpacts associated with road construction. These inspections provided a good indication of the likely impacts that will result along the proposed alignments given the similaritiesof geology, landform, land use and likely road constructiontechniques. A set of designrecommendations was formulated based on the past impactsand design faults.

4.6 Impact Assessment

Following field work and data collection, potential environmentalimpacts were assessed. The level of assessmentof each issue was based on the relative importanceassigned to that issue in the scoping of the EIA.

5. Analysis of Alternatives

A number of road alternativeswere consideredprior to and during the RMD Project. Prior to the project, alternative roads for construction were considered in the PIP Project, based on economic, environmentaland social criteria The first stage of the RMD Project again screened roads for inclusionin the project based on these three factors.

Alternative alignments for each of the proposed roads had been considered in detail in a number of studies commissioned by DOR dating back to 1982. Using the general alignments selected by DOR for the proposed roads, the RMD Project refined them based on local features observed during the walkover surveys and again in the detailed engineeringsurveys.

Road Maintenance and Development Project v Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The main bio-physical and social selection criteria used to refine the alignments were:

1. Geology - avoidance of landslide hazard areas to achieve long-term road stability.

2. Topography - not floodprone; - lower slope land to minimise cut and fill and construction costs; - avoidance or minimal disturbance of stable embankments.

3. Land use - shortest possible alignment length to rminimise land take; - avoidance of religious sites, large settlements and high-value production land.

6. Projected Road Use

6.1 ExistingTraffic Volumes

Table 2: Average Daily Traffic

Proposed Traffic Alignment Pedestrians Porters Mules Sheep Darchula 72 75 - 178 Martadi 79 53 83 Mangalsen 84 45 112 ___ -_

Jumla 205 | 15 21 - Jajarkot 64 -4r9 3X- __

Pedestrian traffic along all of the proposed roads is an important component of trail traffic. Likewise, porters and mules play an important transport role on all of the five trails, except for Darchula, where sheep are used to transport goods instead of mules.

6.2 ProjectedVehicle Traffic

Projected vehicle traffic composition and volumes have been estimated for each of the proposed roads. The same projected traffic composition has been used for all five roads based on the composition of traffic measured on RMD Project upgrading roads (Table 3).

Table 3: Projected 'Normal' Vehicle Traffic Composition

Motor- Tractor Car Utility Mini Truck Mini Bus Bus cycle Truck 5% 13% 3% 17% 4%°19% 19% 20%

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject vi EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Base year AADT values were predicted for the life of the road allowing for: (a) population growth; (b) per capita income growth; and (c) income elasticity of demand (Table 4). It was assumed that both population and per capita income will grow faster with the road.

Table 4: Projected 'Normal' Dailh Vehicle Traffic Volume

Traffic Road Motor Trac- Car Utilitv Mini Truck Mini Bus AADT Growth Cycle tor Truck Bus Rate

Darchula 1 4 I 5 1 5 5 6 28 4.32 Martadi 2 7 12 9 2 10 10 10 51 4.07 Mangalsen 2 j 6 [I 8 2 9 8 9 45 3.92 Jumla 3 8 2 11 3 12 12 1 13 64 4.41 Jajarkot 2 4 | 1 6 1 6 6 | 7 33 4.25

7. Baseline Environment 7.1 Bio-physicalEnvironment

All proposed roads are located in the Middle Mountains (33%) and High Mountains (67%) of Nepal, as detailed in Table 5.

Table 5: Physiographic Regions of Proposed Roads

V = PhysiographicRegion by AlignmentLength (nm) Road MiddleMountain HHigh Mountain Total Darchula 29 6 35 Martadi __37 37 Mangalsen 15 1 Jumla I - 88 88 Jajarkot 1 21 - 1 1 Source: LRMP, 1982-84.

The Darchula, Martadi, Jumla and Jarjakot roads follow major river valleys for the majority of their length. These river valleys are the Mahakali, Budhi Ganga, Kamali and Tila, and Bheri rivers respectively. These alignments predominantly run parallel to the major rivers, crossing either the mid or lower hill slopes, except where major features such as landslides and deep tributary valleys have to be negotiated. At these locations the alignments either descend to the valley floor or ascend around the feature.

The Mangalsen alignment does not follow a river valley. It runs cross country, descending steeply to the Kailash Khola then ascending to Mangalsen township.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject vii EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 All alignments are almost exclusively located on hill slopes, above the flood level of major rivers and streams (except where crossings are required), and above landslides on the lower slopes near rivers. The alignments generally cross 10-40° slopes, although steeper sections are traversed along all alignments. The steepest section of alignment is located on the Jumla road, crossing slopes of up to 700. The proposed alignments are all located between elevations of 600 m (the Kailash Khola on the Mangalsen road) and 2,344 m (Jumla).

The proposed alignments lie in the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone, which is comprised of allocthonous (foreign transported rock mass) Kathmandu Group and autocthonous (in situ) to para-allocthonous (partially transported) Midland Group rock successions (DMG, 1987).

The alignments cross two main cultivation types, rainfed (21.0%) and irrigated (12.2%) cultivation. Approximately 20.9% of the alignments pass through Government, Community or private forests. The majority of these forests are immature, with crown coverage of less than 50%. The dominant forest species in the lower valley areas below 1,200 m elevation, are Sal, Saj, tropical mixed hardwood and Chir pine species, whilst the dominant species above 1,200 m are Chir pine and mixed broad leafed species. The alignments also cross degraded shrublands (10.3%), grasslands located on steep to very steep slopes (26.8%), and rock outcrops, riverbeds, screes, accumulated debris and cliff faces (5.0%).

No proposed alignments go through or immediately adjacent to any protected areas. The Martadi alignment commences approximately 10 km east and 1,600 m below the eastern side of Khaptad National Park, whilst the Jumla alignment will provide the nearest road access to two protected areas, Rara National Park (21 kin) and She-Phoksundo National Park (34 km).

A total of 88 archaeological, religious and cultural sites of local, regional or national significance exist within the districts crossed by the roads. These sites, identified from the Main Cultural and Archaeological Map of Nepal (Departnent of Archaeology, undated) and Heritage Sites of Nepal (IUCN, 1997), include temples, shrines, palaces, caves, hilltops, hot water springs, pools, lakes and taps. Most older identified shrines, temples and palaces are in a state of disrepair and in need of immediate structural renovation.

7.2 Socio-economic Environment

Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world, with up to 45 % of its population defined as "poor" (HMG/N, 1996b; UNDP 1998: 126). In 1994, the country had a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of only US$ 200.

The RMD Project roads are situated in the Far-Western Development Region (FWDR) anid Mid-Western Development Region (MWDR), two of the poorest regions in the country. Four of the six districts crossed by the roads have been rated as amongst the 10 worst-

Road Maintenance and Development Project viii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 performing districts of Nepal. Achham District is rated as the worst performing district. followed by Kalikot, Jumla, Bajura and Jajarkot Districts. Darchula District is also fairly poorly rated (26th).

The six road districts comprise 232 Village Development Committees (VDCs), of which 33 are crossed by the RMD PROJECT roads. The 33 VDCs had a combined population of 114,944 in 1991, rising to an estimated 124,314 in 1998. These VDCs accommodated an estimated 24,173 households in 1998, the majority (33.6 %) of whom are resident in VDCs crossed by the Jumla road. Key socio-economic features of the six districts are:

* an economy dominated by subsistence agriculture, with only a small percentage of the population formally employed outside the agricultural sector;

* small average landholding sizes (an average of approximnately1.4 ha was recorded in the socio-economic survey) and food deficits;

a a reportedly high incidence of seasonal labour migration (mostly by men) to the Terai, other areas of Nepal and India;

- inadequate access to social services and facilities, high illiteracy rates and low life expectancy, despite improvements in the provision of basic social services since the 1970s. 8. EnvironmentalImpacts

The construction and operation of new roads produces both direct and indirect (road induced) environmental impacts. Direct environmental impacts are those impacts that are directly caused by road construction or operation. During construction, these impacts primarily occur within the road formation area or immediately adjacent to it, and at ancillary sites such as quarries and workforce camps.

Indirect, or induced, environmental impacts are those impacts not directly caused by road construction or operation. These impacts result from activities associated with or induced by road construction and operation. Indirect impacts can include the degradation of forests and ecology in the road ROI and impacts on cultural traditions (both positive and negative) and social development in general.

The primary environmental issues associated with the proposed road construction and operation include land use change, land stability, ecological degradation, population displacement, loss of assets and social development (see Table 6). They are seen as significant in terms of the type of likely impacts, the extent of these impacts and the period over which they will occur.

Road Maintenance and Development Project ix Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 6: PrimaryEnvironmental Issues and AssociatedImpacts

Primarv 1 Impact Extent Direct / Initiation Environmental Indirect (C = const. Issue Impact 0 = operat.) Land Use . Loss of agriculturalland ROW D C . Loss of forestresource ROW D C * Loss or degradationof forest cover ROI I 0 Land Stability * Landslidesand erosion ROW D C &O * Sedimentation ROW D C & O Ecology * Lossof foresthabitat ROW D C * Lossor degradationof forest habitat ROI I 0 Degradationof wildlife and fisheries ROI I C & O Social . Loss of privately-ownedbuildings ROW D C * Loss of communityservices/facilities ROW D C * Impactson culturaltraditions ROI I 0 * Social and economicdevelopment ROI I 0

Secondary environmental issues include archaeological, cultural and religious sites, air quality, water quality, noise and refuse pollution.

8.1 Land Use

Most existing land use within the proposed ROW's will be converted to road formation, resulting in a permanent loss of production resources. The actual ROW width will vary along the alignments according to the slope and road design. For the purposes of quantifying the approximate areas of each land use type that will be converted to road formation, the ROW has been assumed to have an average width of 15 m. This represents a total ROW land area of 294.6 ha along the 196.4 km of proposed alignments.

The ROW land use types and areas that will be converted to road formation are summarised in Table 7. In terms of production value, irrigated and rainfed cultivation and forests are viewed as the most valuable land use types.

Table 7: Land Use Types Within the Right-of-Way

-. ______Land Use Tvpe (ha) Project | Cultivation Grass- Aban- Settle- River. Rock, Total Site Irrigat. Rainfd. land Forest Shrubs doned ments Featur. Cliffs, (ha) I , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~LandScree Darchula 4.05 11.24 22.14 3.90 8.92 0.17 2.61 53.03 Martadi 4.68 24.44 14.45 7.79 - 1.09 2.90 55.35 Mangalsen 2.69 11.58 2.29 5.42 - - - 0.10 22.08 Jumla 16.10 12.52 40.08 24.12 20.78 1.30 9.96 1.27 6.53 132.66 Jajarkot 8.40 1.95 - 20.40 0.75 L - - 31.50 Total l 35.92 61.73 78.96 | 61.63 30.45 1.30 9.96 2.63 12.04 294.62

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject x EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 A total of 97.65 ha of cultivation land will be converted to road formation, consisting of 35.92 ha of irrigated cultivation and 61.73 ha of rainfed cultivation. In terms of the areas of cultivation in the main project districts, this translates to a minor loss of between 0.03- 0.14% of each district's total cultivation land.

To assess the relative annual crop production loss from ROW land, all irrigated cultivation land was assumed to be under a single wheat and a single paddy crop each year, whilst all rainfed cultivation land was assumed to be under a single wheat and a single maize crop. Average yields per hectare calculated from five project districts were applied to calculate an equivalent loss in annual crop production. This equivalent crop production loss translates to 140.3 T of wheat, 89.8 T of rice and 98.8 T of maize per annum. In comparison to annual national production, ROW production amounts to less than 0.01% of Nepal's production of any of these grains. The loss of cultivation land and associated production will nonetheless be a significant impact at the local level, for people owning land along the road alignment. The actual severity of this impact will be determined by the success of Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) m-iitigationmeasures.

Countering this loss of cultivation land will be the possible re-cultivation of abandoned land, brought back into production due to an increase in crop prices generated by road access.

Forests

Approximately 62 ha of forest will be cleared within the ROWs during road construction. This forest consists of coniferous (29.4%), hardwood (50.8%) and mixedwood (19.8%) forest types (Table 8). Only crown cover densities in the 10-70% range were recorded within the ROWs, with 76% forests having 10-40% crown density and the remaining 24% of forests having 40-70% crown density.

Table 8: Forest Types and Densities Withinthe Right-of-Way

Forest Types by Crown Cover Densitv (ha) Total Road Coniferous Hardwood Mixedwood Forest I______1040% 40-70% 1 10-40% 40-70% 10-40% 40-70% (ha) Darchula 0 - 462.30 - - 1.65 3.90 Martadi 0.14 4.60 2.29 0.47 0.29 7.79 Mangalsen 5.42 - - - 5.42

Jumia 12.56 - 4-04 2.78 3.63 1.]1 24.12 Jajarkot - 9.40 5.90 4.28 0.82 20.40 Total 18.12 20.34 | 10.97 8.38 3.87 61.63 (29.4%) (33.0%) (17.8%) (13.6%) (6.2%) l_

The clearance of the road formation area will result in the permanent loss of approximately 125 m3 of fuelwood and 3,524 m3 of wood. This loss of 62 ha of forest resources is a relativelv minor impact when compared with the total ROI forest area of 1,326 km2.

Road Maintenance and Development Projecz xi Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 8.2 Land Stability

Geologically,the Himalayasare the youngestmountains in the world. They are tectonically active and morphologicallydynamic, constantly changing shape due to geological,tectonic and morphologic dynamism. The steep slopes and "V" shaped valleys are the manifestationsof these ongoingprocesses.

The proposedroads cross features of instabilities. The magnitude of these instabilitiesvary considerably from section to section along each alignment, as a function of geology, tectonic activitiesand geomorphicprocesses (rivers,snow falls, rainfall, earthquakes,etc.).

Land stability along the proposed road alignmentswas assessed using hazard ratings based upon topography, slope, geomorphology,hydrology, geology and engineering geological properties of slope materials. For rating purposes, slopes were classified as either rock or soil. Areas with less than 1 m soil depth were classified as rock slopes, whilst areas with greaterthan 1 m soil depth were classifiedas soil slopes.

Hazard ratings have been modified from the Mountain Risk EngineeringHandbook (ICIMOD, 1991) to allow for local field conditions. For each identified rating factor, ratings were assignedbased on the degree of vulnerability.

The major stability-influencingfactor on rock slopes is the underlying rock structure. Along some road sections, lithological and seismo-tectoniccomponents have significant influenceon rock slope stability. Structurallyinfluenced rock slopes have the potential for deep seated and large-scale instabilities. On soil slopes, the dominant features that influence land stability are soil type, slope and land use, in combination with the hydrogeological component. Unlike rock slope hazards, land instabilities on soil slopes are shallowand mediumto small scale.

A total hazard rating score for each rock or soil section of alignmentwas then calculatedby adding the individual ratings. Each alignment section was then classified as low, medium or high hazard.

Low hazard sections are generally stable and shouldremain so during the constructionand operationof the roads. Mediumhazard sections have the potential of small to medium scale instability.Land instabilityunder this hazard level could be triggered or acceleratedby road excavation. High hazard sections are highly prone to instability and need greater care during constructionand operation. A priority of alignment selection was to avoid high hazard areas, although some sections of the proposed roads had to cross these areas due to their size down the hillslope face or the need to construct excessively long and steep roads to traverse around them.

The differenthazard levels for rock and soil slopes by length along each road alignment are summarisedin Table 9.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 9: Alignment Slope Hazards

Proposed Road I Rock Slope Hazard Soil Slope Hazard | Road (length km) _ (length km) i Length High Medium [ Low High Medium Low (km) Darchula 13.9 [_ 1.5 1.8 12.3 5.9 35.4 Martadi | 11.4 | 1.3 7.5 16.7 36.9 Mangalsen |2.7 1 12.0 14.7 Jumia 0.9 20.2 12.5 0.1 36.7 18.0 88.4 Total 14.8 34.3 [ 15.3 9.4 77.7 | 23.9 175.4 Note:the Jajarkotalignment geoiogical assessment could not be undertaken.

In general, the road alignments cross medium hazard rock and soil slopes, comprising 64% of the total length of alignments. There are only limited stretches of high hazard rock slopes along the proposed road corridors (8%). Most rock slope hazards along the alignmnentsare rated as medium and are not expected to pose serious risk to the safety of the road corridor during construction and operation. However, excavation of these road sections needs to be strictly controlled.

Along some road alignments, high hazard soil slope sections extend for significant lengths, but only make up 5% of the total length of alignments. However, a considerable length (44%) of the proposed alignmnentsis rated as medium hazard. Appropriate drainage, spoil management and blo-engineering techniques on cut and fill batters on medium hazard slopes are required to stabilise these sites.

8.3 Ecology

Ecological degradation from the construction of the proposed roads will result from the direct loss of vegetation from ROW clearing. It also has the potential to occur due to the indirect loss and degradation of vegetation, habitat and species in the region of influence (ROI). Ecological degradation of the ROI may occur from vegetation harvesting and wildlife poaching by the construction workforce, and increased harvesting during road operation due to greater accessibility and additional local demands from road-induced activities.

The construction of new roads provides improved access to the valleys through which the roads pass and to neighbouring areas, thereby enabling easier natural resource access and removal. In addition, new roads promote service industries along their corridors, resulting in a population increase in these areas and an increased local demand for natural resources to service the new businesses and for personal use. The main sites where increased natural resource harvesting is likely to occur are from forests.

Almost all forest areas neighbouring the proposed road alignments are currently easily accessible, therefore the road will only increase access to these forests, not open them up to access.

Road Mainmenance and DevelopmenJ Project xiii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The extent of a road's ROI in terms of increased harvesting and wildlife poaching cannot be definitively bounded. The area of increased forest resource use will be largely determined by forest access and product demand, the ease of harvest and transport of forest resources to the roadside and to the market, and the creation of additional resource demands along the roadside. Ecological degradation within the road ROIs is likely to be greatest near the road and is likely to continue to occur over an extended period of time. For this assessment, a 5 km linear distance perpendicular to the aligiunents, providing a 10 km wide ROI, has been adopted as the extent of the ROI. This equates to approximately 0.5-1 day's walk from the alignments.

Vegetation

Vegetation within the road ROWs and ROIs will be affected by road construction and operation, but as FRR (1998) conimented, "the role of road construction in forest degradation is still unclear".

A direct impact on vegetation will occur as a result of ROW clearance, where 0.62 km2 and 0.30 km2 of forest and shrubland respectively will be cleared. This is a relatively minor loss of forest and shrub habitat, particularly when compared to the total ROI forest area of 1,326 2 km .

The forest loss from ROW clearing will fragment contiguous areas of forest and shrub habitat, but given the limited width of clearing (generally 15 m or less), this impact will be minor. The conservation value of the ROW vegetation does not appear to be high, as all forest are highly utilised and no unique plant communities were identified.

A loss of vegetation will also occur from increased forest harvesting of fuelwood, fodder and timber within the ROI during road operation.

Local markets will be established along the roadsides, which will result in an increased local fuel demand. This fuielwood demand will primarily be met from local forests, resulting in some degradation. In addition, an increased demand for timber for building materials and forage for livestock raising will also be mainly met from ROI forests. The volumes of these additional demands are difficult to quantify, as the roadside population increases and new business demands cannot be accurately estimated. Based on established roads in the western regions of Nepal, these additional demands are likely to be relatively small and concentrated at a number of sites.

A moderate to significant ecological impact that may occur in the ROIs could be an increase in the harvesting of herbs in areas around Jumla and Martadi. Current harvesting in these areas is at excessive, unsustainable levels according to District Forest Office staff. The opening of the Martadi and Jumla roads is likely to produce increased competition among herb traders and will allow individuals and local communities to more easily transport their products to the Terai, which may lead to the increased harvesting of this valuable resource.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xiv Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Wildlife

Wildlife will be impacted upon bv a loss or degradation of habitat from ROW clearing, increased forest use, increased poaching and road kills.

ROW clearing will remove 0.62 km2 and 0.30 km2 of forest and shrubland habitat respectively. This is a minor impact, particularly when compared to the total ROI forest area of 1,326 km2

ROI forest and shrubland habitat degradation or loss over time is difficult predict. The net likely effect is some general forest degradation around new and expanding roadside market centres.

The conservation value of habitat that will be lost from the ROWs and degraded in the ROIs is considered to be low given the current high use and broad local distribution of these forest types. Most forests and shrublands within the ROIs are currently accessed and heavily utilised, as evidenced by the crown cover densities almost exclusively in range of 10-70%.

The illegal poaching of animals is currently occurring within the road ROIs, and is likelv to increase due to the road-induced increase in population along the alignrnents, particularly near the expanding settlements.

In terms of potential road kills of wildlife, FRR (1998) commented that limited numbers of wildlife are affected by roads in Nepal, possibly due to low traffic speeds and the warning effect of vehicle noise levels. Road hills are likely to be minor as the projected daily vehicle movements are very low (between 28-64 in the first year of operation), with the majority of traffic likely to occur during daylight hours.

Fisheries

Protected Areas

Increased local demands for basic forest products are unlikely to impact upon Khaptad, Rara and Shey Poksundo National Parks as these products can be harvested from forests closer to the roads. If an impact does occur, it is likely to result from the increased harvesting of higher value forest products, such as herbs, due to the improved ease of resource export created by road access, or illegal harvesting associated with increased tourism.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xv EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Closerroad access than the proposed Martadi road already exists to Khaptad National Park at two locations therefore no significant impact on the Park is expected. The estimated minimum walking time from the proposed Jumla road to the nearest Rara National Park boundaryis 1.5 days, therefore if the Jumla road indirectly promotes Park degradation,it is likely to be to a minor extent. Likewise, Shey PoksundoNational Park is approximately34 km from the nearest point on the proposed Jumla road (Jumla township), with an estimated minimum walkingtime of 2 days, therefore if Park degradationoccurs, it is likely to be to a minor extent.

8.4 OtherBio-Physical Impacts

Archaeological, religious and cultural sites: a total of 26 archaeological, religious and cultural sites are located within the VDCs crossed by the proposed roads, but given that no sites are located within 200 m of the proposed alignments, direct impacts from road constructionactivities are unlikelyto occur.

Noise and vibration:noise will be generatedduring constructionfrom blasting,hammering and other excavation activities. The most significant noise generated will come from blasting. Since blasting will not be regularly produced during construction and will be carried out duringthe daytime,the associatednoise pollution is consideredto be minor.

During road operation,vehicle noise levels within 50 m of the roads are expected to slightly exceed 65 dBA (in Canter, 1996). Approximately200 m from the roads, vehicle noise levels will only be marginally above backgroundlevels. Since the total number of vehicle movementsper day are projectedto be less than 70 on the proposed roads, noise impacts from traffic will be minor.

Air qualitv:the deterioration in air qualitv from dust generation and vehicle emissions during road constructionand operationwill be a relativelyminor environmentalimpact. Air quality will not be significantlyaffected because of the limited duration of constructionat any one site, and the limitednumber of vehicles and the dispersednature of traffic that will utilisethe roads in areas with generallygood air quality.

Drinking water catchments:none of the proposed alignments cross major town water supply catchments. Damage to small village drinking water supply facilities may result from catchment destabilisationfrom road excavation and the poor disposal of excess fill, but this will generally be minimised by mitigationmeasures. Where the alignmentsreach destination district headquarters,they approach these towns from below and terminate on the lower side, thereforethey do not cross the main water supplycatchment areas.

8.5 Social Impacts

HMGN's EighthPlan (1992-1997),as well as the AgriculturalPerspective Plan, emphasise the importanceof rural road linkages in the developmentprocess. The lack of appropriate levels of infrastructure (of which rural roads are a key component) is seen as a major impedimentto communitydevelopment. Apart from the periodic repair and maintenanceof highways,the Eighth Plan, therefore,proposed the constructionof 1,200 km of rural roads,

Road Maintenanceand Development Project xvi EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 125 km of main tracks and 830 km of mule trails (NPC, 1997). The RMD Project. particularlv the new road section, is anticipated to aid the Government's poverty alleviation efforts. This emphasis on the role of roads in economic growth and poverty alleviation highlights the fact that roads create opportunities for development, for instance, by stimulating new or enhanced income-generating opportunities. These indirect impacts are often much more significant than the direct impacts caused during road construction (e.g. land acquisition and construction employment opportunities), since they may induce enduring socio-economic changes. The positive reaction of roadside communities and district officials to road construction, underscores the importance attached to these indirect impacts. Their support of the project does not imply a lack of concern over property, but a belief that the development potential associated with the roads outweighs direct adverse impacts.

8.5.1 Social Changeand Development

Other road studies in Nepal have noted the potential social development effects associated with improved access and mobility. Since the new road sections are situated in the two most underdeveloped regions of the country, the RMD Project is expected to contribute in a similar manner to:

* An improvement in food supply and a reduction in the cost of consumer items; * An improvement in the overall health status of people and a reduction in child mortality rates, through improved access to health facilities, counseling and information; * Possible increases in literacy rates through improved access to education; * An improvement in the position of vulnerable social categories and groups, through the creation and stimulation of income-generating opportunities and a reduction in social and economic disparities.

Apart from improving access to services and facilities, participants in local group discussions cited the following potential (positive and negative) effects of the roads on their livelihoods:

* Easier access to agricultural inputs (e.g. fertiliser and seeds); * Opportunities for the export of agricultural and livestock products; * Opportunities for the establishment of local businesses; * Changes to the use of porters and other providers of non-vehicular transport; * A reduction in the agricultural production levels of households whose land is acquired; * An increase in land prices along the road and at market areas; * Migration of "outsiders" to the area to buy land and start businesses; * Transmission of other cultural practices and fashions to the roadside settlements; * Migration of the young generation to urban areas; and * Smuggling of medicinal plants from the area.

Some of these changes may occur relatively quickly, others may happen more slowly, while yet others may require specific development interventions to materialise. For example, a profit-maximising response to new and enhanced commercial opportunities in the agricultural sector is not necessarily automatic. It is more likely where there already is an established commercial agricultural sector, together with associated credit services, input supplies and marketing arrangements. Additionally, subsistence farmers may,

Road Maintenance and Development Project xvii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 understandably, be averse to diverting resources away from a known and secure form of farming practice to a commercial one which carries considerable risks. Thus, while the new roads will create the potential for economic diversification, and while nearly all of the household respondents believed that the roads would provide these opportunities, it may take time for diversification to be fully realised.

8.5.2 ConstructionEmployment Opportunities

Access to construction employment opportunities is an important (albeit short-term) beneficial impact associated with a development, and should, therefore be maximised. The biggest constraint to achieving this aim, appears to be the unavailability/irregular supply of local workers resulting from agricultural obligations and seasonal labour migration, as well as dissatisfaction with wage rates being offered by contractors.

The contract packaging arrangement for the proposed RMD Project roads is being finalised, but will in all likelihood consist of individual contracts of 1-2 km length, executed through national competitive bidding, with the possibility of community-based contracting in settlement areas. Employment of local job seekers should be further maximised through the application of preferential employment procedures, wherever feasible. If implemented in this manner, the potential impact of foreign workers on the local social environment will also be significantly reduced.

8.5.3 Loss of Land and Buildings

Given the context of local subsistence farmningpractices. the acquisition of land within a ROW as specified in DOR design standards (normally 30 m) will have far-reaching effects on roadside households and communities. In order to minimise land acquisition and population displacement, DOR and the World Bank agreed to limit the ROW on the new roads to an initial corridor of 15 m (except where a wider area is required for construction purposes).'

Selection of a 15 m ROW (as opposed to a 30 m impact corridor) has greatly reduced land take. as shown below.

* Private land: Acquisition of private land has been reduced from approximately 276.47 ha (if a 30 m ROW had been established) to 146.99 ha (for a 15 m ROW). For cultivated land alone, acquisition is down from an estimated 193.72 ha to 96.71 ha. An estimated 3,801 landowners will be affected by land acquisition, increasing by about 758 owners if a 30 m ROW had been established.

* Buildings:Relocation of private and communal buildings (excluding other structures such as irrigation canals) has been reduced from 597 (if a 30 m ROW had been established) to 417 (for a 15 m ROW). The impact on private buildings is down from 567 to 388, while the relocation of residential structures has been reduced from 306 to 177. The number of affected sheds has also been considerably reduced (from 119 to

'Even thoughDOR design standards refer to a 30 m (andin somecases 50 m) ROW,DOR will have no right to the landlocated in the "remaining"ROW. Any futureacquisition on the roadswill be undertakenaccording to the principlesestablished in the EntitlementPolicy (refer to the ResettlementAction Plan for details).

Road Mfaintenance and Development Project xviii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 - 90), while the impact on commercial establishments is marginally reduced (from 137 to 126).

8.5.4 PopulationDisplacement

Table 10 shows that an estimated 3,985 property owners will be affected by the establishment of a 15 m ROW. A large majority (89.2%) will lose land only, while the remaining 10.8% will lose either buildings only, or a combination of land and buildings.

Table 10: AffectedPropertv Owners by Categorvof Loss in the 15 m ROW

Building Onlv Building and Land Road Other House Shop Other Land House Shop Bld. Total and and Bid. Total Only Land Land and Land Darchula 25 2 - 27 1 25 8 1 34 368 Martadi 13 10 38 611 26 6 171 49 696 Mangalsen I I 1 2 16 - I 17 330 Jumla [ 25 43 1 26 94 46 57 44 147 2,160 Total__ 64 55 1 65 184 113 71 63 247 3,554 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99.

The magnitude of household displacement is small in comparison to the total number of affected propertv owners (166 households, or just over 4% of the total).2 Nevertheless, for those being displaced, the experience is significant and often traumatic. Based on the average household size (7.9) obtained in the sample survey, the displaced households consist of an estimated 1,311 persons. Apart from compensation for building losses, rehabilitation measures will be necessary to ensure effective reestablishment of these persons and owners of displaced commercial establishments. Appropriate rehabilitation measures will also be required for those households whose production levels are most adversely affected by land acquisition. 9. Design, Construction and Maintenance Mitigation Measures

Environmental impact rnitigation measures have been incorporated into the preliminary design to date, and detailed additional mitigation measures have been recormmended in the Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP).

The preliminary design of the proposed roads was undertaken based on the two overriding requirements of:

1. "Fair weather earth track" design standards; 2. Low cost roads.

2 Estimatedafter deductionfor multiplehouse ownership.Refer to the RAP for details.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject xix EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 As required by DOR, these two design requirements were paramount, setting the basis for road design. Within these requirements, where possible, environmental mitigation measures have been incorporated. A compromise was reached between short-term cost savings on road construction and long-term environmental damage and high road maintenance and repair costs.

Design, construction and maintenance mitigation recommendations for the proposed roads have been formulated to avoid or mitigate potential bio-physical impacts. These recommendations were primarily formulated from observations of constructed roads leading to or in the vicinity of the proposed alignments. They cover the major design features of excavation, embankment formation, drainage and revegetation, as well as pre-construction, construction and post-construction management by all involved parties.

In addition, specific socio-economic impact mitigation measures have been developed to address:

* Loss of land and other privately-owned assets; . Adverse impacts on subsistence/livelihood or income-earning capacity; and * Collective adverse impacts on groups.

Population displacement and related social impacts will be addressed in terms of HMGN and World Bank policies and guidelines. Since the acquisition of private property for road construction is unavoidable, a key objective directing the development of the RAP has been to ensure that the pre-project living standards of affected persons are restored at no cost to themselves. This will be achieved through the compensation and rehabilitation measures specified in the Entitlement Policy. The implementation of these measures will be enhanced through: o Ongoing community consultation; -- Appropriate social impact management mechanisms for effective compensation delivery and grievance resolution; and * The integration of land acquisition and construction schedules to ensure successful initiation of acquisition procedures prior to commencement of construction.

10. ImprovementProposals

Practical proposals for the rehabilitation of degraded land and for the enhancement and development of enviromnental assets were identified during road alignment inspections and discussions with local people and District officials, in line with the requirements of the World Bank TOR.

Improvement proposals have been developed based on cost effectiveness, sustainability and independent management.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xx Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 kientified irnprovement opportunities are listed below, with estimated costs for their implementation.

1. Improvementof ExistingDegraded EnvironmentalFeatures

* Community Forest establishment and support (NRs. 6,320,000) * Trail improvement (NRs. 488,000) * Revegetation of degraded land (NRs. 85,000) * Landslide stabilisation (NRs. 324,000)

2. ImprovementRelating to the Proposed Roads

* Road head and market centre planning (NRs. 3,683,000) * Cash crop development (NRs. 14,000)

11. Conclusions

Roads create a potential for human development, primarily by improving mobility and access to social services. Accordingly, HMGN has placed a high priority on road construction. The five proposed RMD Project roads are anticipated to contribute to the Government's poverty alleviation efforts as detailed in the Ninth Plan.

The roads are anticipated to improve general mobility and access for a estimated population of 124,314 in the road VVDCs,and nearly 370,000 in the roads' wider region of influence. The living standards of these people may be enhanced through an improvement in access to market centres and towns in the Terai, health facilities and schools.

The proposed roads are also expected to stimulate local development and reduce socio- economic disparities by contributing to an improvement in food supply and a reduction in the cost of consumer items, and by stimulating local economic opportunities.

Road construction in the Middle and High Mountains of Nepal is usually a high impact activity, particularly during construction activities and in the initial few years following construction. The environmental impacts that result from road construction and the subsequent operation of these roads are primarily a function of the bio-physical and socio- economic 'landscape' crossed by the roads and the standard of road works actually constructed.

The combination of steep topography, often unstable geology, high rainfall intensities during the monsoon season, intensive land use and a relatively high rural population density usually means that road construction results in the destabilisation of terrain, the loss of production land, displacement of people and other significant related impacts. These impacts cannot be avoided but can be minimised through the application of acceptable risk management road designs and mitigation measures.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xxi Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 In regard to road design, the RMD Project has incorporated environmental mitigation measures into alignment refinement, road specifications and construction management recommendations (see Figure 2). Sensitive bio-phvsical and socio-economnicfeatures have been avoided along the proposed alignments wherever possible by refining the general alignments proposed by DOR. Road specifications, operating within "low cost" road design limitations and standard DOR specifications, have been prepared to achieve effective operational roads. long-term road stability and low maintenance costs, and to minimise environmental impacts. In addition, the Enviromnental Management Action Plan (EMAP) has included a strict construction supervision and reporting methodology to try to ensure that designed road works are constructed.

Figure 2: Main Constraints, Mitigation Measures and Likely Benefits and Impacts

Major Constraints Main MitigationMeasures Main Likely ImpactsI Benefits

* Bio-physical * Alignmentselection * ROW land loss (295 ha) - steep topography - avoid sensitivefeatures I*ncreased land instability - often unstablegeology , Road design * Some ecological degradation - monsoonrainfall - maximiseroad stabilitv * ROW structure loss Socio-economic * Constructionsupervision (est.417 buildings) - relativelyhigh populationdensity * Compensation/rehabilitation I * Populationdisplacement - intensive land use - for private asset losses (est. 166 households) * Available funds e - for house/businessdisplace. * Improved access - "low cost" roads - for communityfacilities * Stimulationof the local economy

The main bio-physical and socio-economic constraints have been avoided where possible, leaving the main determinants of the level of environmental impacts being "low cost" road designs and road construction.

A relatively high "low cost" road design has been proposed, incorporating significant slope stabilisation and drainage measures. The construction of these measures will significantly lengthen the annual operational periods of the roads and minimise the level of environmental impact that will result, particularly in terms of land stability, loss of productive resources and off-site damage to adjacent features, primarily from excess fill disposal and sedimentation. These measures will also significantly reduce the subsequent maintenance costs incurred.

The construction of the designed road works by the construction Contractor is the final main determiinant of environmental impact. If construction is regularly and strictly supervised against the road designs and EMAP conditions, including non-payment for sub-standard work, environmental impacts can be effectively minimised.

The major potential project environmental impacts and associated mitigation measures are summarised in Table 11.

Road Maintenance and Development Project xxii Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 11: Summary of Major Potential Environmental Impacts and Associated Mitigation Measures

Potential Environmental Impact Main Mitigation Measures Loss of agriculturalland and * Locationof alignmenton lowest value land. forest resources along the ROW * Cut and fill baiencingwhere possible. * Controlleddisposal of excess fill. * Extensiveuse of retainingwalls on 25-60' slopes, including breast walls to stabilise cut slopes below irrigated cultivation. Landslides * Location of road alignmentto avoid major unstablesites whereverpossible. . Minimumexcavation by attemptingto balance cut and fill, and by the extensive use of retainingwalls on 25-60' slopes. * Use of controlledblasting. Erosionand Sedimentation * Constructionof a stableroad formation. a Locationof cross-road drainsat natural drainage sites. * Controlleddisposal of excessfill. * Bio-engineerin. Ecologicaldegradation * Promotionof CommunityForestry in the ROW. * Prohibitionof forest resource use by constructionworkers, and supply of kerosenefor cookingto workers. Loss of private assets * Asset compensation- cash at replacementcost for full or partial loss of buildings;cash at market value for land losses; support with identificationof replacementland. * Lease of temporarilyoccupied land. * Displacementallowance for relocated households and businesses, and disruptionallowance for severe impact on agricultural production. * Rental stipend for occupantsof rented accommodation. * Cash compensationfor loss of trees, based on 3-5 years annual productionlosses. Loss of communityservices and * Repair or full replacementof facilities. facilities Impactson culturaltraditions * Supportprogrammes and counseling. Social and economic * Supportprograrmmes for alternativeincome-generating development opportunities. * Support with access to poverty alleviationand credit programmes.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProjecf xxiii EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Government policy, as detailed in the Eighth Plan (National Planning Commission, 1992), includes the construction of motorable roads to all non-road connected District Headquarters. The Priority Investment Plan (PIP) Project completed the Master Plan for Strategic Road Network and Rural Transport in 1997. This Plan identified 10 potential new roads that would provide connections to 12 districts in the Eastern, Mid-Western and Far- Western Development Regions of Nepal. The PIP Project screened and prioritized these 10 potential new roads, most of which were under construction as earth roads.

From these 10 roads, five were selected as candidate roads for consideration in the Road Maintenance and Development (RMD) Project, with a further three non-PIP roads to District Headquarters added for consideration. These eight roads were composed of a total of 12 separate candidate road sections under consideration for either construction or upgrading.

Considerable lengths of some of the candidate construction roads had already been constructed or were well into construction at the commencement of the RMD Project. Accordingly, the lengths of roads being screened were revised to their current status. All road sections under construction that were well advanced and scheduled for completion during or by the end of the 1998/99 fiscal year, when the RMD Project will be finalised, were included in the "candidate upgrading roads" group.

In the initial RMD Project report, the Inception Report (SMEC, 1998), seven candidate roads were considered for construction (356 kin) and five candidate roads were considered for upgrading (281 km) in the Western, Mid-Western and Far-Western Development Regions. The aim of this study was to screen the roads down to approximately 500 km for detailed design.

The candidate roads were screened based on economic, environmental and social factors. The Inception Report recommended five roads totalling 204 km for detailed construction design to fair weather earth standard, whilst four roads totalling 265 km were recomrnmended for upgrading design to fair weather gravel standard. These reconmmended roads were subsequently approved for design by the Departrnent of Roads (DOR) and the World Bank.

1.2 PROJECTDESCRIPTION

The RMD Project has the primary objective of advancing "the planning and preparation of selected components from among the recommendations of the PIP Master Plan to form the basis of a further Road Project" for World Bank funding (DOR, 1998). This work involves the preparation of road designs, economic assessments, environmental assessments and resettlement and compensation planning for the construction and/or upgrading of sections of the strategic road network.

Road Maintenance and Development Project j Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 This Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) assesses the potential impacts that are likely to result from the construction of the five selected construction roads (see Table 1 and Figure 1). The five proposed roads recommended in the Inception Report, covering 204 km, have been subsequently varified at 196.4 kln due to recent construction. The environmental assessment of the three selected upgrading roads has been undertaken in the form of an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and is therefore not included in this EIA.

Table 1: Roads Proposed for Construction

Road Length DOR Road Classification* Road Districts (kmn) Number Crossed Chamneliya- Darchula 35.4 National Highway H14 Darchula

Sanfebagar- Martadi 36.9 Classificationnot available Bajura

Sanfebagar- Mangalsen 14.7 iClassificationnot availabie Achhamn

Kalikot - Jumia 88.4 National Highway H13 Kalikot, Jumla

Dhaira - Jajarkot 21.0 Major Feeder Road F47 Jajarkot

Total 196.4 source:S Classification and DesignStandards, DOR, 1994.

Throughout this EIA each of the above proposed roads will be referred to by its destination town onlv (e.g. "Darchula" instead of "Chameliya-Darchula").

The starting point for each of the proposed alignments being assessed in this EIA has been determined by the status of road construction in November 1998. The five roads are all under construction. The construction status of the full length of each road is described below, together with the unconstructed section of each road that has been assessed in this EIA.

Darchula: as at November 1998, the road had been partly constructed up to 93.000 km from Satbajh to grassland approximately 50 m above Thaktholi village. The initial 58 km of road up to the Chameliva River has been operational to general traffic, whilst the next 10 kim from the river up to Naktar village has only been open to DOR vehicles during dry season. A bridge over the Chameliya River is approximately 50% finished and due for completion by the end of 1999. The EIA assesses the proposed 35.4 km alignment from the 93.000 km mark to Darchula (see Figure 2).

Martadi: as at October 1998, the initial 19.000 km of the road from Sanfebagar had been fully constructed except for approximately 600 m where only partial excavation had been completed. Only the first 10 km of this road has ever been open to vehicles, up to Tausibata village on the southem side of the Ardauli Khola. The remaining 9 km is due to open by

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Mangalsen: as at September 1998, the initial 22.000 km of the road from Sanfebagar had been constructed into the Chir pine forest, located approximately 4 km by proposed alignment before the Kailash Khola. Once cleared of monsoon damage. the road is operational to this point. The EJA assesses the proposed 14.7 km aligrnment from the 22.000 km mark up to Mangalsen (see Figure 3).

Jumla: as at October 1998, the initial 99.000 krn of the road from Surkhet had been constructed, with a further 33 km partly constructed up to 132.000 km. Of this 33 km under construction. approximately 30 km of the alignment had been almost fully excavated. The remaining 3 km of sections of the alignment are generally composed of rock outcrops which have yet to be excavated. The road has been operational up to 67.000 km and is expected to be open to 133 km in 1999. The EIA assesses the proposed 88.4 km alignment from the 132.000 km mark up to Jumla (see Figure 4).

Jajarkot: as at November 1998, the road had been constructed up to 70.000 km, with a further 16 km partly constructed up to 86.000 km. Of this 16 km under construction, approximately all but 1 km of the alignment has been excavated, with the remaining sections requiring blasting through rock. In addition, tenders have been called for the construction of an additional 5.5 km of road from 86.000 onwards, which is likely to be completed (except for blasting) in the 1998/99 fiscal year. The EIA assesses the proposed 21 km alignment from the 86.000 km mark up to Jajarkot (107.000 km) (see Figure 5).

The five roads are proposed for construction to Design Standards for Feeder Roads (DOR. 1997) "Construction Development Stage II(i) (FWET) - Fair Weather Earth Track" standards for hilly terrain (see Appendix 1). This initial construction stage is aimed at providing a "basic level of dry season vehicular access", with ford crossings of all rivers.

1.3 Aims of EnvironmentalAssessment

This single EIA has been prepared for the environmental assessment of the five proposed roads given the similarity of potential significant environmental impacts that may result from road construction and operation, as identified in the Interim Report. It is concise and focuses on significant environmental issues, as required in the Contract for Consultancy Services (DOR, 1998).

Road Maintenance and Deveiopment Project 3 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The EIA has the dual role of a planning tool and a mechanism for decision-making. Its principal aims are to:

1. Assess the significant potential environmental impacts associated with the project: 2. Assess alternative project designs and provide input into project design; 3. Design practical mitigation and management measures to avoid or reduce adverse impacts and enhance benefits; 4. Provide environmental and social management plans, including an Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP); and 5. Propose and design environmental improvements along the right-of-ways and neighbouring environment.

The environmental assessment has been used as a planning tool through the incorporation of environmental mitigation measures into the project from its commencement, as illustrated in Diagram 1.

Diagram 1: Project Incorporationof EnvironmentalMitigation Measures

Impact MitigationMeasures Project Stage

Alignmentrefinement Incorporatedduring walkover surveys and detailedsurveys.

Preliminaryroad design Incorporatedduring preliminary road measures desian.

Detailedroad design To be incorporatedduring detailed final road measures design.

Roadconstruction | Proposedin the EnvironmentalManagement measures ActionPlan and incorporatedinto Construction Cont-actconditions.

Roadmaintenance Proposedin the EnvironrentalManagement Roadmaitenasres ActionPlan and incorporatedinto Maintenance measures Contractconditions.

The initial two phases of environmental impact mitigation, namely alignment refinement (see Section 4.3) and preliminarv road design (see Section 9.1.1), have already been incorporated into the RMD Project design during the preparation of the EIA. Detailed road design measures (see Section 9.1.2) will be incorporated during the second phase of road design, the detailed final design. Construction and maintenance mitigation and management measures have been proposed in the EMAP and will be incorporated into the Contract conditions for the final two phases of environmental impact mitigation, to be undertaken during project implementation.

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tw~~~~~~ 2. LEGISLATION,POLICIES AND STANDARDS

The environmental assessment and management planning of the five proposed roads are subject to a range of legislative requirements. policies, guidelines and standards. Likewise. the construction of these roads is also subject to a range of legislative requirements, policies and standards. Both sets of requirements are described below.

2.1 ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT REQUIREMENTS

This EIA has been prepared in accordance with HMGN and World Bank requirements for the environmental assessment and management planning. A single EIA has been prepared for all five project roads because of their similar geographic locations, topographic and geologic features, land use and forest types, and similar social structures, as identified in the RMD Project Inception Report.

A separate EIA is not legally required under HMGN legislation for any of the five roads as no listed sensitive sites under the Environment Protection Regulations 2054 (1997) are crossed by the roads. Listed sensitive sites that require a separate EIA include National Parks, wildlife reserves and conservation areas, environmentally fragile areas and border regions, serni-arid, mountainous and alpine regions, flood-prone and other hazardous regions, and historical, cultural and archaeological sites.

2.1.1 NationalLegislation

The primary HMGN statutory requirements that have to be adhered to for the environmental assessment for the construction of the subject roads are the Environment Protection Act (EPA) 1996 and the Environment Protection Regulations 2054 (1997). The Regulations took effect on 26 June 1997 and supersede the 1993 National Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines.

As stipulated under Article 3 of the Act, the concerned Proponent shall conduct an EIA for proposals listed in Appendix 2 of the Regulations. Under Section II Regulation 3 (relating to Appendix 2) of the Regulations, an EIA is required for the construction of three of the proposed roads as they are classified by DOR (1994) as either National Highway (Darchula and Jumla) or Major Feeder Road (Jajarkot). The other two roads (Mangalsen and Martadi) are yet to be classified, but it is assumed that they will be Major Feeder Roads based on DOR's definition of roads connecting National Highways to district headquarters. Accordingly, these two roads have been assessed in this EIA.

Under the Act, the Proponent is obliged to implement mitigation measures, and ensure that monitoring, evaluation and environmental auditing are undertaken during project implementation.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 5 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The Act and Regulations make public consultation a pre-requisite for all prescribed projects. This provision provides local people with the opportunity to voice their concerns and issues from the project scoping stage through to the approval of an EIA report. The Act also empowers HMGN to frame rules for EIAs but such rules have not been framed to date.

2.1.2 World Bank Requirements

The World Bank requires EIA and/or IEE level assessments for proposed roadworks, depending upon whether the works are classified as either: a) Roadworks with major environmental issues which should be the subject of a full and detailed environmental assessment (EA); b) Roadworks with little to no potential impact and hence requiring a limited environmental analysis.

The environmental screening of the proposed roads (see Section 4.1) identified the Beni- Jomsom candidate road as category (a) roadworks for exclusion from the project. This road was subsequently excluded from the project by the World Bank and DOR.

The five proposed roads total 196 km in length and pass through large areas of intensively utilised land with similar social and physical features and, therefore, similar potential environmental impacts. The proposed roadworks have major environmental issues and have therefore been classified as category (a) and deemed to require a full EA.

This World Bank classification of the roads and the corresponding requirements for environmental assessment are similar to DOR's classification and requirements for environmental assessment, therefore this single EIA satisfies both requirements.

Since the RMD Project will entail acquisition of privately-owned land and buildings, this EIA has been prepared in compliance with the World Bank's GP/BP/OP 4.12 guidelines (previously issued as Operational Directives 4.20 and 4.30) concerning involuntary resettlement, impacts on indigenous groups and rehabilitation of affected populations. It has also been prepared in accordance with the following World Bank guidelines:

Operational Directive OP 4. 01: Environmental Assessment, January 1999. Operational Policy OP 4.04: Natural Habitats, 1995. EnvironmentalAssessmentSourcebook, 1991.

Roads- and Environment: A Handbook, 1994.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 6 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 2.1.3 Departmentof Roads Standards

DOR has issued several standards for the environmental management of road projects, including the Draft ELA Guidelines for the Road Sector (DOR, 1997), which was prepared under the broad framework of the National EL4 Guidelines (IUCN, 1993). This publication sets out environmental assessment requirements for road construction and upgrading projects. Schedule I of these Guidelines, relating to the level of assessment required for different project types, is almost identical to the 1997 Environment Protection Regulations. As the National EIA Guidelines have now been superseded by the Environment Protection Act and Regulations, the draft road sector guidelines are unlikely to be revised.

DOR has also issued the Environmental Management Guidelines (DOR, 1997) (EMG) which provide guidance to the Proponent on the integration of environmental mitigation measures into the project. This specifically deals with the management of quarries, borrow pits, material stockpiling and spoil disposal, camp operation, earthworks and slope stabilization, and environmental pollution.

2.2 ROADDEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

DOR, as the proponent of the RMD Project, is subject to the following road development- related requirements prior to, during and following road construction.

2.2.1 NationalLegislation

The Public Roads Act 2031 (1974) empowers HMG to prohibit the construction of permnanent structures (buildings) within a prescribed distance from the road (Section 3). DOR may temporarily acquire land and other property, adopting compensatory measures during the construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of the public road (Sections 14 and 15). The Act also requires DOR to plant trees on both sides of the road and hand it over to local bodies (VDC or Municipality) for their management (Section 16). The Act also empowers DOR to operate quarries, borrow pits and other facilities during road construction (Section 17). In summary, the Act facilitates the construction and upgrading of roads and acquisition of land and property for extracting construction materials and developing other facilities with the adoption of compensatory measures, and the maintenance of vegetation along the roadside.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 7 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 While the Public Road Act (as amended in 1978) deals exclusively with land required on a temporary basis, the Land Acquisition Act, 2034 (1977) covers all instances of permanent land acquisition.- The Act specifies a range of procedures to be followed for the acquisition and compensation of land and other assets. Key stipulations include:

* establishment of a Compensation Determination Cormmittee to ascertain compensation for land/property acquisition;

acquisition and compensation procedures consisting of (a) initial procedures, (b) a preliminary investigation process, (c) acquisition notification, (d) compensation notification, and (e) appeal procedures;

* compensation to be paid (a) for damages caused as a result of investigations during the prelininary process, and (b) for land and property permanently acquired (including, standing crops, trees and houses); and

* compensation to be in cash (lump sum), although landowners who have lost their entire landholdings may request replacement land.

The provisions of the Land Act, 2021 (1964) pertaining to the maximum permitted size of individual landholdings also apply to land acquisition, since a landowner may not be compensated for more land than he is entitled to under the Land Act regulations.

The Land Act additionally specifies the compensation entitlements of registered tenants on land sold by the owner or acquired for development purposes. The provisions of the Land Acquisition Act are in accordance with those of the Land Act of 1964, namely that a registered tenant is entitled to 25% of the compensation. However, the fourth amendment of the Land Act in 1997 increases the tenant's entitlement to 50%. This amendment was challenged in the Supreme Court and is currently being deliberated by a Special Bench of the Court.2

Land acquisition must also comply with the provisions of the Guthi Corporation Act, 2033 (1976). Section 42 of this Act states that Guthi (religious trust land) acquired for a development must be replaced with other land (rather than compensated in cash).

As the proposed roads pass through forests, legal provisions of the Forest Act 2049 (1993) and Forest Rules 2050 (1995) apply. The roads pass through Government managed forests containing legally protected species such as Sal (Shorea robusta), and also pass through Community Forests, leasehold forests and private forests, all of which attract various articles of the Act.

Article 17 of the Constitutionof the Kingdom of Nepal establishes the right to property as a fundamental right. The basis of compensationand the procedures for deliveringcompensation for any property acquired by the State shall be as prescribed by the law. 2 The Land AcquisitionAct and the Land Act do not make provision for informal tenants or squatters.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 8 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Article 20 of the Forest Act obliges HMG to prepare and implement a work plan for the managementof national forests, while Article 21 prohibits any activities in Government managed forests other than those prescribed in the work plan. No work plans have been prepared for any Govermnent forests crossed by the five proposed alignments therefore these two Articles do not apply. Despite the provisionsof Article 21 in regard to forest work plans, Article 68 of the Forest Act allows major road construction as it empowers HMG, in case of no alternatives, to provide parts of any types of forests for the implementationof a national priority plan with the assurance that it does not adversely affect the environmentsignificantly. As the proposed roads are of national priority, Article 68 can be enforcedto facilitate road construction.

The Forest Act also empowers the District Forest Officer to hand over any part of the national forest to a User Group to develop, conserve, manage and utilise in the form of a CommunityForest based on the approvedwork plan. The work plan should contain a list of activities that will be implemented in the community forests, as well as prohibitory provisionsto ensuresoil conservationand wildlife conservation.

Similarly, under the Forest Rules (Rule 12), thirteen plant species have been legally protected. It has yet been determined if the construction of the roads will destroy any legallyprotected species.

The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2029 (1973) does not apply to the proposed road construction because no alignments run through designated conservation areas. The Soil and Water Conservation Act (2039) does not apply as no proposed alignmentspass throughprescribed "protectedwatersheds".

2.2.2 International Ponventions and Treaties

Nepal is a party to four internationalenvironmental conventions concerning natural resource managementand species conservationwhich are related to the proposed road development. These legally-bindinginternational instruments are: the Plant Protection Agreementfor the Asia and Pacific Region (InternationalTropical Timber Agreement), the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD), the Conventionon InternationalTrade in EndangeredSpecies (CITES)and the Conventionon Wetlandsof InternationalImportance (Ramsar).

This project has duly considered minimising damage to vegetation, species and habitats along the road alignments and within the region of influence, in line with Nepal's intemationalobligations.

2.2.3 National Policies

HMGN has accorded high priority to the development of infrastructure, including road construction, in the current Ninth Plan (NPC, for 1997-2002). Environmental issues in Nepal are a prominent part of development projects. Inadequate terrain-specific and environmentally-suitableroad designs and construction practices have been recognised as causing high road rehabilitation and reconstruction costs. Recognising this, HMG has

Road Maintenanceand Development Project 9 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April1999 formulated a policy of internalising environmental management in sectoral development projects and programs. including road construction. The RMD Project aims to achieve this by incorporating measures to avoid and mitigate potential impacts throughout the project's development phases (i.e. alignent refinement. road design, construction and post- construction management).

The Ninth Plan also emphasized the protection of forests in relation to the implementation of non-prescribed activities. The need for biodiversity conservation has further been emphasized in this Plan. and in the recently completed Draft National Biodiversity Action Plan (1998).

In addition, the National Conservation Strategy, the Master Plan for Forestry Sector and the Agriculture Perspective Plan also focus on natural resource management and species conservation.

The Forest Policy emphasises forest conservation and its sustainable use. It calls for enhancing people's participation in decision-making and benefit sharing. Its long-term objectives are to meet people's basic needs for fuelwood, timber, fodder and other forest products on a sustained yield basis; to protect the land against degradation; and to conserve ecosystems and genetic resources.

The main opportunity to avoid or reduce environmental impacts from roads is at the alignment selection and road design stages.

Road Maintenance and Deveiopment Project 10 Environmenral Impact Assessment - April 1999 3. METHODOLOGY

This EIA was prepared in accordance with the legal requirements of HMGN. based on a walkover inspection of each proposed alignment and consultation with local people and officials. The principal steps undertaken in the EIA methodology were:

EIA scoping; * Alignment inspection; * District interviews; * Additional fieldwork; * Assessment of issues.

3.1 EIA SCOPING

EIA scoping was undertaken in accordance with the Environment Protection Regulations 2054 (1997) to inform stakeholders about the proposed project, receive their comments on relevant environmental issues and identify priority environmental issues for assessment in the EIA. Scoping included a literature review, publication of a Public Notice, inspections of the proposed alignments and discussions with local people, discussions with Government officials at destination District Headquarters, convening a Scoping Workshop in Kathmandu and formal preparation of a Scoping Report.

A review of relevant guidelines and technical references was undertaken, followed by publication of a Public Notice, as per the Environmental Protection Regulations 2054, Rule 4(1) and 4(2), in the national Nepali newspaper Gorkhapatra on 8/6/2055 (24/9/98). The Notice sought "opinions and suggestions from all concerned parties to identify potential primary environmental impacts relating to the proposed roadworks as part of the Scoping exercise to be undertaken for EIA and IEE studies".

The Public Notice was mailed to the Chief District Officers of each district crossed by the alignments, to ensure they viewed it. No responses were received to the Public Notice call for comment.

Walkover inspections of the proposed alignments were undertaken by the Environment and Social teams in September-November 1998 to identify first-hand the main potential impacts of the roads and to discuss the environmental and social issues associated with the roads with people living along the proposed alignments. Informal discussions were held with community representatives and other people along the alignments. The demand for the road by the local people was extremely high, with discussions mainly involving the perceived benefits from the roads.

Interviews were conducted with key Government departments at all destination district headquarters to introduce the project, scope the main EIA issues and collect District-level information. Government representatives interviewed included Chief District Officers

Road Maintenance and Development Project I] Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 (CDOs). Local Development Officers (LDOs) and chairmen of District Development Committees (DDCs) (see Appendix 2).

A Scoping Workshop was held in Kathmandu on 30/10/98 to provide Kathmandu-based Government and non-gove=rnent organisations with an additional opportunity to identify potential primary environmental issues. The meeting was attended by nine Government and three NGO representatives (see Appendix 3).

A formal Scoping Report was then prepared and submitted to the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) outlining the main issues to be investigated in the EIA (see Appendix 4). Following its approval, EIA Terms of Reference were prepared and subsequently approved.

3.2 ALIGNMENTINSPECTION

Walkover inspections of the 196 km of proposed road alignments were undertaken by the Environment and Social teams, a Road Engineer, Geologist and Surveyor. The four aims of the walkover inspections by the Environment and Social teams were to:

1. Assist in the selection of the best possible road alignment by ensuring that bio- physical and socio-economic perspectives (i.e. minimum impacts and maximum benefits) were included in the selection process; 2. Collect sufficient local data to fully predict, and quantify wherever possible, the likely major enviromnental impacts; 3. Formulate site-specific and generic road design recommendations: 4. Identify practical environmental mitigation measures and improvements.

The walkover inspections comnmencedin September and were completed in November 1998 at the rate of approximately 8 km per day. Three project teams completed the five walkover surveys, thereby ensuring uniformity in the methodology. The inspection of proposed alignments following the monsoon enabled drainage patterns and areas of waterlogging to be easily identified.

3.2.1 AlignmentSelection

The primary aim of the Environment and Social teams' walkover surveys was to provide input into the selection of the best possible road alignments in order to avoid or reduce enviromnental impacts.

Major changes to the road corridors proposed by DOR (i.e. an alternative valley or the opposite side of the valley) were not part of the RMD Project scope of work and were not considered due to the amount of preliminary work that had been completed by DOR and the degree of certainty that had been reached (see Section 4.2).

Road Maintenance and Development Proiect 12 Environmental Impact Assessment - April ]1999 Refinement of the alignment proposed by DOR involved commencing at the existing constructed or under construction road head. then locating and following the proposed alignment. On occasions, a DOR representativewalked with the team and located the proposed (and sometimes surveved) alignment, but all other alignment sections were located by the project Surveyor off DOR plans using an Abney level.

Once located, the proposed alignment was discussed by the walkover team. Primnary considerationwas given to the selection of the most stable alignment. Once this had been located by the Geologist,the Environmentand Social teams recommendedthe refinementof the alignment if necessary, generally in accordance with their "EnvironmentalAlignment Selection Criteria"(see Section 4.3). These recommendedchanges were discussed by the walkover team and agreement was reached on the proposed alignment. Agreed alignment changes, a combinationof environmentalimpact avoidance or mitigation and engineering design, were recorded and given to the Surveyor leading each Detailed Survey team to ensure the accurate survey of the road. Occassionallymajor alignment changes were made to sections of the proposed DOR alignments when steep, difficult or unstable terrain was encountered(see Section5.2).

The walkoveralignment was generallyselected to within 20 m horizontal and 10 m vertical of the final alignent as refined by the DetailedSurvey teams.

During the walkover surveys some site-specific mitigation measures were also identified. The primary mitigation measure used to avoid or reduce potential environmentalimpacts was the realignment of the road. Where this was not possible, other measures were recommended. A list of these recommendationswas given to the Detailed Survey teams for incorporationinto their work (see Appendix5).

3.2.2 Collectionof AlignmentInformation

Local information was collected by physical and social site assessments of the proposed alignment and right-of-way (ROW) during the walkover inspections. Standard Alignment Data Sheets (Appendix 6) were used to collect data on land use, forest type, landform, geology and other significantfeatures along the full length of each alignment. In addition, Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets (Appendix 7) were used to interview local people about forest and other natural resource use, and the conservationsignificance of local ecology.

A summary description of the. proposed alignments was made and major local features including current local access, archaeology, developments and electricity supply, were noted. Photographsof the alignmentand region of influence were taken, particularlywhere specificalignment recommendations were made.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 13 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Fieldwork for social assessment consisted of the following activities:

* Recording of propertv and assets located in two bands: 15 m and 30 m wide (i.e. 7.5 m and 15 m either side of the traverse line);

* A questionnaire survey of a sample of 197 potentiallv affected households;

* A questionnaire survey of a sample of 90 potentially affected business owners; and

* 19 group discussions with residents of settlements located in the ROW.

The household and business owner interviews covered approximately 7% of the potentially affected households on the four road sections. Note: all affected property owners were consulted, where available, as part of the asset recording exercise. After finalisation of engineenng designs, a full census and asset verification exercise will be undertaken of all potentially affected households. The sample for the various questionnaire interviews and group discussions is shown below.

Table 2: Survey Social Sample

No. of Household No. of Interviews No. of Group Proposed Road Interviews with Business Discussions i______Ow ners Darchula 38 37 4 Martadi 40 14 4 I Mangalsen 26 1 2 Jumla 93 38 9

3.3 DISTRICTINTERVIEWS

Consultation and information collection at the district level was undertaken based on the District Interview Sheets (Appendix 8). Interviews were conducted with key Government Departments at all destination District headquarters. Government departments interviewed included the Administration Office, Development Office, Agricultural Office and Forestry Office. Interviews were also conducted with VDC and community representatives.

3.4 INSPECTIONOF EXISTINGROADS

Existing roads in the locality of the proposed roads were inspected to identiftv the local environmental impacts associated with road construction. These inspections provided a good indication of the likelv impacts that will result along the proposed alignments given the similarities of geology, landform, land use and likely road construction techniques. A set of design recommendations was formulated based on the past impacts and design faults to ensure that minimal environmental impacts will result from the construction of the project roads.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 14 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 3.5 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTALISSUES

Following field work and data collection, environmnentalissues were assessed to fullN describe the potential impacts that may result from road construction. The level of assessment of each issue was based on the relative importance assigned to that issue in the Scoping of the EIA. The methodologies used to assess each primary environmental issue are described below.

Land Use Change

An assessment of land use change that will result from the construction of the roads was undertaken using the following methodology:

1. Alignment assessment - all land use and forest types along the proposed alignments were recorded on Alignment Data Sheets during the walkover surveys. Data included estimates of distances of each land use unit crossed by the alignments and their locations relative to major streams, villages and other prominent features. Only land units greater than 20 m alignment length were identified due to the difficulty of classifying smaller units.

2. Detailed survey chainages - cultivation and forest land use boundaries were surveyed during the Detailed Survey of the alignrnent. Actual traverse chainages were then entered onto the Alignment Data Sheets.

3. Land use summary - a summary of total land use type areas for each proposed road was calculated. This was based on a 15 m wide ROW along all alignments.

4. Analysis of land production value - an analysis was made of the production value of cultivation land based on VDC crop yield averages for the two main crops, paddy and wheat.

5. Analysis offorest production value - an analysis was made of the production value of forests based on forest types and quality within the ROW. Fuelwood and wood volumes were estimated based on forest type, crown density and regional conversion factors.

6. Land andforest value to Nepal - a brief analysis was made of value of the cultivation land and forests that will be converted to road formation, relative to Nepal's national land and forest resources.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 15 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment -April 1999 Land Stabilitv

Potential land instability that may result from road construction was assessed using the followingmethodology:

1. Alignment assessment - land stability features along the proposed alignments were recorded. These features included geology, slope, landslides, debris flows, creeping features, erosional features and land units.

2. Summary of stability features - the recorded land stability features were summarisedfor each alignmnent.

3. Stability analysis - an analysis was made of the recorded features, separately and cumulatively. Three classes of slope stability hazard were defined for the alignmentsand 1:50,000slope hazard maps were prepared.

Ecological Degradation

The potential indirect impact of increased forest use over time on the local ecology was assessed usingthe followingmethodology:

1. District forest cover - forest cover in each of the districts crossed by the proposed alignmentswas described from Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS, 1995). This included forest area, types and the forest cover trend over the period 1979 to 1994.

2. Air photo interpretation - all definable areas of forest within each proposed road's region of influence (ROI - defined as within a linear 5 km from the proposed alignment) were mapped on 1:50,000 1996 air photos. Forest types, dominant species, crown densities and maturity classes, as well as contiguous forest areas within this area, were identified and summarised by area for each ROI to describe those forests that are most likelyto be degraded over time.

Alignment assessment - all existing forests along the proposed ROWs were recorded on the Alignment Data Sheets during the walkover inspections. This description included forest type, dominant species, crown cover and estimated distances of forests crossed by each alignment.

4. Local interviews - structured Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets interviewswere held with an average of two local forest users during each day of the walkover inspections to identifv local forest use and management, and the local presence of protected flora or fauna species. The interviews were directly related to forests and other major local natural resources crossed by and within the region of influence of the roads. The interviews included a checklist of protected species (plants, animals, birds, reptiles, fish) and questions on forest use, ownership and management.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 16 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 In addition. questions on natural resource use were included in the sample social survey of 197 households located within the ROW.

5. District interviews - structured interviews were held with District Forest Offices to identify local forest ownership within each VDC crossed by the proposed road alignments, legal and illegal natural resource use in the area, high conservation value features, and other forest management issues.

6. Additional data - where available, reports containing ecological information on sites or areas within the districts crossed by the proposed alignments, were referenced to provide baseline species data and information on high conservation value areas. This included a review of the Draft Biodiversity Action Plan (1998).

Note: given the total length of the proposed road alignments, and therefore the total area of the potential ROI of these roads (in the order of 1,300 kin2), detailed transect measurements of vegetation types across this area were not feasible nor desirable in terms of identifying the conservation value of these forests. The above 6-part methodology provides a good level of detail whilst being practical and achievable.

Loss of Assets

An assessment of impacts on privately-owned, community and public assets was undertaken using the following methodology:

1. Alignment assessment and detailed survey chainages - a rapid assessment of potential impacts on private and community assets (e.g. houses, cultivation land, schools and temples), as well as possible realignments to minimise social impacts, was undertaken durine the walkover surveys. All potentially affected assets were recorded on Summary Asset Registers during the subsequent joint socio-economic and engineering surveys. This included recording asset types and ownership details (where available), and an estimate of asset sizes.

2. Sample socio-economic survey - a sample of 197 affected households and 90 business owners along the proposed roads were interviewed to gain an understanding of local agricultural and economic activities, to obtain individual reactions to assets losses and to discuss possible compensation/mitigation options. These interviews were supplemented with group discussions at selected settlements.

3. Contextual interpretation - fieldwork data was computerised and summarised by district, VDC and chainage/traverse point. The value and significance of the lost assets were assessed with reference to published district agricultural production figures, district land types and rates, estimates of housing replacement cost by district, domestic legislation, and national and international valuation and compensation practices.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 17 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Population Displacement

An assessment of population displacement and resettlement resulting from asset losses was undertaken using the following methodology:

1. Alignment assessment and detailed survey chainages - a rapid assessment of the potential for household displacement was undertaken during the walkover surveys. This assessment was continued in detail during the joint socio-economic and engineering surveys through the recording of households and businesses located within the provisional ROW (15 m wide).

2. Socio-economic survey - a sample of 197 affected households and 90 business owners were interviewed to establish average household size and composition, landholding sizes, local reactions to potential population displacement and resettlement preferences. These interviews were supplemented with group discussions at selected settlements.

Contextual interpretation - fieldwork data was computerised and summarised by district, VDC and chainage/traverse point. Resettlement eligibility resulting from the loss of cultivation land was estimated with reference to landholding sizes recorded in the socio-economic survey and district landholding sizes. The significance of population displacement was assessed with reference to district and VDC population figures, and national and international examples of population displacement.

Road Construction Employment

An assessment of potential road construction employment opportunities was undertaken using the following methodology:

1. Socio-economic survey - a sample of 197 households were interviewed to establish the willingness and availability of local residents to work on the road construction. The employment of local labour was also discussed with cornmunity representatives during the walkover surveys and settlement group discussions, as well as with district officials.

2. Contractor survey - structured interviews were conducted with 22 Contractors (seven category A, three category B, 11 category C and one category D) to obtain their views on the employment of local labour in the road construction sector. Discussions concentrated on recruitment and employment preferences and practices, availability of local labour, benefits and constraints associated with the employment of local labour and general labour management practices.

3. Contextual interpretation - the survey results were analysed with reference to current DOR contract packaging practices, proposed RMD Project contract packaging and domestic experience with labour-intensive road construction (e.g. road projects funded by GTZ and Helvetas).

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProjec: 18 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Potential for General Social Development

An assessment of the potential for general district-level social development was undertaken using the following methodology:

1. District-level interviews - structured interviews were held with district officials (e.g., Chief District Officers, Local Development Officers, Health Officials) to discuss the key social issues described above, as well as to explore development opportunities associated with the road construction (e.g. stimulation of the local economy and improved access to markets and social services). for the districts in general and for disadvantaged groups.

2. Socio-economic survey - households were asked to indicate the local development benefits that they perceived to be associated with the road construction.

3. Contextual interpretation - the results obtained from the fieldwork and structured interviews were analysed with reference to recently published reports on the status of Nepal's Development Regions and Districts (e.g. ICIMOD's Indicators of Development and the UNDP's Human Development Report).

Road Maintenance and Development Project 19 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 4. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES

A number of road alternatives were considered prior to and during the RMD Project. Prior to the project, alternative roads for construction were considered in the PIP Project based on economic, environmental and social criteria. The first stage of the RMD Project again screened roads for inclusion in the project based on these three factors.

Alternative alignments for each of the proposed roads had been considered in detail in a number of studies commissioned by DOR dating back to 1982. Using the alignments selected by DOR for the proposed roads, the RMvDProject refined them based on local features observed during the walkover surveys and again in the detailed engineering surveys, including land stability, land use and social features.

A description of the alternative project roads, alignmnentsand road designs considered prior to and during this project are described below.

4.1 ALTERNATIVEROADS

4.1.1 PriorityInvestment Plan Project

The PIP Project (1997) prepared a 10-year Priority Investrnent Plan for the Nepal roads sector, including the strategic road network (National Highways and Feeder Roads) and rural transport components (District Roads, main trails, suspension bridges and domestic aviation). The study addressed "the optimal balance of expenditures between new construction, improvement and maintenance activities, as well as determining a balance between national and rural components" (DOR, 1997).

The PIP study identified 10 potential new roads, most of which were under construction, primarilv from past DOR road studies. These potential roads would provide connections to 12 hill districts in the Eastern, Mid-Westem and Far-Western Development Regions of Nepal. New roads in the two remaining regions, the Central and Western Regions, were not considered due to the significantly higher density of existing roads and the number of ongoing local development projects in these areas. The construction of the identified roads would meet the Eighth Plan objective of constructing motorable roads to all non-road connected District Headquarters.

The 10 potential roads were screened and prioritised based on the evaluation of potential costs and benefits. An economic rate of return for each candidate road was calculated based on Net Present Value and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR). Road costs were based on DOR standards appropriate for Feeder Roads. Road benefits were evaluated based on road user savings and producer surplus benefits. Road user savings were calculated by taking the difference between the vehicle operating and passenger time costs "without` and "with" the road. Existing trail traffic was used to calculate the "without" case. The cost of human and animal porterage of freight was used to calculate the cost of freight transportation, while the cost of passenger transport was calculated using the time cost and expenses of walking.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 20 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The producer surplus benefit, the net value of increased production in the area as a result of road construction, was calculated for increased agricultural production.

Nine of the proposed roads were shown to be "initially viable", with an IRR of between 12.5-25.1%, as indicated in Table 3.

Table 3: Initially Viable Roads Proposed in the PIP Study

Road Section Length Standard Cost [RR (km) (Rs. mn) (%) Basantapur-Khandbar All 65 Earth 221.5 19.2 Hile-Bhojpur All 58 Earth 197.8 16.9 Gaighat-Diktel All 102 Gravel 480.1 21.2 Katari-Salleri Okhaldhunga-Salleri 46 Earth 156.8 12.8 Katari-Okhaldhunga 85 Gravel 400.1 25.1 Salyan-Musikot Tharrmare-Musikot 76 Earth 259.1 15.1 Sitalpati-Tharmare - 30 Gravel 38.9 14.4 Chhinchu-Jajarkot Dharapani-Jajarkot 76 Earth 259.1 18.8 Birendranagar-Jumla Jumla Section 31 Earth 105.7 13.6 Kalikot Section 53 Earth 180.7 12.5 Birendranagar-Manma 126 Gravel 456.6 22.4 Sanfebagar-Martadi All 52 Earth 177.3 16.2 Khodpe-Bajhang Bitthad-Chainpur 80 Earth 272.8 17.9 Total 880 3,206.5 l Source: DOR, 1997a.

The only proposed road that was not deemed initially viable was Chameliya-Darchula.

4.1.2 RMD ProjectScreening

From the 10 new roads Tecommended in the PIP study, five roads were selected for consideration in the RMD Project (Chameliya-Darchula, Sanfebagar-Martadi, Kalikot- Jumla, Dharapani-Jajarkot and Tharmare-Musikot) with 2 non-PIP roads (Sanfebagar- Mangalsen and Beni-Jomsom) added for consideration. In mid-1998, as the first stage of the RMD Project, these 7 potential candidate roads totalling 409 km in length were screened to select a total of approximately 300 km of proposed alignments for detailed design to fair weather earth track standards. Screening was based on economic, environmental and social factors.

Construction work was in progress on all candidate roads, therefore the existing status of these roads was ascertained from the interpretation of 1996 aerial photographs and discussions with District Engineers/Project Managers responsible for the roads. Considerable lengths of some of the roads described in the Contract had already been constructed or were well into construction. Accordingly, the lengths of proposed roads- being screened were revised, with the exclusion of all road sections under construction or

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 21 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 scheduled for completion by the end of the 1998/99 fiscal year (when RMD Project preparation will be finalised). This reduced the 409 km of candidate construction roads listed in the Contract down to 343 ikm,as summarised in Table 4.

Table 4: Candidate Construction Roads Screened

Screening1 1 Road Road Status DOR Road Classification* Reference Length Number (km) Chameliya- Darchula 62 1National Highway H14 Sanfebagar- Martadi 39 Classificationnot available - Sanfebagar- Mangalsen 18 Classificationnot available Kalikot- Jumia 78 National Highway H13 Chedagad- Jajarkot 36 Major Feeder Road F47 Thamare- Musikot 40 Major Feeder Road F 15 Beni - Jomsom 70 Major Feeder Road F42 Total 343 | * Source:Classification and Design Standards, DOR, 1994.

Economic Screening

Two economic issues were used to screen the candidate roads:

1. Quantifiable costs and benefits; 2. Regional development prospects.

Quantifiable costs and benefits: each candidate road was subjected to a conventional economic analysis using the VOCN model. Capital and maintenance costs were weighed against the benefits accruing to road users (reduced vehicle operating costs and time savings) and producers (net value added of incremental production, mainly of agricultural goods to take advantage of improved access to markets). The economic internal rate of return (EIRR) was taken as the best single indicator of quantifiable economic performance.

Regional development prospects: some of the candidate roads would enhance long-term prospects for natural resource utilisation, beyond the likely addition to agricultural production within a road's zone of influence. Development opportunities may occur in a number of sectors, notably forestry, fish farming, large-scale agriculture/horticulture, processing of food and other agricultural products, mineral extraction. hydro-electric power and tourism. In some cases, a road may also promote the development of a more rational network of market centres and transport links, thereby promoting development in a more general way.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 22 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Each of the candidate roads was assigned a positive score in the range 0 to 10 based on the extent to which it is expected to contribute to economic development in the affected districts, using following indicators:

* Population served; * Freight subsidy cost borne by Government; * Market centres served; * Specific resource-based development potential which is expected to be realised.

EnvironmentalScreening

Environmental screening of the candidate roads was undertaken to:

- Determine the magnitude of potential impacts and ensure that environmental considerations were given adequate weight in the selection of roads to be constructed. * Identify candidate roads that should not be constructed due to major potential environmental impacts. * Recommend, in order of priority, roads to be constructed based on overall environmental impact, both adverse and beneficial. Classify the level of environmental assessment required for each proposed road.

Four macro-level primary environmental issues were used to screen the candidate roads in terms of potential major impacts that may result from the proposed roads:

I. Land use change; 2. Ecological degradation; 3. Landform stability; 4. Damage of other significant features.

Each of these four primary issues covered the environmentally "sensitive sites" listed in the Contract (including "critical natural habitats"), in the Environmental Protection Regulations 2054 and in the DOR final draft Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for the Road Section (DOR, 1996).

Each primary issue was assessed as follows:

Land use change. a significant adverse impact of the roads will be the loss of cultivation land, the most valuable land resource along the proposed aligrnents. Accordingly, the percentage of each road alignment length crossing cultivation was calculated off Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) 1:50,000 Land Utilisation maps. Scores of 0 to minus 10 were then assigned based on a minus 1 score per each 10% of the alignment length crossing cultivation.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 23 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Ecological degradation: degradation of the local ecology will occur due to forest clearing along the road alignment. and is likely to occur indirectly in the ROI during road operation as a result of improved forest access and increased local demand for forest products. In the absence of ROI forest data. three types of forests/areas with conservation significance along the proposed alignments were identified to indicate the comparative value of forests that are likely to be degraded: forests with a crown density of greater than 70%./ "protected forests". "Protected Areas". Forest crown densities and "protected forest" were identified off LRMP Land Utilisation maps.

Primary Environmental Issue Environmental Feature/Sensitive Site

* Land use change - Agricultural land Forests Z Other land

* Ecological degradation f National Parks I Wildlife Reserves Conservation Areas Identified plant and animal habitats Wetlands C Rivers i Landform stability Geology Climate Seismology Flood prone Sedimentation

* Damage to other significant features Geographically significant areas Semi-arid and alpine regions Archeological and cultural sites Major water supply catchmnents

Landform stability: a combination of landslide hazard (from the Landslide Hazard Map of Nepal, HMG), slope failure risk, and river bank erosion and flood risk (from LRMP Land Utilisation maps) were assessed by length of road to provide an overall land stability assessment. "Moderate" to "verv hiah" landslide hazards were identified, as well as "high" slope failure risk and "moderate" and "high" river bank erosion and flood risk.

Damage to other significant features: only significant geographic features were seen as an important issue in relation to the candidate roads as archaeological or cultural sites could be avoided by the alignments and no major town drinking water catchments were crossed. Subjective negative scores were assigned to the Beni-Jomsom road due to its location alongside the Kali Gandaki River, in the landscape of Annapuma I and Dhaulagiri, and proximity to other significant features, and to the Chedagad-Jajarkot road due to its location alongside the Bheri River.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 24 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The relative percentage of each impact along the entire length of each road was used to calculate the screening score. Each primary issue was identified as having an adverse impact or no impact. therefore scores of between 0 and minus 10 were assigned, with a negative score indicating a net adverse impact and a zero indicating no significant benefit or impact. The four primary issue scores were added then divided by four to give a total score.

In addition, any major adverse environmnentalissue that was deemed to override all other issues was identified and that road was not recommended for construction. Scoring provided a relative comparison between roads, with the highest scored roads recommended due to minimal potential environmental impacts / maximum benefits (Table 5).

Table 5: Environmental Screening Scores for Candidate Construction Roads

PrimaryP Environmental Issue Road Land Ecological Landform Other Total Overriding Use Degradat. Stability Significant Score Issue Change Features Chameliva- Darchula -4 -2 L 7_ 3 - Sanfebagar-Martadi -5 -1 -2 0 -2 Sanfebagar- Mangalsen -9 0 0 0 -2 Kalikot- Jumla -4 0 -3 0 -2 Chedagad- Jajarkot I -8 -2 -1 -1 -6 Thamare- Musikot -6 -2 -2 0 -3 Beni- Jomsom -4 -2 -6 -10 Geographically ______= ______- ______signi fic anfeat.t

It was strongly recommended that the Beni-Jomsom road not be constructed due to the internationally significant geographical features that it would detract from or damage. These include the Kali Gandaki valley, Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges and the Kali Gandaki River floodplain above 2,500 m. The other six candidate construction roads had similar degrees of overall environmental impact, although the Sanfebagar-Mangalsen, Sanfebagar-Martadi and Kalikot-Jumla roads were identified as likely to have less adverse environmental impacts.

Social Screening

Social screening of the candidate roads was undertaken to determine likely key social issues and their magnitude, and ensure that they were given adequate weight in the selection of roads to be constructed.

Three primary social issues were used to screen the candidate roads:

1. Direct negative social impacts in the ROW; 2. Population in the region of influence (ROI) that may benefit from road construction; 3. Potential overall social development.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 25 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Negative right-of-way impacts: both negative and positive social impacts may occur in the ROW. Negative social impacts include loss of land, loss of house, and displacement, whilst positive social impacts include improved access. an increase in land prices and stimulation of the local economy.

Potential asset losses and household displacement were estimated through interpretation of topographic maps, air photos and other secondary information sources. Potential benefits were assessed for the two social issues as described below.

Population in the ROI to benefit: the population within the ROI that may benefit from road access was estimated by the economic group. Candidate roads that may improve the access of larger populations were given a higher score than those serving smaller populations.

The above two issues were scored as follows:

7 to 10 : potentially major beneficial impact 4 to 6 : potentially moderate beneficial impact I to 3 : potentially minor beneficial impact 0 : no or insignificant social impact - 1 to-3 : potentially minor adverse impact - 4 to - 6 potentially moderate adverse impact - 7 to - 10 potentially major adverse impact

Overall social development: an assessment of the potential contribution of candidate roads to overall social development and the elimination of imbalances between Nepal's districts was made by applying a score to the ICIMOD Indicators of Development district ranking. All candidate roads located in core districts with a development ranking of 10 or less were considered to play a potentially significant social development role and assigned a score of seven. Candidate roads located in core districts with a development ranking of between 11- 50 were considered to play a potentially moderate social development role and given a score of four. Candidate roads located in core districts with a development ranking of more than 50 were considered to play a potentially minor social development role and given a score of one.

The candidate roads were ranked based on their overall score (Table 6). The Kalikot-Jumla and Sanfebagar-Mangalsen roads were recommended as priority roads, followed by the Chedegad-Jajarkot and Sanfebagar-Martadi roads. Tharmare-Musikot, Chameliya-Darchula and Beni-Jomsom were ranked as low priority roads.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 26 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 6: Social Screening Scores for Candidate Construction Roads

ROW Population Contribution Overall Road Inpacts Servedl to Social Average Rank Benefiting Development Score Chameliya - Darchula -4 4 4 1 6 Sanfebagar - Martadi -2 4 7 3 4 Sanfebagar - Mangalsen -I 6 7 4 I Kalikot - Jumla -3 8 7 4 Chedegad - Jajarkot -1 ± 7 4 3 3 Tharmare - Musikot -5 1 9 435 Beni - Jomsom -4 5 1 1 7

ScreeningRecommendations and Road Selection

Using weightings of 30% for measurable economic performance, 15% for contribution to regional development, 30% for envirorrnental criteria and 25% for social criteria, an overall screening score was calculated for each road, as detailed in Table 7.

Table 7: Overall ScreeningScores

Criteria Measurable Enhanced Road Economic Regional Environ- Social Overall Rank Performance Development mental Score Proposects Weighting 30% 15% 30% 25% Chameliva - Darchula -5 2 -3 1 1.9 7 Sanfebagar - Martadi -7 7 -2 3 | 3.3 3 | Sanfebagar - Mangal. [ -4 8 -2 4 2.8 4

Kalikot - Jumla 10 9 -2 4 4.8 - 1 l Chedegad - Jajarkot 10 6 -3 3.8 2 Tharmare - Musikot 4 3 T -3 3 1.5 6 Beni - Jomsomr 10 7 j -6 1 2.5 |_5_ l

All candidateroads had a net positive score exceptthe Chameliya-Darchularoad, primarily due to its low economic performance. In order of merit, the Kalikot-Jumla, Chedagad- Jajarkot, Sanfebagar-Martadiand Sanfebagar-MangalsenToads all had significant benefit scores and were recommended for construction. The remaining roads were not recommended,however the Beni to Tatopani section (25 km) of the Beni-Jomsomroad was suggested as an optional addition, with the Tatopani-Jomsomsection excluded due to its significantenvironmental issues.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 27 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 4.2 ALTERNATIVE ROAD ALIGNMENTS

The five RMD Project road alignments were proposed by DOR. based on design studies for each road undertaken by DOR or its sub-consultants during the last two decades. Each proposed alignment was selected from between 3-4 alternative alignments based on factors including length of alignment, construction cost. access provided and likely environmental impacts. The design studies, alternative alignments assessed and each selected alignment are described below.

Chameliva-Darchula Alignment

The feasibility study for the Chameliya-Darchula road was conducted by ITECO in 1990. The consultant proposed three different alignrments,namnely:

1: Baitadi, Shera, Eklegara, Lali, Banku, Uku, Bhartolagad, Dantu, Dhap, Darchula (64.52 km).

2: Panjuko Naya (Baitadi District), Gokule, Devthala, Dhuligada, Jayamire, Khar Khola, Dallek, Jhusku, Darchula (72.461 km).

J: Satbanj (Baitadi District), Gokule, Nakhtar, Lekgaun, Mangaron, Binayak. Nisala, Dhap, Darchula (72.725 km).

ITECO recommended Alignment 3 due to its overall shorter length given that the start of Alignment I at Baitadi was reached by an additional 20 km of road from Satbanj. In addition. Alignment 3 is more stable, has a lower cost, fewer major bridges and drainage structures and comparatively high economic internal rate of return. DOR commenced construction of the Darchula road following Alignment 3 up to Lekgaun, but then adopted a new route to the west through Malikaajun and then to Thaktholi, Shakarpur VDC. This change in alignment was adopted to connect major settlements in the south-west of Darchula District even though it increased the length of the road by approximately 10 km. The unconstructed section of this alignment to Darchula has been used in the RNID Project.

Sanfebagar-Martadi Alignment

UNITEC Consultants carried out a feasibility study for DOR for the Sanfebagar-Martadi road in 1993. A copy of this report is not available but it is understood that construction of the initial 19.4 km of road to date has followed the recommended alignment. The remaining reconimended alignment to Martadi along hillslopes on the right bank of the Budhi Ganga River has been used in the RMD Project.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 28 Environmental Impact Assessment -April 1999 Sanfebagar-Mangalsen Alignment

A number of alignrnent studies were undertaken for the Sanfebagar-Mangalsen road in recent vears. including a detailed design prepared by SILT in 1987. This study proposed an alignment from Kalsen, located at 2.500 km on the Sanfebagar-Martadi road. Road construction along this alignment commenced in the late 1980s and followed it up to Balpata.

In 1996, NEPECON studied the Balpata-Jayagarh-Mangalsen section of the alignment to identify the optimum alignment. This involved a desktop review of reports and maps, a fly- over and a walkover survey of four alternative alignments:

1: Balpata, Gairigaon, Matena, Mada, Bank, Khalgaira, Mangalsen.

2: Balpata, Bhagyaswari, Janalikot, Kailash Khola, Swarbara, Patkhani, Dhurali, Waligaon, Barkatya, Mangalsen.

3: Balpata, Jayagarh, Timalsen, Thekeban, Dhanpata. Kailash Khola, Nagatola. Kurbasti, Mangalsen.

4: Balpata, Jayagarh, Sungali, Thekeban, Kailash Khola, Waligaon, Lungara, Barkatya, Mangalsen.

The main factors considered were alignment length, road service area and minimal environmental impact. Alignment 3 was selected as the most suitable alignment based on:

* Providing transportation services to additional VDCs in the northern part of Acham District. * Low road construction costs between Balpata and Jayagarh due to moderate slope terrain. * Shortest alignment between Jayagarh and Mangalsen (2-3 km shorter than Alignment 4). * Geotechnically stable terrain requiring a limited number of cross drains.

Construction to date from Balpata has followed this alignment and the RMD Project has used it down to the Kailash Khola. From this point up to Mangalsen a shorter DOR- approved alignment has been used in the RMD Project in order to reduce construction costs, road length and travelling times.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 29 EnvtronmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Kalikot-Jumla Alignment

A feasibility study for the Dhungeshwor-Manma-Simikot road, which includes the Kalikot- Jumla section, was carried out by DOR and ARA Engineering Consultants in 1982. Three potential road alignments were identified from topographic maps and a reconnaissance survey, and road lengths. capital costs and environmnentalimpacts were estimated.

1: Dugeshwor-Rakam-Manra-Riga-Jair-Simikot.

2: Dugeshwor-Naulekatuwal-Kusapani-Manma-Riga-Jair-Simikot.

3: Dugeshwor-Rakam-Manma-Namgadh (Sinja Khola) -Jair-Simikot with a link to Jumla.

HMG subsequently approved Alignment 3 in March 1985, which incorporated a combination of riverside, hillside and ridgeline locations.

The detailed survey and engineering design of 84.1 km of the selected alignent from Sirane to Jumla. covering the Kalikot-Jumla section, was subsequently carried out by MULTI Consultants and DOR in 1988. This alignment was used in the RMD Project.

Chedagad-Jajarkot Alignment

A feasibility study for the Chedagad-Jajarkot road was undertaken by SILT in 1990, including the assessment of three altemative alignments. These alignments all commenced through Chhinchu-Dharapani-Sallibajar (Ba Gad) then took alternative routes via:

1: Raicam-Chedagad-Kudu-Matela-Jajarkot (107.20 km).

2: Ranwasaun-Chaurjhari-Gotame-Matela-Jajarjot (97.76 kIn).

3: Namri-Baume-Kudu-Matela-Jajarkot (105.95 km).

Alignment 1 was recommended due to its cost effectiveness and low environrmental impact. Despite this, a final alignment was designed by NEPECON in 1994 using Alignment 2, joining various obligatory points, due to its greater stability and the larger population that it would service. The road alignrnent was then fixed by traverse and double levelling.

NEPECON and Nepal Consult subsequently undertook a detailed engineering survey and design for the 70.000 km to 107.000 km section of this road, which covers Dharia to Jajarkot. The road has been constructed up to 86.000 and the remaining alignment has been used in the RMD Project.

Road Maintenance and Development Projecr 30 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 4.3 ALIGNMENTREFINEMENT

Road alignments were planned based on the DOR recommended alignments derived from initial design studies and RMD Project alignment refinement undertaken during the walkover surveys and detailed engineering surveys.

Road alignment refinement commenced with a joint walkover survey by a Road Design Engineer, Geologist, Surveyor, Environmental Specialist and Sociologist (as well as a DOR representative where available). The teamnset an agreed alignment based on the following bio-physical and social selection criteria:

1. Geology - avoidance of landslide hazard areas to achieve long-term road stability.

2. Topography - not floodprone; - lower slope land to minimise cut and fill and construction costs; - avoidance or minimal disturbance of stable banks.

Land use - shortest possible alignment length to minimise land take; - avoidance of religious sites, large settlements and high-value production land, in the following order of sensitivity:

. archaeological, cultural and religious sites - at least 60 m setback wherever possible; * villages - at least 15 m setback from the centreline of the road (potential ROW width); * individual houses - at least 15 m setback from the centreline where possible (potential ROW width); * irrigated cultivation; * high conservation value forest (including Community Forests); * rainfed cultivation; * degraded forest; * grassland; m degraded bare land; * existing tracks/trails.

Primary consideration was given to the selection of the most stable alignment. Active landslides and areas with a high landslide hazard were avoided. Non-floodprone land was selected where possible. Lower slope land was also selected in order to minimise construction costs, reduce excavation and the need for retaining walls. The next main factors considered were road length minimisation in order to limit construction costs and the total land take, and the utilisation of the lowest value land in terms of structural features, production or ecological values.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 31 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Where possible, alignments were located on or near existing main trails. Road construction along these alignments will achieve maximum road utilisation by all forms of transport given the existing use of these routes.

The refined alignments incorporated variable road grades to minimise the road length and avoid significant features. Road grades were increased to reduce the number of switchbacks and low grades (less than 2%) were used where possible to cross cultivation terraces to limit the area of disturbance.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 32 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 5. EXISTINGACCESS, PROPOSEDALIGNMENTS AND PROJECTEDTRAFFIC

The potential access benefits of the proposed roads can only be understood in light of the existing access to destination district headquarters, the location of the proposed aligmnents relative to existing accessways and projected road usage rates. Each of these features is described below.

5.1 EXISTINGACCESS

The main trails and transportation methods used to destination district headquarters are described below.

5.1.1 DarchulaAccess

The majority of goods transported to/from Darchula go via India through the Indian border towns of Darchula, Joljebi and Jhulaghat. Dharchula (India) is located immediately opposite Darchula (Nepal) and is easily accessible by a suspension bridge. Joljebi and Jhulaghat bazaars are one and two day walks respectively for porters from Darchula. Some goods, generally those produced or grown in Nepal, are transported to Darchula via Baitadi, Jhulaghat, Sera and Dattu markets. Goods are generally transported by porters, with mule and sheep/goat transportation being uncommon.

Road access into the area is provided by a 93 km earth road from Satbajh up to the current roadhead at Thakthali village. This section of road was constructed between 1994-1998 and was in poor condition when inspected in early November 1998. At this time, the Chameliya River could not be forded, although the first 10 km of the road across the river was driveable. Large vehicles such as buses and trucks can generally cross the river for 4 months in winter.

The road ascends gradually behind Gokuleswar Air Stal, approximately perpendicular to the western (right) bank of the Chameliya River, passing through Naktar, Ratosaini. Lekhgaon, Agar. Gwani, Ulanri, Chetalichaur, Panebagh, Baseri and Kholichaur villages. It reaches Pasti village at an elevation of 1,500 m in a moderately dense Chir pine forest. From here the road descends to Lower Pasti village and passes through Bogara and Raksepur villages. It then ends up at the steep grasslands about 50 m above Tuakthali village.

Most road sections have been hand excavated, with few gabion retaining walls constructed. The construction of some short sections of road has yet to commence.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 33 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 5.1.2 Martadi Access

Road access into the area is provided by a 19 km section of earth road from Sanfebagar up to Singara village. This road was constructed in 1995 and was in poor condition when viewed in early October 1998, similar to the Sanfebagar to Kailash Khola section of road. At this time, the road was only open for approximatelv I km, before landslides and creek erosion prevented firther vehicle access. Only the first 10 km of this road has ever been open to traffic.

The road follows the right (western) bank of the Budhi Ganga. between approximately 15- 400 m above the river level. Up to the Ardoli Gad, approximately 10 km by road from Sanfebagar, the road was excavated using a dozer. When the road is clear of landslides and other obstructions, generally from Noverniber to June, this is the last trafficable point that can be driven to. On the northern side of the Ardoli Gad, the road has been hand excavated for approximately 9 km up to Singara (19.000 km) at an elevation of approximately 1,100 m. This length of road passes through steep terrain and has been only initially established, with few gabion retaining walls constructed. Construction of several short sections of road has yet to commnence.

The majority of goods transported to Martadi go by mule. Numerous porters (more than on the Mangalsen Road) also work- the trail to Martadi, as well as the occasional goat/sheep train. Very few items were seen being exported from the Martadi area to Sanfebagar.

5.1.3 MangalsenAccess

Access to Mangalsen from Sanfebagar, the major trading location in Achham District, is primarily provided by an 18 km access track. The track runs south-east from Sanfebagar (600 m asl), over a ridge at Belpata village (1,100 m asl), down to Timilsen village on the Kailash Khola (800 m asl), then up to Mangalsen (1,326 m asl). Many sections of the track are steep, with grades of up to 30%, and much of the track is eroding, particularly the steeper sections where very few drainage works present.

Goods are principally transported via mules along this track, with a small amount of goods coming via porters or being carried by local people retumningto or leaving the area.

A 22 km road was constructed from Sanfebagar in 1996-97, and is currently being extended down to the Kailash Khola. It is generally operational from November to early June, prior to the monsoon. Road clearing with a dozer usually occurs in November.

The road was in poor condition when inspected in September 1998. It was impassable along the majority of its length, due to extensive bank slumpage and erosion, and insufficient cross-road drainage. Many cut and fill batters are excessively steep, particularly the near-vertical cuts through colluvial material. A full cut is excavated and fill embankments have not been compacted. Many cut batters have started to stabilise with moss and lantana cover, but even with this growth, bank slumpage has commonly occurred. The road is usually cleared and made passable in November, and then remains operational up to early June when the monsoon amives.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 34 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The road corridor generally follows the main access trail over its initial 8 km, then heads to the east at a lower grade for the remaining 14 km. Despite the initial similar alignments of the trail and road, less than 1 km of the road has replaced the previous trail for foot access because the trail provides a far shorter. more direct. and therefore quicker, access route, by running at steeper grades than the road.

From Silgadhi, the existing section of the Sanfebagar-Mangalsen road can only be reached by vehicle fording the Budhi Ganga for about 1.5 months of the year. in December and January (DOR - personal communication). Accordinglv, for the remaining 5 months of the year that this road is trafficable, no through traffic occurs across the Budhi Ganga.

5.1.4 Jumla Access

Existing overhead access to Kalikot and Jumla districts is by foot trails, only which are traditional salt trade routes. Two prominent trade routes are still in operation. One route follows the Karnali and Tila river vallevs, and the other route traverses northwards across the Siwalik, Mahabharat and Chykure-Mabu Lekh mountain ranges. Both these routes were used seasonally when conditions favour access. In winter, the river valley route is used, as snow and extremely cold and windy weather conditions block the route across the mountains. In the monsoon and summer seasons, the route across the mountains is preferred to avoid swollen rivers and hot weather conditions in the deeply entrenched river valleys. These trails have been renovated during the Panchayat regime and subsequently under the Karnali Local Development Project in recent years. Transportation of goods on these trails is either by porter or by mules and goats. Jumla Khalanga, the district headquarters of Jumla District, has a small airport.

Since the opening of Nepalgunj-Surkhet and Surkhet-Tallo Dhungeshwor earth roads, access to Kalikot and Jumla districts has become far easier. Vehicles operate all year round along the Nepalgunj-Surkhet road, whereas the Surkhet-Tallo Dhungeshwor road is closed for most of the monsoon season. The Karnali National Highway more or less follows the traditional salt trade route from Tallo Dhungeshwor (64 km from Surkhet) to Rakam village (11 8 km from Surkhet) along the left bank of Karnali River.

Depending upon road conditions, the accessible road head changes with the season. In the dry season (December to May) people and mules commence their journeys from either Karnali Chisapani. Dailekh or Dhungeshwor road heads. People from Kalikot District prefer to commence foot access from the Kamali Chisapani and Dhungeshwor road heads, whereas people from Jumla prefer Dailekh as their starting point. In the monsoon season, the Karnali Chisapani and Surkhet road heads are the favoured starting points.

5.1.5 Jajarkot Access

Foot trails from Chhinchu, Surkhet and Sitalpati, Tharmare and Chaklighat and Salyan are the main foot access routes used by people travelling to/from Jajarkot. The Dang - Salyan road and Sitalpati - Tharmare road are only Fair Weather Earth Tracks, therefore people can not use these routes throughout the year. Sallibazaar, a market centre on the existing section

Road Maintenance and Development Project 3 5 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 of the Chhinchu - Jajarkot road (45 km from Chhinchu). provides a major service centre to the people of Jajarkot during the dry season.

People travelling between Jajarkot and Sallibazaar do not nonnallv use the proposed road alignment. They use the foot trail from Jajarkot to Chautahari, Rukum and Salvan at it is shorter and regarded to be safe. However, during the monsoon, people rely on Chhinchu bazaar. a reliable cormmercial service centre.

5.2 EXISTINGTRAFFIC VOLUMES

Average daily traffic rates for the major foot trails leading to the destination district headquarters were calculated based on traffic counts on the main trails undertaken in October and November 1998. One Origin-Destination (O-D) survey location, sited to capture the majority of traffic, was used for each proposed road, except for the Jumla road where two locations were used.

Traffic data for trails and roads were compared with estimates of populations served, to derive population based freight and passenger trip generation rates applicable to "with road" and "without road" situations. Annual average daily traffic (AADT) on each newly constructed road was predicted using these rates. Seasonal variation was taken into account using a seasonal correction factor (SCF). In the absence of an official SCF, specific SCFs were calculated for each of the roads, based on discussions with local transporters, traders and senior roadside inhabitants. An allowance was also made for the closure of trails to different types of traffic during the monsoon. Average daily traffic estimates are provided in Table 8.

Table 8: Average Daily Traffic

Proposed | Traffic Alignment Pedestrians ! Porters Mules Sheep Darchula l 72 75 178 Martadi 79 53 83 Mangaisen 84 | 45 112 Jumla 205 15 21 Jajarkot 64 9 43

5.3 PROPOSEDALIGNMENTS

A detailed description of the proposed alignment routes are provided in Appendix 9, describing the major villages and physical features along each alignrment.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 36 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 5.4 PROJECTEDVEHICLE TRAFFIC

Table 9: Projected 'Normal' Vehicle Traffic Composition

Motor- Tractor Car Utility Mini Truck Mini Bus Bus cycle Truck 5% 13% 3% 17% 4% 19% 19% 20%

Base year AADT values were predicted for the life of the road allowing for: (a) population growth; (b) per capita income growth; and (c) income elasticity of demand (Table 10). It was assumed that both population and per capita income will grow faster wviththe road.

In computing road user benefits, O-D data was used to estimate the average trip length as a percentage of the total length of the road: 60% was the lowest value used.

Table 10: Projected 'Normal' Daily Vehicle Traffic Volume

Road Motor Trac- Car Utility Mini Truck Mini Bus AADT G1r

Cycle tor Truck Bus _ Rate

Darchula I 4 1 5 i 1 5 5 6 28 4.32 iMartadi 2 7 12 9 2 10 10 10 51 4.07 ~Isn 2. ___ I Mangalsen 2 1 6 I 8 2 9 8 9 45 3.92 Jumia 3 8 2 11 3 12 12 13 64 4.41 Jajarkot 2 |4 Ii 6 1 6 6 7 33 4.25

Road Maintenance and Development Project 37 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 6. BIO-PHYSICALENVIRONMENT

Key bio-physical environmental features that relate to the proposed road construction and operation are described in this section. with emphasis on factors relating to land use. topography, slope stability and ecology.

6.1 PHYSIOGRAPHICREGIONS

The primary indicator of the types of environments through which the roads pass is the division of physiographic regions of Nepal. These zones, with their unique geology, elevations and slope characteristics, provide an indication of general climatic conditions, slope stability and vegetation types.

The five physiographic regions (LRMP, 1984) run latitudinally along the length of the country. The general altitude range of each region, from south to the north, is described Table 11.

Table 11: Physiographic Regions of Nepal

PhysiographicRegion Altitude

Terai Below 300 Siwalik 300 - 700 Middle Mountain 700 - 2,000 High Mountain 2,000 - 2,500 High Himalaya 2.500 - 8,848 Source: LRMP, 1984.

Based on the LRMP Land System maps, which use general region delineation without following river valleys, all proposed roads are located in the Middle Mountains (33%) and High Mountains (67%), as detailed in Table 12 and shown in Figure 6.

Table 12: Physiographic Regions of Proposed Roads

PhysiographicRegion by AlignmentLength (km) Road Middle Mountain High Mountain Total Darchula 29 6 F 35 Martadi - 37 37 Mangalsen 15 l 5

Jumla - I 88 88 Jajarkot 21 - 21 Source:LRMP. 1982-84.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 38 Environmental Impact Assessment- April 1999 _ ' N

,Martadi

3 \ ~~4 -A Jumlu

L.egen~d New Road

- Physiogrnphc Region Boundary

40 0 40 80Km.

Scale

ROAD MAINTENANCEAND DEVELOPMEN-rPROJECT Figure'6: PhysiogrophicRegions WesternNepal l a * l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 6.2 TOPOGRAPHY

The four proposed alignments for the Darchula. Martadi. Jumla and Jarjakot roads follow major river valleys for the majority of their length. These river vallevs are the Mahakali, Budhi Ganga. Kamali and Tila, and Bheri rivers respectively. These alignments predominantly run parallel to the major rivers, crossing either the mid or lower hill slopes, except where major features such as landslides and deep tributary valleys have to be negotiated. At these locations the alignments either descend to the valley floor or ascend around the feature.

The Mangalsen alignment does not follow a river valley. It runs cross country, descending steeply to the Kailash Khola then ascending to Mangalsen township.

All alignments are almost exclusively located on hill slopes, above the flood level of major rivers and streams (except where crossings are required), and above landslides on the lower slopes near rivers. The alignments generally cross 101400slopes, although steeper sections are traversed along all alignments (see Table 13). The steepest section of alignment is located on the Jumla road, crossing slopes of up to 70°.

The five proposed alignments are all located between elevations of 600 m (the Kailash Khola on Mangalsen road) and 2,344 m (Jumla).

Table 13: Topographic Features Along the Proposed Alignments

Road | Elevation(m)* Hill Slopes Major Rivers Crossedor | Min. Max. Within 200 m Darchula 792 1,341 Generally5-30o Mahakali Martadi 945 1,554 Generally 10-30' Budhi Ganga Mangalsen 600 1,326 Generally 10-40° Kailash Jumla 823 2,344 Generally 10-400 Karnali, Tila, Sinia Jajarkot 670 1,225 Generally 10-30° Bheri * Partlysourced from the 1:500,000Nepal Western Sheet topographic map (SurveyDepartment, 1985).

The major river valleys followed by the proposed alignments exhibit the typical geomorphic feature of river gorges in the Middle and High Mountain physiographic regions of Nepal, except for the Darchula alignment. In the valley base, mostly in the Middle Mountain physiographic region, alluvial terraces have developed on two to three levels above the riverbed. In general, the lower valley slopes of the river gorges are rocky and steep to very steep. Located midslope are the moderately sloping middle hill slopes. These slopes, with varying thicknesses of soil cover, are the focus areas for settlement and agriculture. Further upsiope, the upper hill slopes are steep and mostly occupied by forests.

Darchula: the initial 8-10 lan of the alignment descends on the 20-30° north facing slope of the Bhartola Khola. The alignment then runs parallel to the Bhartola Khola and the eastern bank of the Mahakali River valley.

Road Maintenanceand Development Project 39 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Martadi: the alignment is generally located on 10-30° hillslopes. above the flood plain level of the Budhi Ganga River. except where some tributaries are crossed.

Mangalsen: the area is characterized by rolling hills with occasional steep slope segments. Both the north and south facing slopes crossed by the alignment have slopes generally in the range of 10-30O.

Jumla: the majority of the alignment to just below Jubithan passes through the steep valley slopes of the Karnali and Tila rivers. These V-shaped valleys are deeply incised. After Jubithan, the valley dramatically widens and the hills are smooth and rolling. The presence of various levels of wide river terraces containing lake sediments 100-150 m thick indicates that the river valley was dammed to form a large lake in the past. These lake sediment terraces form fertile cultivation land.

Jajarkot: the topography is gently sloping, with a wide open valley floor formed by alluvial and river conglomerate terraces up to Pasa Nala. From here, the topography becomes moderately steep to steep, all the way to Jajarko;.

6.3 CLIMATE

The proposed road alignrnents traverse a number of macro and micro climatic zones which are broadly described in terms of temperature and rainfall characteristics in Table 14.

Rainfall patterns across all proposed roads are generally similar. Average annual rainfalls range from 1,200-2,000 mm, with nearly 80% of the total annual rainfall falling during the four months of the monsoon, from June to September. The proposed road alignments cross areas with very high rainfall intensities, ranging between estimates of 125-350 mm for a 24 hour penrod (ICIMOD, 1997).. The highest intensity rainfall along the road alignments is likely to occur in the Middle Mountain sections of the Mangalsen and Jajarkot roads.

Table 14: Climatic Zones Along the Proposed Roads

I Temperature Rainfall Road Region Climate (°C) (mm) Type Mean Mean Mean 1 Mean | Max. in Jan. July Annual Monsoon 24 hrs. Darchula Middle Sub-tropical, 6-12 18-27 1,200-2,000 800-1,600 150-300 Mountain warm temp. l__ |_to cool temp. Martadi High 1 Warm 6-12 18-24 1,200-1,600 800-1,200 125-175 Mountain temperate ! Mangalsen Middle Sub-tropical 12-15 24-30 1,200-1,600 800-1,200 175-350 l ~~Mountain Jumla High Coo] 3-12 12-25 400-1,600 200-1,800 >50-175 Mountain temperate lJajarkot lMiddle Sub-tropical 12-15 24-27 1,600-2,000 1,200-1,600 175-350

Jaa! o | Mountainl l - l,. -160 1l-5 Source: Districts of Nepal - Indicators of Development,ICIMOD, 1997.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 40 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 6.4 GEOLOGY

Regional geology in the Nepal Himalava is divided into four geo-tectoniczones. These zones,arranged latitudinally from north to south along the length of the country, are:

* Tibetan TethysHimalayan Tectonic Zone * HigherHimalayan Tectonic Zone * Lesser HimalayanTectonic Zone 0 Sub-HimalayanTectonic Zone

The proposed road alignments lie in the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone, which is comprised of allocthonous (foreign transported rock mass) Kathmandu Group and autocthonous (in situ) to para-allocthonous (partially transported) Midland Group rock successions(DMG, 1987). These rock groups range in age from Precambrianto as late as Tertiary. Regionallydiscernible thrust faults involvingbrittle shearing and ductile folding separatethe relativelyhigh-grade metamorphic rocks of overlying Kathmandu Groups from the underlyinglow grade, mostly unfossiliferousmetasediments of the Midland Group. The rock succession of both the Kathmandu Group and Midland Group has been further embricatedand faulted locally and regionally, complicatingthe geological sequencesfound in the Lesser HimalayanTectonic Zone.

In general, the Kathmandu Group rock successions occupy the core of the regional synclinorium,where these Tocks are preserved as Klippen mass. Conversely, the rock successionsof the Midland Group are exposed along the tectonic window and half window in the northem geographicalregion of the Lesser Himalaya (as in Jumla Khalanga), or as a continuousbelt of Midland Group rock successionsbordering the Kathmandu Group rocks to the north of the southerngeographical areas.

The specific geological characteristicsalong each proposed road alignment are described below.

Darchula: this alignment crosses the Midland Group of the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone. The dominantrock types are dark grey to black slates and phyllites with inter layers of limestoneand dolomite,varied colored slates and phyllites,pink to purplish quartzite and blueish grey dolornites. Near Darchula, chloritic phyllitesand quartzite form the dominant rock types. Althoughthe rock successionacross the road belongs to Midland Group rocks, it repeats a number of timesdue to embricationand listeric thrusting.

The section of road alignment from Shankarpur to Bhartoligad River passes across hill slopes dipping at 40-50 north. After Thaktoli village, the alignment passed across north- west 60-70° slopes that have a number of old slide zones. In this section the bedrock is comprised of massive, hard and compact dolomites with a thin (0.5-1.5 m) colluvial soil mantle of gravel mixed with sandy silt. The dolomites dip at 40 45° south. No major geological instability is noted along this section of the alignment except for a small landslidebelow Shimradhukri.

The alignmentfrom Bhartoligadto Bet follows the right bank of the Bhartoli Gad about 50- 75 m above the river bed. The ROW is composed of colluvial deposits of gravel mixed with sandy silt (75-80%),loose alluvial terrace deposits (10-15%), bedrock of black to grey

Road Maintenance and Development Project 4 1 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 slate and dolomite (5-10%). No major geological instabilities were observed except for a few small slides.

The alignment frorr. Bet to Darchula passes along the left bank of the Mahakali River. It traverses gravel terraces (at Urda. Dattu. Shakar. Jvamiragada. Dhap, Khetebagar and Galphait) covered by colluvial and/or scree deposits. Exposed bedrock is comprised of black slate and dolomite formninganticlinal and synclinal structures. Along the Mahakali River bank a number of fan and scree deposits constitute major geological instabilities along an otherwise stable alignment

Martadi: this alignment mainly crosses Kathmandu Group rocks comprised of augen gneisses, gneisses and calc-silicate rocks within the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone. In general, the Kathmandu Group rocks align north-east to south-west and dip gently to moderately due south-east. The road alignment runs parallel to the strike of the rocks. Near Martadi, a major thrust brings the rocks of the Midland Group tectonically below the Kathmandu Group rocks. The Midland Group rocks are comprised of quartzites and chlorite mica schists. A major transverse fault of regional significance pass along the Budhi Gandaki river course.

The alignment from Sanfebagar to Barju Gad crosses schist and gneiss rocks which are moderately weathered and exposed intermittently. The alignment crosses a 1-3 m thick mantle of colluvium consisting of cobbles and boulders of gneiss in a matrix of silty clay over bedrock. The valley slope of the Budhi Ganga River is very steep and unstable, showing signs of many minor and major debris slides. The road alignment from Bansijhakal to Baya crosses abandoned terraces approximately 50 m above this geologically unstable zone.

Between the Barju Gad and Ghatte Khola, the alignment crosses the foot of the hillslope close to the old flood plain. A soil mantle of colluvium and 3-5 m diameter gneiss boulders overlie slightly weathered augen gneiss bedrock. At the Khali Gad the alignment crosses a large rockslide about 100 m high and 60 m wide. Apart from this short section, the alignment is geologically stable.

The section of alignment from the Ghatte Khola to Dwarikanda crosses cultivated terraces composed of alluvial deposits containing sand and cobbles. These deposits, old and compact, are comparatively stable.

From Dwarikanda to Jaranga village, the alignment crosses is comprised of 5-10 m thick colluvial deposits overlying bedrock of moderately weathered thin foliated gneiss, bluish white quartzite, amphibolite and green schist, with some debris slides. The rocky portion close to Jaranga village forms steep cliffs, which may lead to minor geological instability.

From Jaranga village to Martadi, the alignment crosses the old alluvial fan of Budhi Ganga River and Kodari Gad. The alluvial deposit is compact and stable, consisting of sand. cobbles and boulders. The alignment then crosses the foot of a 200-300 m high vertical cliff of quartzite and green schist. At the foot of the cliff. colluvium overlies an alluvial fan, sloping 10-15' towards the main river valley. The deposit is up to 30 m thick. The alianment then crosses a pass and ascends out of the river valley to Martadi via several switchbacks. Apart from the section of road through the fan, the remainder of the road shows only minor geological instabilities.

Road Maintenance and Development Projecr 42 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Mangalsen: this alignment crosses Kathmandu Group rock successions (Dadeldhura Klippen) and Midland Group rock successions of the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone. The Kathmandu Group rocks are comprised of moderately to deeply weathered augen gneisses interbedded with two mica schists and clearable quartzite. Succeeding tectonically underneath are the quartzite, amphibolites and chlorite mica schists of the Midland Group rock successions. The rocks of the Kathmandu Group are exposed from Sanfebagar up to Khatigaon. whereas the rocks of the Midland Group are exposed in areas between Khatigaon and Mangalsen. In general, the rock successions strike from north-west to north-east and dip gently at 20-30O north-east and north-west, mostly into the hill slope or oblique to it, indicating good to moderate slope stability.

The alignment descends to Matela from the existing road head through clearable quartzite in the upper sections, then augen gneiss and amphibolite, interbedded augen gneiss and chlorite mica schist, augen gneiss and quartzite tectonized quartzite with dragfolds, and onto cultivated river terrace. This is followed by approximately 1 km through sub-level cultivation then a ford crossing of the Kailash Khola.

The section of the alignment between the Kailash Khola and Mangalsen mainly passes through cultivation and small areas of forest located in gullies and on steep slopes. A few very small slides occur along the alignment on both north and south facing slopes. Portions pass through hill slope colluvium, however the gentle slopes present few stability problems. In general, the rocks strike from north-west to north-east and dip gently at 20-30° north-east and north-west, mostly into the hill slope or oblique to it. indicating good to moderate slope stability.

Jumla: this alignment crosses the Kathmandu Group and the Midland Group rock successions of the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone. The road head at Sirane lies on Midland GroUp rocks comprised of quartzites and two mica schists. A major thrust to the north of Sirane brings the rocks of the Kathmandu Group over the Midland Group. The underlying quartzite and mica schists of the Midland Group are highly tectonised along this thrust zone. The Kathmandu Group rocks, comprised of augen gneisses, calc-silicate, kayanite-silliminite gneisses, migmatites, etc., continue across the Karnali and Tila gorges to the north of Tatopani. Near Jumla Khalanga, again the Midland Group rocks, comprised of quartzite and phyllites, appear beneath the Kathmandu Group rocks. A major tectonic plain (thrust fault) separates the rocks of the Kathmandu Group from the Midland Group.

From Sirane to Sinja, the alignment crosses very steep grades, with slopes vertical (50-65°) to sub-vertical. The initial section from Sirane to approxirnately 250 m downstream of the confluence of the Jatregad and Karnali Rivers is composed of augen gneiss with meta sandstone. At this point a major thrust brings central crystalline rocks in contact with Lesser Himalayan rocks along the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Further upstream, massive quartzite is followed by calcsilicate rock interbedded with garnet mnica schist and garnet kyanite augen gneiss, quartzite and migmatite up to the Sinja Khola (Nagrna). The entire area is very rugged and steep up to Jubithan where the valley widens considerably and the slopes flatten. From Jubithan onwards, the alignment crosses lake deposits in isolated terraces, composed of silts, silty sand, silty clay and dark black clayey material, which provide fertile cultivation land. The rock in this central crystalline complex is mostly hard,

Road Maintenance and Development Project 43 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 massive and, in spite of the steep slopes, is strong. Ver;: few landslides have occurred in these rocks, although some talus colluvial creep is occurring at several locations.

From Sinja to Jumla, the alignment crosses a wide valley, over smooth, rolling and gentle hill slopes. Caclschist occurs south of Nagma, followed bv augen gneiss, migmatite, calc schist. garnet augen gneiss and again calc silicate opposite Hanku. The alignment then encounters the MCT with a window of exposed chlorite phvllite and a laver of back graphite schist and quartzite of the Kuncha formation. The greater part of the alignment is covered by lake terrace deposits which provide fertile cultivation land. The entire alignment appears to be stable with gentle slopes of 15-25'. The soil mantle overlying bedrock is thin (0.3-0.6 m). Few landslide problems are expected in this section of the alignment, however the presence of debris flow material on slopes south of Nagma for a distance of 1-2 km poses future landslide problems.

Jajarkot: this alignment runs across the Kathmandu Group and the Midland Group rock successions of the Lesser Himalayan Tectonic Zone. Midland Group rocks, comprised of chlorite mica schists quartzite and amphibolite, are exposed from Chedegad to the Bangley Khola. At the Bangley Khola, the Kathmandu Group rocks succeed tectonically above the Midland Group rocks. The typical rocks of the Kathmandu Group are the augen gneisses. flaggy quartzite, mica schist and calc-silicate. The Kathmandu Group rocks extend from the Bangley Khola to the north of Pasa Nala along the synclinal axis as klippen. Further north, the quartzite and chlorite mica schist of the Midland Group are exposed around Jajarkot. tectonically underlying the Kathmandu Group rocks.

The alignment crosses chlorite mica schist, quartzite and amphibolite rocks from Chhedegad to the Bagglya Khola, followed by a thin band (30-40 m thick) of augen gneiss which continues to about 1 km south of Majghat. At this point the alignment crosses the core of Jaljala syncline.

From the Laipo Khola to Pasa Nala, the alignment is located on river terraces with either flat boulder bed surfaces or a thin to thick veneer of residual red soil (0.5-4 m thick). These red lateritic clays are sticky with a sandy silty admixture

Above Pasa Nala, garnet mica schist, augen gneiss, quartzite, and schist are exposed, followed by quartzite, augen gneiss and mica schist at Jajarkot. On the steep hillslopes around Jajarkot the rocks are fractured and disturbed, exhibiting minor geological instabilities.

6.5 SOILS

Soil development is a function of geology, slope, climate and geomorphic processes acting upon the terrain. Therefore, the soils along the proposed road alignments vary widely along each road alignment.

Four general soil types exist along the proposed alignments. Soils on hill slopes forrmed from argillaceous and argillo-calcarious rocks can be broadly grouped into two categories. On steep slopes, such as valley slopes and upper mountain slopes, shallow gravely soils and

Road Maintenance and Development Project 44 Environmeniai Impact A: -essment - April 1999 sandy loams occur. These soils are usuallv less than 30 cm thick, are well drained, have weak-structural development and are highly erodible.

On the relatively gentler middle hill slopes, soils are predominantly silty to sandy loam textured. These soils are brown to grey and occasionally red in colour, have poor structure but are relatively stable.

Along the valley, particularly on alluvial terraces, relatively thick sandy and silty loam soils have developed above gravel beds. These thick soils have poor structure but are relatively stable.

Metamorphic rocks with a granitic composition have developed grey sandy loam soils. These soils are highly friable, well drained and highly erodible.

6.6 SEISMICITY

The incidence of seismic activity is highest in the High Mountain section of the Jumla road and the Middle Mountain section of the Darchula road. The other sections of roads are seisrnically less active.

Table 15: Recorded Seismic Activity Along the Proposed Road Cornidors

Road Section Micro-seismic Activity Major Earthquake High Med. [ Low RitcherScale | Year Darchula Middle Mountain N , 6.1 1966 6.3 1966 6.5 1980

______~~~~6.0 1930 Martadi High Mountain - -

Mangalsen Middle Mountain - Jumla High Mountain N Jajarkot Middle Mountain Source: Micro SeismicMap. DMG. 1996.

6.7 LAND USE

The proposed road alignments mainly pass through cultivation, forests and grasslands on hills slopes.

The two major cultivation types crossed by the alignments are hillslope cultivation and valley cultivation. Hillslope cultivation is the main cultivation type. consisting of rainfed level terraces, rainfed sloping terraces and irrigated level terraces. Approximately 21.0% of the alignments cross rainfed level and sloping terraces, which are mainly used to grow maize/upland rice in summer and wheat in winter. Approximately 12.2% of the alignments cross irrigated valley floor cultivation, which is mainly used to grow rice followed by wheat. This land type is more productive tan hillslope cultivation and therefore used to produce high value crops such as wheat and transplanted rice. These fields are generally

Road Maintenanceand Development Project 45 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 irrigated from side tributaries of the main rivers. This cultivation tvpe commonly includes tars, mountain footslopes and alluvial fans.

Approximately 20.9% of the alignments pass through Government. Community or private forests. The majority of these forests are immature. with crown coverage of less than 50%. The dominant forest species in the lower valley areas below 1,200 m elevation, are Sal. Saj, tropical mixed hardwood and Chir pine species, whilst the dominant species above 1,200 m are Chir pine and mixed broad leafed species. Local people reported that the forest condition in Community Forests is improving whilst Government forests are degrading.

Approximately 10.3% of the alignments cross degraded shrublands. Shrub species are generally less than 5 m in height and are commonly associated with grasslands and degraded forests with less than 10% crown cover. Shrublands are usually located on cliff faces and steep slopes, with grades in excess of 20°, and commonly have low vegetation species diversity.

Approximately 26.8% of the alignments cross grasslands located on steep to very steep slopes generally in excess of 200. Grasslands are often associated with rock outcrops and degraded shrublands. The dominant grass species observed are thatch grasses used for roofing, with some palatable species for livestock grazing also present. Grasslands along the proposed alignment are mostly communal lands, which are generally managed and protected. Villagers cut thatch grass twice a year for roofing and cut palatable grasses regularly for livestock feed.

Short sections of the proposed alignments cross rock outcrops, riverbeds, screes, accumulated debris and cliff faces, comprising 5.0% of the alignments. These features are generally fragile with low stability and were therefore avoided as far as possible during alignment selection.

Major land types by area in the six districts crossed by the proposed roads are summarised in Table 16. The percentage of the district area under cultivation is high in Achham District (23.2%), but in the other five districts it is generally in the range of 6.9-11.6% (LRMP, 1986).

Table 16: District Land Use

lI | Non- Snow, Rock Cultivation Agricultural Grassland Forest and Riverine Total District Land l Features Area Area % Area % Area % Area % Area |% (ha) _ L ha a) (ha _ (ha) %_ (ha) _ Darchula 16.053 6.9 i 8.911 3 8 61,215 26.3 79,538 i 34.1 67.243 28.9 232.9604 Bajura 1 14.5323 7.2 1 8,813 44 38,095 18.8 98.646 48.8 42.090 20.8 202.176 Achham 1 39.342 1 23.2 1 20.250 12.0 15.139 8.9 | 88,098 52.1 6.394 I 3.8 169.223 Kalikot 15.828 9.0 7.920 t 4.5 42.072 24.1 106,056 60.6 3.051 1.8 174,927 Jumia 14,743 5.8 9.314 j 3.7 66.225 26.0 ! 104,571] 41.1 59.512 23.4 254,365 Jajarkot 25.751 | 11.6 1 12.471 5.6 | 29,949 13.5 | 135.615 | 61.0 18.397 ! 8.3 222.183 Source: LF .-AP Economic Report, 1986.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 46 Environmentai Impact Assessment - April 1999 No data is available for the change in cultivation land area for the project districts. Data available for the whole of Nepal is unreliable as the baseline for the assessment has changed over time. The cadastral survey of Nepal commenced in the mid-1960s and is still continuing (Gill, 1995). As a District is surveyed, the area under cultivation is substituted for the previous estimate that had been based on the most recent agricultural census. The census figures were usually an underestimate, thereby resulting in an increase in total cultivation area.

6.8 FORESTCOVER AND USE

Forest cover is described in detail in terms of the alignment Districts and ROIs, as well as general forest use in the hills and mountains of Nepal.

6.8.1 District Forest Cover

Forest cover for the six districts crossed by the proposed roads, expressed as a percentage of the total district area, ranges from 31.4% in Darchula District up to 59.8% in Kalikot District, as detailed in Table 17 (WECS, 1995).

Table 17: District Forest Cover

District Total Area* Forest Cover ______(km) Area+(km') % of District Darchula 2,322 729.8 31.4 Bajura 2,188 938.5 42.9 Achham 1,680 826.2 49.2 Kalikot 1,741 1,041.5 59.8 Jumia 2,531 1,028.3 40.6 Jajarkot 2,230 1,280.2 57.4 Source:* CentralBureau of Statistics,1996. + Waterand Energy Commission Secretariat, 1995.

District forest cover by type and forest distribution by physiographic region are detailed in Table 18 (WECS, 1995). These forest cover areas are cumulative figures for all forests with crown densities within the range of 10-70%. The estimated change in district forest stock over the period 1979 to 1994, is also presented on an average cumulative basis for all forest cover types.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 47 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Table 18: District Forest Cover Type by Phvsiographic Region

PhvsiographicRegion Total District ForestCover Hills (krn-) Mountains(kIm 2 ) Gross Accessed Type Gross Accessed(%) Gross Accessed(%) (km2) (%) Darchula Hardwoods 62.2 29.0(47%) 217.9 78.4 (36%) 280.1 38 Conifers 27.5 14.0 (51%) 54.7 12.6(23%) 82.2 32 Miscellaneous 119.1 66.8 (56%) 248.6 29.1 (12%) 367.7 26 Bajura Hardwoods 4.3 3.6 (83%) 228.3 71.6(31%) 232.6 32 Conifers } 0.4 0.2 (50%) 238.2 87.3 (37%) 238.6 37 Miscellaneous 1 1.4 0.4 (26%) 465.9 59.7(13%) 467.3 13 Achham Hardwoods 147.2 119.1(81%) 30.2 22.0(73%) 177.4 80 Conifers 227.0 147.7(65%) 23.8 14.7(62%) 250.8 65 Miscellaneous 344.0 118.4(34%) 53.9 18.8(35%) 397.9 34 Kalikot Hardwoods 1.2 0.7 (62%) 192.6 54.1 (28%) 193.8 28 Conifers 0 0 313.8 64.5 (21%) 313.8 21 Miscellaneous 0 0 c33.8 65.9 (12%) 533.8 12 Jumla Hardwoods 0 0 41.3 4.5 (11%) 41.3 11 Conifers 0 0 599.5 238.5 (40%) 599.5 40 Miscellaneous 0 0 387.6 | 42.8(7%) 387.6 11 Jajarkot Hardwoods 50.8 13.2 (26%) 231.7 62.9 (27%) 282.5 27 Conifers 250.1 156.5 (63%) |384.7 196.3(51%) 634.8 56 = Miscellaneous 47.3 11.2(24%) 3157 87.7(28%) 363.0 27 Source: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, 1995.

Miscellaneous forest cover types predominate in the alignment districts, followed by hardwood forests generally at lower altitudes and coniferous forests at higher altitudes.

Average cumulative forest stock decreased by 1.1-1.6% in the alignment districts between 1979 and 1994 (WECS, 1995).

Table 19: Forest Stock Change 1979-1994

Average CumulativeForest Stock Decrease 1979- 1994 District Hill Mount.

l _ __ _ (%)° (%) Darchula 1.6 1.2 Bajura 1.6 1.2 Achham 1.6 1.2 Kalikot 1.1 1.5 Jumla 1.5 1.1 Jajarkot 1.5 1.1 Source:Water and EnergyCommission Secretariat, 1995.

6.8.2 Forest Cover in the Region of Influence

Forest types within close proximity to the proposed alignments have been identified from the detailed interpretation of 1996 air photos and the inspection of forest types in the immediate vicinity of the alignments. The region of influence (ROI) of the roads in regard to affecting forest harvesting was defined as 5 km linear distance perpendicular to each alignment (providing a 10 km wide ROI), which equates to approximately 0.5-1 day's walk from the alignment. This gives a total ROI area of 1,326 km2 across the five roads.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 48 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 A total of 42.6% of the road ROI areas are forested, ranging from 31.4% for Mangalsen up to 48.0% for Jajarkot (Table 20). This compares relatively closelv with the associated district forest coverages of 31.4-59.8%.

Table 20: Forest Types Within the Region of Influence

2 Proposed Forest Area (km) _ Forest %/ Total ROI I Road Coniferous Hardwood Mixedwood Shrubs Total of ROI Area (krn2) Darchula 3.70 22.05 2.65 15.96 44.36 33.7 131.48* (8%/o) (50%) (6%) (36)/ _o) Martadi 28.44 62.35 36.04 6.85 133.68 46.6 287.05 (21%) (47%) (27%) (5%) Mangalsen 11.60 5.18 1.20 6.73 24.71 31.4 78.73 (47%) (21%) (27%) 2 Jumia 142.19 74.85 61.74 11.06 289.84 42.8 677.33 (499/%) (26%) (21%) (4%) l Jajarkot 30.71 3.11 5.52 33.64 72.98 1 48.0 151.90 (42%) (4%) (8%) (46%) 1 Total 216.64 167.54 107.15 74.24 565.57 42.6 1,326.49 ______(38%) (30%) (19%) (13%) I l * - the DarchulaROI area does not includeland located to thewest of the MahakaliRiver in Indianterritory, dueto theunavailabilitv of information.

Coniferous forests predominate in the ROIs, accounting for 38.3% of all forests. Hardwood forests comprise 29.6%, mixedwood forest 19.0% and shrubs the remaining 13.1%. Approximately half the forests in the Jumla, Mangalsen and Jajarkot ROls are coniferous, whilst hardwood forests make up a similar percentage of the total Darchula and Martadi forest areas. Forest species associations and protected plant species reported to occur in the ROIs are described in detail in Appendices 10 and 11.

Forest densities within the ROIs are predominantly in the range of 11-50% crown cover (sparse to moderate), accounting for 72.7% of all forests (Table 21). This tends to indicate the high use of Middle and High Mountain forests. Overall, slightly greater crown density occurs in the Jumla and Martadi ROIs, probably a function of the lower population densities and associated lower usage rates in these areas. The only dense forests (71-100% crown cover) recorded in the ROIs were located in the Jumla ROI.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 49 EnvzronmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Table 21: Forest Densitv Within the Region of Influence

Forest Crown Cover by-Area (kmn) Proposed Very sparse I Sparse Moderate Mod. Dense Dense | Shrubs Road l (1-10%) (11-30%) (31-50%) (51-70%) i(100%) l iDarchula 1 1.88 10.85 i2.05 l 3.63 - 15.96 ______1 (4.1%) (24.5%) (27.2%) .2/) _ (36.0%) Martadi 1.99 42.29 65.40 17.15 - 6.85 _ (1.5%) (31.6%) 1 (48.9%) (12.9%) _ (5.1%)

Mangalsen 1.30 10.00 4.13 2.55 - 6.73 _ (5.3%) (40.5%) 1 (16.7%) (10.3%) _ (27.2%) Jumia i 4.20 54.57 177.55 33.27 9.18 11.06 _ (1.4%) (18.8%) (61.3%) (11.5%) (3.2%) (3.8%)

Jajarkot l 0.75 18.11 16.10 4.39 - 33.64 I (1.0%) (24.8%) (22.1%) _ _(6.0%) . (46.1%) Total 10.12 135.82 275.23 60.99 9.18 74.24 l (1.8%) l (24.0%) (48.7%) | (10.8%) (1.6%) l (13.1%)

Table 22: Forest Maturity Within the Region of Influence

2 1______Forest Maturit7 by Area (km' ) Proposed Road Regeneration Immature | Mature to Shrubs Overmature

Darchula - 25.23 3.18 15.96 Martadi 5.38 64.06 57.39 1 6.85 Mangalsen 0.93 5.43 11.63 6.73

Jumla l 4.21 130.70 143.86 1].06 Jajarkot 5.29 22.65 11.41 33.64 Total | 15.81 248.07 . 227.47 74.24

l_____ (2.8%)_ (43.9%) l (40.2%) l (13.1%)

Legally Protected Tree Species

Three legally protected tree species were recorded within the alignment ROIs, namely Shorea robusta (Sal), Abies spectabilis (Silver Fir) and Acacia catechu (Cutch Tree). Under the Forest Act, 1993, Sal and Cutch Tree are listed as "Ban on export and felling transportation" and Silver Fir as "Ban on export".

Distribution of Sal: Sal, a large deciduous tree normallv found below 1,200 m, exists as a dominant forest type in all of the ROIs except Jumla, whilst it also occurs as scattered trees in association with other forest types in all ROIs. Sal is often associated with other tropical mixed hardwood species and Chir pine. Despite being protected, Sal is an important timber species. used mainly for building construction.

In the Darchula ROI, a distinct immature Sal forest (in association with tropical mixed hardwood species) totalling 38 ha. is located on the northem bank of the Bhartola Khola near Bhartola village, and will be crossed by the alignrnent. This forest is degrading rapidly X due to a lack of protection and management, with present crown cover of 10-30%.

Road Mainienanceand DevelopmentProject 50 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Two Sal forest stands occur within the Martadi ROI. The first stand (associated with tropical mixed hardwood species), totalling 140 ha. is located on slopes on the left bank of the Budhi Ganga River, approximately 2 km from the alignment across from Singara village. This stand is mainlv composed of immature trees with a crown cover of 30-50%. The second forest stand (in association with Chir pine) is located in Ratamato Community Forest near the confluence of the Barju Gad and the Budhi Ganga River. This stand. totalling 39 ha, is composed of immature trees w;ith a crown cover of 30-50% and will be crossed by the alignment.

In the Mangalsen ROI, two Sal forests occur (in association with Chir pine), totalling 120 ha. They are located on the lower slopes of Jamalgaon and Bhartoli villages in the Kailash Khola catchment, approximnately1.5 km from the alignment, and have a crown cover of 10- 30%.

In the Jumla ROI no pure Sal forest stands were recorded. Scattered Sal trees generally only occur in the first 5 km of the alignment ROI, in the lower valley of the Kamali River, in association with tropical mixed hardwood species.

In the Jajarkot ROI, two promninentSal forests are located (in association with Chir pine), totalling 282 ha. A sparse, immature Sal forest is located south-east of Jajarkot near the right bank of the Bheri River, approximately 1 km from the alignment. The other Sal forest is located on a south facing slope below Rithagaon village, above the confluence between the Holu Khoia and the Bheri River, approximately 3 km from the alignment.

Distribution of Silver Fir: Abies spectabilis, a Silver Fir, is generally found at elevations ranging from 2,500-4,000 m. It is a tall, evergreen tree with dark green foliage. It generally grows in association with Abies pindrow, another Silver Fir species, forming a single forest stand. Abies spectabilis wood is used for building construction and roofing shingles.

Silver Fir species were only recorded in the Jumla ROI. Many upper slopes of the Jumla ROI are covered by Silver Fir. Mature Silver Fir (in association with oak species), with a crown cover of 30-50%, is located on the upper northern slopes above Thana and Gilam villages, approximately 2.5 kmnsouth of the alignment.

Mature and immature Silver Fir stands (in association with Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine)) are also located on the upper slopes above Kaila, Litakot, Girlpande, Gotambara, Ghonhore and Junlakot villages, approximately 1-2 km from the alignment. In addition, some forests to the north-west of Jumla bazaar and on the western slopes of the Um Khola catchment are covered by Silver Fir species (in association with Blue pine and other hardwood species), approximately 2 km from the alignment. The crown cover of these forests varies from 10- 70% depending on their accessibility from surrounding villages.

Distribution of Cutch Tree: Cutch Tree is a deciduous tree of moderate size that generally grows below 1,000 m. The tree produces 'cutch', a black gum resin used for dyeing and tanning and to make medicines and cooling tonics. A special form of 'cutch' is used for chewing with 'betel' leaf.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 51 Environmental Impact Assessment -April 1999 Cutch Tree is rarely found within the ROIs. It is very sparsely associated with Dalbergia sisso and other tropical mixed hardwood species in drier areas. It does not grow as the dominant forest species within the ROIs.

Other Significant Forest Species

Two ecologically significant tree species due to their limited distribution, Cedrus deodara (Cedar) and Betula utilis (Birch), were recorded in the high altitude areas of the Jumla ROI (being absent from other four ROIs).

Distribution of Cedrus deodara (Himalayan Cedar): Cedrus deodara is a very large evergreen tree native to the north-west Himalaya, where it grows at 1,100-3,000 m (Vidakovic. 1991). Its wood is used for building, carpentry, furniture and roofing shingles, whilst its oil is used in medicines and to preserve animal skins.

Deodara, in association with Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine), totalling 835 ha. is found on the north facing left bank of the Tila River on the upper southern slopes of Sunargaon, Gotambara and Khaila villages, approximately 1-2 km from the alignment. These forests have a crown cover of 30-50% and are composed of mature and immature trees.

Distribution of Betula utilis (White Himalayan Birch): Betula utilis is a high altitude hardwood species which occurs at the elevations of 2,000-4,200 m. It has a light coloured, smooth and papery bark which is used for packing, roofing, paper, covering umbrellas and as an antiseptic.

Birch forests, totalling 266 ha, in association with Abies spp., are found on the north facing upper slopes of Junlakot in the Goru Khola catchment, approximately 3-4 km from the alignnent. These forests are composed of mature trees with a crown cover of 10-30%. In addition, a 240 ha mature Birch forest with greater than 50% crown cover, in association with Abies spp., is located on the north facing upper slopes of Girlpande village, approximately 4 km from the alignment.

6.8.3 Forest Use

The percentage of total forest cover accessed in the six districts crossed by the alignmentsis substantially higher in the Hill areas (53%) than in the Mountains (27%) (WECS, 1995). This is generally due to the more accessible topography and greater population base at lower elevations.

This forest access pattem is bome out by the Forest Research and Survey Centre (1996) findings that human impact on forests is greatest between the altitudes of 1,000-2,500 m. It reported that the main impacts on forests in Nepal come from domestic cattle grazing. tree lopping for fodder and fuelwood collection, followed by forest fires.

Road Maintenance and Development Projeci 52 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 A total of 197 households along the five proposed interviewed about forest use as part of the RMD Project household survey. The main uses of forests recorded in the survey were fuelwood and forage harvesting, with 95% and 82% of households recording these respective uses of the forest. Minor forest uses recorded included timber, fruit and herb harvesting (between 4-7% of households).

An average of 4.4 loads of fuelwood were reported to collected by those households that collect fuelwood. Forage harvesting was reported as averaging 12 loads per week by those households that harvest forage. Both fuelwood and forage collection were reported to be for private household use only, not for sale.

These forest products are derived from Government. Commnunityand private forests, with nearly 50% of households recording that Govemrnmentforests are most often used.

The main controls over forest use reported by households were Government control over the harvesting of timber, with permission required from the DFO, and VDC control over harvesting, with fees payable for specified products.

The per capita consumption of fuelwood by enduse for the districts crossed by the proposed roads is detailed in Table 23 (WECS,1995).

Table 23: District Per Capita Fuelwood Consumption by Enduse

______Use (kg) l Water Cooking Space Agro- District Cooking Boiling Anim. Heat/Cool processing Appliances Total ______F eed ______Darchula 572.65 206.47 297.65 282.21 1.52 0 1,360.50 Bajura 354.89 50.11 57.91 54.96 0.05 0 518.92 Achham 301.22 49.94 64.18 66.73 0 0 482.07 Kalikot 1,173.94 3.07 166.83 103.48 0 0 1,447.31 Jumla 858.78 1.73 193.20 86.97 2.46 0 1,143.14 Jajarkot 697.16 | 0.04 186.23 29.39 0.45 0 1 913.27 Source: Water and Energy CommissionSecretariat, 1995.

Non-timber forest products such as bans (Bambusa arundinacea), Sawaigrass or babiyo (Eulaliopsis binata), kurilo or satawari (Asparagus racemosus), thakal (Phoenix humilis), nigalo (Arundinariafalcata), malingo (A. maling), lokta (Daphne bholue) and nagbeli or lahara jhyau (Lycopodum clavatum) are also important, particularly around Jumla and Martadi. These resources are abundant at both low and high altitudes. Bans, sawai and satawari mainly occur in tropical locations, although the latter two species also occur in temperate areas. The other species occur in both sub-tropical and temperate areas.

Community Forests in the ROI

Community Forests within the road ROIs were identified off delineated topographic maps by three District Forest Offices (DFOs) (Darchula, Bajura and Jumla) and from discussions with two other DFOs (Achham and Jajarkot). No response was received from Kalikot DFO:

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 53 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 A total of 139 Community Forests were reported to be fullv or partly located within the five road ROls in the five districts where information was available (see Appendix 11). These forests consisted of 38 in Darchula District (657 ha), 69 in Bajura District (4,261 ha), 22 in Jumla District (1,631 ha), 4 in Achham District, and 6 in Jajarkot District (378 ha).

6.9 WILDLIFEAND FISH

The presence of wildlife in the road ROIs was ascertained through interviews with local people along the alignmnents and interviews with District Forest Offices at the district headquarters.

The non-protected mammals reported to occur in the ROIs were Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta), Common Langur (Presbytis entellus), Common Leopard (Panthera pardus), Canis aurens (Jackal), Muntiacus muntiak (Barking Deer), Selenarctos thibetanus (Himalayan Black Bear), Hystrix indica (Porcupine), Herpestes auropunctatus (Mongoose), Nemorhaedus goral (Ghoral), Sus scrofa (Wild Boar), Hermitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan Thar) and the Conimon Hare, probably of Lepus nigricollis spp. (see Appendix 12).

The protected mammals listed under the NPWCA, 1973 that were reported to occur in at least one ROI were Grey Wolf (Canis lupus), Assemese Macaque (Macaca assamensis), Swarnp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), Great Tibetan Sheep (Ovis ammon), Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Clouded Leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa) and Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) (see Appendix 12).

Musk Deer were reported to occur in the Darchula, Martadi and Jumla ROIs, with a sparse to rare occurrence. Musk deer normally live in sub-alpine forest at elevations above 3,000 m. Snow leopards generally live in rocky and cliff areas of the Himalayas, at elevations of between 3,600-4,000 m, although they descend as low as 1,800 m during the winter to find prey (Prater, 1971).

All of the proposed roads are located in the Kamali River basin except for the Darchula road which is located in the neighbouring Mahakali River catchment to the west. The Karnali River and its tributaries are seasonally home to migratory bird species, either for a season or during brief stopovers while on their way to feeding or breeding grounds. Nepal is an international flyway for migrating birds, including the Ferruginous Duck (Aythia nyroca) and Lesser Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica). Because of the region's importance to these migratory birds, especially as a waterfowl habitat, Nepal is signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR, 1971).

The Kamali River and its tributaries support numerous fish species, many of which are migratory. Conmnon fish species include Snow Trout (Schizothorax plagiostamus and S. richardsonii), Long-nosed Trout (S. progastus), Golden Mahseer or Sahar (Tor putitora), Deep-bodied Mahseer (T. tor), Copper Mahseer (Acrossocheilus hexagonolepsis), Swamp Eel (Amphipnious cuchia) and Stone Eel (Macrognathus aculeata). Deep-bodied Mahseer (T tor) is a listed threatened species.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 54 Environmental Impact Assessment -April 1999 Less common species include Fresh-water Eel (Anguilla bengalensis), Jalkapoor (Pseudeutropius gaura), Dudhe/Jalkapoor (P. antherinoides). Gounch (Bagarius bagarius), Thed (Labeo angra) and Chuche/Ban (Xenentodon cancila).

Snow Trout and Mahseer spawn in September-October on gravel beds (Blunt Nosed Snow Trout also spawn in April-May). Fishing in July for all these species (in March for Blunt Nosed Snow Trout) reduces egg-laying female fish numbers.

6.10 PROTECTEDAREAS

A network of 16 protected areas cover more than 16% of Nepal's land area (DNPWC, 1998). It is composed of eight National Parks, four Wildlife Reserves, three Conservation Areas and one Hunting Reserve. The distribution of protected areas is disproportionately high in the high Mountains and Himalayas (86%), with the Middle Mountains containing only 1% of the total area (Kaptad National Park).

No proposed alignments go through or immediately adjacent to any protected areas. The Martadi alignment commences approximately 10 km east and 1,600 m below the eastern side of Khaptad National Park, whilst the Jumla alignrment will provide the nearest road access to two protected areas, Rara National Park and She-Phoksundo National Park.

Khaptad National Park

Khaptad National Park is located approximately 10 km west of the start of the proposed Martadi road at 19.400 km, generally at elevations in excess of 2.500 m. The Park was gazetted in 1984 to protect representative forests of the westem middle hills. It covers an area of 225 km2, with forests occupying over 89% of the total area. The Park contains diverse habitats including coniferous, hardwood and mixedwood forests, shrubs and grassland. A feature of the Park is its grasslands, including 22 major pastures. It provides a habitat for 18 species of mammals, 217 species of birds and 567 species of flowering plants, including 4 species of plants that are endemic to the Park. The Park is also a religious site.

Local people from 22 villages across four districts (Bajhang, Bajura, Doti and Achham) legally utilise Park Tesources. The most common private use of the Park is cattle grazing, which is permitted during 4 months of the year. The Park is visited by few tourists, with only 12 foreign tourists recorded in 1995/96 (Department of Tourism, 1996).

Rara National Park

The proposed Jumla road will provide the nearest road access to Rara National Park (RNP), located approximately 21 km north of Jumla village. Access to the Park is currently by foot trails only. One trail runs 32 km from Jumla village north to Park headquarters, whilst the other trail runs 10 km from Gamgarhi, Mugu District, west to the headquarters.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 55 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 RNP was gazetted in 1977 to preserve the unique beauty of Rara Lake and to protect local flora and fauna. It covers 106 km2 at elevations ranging from 2.800-4.048 m. Rara Lake. locally knovw as Mahendra Tal. is the largest lake in Nepal. It is deep (up to 167 m) and does not freeze over in winter.

The Park contains diverse flora and fauna. The main vegetation community in the Park is open and dry Blue pine (Pinus wailichiana) which grows up to 3,150 m and covers 23% of the area. Lower sub-alpine Fir forest (Abies spectabilis) covers 18% of the Park. whilst the drc deciduous broad leaved forests of Utis (Alnus nepalensis), Walnut (Juglans regia), Maple (Acer spp.) cover an additional 15%.

The Park is rich in wildlife, being the habitat of many species listed in the Nepal Red Data Book (NRDB). It is home to 51 mammals (24 NRDB species), 212 birds (21 NRDB species), 1 reptile spp. and 3 fish spp.. Three protected mammal species found in the Park are Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetinus), Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and Red Panda (Ailurensfulgens).

Rara Lake is an important staging post for many species of migrant waterfowls during their spring and autumn migration across the himalayas, with 36 wintering birds recorded in the Park area. The Park harbours three protected bird species, namely the Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii), White-throated Til (Aegithulos nievogularis) and Rusty Flanked Tree- Creeper (Certhia nepalensis).

The Park is managed under its Management Plan (1976-81), which allows local people to cut grass and collect leaf litter during October each year.

Shev Phoksundo National Park

The proposed Jumla road will provide the nearest road access to the Shey Phoksundo National Park (SPNP). Currently the easiest and shortest access to the Park headquarters at Sumduwa is by air to Jufaal in Dolpa District, followed by three days walk.

The Park was gazetted in 1984 and covers 3,555 km2. It is the largest National Park and second largest protected area in Nepal. The Park's altitude ranges from 2,000 m up to 6,883 m (Kanjroba Himal). It mostly covers cold desert, trans-Himalayan steppe lands and barren areas of the Upper Himalaya. It has less than 5% forest cover.

The Park contains a diverse flora and fauna species. It supports 26 mammals (16 NRDB species), 176 birds (17 NRDB species) and 1 species of reptile. Nine of the birds are listed threatened species. It is also home to the rarest butterfly in the Himalaya.

The Park is famous for Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Grey Wolf (Canis lapus) and Red Panda (Ailurens fulgens). It is also important for its cultural heritage, with over 2,000 people inhabitating 19 villages within the Park. This includes the settlement of Shey, the highest perrnanently populated settlement in the world at 4,480 m.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 56 Environmental Impac; Assessment - April 1999 A Management Plan for the Park has not been developed, but it is proposed that it be managed as a strict 'Nature Reserve'. This includes taking appropriate action to prevent poaching of Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster).

Badi Malika

Badi Malika. located approximately 15 km from the nearest location along the Martadi alignment, on the boundaries of Achham, Bajura and Kalikot districts, is not a protected area but was identified as a key area for conservation in the Draft National Bio-diversity Action Plan (DNPWC, 1998). It was recommended for protection because it has a very large contiguous forest area of 214 km2, which is unlikely to be found elsewhere in the Middle Hills, and it is suspected to contain forest types which are not represented in the protected area network.

Badi Malika contains a number of important natural ponds and pastures, including Rama- Roshan which contains 12 ponds between 2,000-3,000 m (DNPWC, 1998). The area is considered significant in terms of wildlife, although hunting is prevalent. Badi Malika is also a significant religeous site, receiving 25,000 pilgrims each year.

6.11 RIVERSBASINS, WETLANDSAND WATERQUALITY

The five proposed alignments are located in two major river basins in western Nepal: the Karnali and Mahakali. The Kamali River has seven major tributaries, two of which are followed by proposed alignments: the Martadi aligmnent follows the Budhi Ganga and the Jumla alignment follows the Tila. The later section of the Darchula alignment generally follows the Mahakali River.

River flows are greatest during the monsoon period from mid-June to September, with flows generally reaching a peak in August. By November, river flow rates have dropped considerably, largely coming from ground water and localised storm runoff. River flows are lowest during the dry season months of January to May, with February usually being the driest month.

The Kamali and Mahakali basins are snow fed, with the snowline generally at 3,200 m. Over 19% of the Karnali basin and 8.7% of the Mahakali basin are perpetually under snow. Precipitation at the end of the monsoon and in winter in the high mountains is converted into snow which supplies river flows during the summer months of April to mid-June.

19 glacial lakes are located within these two river basins, with the most important lakes being Rara. Phoksundo, Dudhiya, Dhauli, Giri and Serpo lakes.

The Kamali River and Mahakali River rank second and fourth in relation to basin drainage areas in Nepal.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 57 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 24: Major River Features

Catchment Area River Length CatchmentArea inNepal Average Flow 2 2 ______I_____ (kin) | (kM ) (km ) (m3n/sec) IKamnalii 507- 44,000 41.550 1 1,370 IMahakali l 223+ 15,260 I 5,410 ! 665 Source:Sharma. 1997.

Rivers are most turbid during the monsoon period of mid-June to September, when overland runoff and erosion are at their greatest. Snow-fed rivers are also usuallv turbid in the hot summer months because of sediment transportation by melting snow. Conversely, coliform levels are usually highest during the low flow months of January to May when the diluting effects of river flows are lowest.

Rivers and springs in the vicinity of the proposed roads are free of chemical pollutants due to the absence of industry. Despite this, these water sources are usually microbiologically contaminated due to poor sanitation practices and the widespread grazing of livestock in the upstream catchments, particularly near settlement areas.

In the wet season, spring water is often microbally contaminated due to mixing with surface water.

There are no known published inventories on wetlands in the hills and mountains of Nepal, although IUCN (1998) has a list of some wetland sites identified through secondary sources. The list identifies 8 wetlands in three districts crossed by the proposed roads. but none of these sites are located in the vicinity or downslope of the alignments (see Appendix 14).

6.12 ARCHAEOLOGICAL,RELIGIOUS AND CULTURALSITES

A total of 88 archaeological, religious and cultural sites of local, regional or national significance exist within the districts crossed by the roads (Appendix 15). These sites were initially identified from the Main Cultural and Archaeological Map of Nepal (Deparutnent of Archaeology, undated) and Inventory of Heritage Sites of Nepal (IUCN, 1997). They include temples, shrines, palaces, caves, hilltops, hot water springs, pools, lakes and taps.

Most of the identified shrines, temples and palaces are older than 70 years, with some as old as 400-500 years. Older temples and shrines are of archeological significance, but many are in a state of disrepair and in need of immediate structural renovation.

One of the aspirations of local people, as reported by several District Development Offices, is the renovation of local shrines and temples and the re-establishment of rarely used cultural and religious practices and norms. Local people have a strong sense of iden.ity with their shrines and temples, and some people want to develop sites for religious tourism.

RoadMaintenance and Development Project 58 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Festivals of local and regional significance are organised during Dasain. Tihar. Thulo Ekadashi. Janai Purnima, Shiva Ratri, Basanta Panchami, Shrawan Chaturdashi. etc. The timing and duration of festivals vary for different locations. Local people have a strong faith which includes ceremonies at these shrines and temples. People visit the shrines and temples from as far away as five days walk. During different festivals, animals (goats. ducks, pigeons and buffalo) are sacrificed to Hindu Gods in most of the religious shrines to fulfil the aspirations of individuals and groups.

6.13 NOISEAND AIR QUALITY

Noise levels along the proposed alignments, except in settlements, are low and predominantly generated by natural conditions (i.e. from insects, winds and rivers flows). Noise levels seldom exceed low background levels, however in settlements, noise levels can be high during the day due to radios and cassette players.

Ambient air quality in all of the proposed road areas is excellent due to a lack of air polluting industries and allied urban activities. However, haze occasionally covers the entire region during both the winter and summer seasons. This usually results in reduced visibility in the mountains for up to several weeks at a time. Haze is caused by high airborne dust generated by winds passing over agricultural fields, and from smoke from forest and grassland fires.

Indoor air quality, however, in most of these areas is poor. The buming of wood for cooking and house warming in houses with minimum ventilation results in poor indoor air quality. Many housewives are reported to suffer from bronchitis, pneumonia and other chest related problems, due to combustion emissions from fuelwood in closed and poorly ventilated houses (Reid, Smith and Sherchan, 1986).

Road Maintenance and Development Project 59 Environmental impactAssessment -April 1999 7. SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

7.1 REGIONAL,DISTRICT AND VDC CONTEXT

Nepal is demarcated into five development regions. These run from east to west and each region therefore encompasses the five topographic zones of the country. Three of the RMD Project roads are situated in the Far-Western Development Region (FWDR) and two in the Mid-Westem Development Region (MWDR). The roads cross six districts, while a further eight may benefit from improved access created by the roads (i.e. where the new roads are used as the primary route out of the hills).

Table 25: Road Districts and Potentially Influenced Districts

Road Development Region I Districts NeighbouringDistricts Likely to Crossed Benefit Darchula FWDR Darchula Baitadi, Bajhang Martadi FWDR Bajura 1 Bajhang,Kalikot,Mugu, Humla tMangalsen FWDR Achham Bajhang. Kalikot Bajura Jumla MWDR Kalikot, Jumla Mugu, Humla, Dolpa |Jajarkot MWDR Jajarkot Rukum. Surkhet. Salyan

The six road districts comprise 232 Village Development Committees (VDCs), of which 33 are crossed by the RMD Project roads.

Table 26: VDCs Crossed by Proposed Roads

Road Number of VDCs VDCs Crossed Darchula 5 Shankarpur, Bhagawati, Dattu, Dhap, Khalanga.

Martadi 5 Barhabis, Kuldemandu, Bramhatoal, Budiganga, Martadi.

Mangalsen 3 Timilsain, Oligaun, Mangalsen.

Jumla 15 Bharta, Sukatiya, Mugraha, Gela (Rapti), Panka, Chhapra, Jubitha, Rainchuli, Phui Mahadev, Rara Lehi, Kundari,

______Tatopani, Lamra. Talium, Mahat. Jajarkot 5 Karki Gaun, Bhura, Jagatipur, Punma, Khalanga.

SMEC-CEMAT Field Survey, 1998/99.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 60 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 A number of studies have been undertaken to assess the social development status of Nepal's development regions and districts, all of which point to the underdeveloped nature of the mountain/hill areas in general and the MBWDRand FWDR in particular. One of the most recent, undertaken bv ICIMOD in 1997. rates Nepal's 75 districts according to 39 development indicators. broadly categorised as follows:

* Poverty and deprivation: * Socio-economic, institutional and infrastructure development; * Women's empowerment; and * Natural resource endowment and management

The key development indicators and ratings from the ICIMOD study are summarised in Table 27. This shows that four of the six road districts are amongst the 10 worst-performiing districts of Nepal. Achham District is rated as the worst performing district in the country, closely followed by Kalikot, Jumla, Bajura and Jajarkot Districts. Darchula District is also fairly poorly rated (26th).

Table 27: Road Districts bv Key Development Indicators

District Development Overall Poverty and Inst. and Infra. Region Rating* Deprivation* Development* |Achham FWDR 1 1 9 Kalikot MWDR 3 2 2 Jumla MWDR 7 14 5 Bajura FWDR 8 12 12 Jajarkot MWDR 11 17 7 Darchula _r FWDR 26 35 43 I = worst performing district. 75 = best performing district; source: ICIMOD, 1997.

The recently published Human Development Report (UNDP, 1998), which groups the country's districts according to a Human Development Index (HDI), arrives at similar conclusions. The HDI consists of three human components: longevity (as a proxv for health-related capabilities), education (as a proxy for knowledge and information-related capabilities) and income (as a proxy for capabilities to acquire a particular level of living) (UNDP, 1998:33).

The 1996 HDI value of 0.378 for the country indicates an overall low level of human development (1.0 being the highest level of human development). Two of the road districts (Kalikot and Bajura) are placed in a group of three districts with the lowest HDI (less than 0.2). The remaining four road districts are placed in the group of districts with the second lowest HDI (0.2-0.3).3

Most of the country's districts have HDIs of between 0.3-0.4. Only six districts have HDIs above 0.4 (UNDP, 1998:42).

Road Maintenance and Development Project 6 ] Environmental impact Assessment - April 1999 7.2 DEMOGRAPHICPROFILES AND SETTLEMENTPATTERNS

Table summarises key population and demographic figures for the road districts. The districts had a total population of 670,608 in 1991, rising to a projected 721,402 in 1998. Achham District has the highest population figure, followed by Jajarkot and Darchula Districts. Jurnla District has the lowest projected population and lowest population densitv (at 1991 figures). All the districts have population densities of between 30 and 51 persons/km-, with the exception of Achham District, which has a densitv of nearly 120 persons/kM.

The 33 road VDCs had a combined population of 114,944 in 1991, rising to an estimated 124,314 in 1998. These VDCs accommodated an estimated 24,173 households in 1998, the majority (33.6%) of whom are resident in VDCs crossed by the Jumla road (Table 28).

Table 28: District Population Figures

Area I Households Population Density Growth Projecled 2 Road District (kn ) VDCs (1991) (1991) (persons, Rate Population 2 l______I ______kin ) (1981-1991) (1998)* Darchula Darchula 2.322 41 18,700 101.683 | 43.8 1.203 110.561 Martadi Bajura 2,188 27 19,368 92,010 42.1 2.113 106.513 Mangalsen Achharn 1,680 75 1 40,267 198.188 118.0 0.679 207.802 Jumla j Kalikot 1.741 29 16.041 88,805 51.0 L 0.132 89,629 lJumia 1 2.531 30 14,231 1 75,964 30.0 0.996 81.421 ajarkot J _lajarkot 1 2.230_ | 30 22,315 113.958 1 51.1 | 1.385 125,476

Total , 12.692 232 _ 130,922 670.608 - 721,402 Source: NRA. 1997; CBS, 1997; * based or. World Bank projections (DOR, 1997).

The Chhetri ethnic/caste group is in the majority in all of the districts, with the exception of Kalikot and Jajarkot Districts (Table 30). Other significant ethnic/caste group concentrations are Thakuri (Kalikot District) and Kami (Jajarkot, Kalikot and Achham Districts). A considerable percentage of the population in most of the districts is classified as "Other," constituting various smaller ethnic groupings.

Road Maintenanceand DeveiopmentProject 62 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Table 29: Households and Population in the Road VDCs, 1991 and 1998

Road | District VDC 1991 1' 1998 (estimated) b i No. of HHH Population No. of HH | Population Darchula Darchula Shankarpur 460 | 2.645 500 2,876 Bhagawati 435 2.454 473 2,668 Dattu 344 1,832 374 1,992 Dhap 694 4.092 754 4,449 Khalanga 809 4422 880 4,808 Sub-total 2,742 15,445 2,981 16,793 Martadi Bajura Barhabis 1 1169 5,543 1,435 6A417 Kuldemandu 969 4,776 1,124 5,529 Bramhatola 1,011 4,855 1,171 5,620 Budiganga 470 2,459 544 2.847 Martadi 942 4,618 1,091 5,346 Sub-total 4,561 22,251 5,365 25,759 Mangalsen Accham Timilsain 389 1,931 408 2,025 Oligaun 657 3,077 689 3,226 Mangalsen 1,404 7,185 1,474 7,534 ______Sub-total 12,450 12,193 | 2,571 12,785 Jumla Kalikot Bharta 754 4,008 763 __4,045 Sukatiya 593 3,207 599 | 3,237 Mugraha 358 1,854 362 1,871 Gela (Rapti) 496 2,685 502 2,710 Panka 570 | 2,968 576 2,996 Chhapra 506 2,494 512 2,517 Jubitha 375 1,734 349 1,750 ______I |______Rainchuli 380 1,901 384 1,919 Phui Mahadev 543 ] 2,635 548 2,659 Rara Lehi 399 1,973 24282115 Kundari 657 3,446 705 3,694 Jumia Tatopani 774 3,819 830 4,093 Lamra 380 2,053 407 2.200 Talium 585 3,245 628 | 3,478 Mahat 496 2,501 532 2.681 Sub-total 7,836 40,523 8,125 41,965 Jajarkot Jajarkot Karki Gaun 705 3,955 778 4,355 Bhura 712 3,965 784 4,366 Jagatipur 816 3,403 899 3,747 Punma 890 5,069 979 5,581 Khalanga 1,533 8,140 1,691 8,963 Sub-total 4,656 24,532 5,131 27,012 I______I______ITotal 22,245 114,944 24,173 124,314 (a) HMG[N,1991; (b) Estimated through the application of WorldBank district growth projections (DOR, 1997).

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 63 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Table 30: Ethnic/Caste Composition of the Road Districts Population (1991)

Road/ I Ethnic/Caste Group (% of District Population) _ District i Thakuri Chhetri Magar Bahun Kami Other

Darchula - 6 I Darchula 60.0 19.4 7.4 112.8 Martadi Bajura 55.5 7.5 12.8 24.2 Mangalsen lI Achhamn - 51.5 11.4 19.2 17.9 Jumila Kalikot 24.7 28.4 - - 20.0 277.3 Jumla - 59.6 7.2 12.4 - 20.8 Jajarkot Jajarkot 16.7 37.4 - - 21.9 24.0 Source: Gurung, 1991.

Table 31 lists key demographic features of the household population. A total of 1.558 persons were recorded in the 197 households, giving an average household size of 7.9 persons (minimum of one and maximum of 24). Households predominantly consist of nuclear families (68.7% of the household population) and other relatives such as grandchildren, daughters-in-law and parents (26.5%).

Nearly 43% of the population is 15 years or younger, while the potentially economically active population (16-65 years) constitutes 54.7% of total household population.

Table 31: Demographic Features of the Household Population

DemographicFeature Number Percentage Age: 0-5 years 234 15.0 6-15 vears 4277 27.4 16-25 hears 323 20.7 26-35vears 231 14.8 36-45years 108 6.9 46-55 vears 112 7.2 56-65 years 80 5.1 66 vears and older 43 2.8 Gender: iMale 794 51.0 !Femaie 764 49.0 SMEC-CENIATField Survey, 1998/99;excludes Jajarkot road.

Settlement patterns in the project areas generally reflect the distribution of arable land and the development of market areas along trade routes. Accordingly, most of the areas exhibit a scattered settlement pattem, interspersed by a number of large settlements and bazaars/market places. Apart from their trading role, the larger settlements often have important administrative and service functions.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 64 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 The primarv hill/mountain centres in the concerned Development Regions are the municipalities of Birendranagar (Surkhet District). Dipaval (Doti District), Amargadhi (Dadeldhura District) and Jumla (Jumla District). The larger urban centres of Nepalgunj, Dhangadhi and Mahendranagar are located in the Terai, outside of the identified impact districts. These Terai towns nevertheless are "critical junctures for trade and commnerce," functioning as gateways into the Himalayan hills and mountain zones (Allan, 1998).

Migration from the hill areas to the Teral (lowlands) is a common demographic feature in many hill/mountain districts, reflecting people's desire to gain access to agricultural land, services and trade and employment opportunities. Gurung's (1998) analysis of census information shows that 86.2% of the out-migrants (i.e. place of enumeration different from place of birth) reported in the 1991 census, originated in the mountain and hill zones. Out- migration from the hill zone constituted 72% of total internal migration, up by 10.7% from the 1981 census. Out-migration from the more remote mountain zone. on the other hand, decreased from 30.3% in 1981 to 4.2% in 1991. This decrease is probablv related to the fact that the government practice of promoting and sanctioning settlement on forest land in the Terai was discouraged from about 1980 and officially prohibited by 1985. The continued movement of hill people to the Terai, however, reflects the more direct economic, social and cultural links between the hill and Terai zones. Regions with the highest levels of out-migration are the Eastem and Westem Hills.

Table 32: Out-Migrants in the Mid-, West-, and Far-Western Census Regions (1981- 1991)

I 1981 ______i~~___ 19911 Region 1981Percentage of Percentageof Number Overall Out- Number Overall Out- Migration Migration MountainZone Far-West 13,241 1.3 36,427 2.6 Mid-West 5,912 0.6 12,711 0.9 West 38,219 3.7 5,140 0.4 Hill Zone Far-West 47,371 4.6 19,124 8.4 Mid-West 54,528 5.2 124,130 8.8 West 150,104 14.4 306,821 21.6 Source:Gurung, 1998.

Information obtained from the socio-economic survey shows that more than 7% of the household population was absent at the time of the survey, living either in other areas of Nepal or outside the country. Absent household members are predominantly students and seasonal labour migrants.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 65 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 33: Residential Status of the Household Population (n = 1,558 persons)

ResidentialStatus Percentageof the HouseholdPopulation Currentlyliving at home 92.6 Living in other parts of Nepal 2.7 | Living outside of Nepal 4.7 SMEC-CE.MATFieid Surve). 1998/99,excludes Jaiarkot road

7.3 ECONOMICACTIVITIES AND SUBSISTENCE

The economy of Nepal centers around subsistence agriculture, with a small percentage of the populationformally employedoutside the agriculturalsector. Table 34 summarisesthe occupationalstatus of the population (1991) older than 10 years in the six road districts. showing that the vast majority (90% or more) of the population are recorded in the farminz/agricultral sector.

Table 34: Occupational Status of Economically Active Population by Road District

______OccupationalCategory (1991) - % of Population10 Years and Older Road/ Prof/ Admin/ Prod. District Technical Clerical/ Service Farming Labour Other Not Stated Sales Workers Darchula Darchula 1.94 2.22 1.65 89.88 3.78 0.38 0.14 * Martadi Bajura 1.35 1.36 1.53 92.75 2.06 0.86 0.06 Mangalsen Achham 0.78 0.77 0.08 96.50 0.51 0.40 0.24 Jumia Kalikot 1.45 1.79 1.65 93.43 1.12 0.37 0.16 Jumia 0.93 0.89 0.73 95.01 1.94 0.31 0.18 IJajarkot Jajarkot 0.88 0.74 0.95 I 95.16 1.68 0.49 0.07 Nepal 1.8 4.3 6.2 81.1 i 4.2 | 2.1 0.3 Source: CBS. 1997.

The socio-economicsurvey generally confirms the district-levelstatistics, showing that the economically-active population is mainly engaged in agricultural activities. Occupational status also indicates an incidence of labour migration, with 3.2% of the household populationrecorded as working in other areas of Nepal or outside the country.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 66 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Table 35: Occupational Status of the Household Population

Occupationand Skill I Percentageof the Household Population Occupation: Pre-schoolchild j 13.9 Dependentstudent (but also involvedin agriculture) 19.4 Agriculture/animalhusbandrv/fishing | 48.1 Porter or local wage labour 0.4 Wage labour/servicesin Nepal 0.1 Wage labour/servicesoutside Nepal 3.1 Own businesslocally (e.g. store,teashop) 1.2 Own businessin other areas of Nepal 0.1 Own businessoutside Nepal 0.1 Teacher/healthworker 7.0 Governmentservice 1.5 Other/notknown 5.2 SMEC-CEMATField Survey. 1998/99;excludes Jajarkot road.

Notwithstanding the country's subsistence agricultural orientation, less than 20% of the total land area comprises cultivation land. Accordingly, most household landholdings are small (69% are smaller than 1 ha and 89% are smaller than 2 ha), and the national average landholding size is only 0.24 ha (CBS, 1993; UNDP, 1998).

Table 36 shows the number of registered landholdings and combined landholding area for the six road districts for 1991. For most of the districts, the average landholding size is approximately 0.64 ha, with the exception of Achham (0.28 ha) and Kalikot (0.38 ha). The Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) shows that in the entire hill area only approximately 7% of the landholding households own/operate as much as 36% of the total reported cultivation area (CBS, 1996). This suggests a high incidence of very small/marginal landholdings and a degree of landlessness.

Land tenure is in the form of simple freehold (raikar). Cultivation land is registered in terms of the Land Act 2021 (and amendments). Owners are issued land certificates (lal purja) and details are retained at district Land Survey and Land Revenue Offices, along with cadastral maps. The land allocated to the original landowner is mostly inherited within the family, although land transactions between non-related persons do occur. Fragmentation of landholdings is common, with household landholdings often consisting of a number of dispersed land parcels.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 67 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Table 36: Landholdings by Road District

Road and Number of Total Area Total Number Averaoe No. of District Landholdings | (ha) of Parcels Parcels per I f I S ! Landbolding I Darchula Darchula 16.806 11,247.0 64,960 3.9 Martadi Bajura 16,827 10,467.2 84,416 5.0 Mangalsen Achham 38,346 1 10,678.1 J 252,723 6.6 Jumla Kalikot 15,846 6,014.4 48,498 3.1 Jumla 13,019 8,755.3 118,775 9.1 Jajarkot Jajarkot 20,187 12.481.0 90.257 4.5 Source: CBS, 1997.

Information obtained from the socio-economic survey gives a mean household landholding size of 1.4 ha. However, as shown in Table 37, this average tends to conceal the range of landholding sizes reported by households. For instance, the 22 landholders with reported holdings larger than 2.5 ha, constitute only 13.5% of the sample but own 36% of the total reported landholdings. On the other hand, the 31 landholders with holdings of 0.5 ha or smaller, make up 20% of the sample, but own only 4% of the total landholdings.

Table 37: Reported Household Landholding Size

Landholding(ha) Numberof Households Percentage 0.0001-0.2500 _ 15 9.7 0.2501-0.5000 16 10.3 0.5001-0.7500 26 16.8 0.7501-l.0000 22 14.2 1.0001-1.5000 22 14.2 1.5001-2.0000 23 14.8 2.0001-2.5000 10 6.4 2.5001-3.0000 10 6.4 larger than3.0 1 7.1 Total 155 99.9 SMEC-CEMAT field survey, 1998/99. excludes Jajarkot road.

Although private ownership is the dominant forrn of land tenure (approximately 85% of cultivated land is owner-operated; UNDP. 1998), other forms of tenure occur. These include tenancy, mate or bandaki (essentially an informal loan system with the land parcels held as surety by the money lender) and sharecropping. Low castes groups such as the Kami (iron smith), Damai (tailor) and Sarki (shoemaker) are often landless or marginal landholders who depend for their subsistence on other landowners.

Road Mainrenance and Developmenr Project 68 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Slavery was officiallv abolished in Nepal in 1924, yet the svstem of bonded labour (kamaiva) still prevails in the mid- and far-western Terai. According to officials figures there are approximately 15.000 kamaiya households in the country, mainly in the Terai districts of Dang, Banke, Bardiya, Kailali and Kanchanpur. Other districts with bonded labourers include Kapilbastu. Ruphandehi and Nawalparasi (Kathmandu Post, 24/11/98). Debt-bonded agricultural labourers (haliyas). mostlv from low caste groups, are also found in the mid-western and far-western hills (UNDP, 1998: 110-11 1).

Cereals are the dominant crops and includes rice, maize, wheat. millet and barely. Other crops include lentil, mustard, and potato. Apple farming is also practiced in Jumla District and parts of Kalikot District. Other fruits include oranges, lemon and bananas.

Livestock raising is an equallv important production activity. Livestock provide meat, milk. eggs and a cash income. Large livestock are also an integral part of cropping activities, providing draught power and producing organic fertiliser. Livestock most commonly held are cattle, water buffalo, goats and sheep. Horses are also kept in Jumla District and parts of Kalikot District.

The large majority (93.4%) of households in the sample survey ownmedlivestock, with cattle, water buffalo and goats the most conimonly held livestock.

Table 38: Livestock Ownership

No. of Range in Herd Sizes LivestockTvpe Households Total Head Owning Maximum Maximum Average Cattle 184 898 23 1 1 4.9 Water Buffalo 123 255 10 I 2 Goats 77 367 30 1 4.8 Sheep 2 27 25 2 13.5 Pigs 2 8 8 4_4 Donkeys/horses 1 8 8 8 | 8 SMEC-CEMAT field survey, 1998/99; excludes Jajarkot road.

Notwithstanding the subsistence orientation of the agricultural sector, the majority of the country's 75 districts (55 in 1995, including all the road districts) experience food deficits and the country has to import significant quantities of grain. Reliable officials figures are not available, but estimates show a caloric shortfall of approximately 5% per person/day (UNDP, 1998: 65).

In 1994, Nepal had a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of US$ 200, reflecting its status as one of the poorest countries in the world. The Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) recorded a per capita income of US$ 143 for the country as a whole and US$ 131 for rural areas (CBS, 1996). Within the rural areas, the incidence of poverty is higher in the hills than in the Terai, and more concentrated in the westerm parts (Ministry of Local

Road Maintenance and Development Project 69 Environmentailimpact Assessment -April 1999 Development, 1997). In 1995/96 NRs. the NLSS recorded per capita incomes of NRs 5.9228 for the FWDR and NRs 6.038 for the MWDR. some 22% lower than the national average.

Table 39: Nominal Household Income and Per Capita Income by Development Region

Average Annual Income in 1995/96 (NRs.) Region HouseholdSize Ave. Household Ave. Per Capita Income Income Mid-WesternDevelopment Region 6.0 36.435 6.038

Far-WesternDevelopment Region 6.3 37.307 5,928

Nepal 5.7 43,732 7,690 Source: CBS. ]996.

Household income derives mainly from farm income. constituting two-thirds of household income in the FWDR and 71% in the MWDR. Local off-farm income-generating opportunities are mainly limited to such activities as general stores, restaurants/tea shops and the conveying of goods (porters, sheep/mule trains).

Labour migration figures are not available at district level, but the incidence of both seasonal (circular) and permanent labour migration is reported to be high, particularly in the M,-DR and FWDR. Push/pull factors leading to migratory employment in India, the Terai and other areas of Nepal include lack of work in the mountain/hill zones during the slack agricultural season and low wage rates in the local off-farm economic sector (IJNDP, 1998: 104). The incomes of these migrant labourers are important components of household income and the local economy.

Table 40: Income by Source and Development Region

% of Income Over NominalHousehold Income Region From Farm From Non-Farm From Other Income Income Sources* Mid-WesternDevelopment Region 71.0 20.0 9.0

1 Far-WesternDevelopment Region 62.0 19.0 19.0

Nepal 61.0 22.0 16.0 Other sources include renting of buildings,remittances, imputed value of owner-occupiedhousing, etc.; Source:CBS. 1996.

Tables 41 and 42 show the reported sources of income and expenditure obtained from the survey. A mean annual income of NRs 25,402 was recorded, ranging from a minimum of NRs 500 to a maximum of NRs 172,800 (with a median of NRs 18,000).While a wide range of strategies are used to gain access to a cash income, few are used extensively by the sampled households. The most frequently listed sources for the previous year were income from labour in other parts of Nepal, income from service positions (e.g. teacher) and income

Road Maintenance and Development Project 70 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 from own commercial establishments (e.g. tea shops). It is noteworthv that nearly 14%oof the households reported an income from goods conveying during the previous year. an activity that may be affected by the new roads.4

Mean annual expenditure for the surveved households amnountedto NRs 27,998. Reported annual expenditure ranged from NRs 5.950 to NRs 141,000 (with a median of NRs 21,900). Expenditure was most frequently reported for clothing (95.9% of the households), festivals/marriages (80.7%), food (80.2%), kerosene (74.1%), education (72.1%) and health (60.9%).

Table 41: Reported Sources of Income During the Previous Year

Numberof Percentageof Mean Annual Income Source Households Households Income From Source (NRs.) Wage labourelsewhere in Nepal 49 24.9 14,916 Serviceholder 46 23.4 _ 4,798 Incomefrom own business(e.g. tea shop) 43 21.8 12,539 Porter 27 13.7 l 26,552 Sale of householdagricultural products 25 12.7 7,100 Incomefrom trade (e.g. tailor) 21 10.7 22.500 Sale of householdlivestock products r _15 X 7.6 4,656 Pension | 13 6.6 7,138 0 Localwage labour 13 6.6 12.938 Sale of forestproducts (e.g. fodder, timber) 5 2.5 __1,900 Wage labourin India 3 1.5 129,600 Sale of fruits 3 1.5 3.533 Rentingof land to other people 3 1.5 7,333 SMEC-CEMAT Field Survey, 1998/i99excludes Jajarkot road.

4 It shouldbe notedthat the measurement of incomeand expenditureby meansof questionnairesurveys is limited.Questions on incomemay be seenas an invasionof householdprivacy, and thedata collected is entirelydependent on respondentrecall and integrity.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 71 Environmental Impact Assessment -April 1999 Table 42: Expenditure by Type

Expenditure Item Mean Annual No. of Households | Expenditure (NRs.) Reporting Expenditure on Item Food f 7,419 158 Fire wood 438 46 Kerosene 1,026 1 146 Education 4,356 142 Health I 4,743 120 Clothing 9,611 189 Transportation 2,518 49 Agricutturalinputs 1.073 69 !Hiringof labour ! 4,046 25 Festival/mamrage 4.988 159

Rent (accommodation) 5,733 _ Rent (land) 1,420 I Otheritems 887 3 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99;excludes Jajarkotroad.

7.4 KEYSOCIAL SERVICESAND FACILITIES

7.4.1 Education

The educational status of Nepal's citizens has increased progressively since the implementation of the National Educational System in 1971. For example, the literacy rate of persons older than six years increased from approximately 15% in 1971 to nearly 40% in 1996, the number of primary schools increased from 7,634 to 21,473, lower-secondary schools from 677 to 5,041 and secondary schools from 494 to 2,654. Nonetheless, there are disparities between different regions and social categories with respect to access to basic educational facilities and literacy rates remain low. The FWDR had a literacy rate of 31.31 in 1996 (48.98 males; 14.85 females) and the MWDR 31.89 (46.94 males; 17.60 females) (UNIDP, 1998: 77. 80, 82-83).

Tables 43 and 44 summarise educational facilities and student enrolment for the road districts, as well as educational levels recorded in the socio-economic survey. These figures show that the districts suffer from inadequate secondary and tertiary educational facilities in particular. Jajarkot District, for example, had only nine secondary schools in 1996, and secondary school students comprised only 2.8% of the total student population. The same pattern is evident for the other districts.

Gross enrolment rates recorded in the NLS Survey indicate that 75% and 80% of children between the asges of 6 - 10 years respectively attend primary school in the FWDR and MWDR (CBS. 1996). Although primary school enrolment in the country nearly doubled between 1984 and 1994, drop-out and repetition rates are very high, resulting in low promotion rates. Based on 1994 promotion rates, it is expected that 63% of the total

Road Maintenanceand DeveiopmentProject 72 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 prmarv students enrolled in 1994 will not complete their primarv school education (U'NDP. 1998: 78). As a result. gross enrolment rates for lower secondarv and secondary schools decrease significantlv (CBS. 1996).

This high student drop-out rate is attributed to the following:

* Household work burden of children; * Irregularity of school operation; * Household income poverty; * Physical distances to schools; * Low perceived relevance of education; and * Caste/ethnic discrimination and neglect of mother-tongue in school (UNDP, 1998: 79- 80).

Table 43: Schools and Students in the Road Districts (1996)

Road and Primar School I Lower SeC. School SecondarySchool Higher Education Total District No. Students No. Students No. Students No. Students Student, Darchula Darchula 216 19.526 41 3.295 18 900 1 69 23,790 Martadi Bajura 192 11,706 35 1.629 13 553 - 13.888 Mangalsen Achham 222 26,322 39 2.605 15 1,284 2 80 30.291 Jumla Kalikot 131 10,425 24 1.301 12 457 - - 12.183 Jumia 110 7,865 30 1.196 8 396 1 25 9.482 Jajarkot I____ Jajarkot 215 15.742 27 1.299 9 49417 Source: NRA._1997.

Table 44: Educational Levels of the Household Population (6 years and older)

EducationalLevel Percentage of the Population Illiterate 44.3 No schoolingbut literate 8.8 [Grade 1-5 24.5 Grade 6-8 8.4 Grade 9-10 5.9 SLC 3.9 Intermediateand above l 3.5 [Not known 0.6 SMEC-CEMATField Survey. 1998/99;excludes Jajarkot road.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 73 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 7.4.2 Health

The average life expectancy in Nepal was estimated at 55 vears in 1994. This represents an increase of some 13.5 years in life expectancy between 1976-1996. Factors contributing to this increase are higher rates of immunisation and improved control over epidemics such as cholera. smallpox, measles and malaria (UNTP. 1998: 57). Nevertheless, life expectancy remains low, particularly in mountain and rural areas. Contributing factors include:

* Limited access to health facilities: * Low level and quality of nutrition; and * Sanitation problems (UNDP, 1998: 56-57).

Table 45 gives and indication of the problems that people in the road districts experience with regard to access to health facilities. All the districts have verv few hospitals, health centers and primary health centers. Accordingly, people mainly rely on health posts and health sub-posts that are often inadequately staffed and experienced to deal with the full range of health issues and cases.

Table 45: Health Facilities in the Road Districts (1996197)

Road . Primary Health and Hospital Health Centre Health Centre Health Post Sub-Post District Darchula Darchula 1 1 11 55 Martadi Bajura I - 11 16 Mangalsen Achham 1 1 14 62 Jumia Kalikot - I- 9 22 Jumla 1 - 9 21 Jajarkot Jajarkot I I_ 8 26 Source:NRA, 1997.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 74 EnvironmenualImpact Assessment -April 1999 8. POTENTIALENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

In this section. potential environmental impacts, both bio-phvsical and socio-economic. are assessed in terms of the direct or indirect nature of the impact. extent. duration and significance. This assessment is based on the assumption that the mitigation measures detailed in Section 9 will be effectively implemented.

The level of assessment of each potential impact was based on the importance of each issue identified in the Scoping Report. The main bio-phvsical impacts assessed in detail are land use change, slope stability and ecological degradation. The main socio-economic impacts assessed are potential for general social development, loss of assets, population displacement and road construction employment.

8.1 DIRECTAND INDIRECTENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The construction and operation of new roads produces both direct and indirect (road induced) environmental impacts.

Direct environmental impacts are those impacts that are directly caused by road construction or operation. During construction these impacts primarily occur within the road formation area or immediately adjacent to it, and at ancillary sites such as quarries and workforce camps. Direct construction impacts can include the loss of agricultural land and forest cover, damage to ecological features such as forests and rivers, the initiation or enhancement of landslides, damage to man-made structures and resettlement. During road operation direct impacts may include a reduction in air and water quality.

Although direct environmental impacts are usually greatest within the road ROW, they are not confined to this area. Impacts often extend upslope and downslope bevond the ROW, particularly as a result of slope destabilisation by road excavation and poor cross-road drainage. These impacts may include cut bank slippage or landslide. flow line and slope erosion, sedimentation, disruption to services (water supplies, access trails), and blasting and rolling rock damage to property. The primary mitigation measure to avoid or reduce direct impacts is to alter the road alignment.

Indirect environmental impacts are those impacts not directly caused by road construction or operation. These impacts result from activities associated with or induced by road construction and operation. Indirect impacts can include the degradation of forests and ecology in the road ROI and impacts on cultural traditions (both positive and negative) and social development in general.

The indirect environmental impacts of a road are potentially far greater than the direct impacts, particularly if a low impact road alignment, appropriate road design and appropriate construction methods have been used.

Road ,aintenance and Development Project 75 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 8.2 EXTENTOF ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS

The likely extent of different environmental impacts has been broadly described under four general terms in this report, to indicate the site or area where an impact is likelv to occur. These areas are defined as:

Right-of-way (ROW): the legally reserved corridor of land within which the road is constructed. This land is legally acquired and owned by HMGN. A minimum ROW width of 15 m is proposed for all RMD Project roads, with the width increasing where necessary to accommodate the road formation (carriageway, road shoulder, side drains and cut and fill banks).

Ancillarv Sites: specific sites located outside the ROW where activities associated with road construction occur. These sites include quarries, storage areas and workforce camps.

Region of Influence (ROI): the extended area surrounding the road over which indirect, long-term environmental impacts occur. The extent of this area is dictated by natural resource access and use, and social interactions. In the Middle and High Mountains of Nepal, topography is the major determinant of access and hence a road's ROI. The ROI where increased forest use is likely to result during the operation of the roads, has been defined as extending 5 km either side of the road alignment, equivalent to a half day walk. For socio-economic impacts, the ROI has been defined as the VDCs located on both sides of the road (immediate area of influence) and the wider population that will use the road as the primary means of access (wider catchment area).

8.3 DURATIONOF ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS

Environmental impacts usually occur during either the road construction or operation phases. Environmental impacts during construction are often short-term impacts. confined to the construction period. They are usually one-off, direct impacts occurring within the ROW oTat ancillary sites.

Environmental impacts during road operation are long-term impacts, generally occurring across the ROI. They are mainly indirect impacts resulting from road-induced human activities.

8.4 PRIMARYAND SECONDARYENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Environmental issues can be classified as either primary or secondary based on the likely degree of impact that will result. The degree of impact is a function of impact area/extent. severity, duration, permanency and knock-on effects. The main role of EIA scoping was to identify the project's primary enviromnental issues (see Section 3.1), which are summarised in Table 46.

Road Maintenance and DevelopmenmProject 76 Errvironmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The primary environmental issues associated with the proposed road construction and operation are seen as significant in terms of the type of likely impacts, the extent of these impacts and the period over which they will occur. They include land use change. Iand stability, ecological degradation, population displacement. loss of assets and social development potential.

Table 46: Primarv Environmental Issues and Associated Impacts

Primary Impact Extent Direct K Initiation Environmental Indirect (C = const. Issue _ _ Impact 0 = operat.) Land Use * Loss of agriculturalland ROW D C * Loss of forest resource ROW D C * Loss or degradationof forest cover ROI I Land Stability * Landslidesand erosion ROW D C & O * Sedimentation ROW D C&O Ecology * Loss of forest habitat ROW D C * Loss or degradationof forest habitat ROI I 0 * Degradationof wildlifeand fisheries ROI I C & O Social * Loss of privately-ownedbuildings ROW D C * Loss of communityservices / facilities ROW D C * Impactson culturaltraditions ROI I * Social and economicdevelopment ROI I

Secondary environmental issues include archaeological, cultural and religious sites. air quality, water qualitv, noise and refuse pollution.

The severity of each impact identified in Sections 5.5 and 5.6 have been described as either "major" or "minor". An impact has been described as "major" if its extent, duration. degree of permnanencyand/or total impact upon a sensitive site is deemed to be significant. An impact has been described as "'minor" when none of these factors is considered to be significant.

8.5 BIO-PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS

Potential environmental impacts relating to each of the primary environmental issues identified in Table 46 are described below.

8.5.1 LandUse

Most existing land use within the proposed ROWs will be converted to road formation, resulting in a permanent loss of production resources. This will include the loss of irrigated and rainfed cultivation, grassland, forest, shrubland and other land types within the ROWs. In terms of production value, irrigated and rainfed cultivation and forests are viewed as the most valuable land use types.

The actual ROW width will vary along the alignments according to the slope and road design. For the purposes of quantifying the approximate areas of each land use type that

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmenrProject 77 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 will be converted to road formation, the ROW has been assumnedto have an average width of 15 m. This represents a total ROW land area of 294.6 ha along the 196.4 km of proposed alignments.

During the walkover surveys, land use types within the ROWs were recorded, whilst associated traverse distances were recorded durin2 the detailed surveys. ROW land use types and areas are summarised in Table 47.

Table 47: Land Use Types Within the Right-of-Way

Land Use Tvpe (ha) Project Cultivation Grass- I Aban- Seffle- River. Rock, Total Site IrrigaL Rainfd. land Forest Shrubs doned ments Featur. Cliffs, (ha) I ~~~~~~Land Scree Darchula 4.05 11.24 22.14 3.90 8.92 La2.61 O17 53.03SS __ __ _4.68 __ __24.44 __ 14.45__ _ __7.7 I .09 2.902.Martadi SS_35 Mangalsen 2.69 11.58 2.29 5.42 - ]O2.08 20. Jumia 16.10 12.52 40.08 24.12 20.78 1.30 9.96 1.27 6.53 132.66 Jajarkor 8.40 1.95 - 20.40 0.75 I - - 31.50 F Total L 35.92 61.73 78.96 61.63 30.45 1.30 9.% 1 2.63 T 12.04 j 294.62

The temporary use of ancillary sites will not result in the permanent loss of production resources, providing the mitigation measures prescribed in Section 9 are implemented.

Note: no allowance has been made for the inevitable loss of land from unavoidable major landslides triggered by road excavation.

Cultivation Land

A total of 97.65 ha of cultivation land will be converted to road formation, consisting of 35.92 ha of irrigated cultivation and 61.73 ha of rainfed cultivation. In termnsof the areas of cultivation in the main project districts (see Appendix 16), this translates to a minor loss of between 0.03-0.14% of each district's total cultivation land.

To assess the relative annual crop production loss from this land, all irrigated cultivation land has been assumed to be under a single wheat crop followed by a single paddy crop each year, whilst rainfed cultivation land has been assumed to be under a single wheat crop followed bN a single maize crop. Average yields per hectare calculated from five project districts (see Appendix 16) have been applied to calculate an equivalent loss in annual crop production. This equivalent crop production loss translates to 140.3 T of wheat, 89.8 T of rice and 98.8 T of maize per annum.

To give a relative value to the loss of foodgrain production in Nepal resulting from the loss of ROW cultivation land, national annual wheat paddy and maize production has been compared with ROW production. Annual wheat, paddy and maize production in Nepal in 1995/96 was 3,578.830 T, 1,012,930 T and 1,331,060 T respectively (CBS, 1997). In comparison to annual national production, ROW production amounts to less than 0.01% of Nepal's production of any of these grains.

RoadMaintenance and DevelopmentProject 78 Environmentalimpact Assessment - April 1999 Countering this loss of cultivation land will be the possible re-cultivation of abandoned land. brought back into production due to a decrease in the cost of production brought about by road access.

The above comparison of the loss of ROW cultivation land and associated annual crop production with district and national figures, indicates that onl) a very minor impact will occur. Despite this. Nepal is currently a minor net importer of rice (29,649 T in 1995-6) and. therefore, it can be assumed that this loss of production will be indirectly offset by imports.

The loss of cultivation land and associated production will only be a significant impact at the local level, for people owning land along the road alignment. The actual severity of this impact will be determined bv the success of Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) mitigation measures.

Forests

Approximatelv 62 ha of forest will be cleared within the ROWs during road construction. This forest consists of coniferous (29.4%), hardwood (50.8%) and mixedwood (19.8%) forest types (Table 48). Only crown cover densities in the 10-70% range were recorded within the ROWs, with 76% forests having 10-40% crown density and the remaining 24% of forests having 40-70% crown density.

Table 48: Forest Types and Densities Within the Right-of-Way

Forest Types by Crown Cover Densitv (ha) Total Road Coniferous Hardwood Mixedwood Forest 10R40 40-70% r10w40%1 40e70% 110o40% 407 (ha) Darchula | - 2.30 j - 1 1.65 3.90 Martadi 0.)4 | 1 4.60 2.29 ] 0.47 0.29 7.79 Mangaisen 5.42 j - - - 5.42 Jumla 12.56 ! - 4.04 2.78 3.63 1.11 24.12= Jajarkot - 9.40 5.90 4.28 0.82 20.40 Total 18.12 20.34 10.97 8.38 3.87 61.63 (29.4%) (33.0%) (17.8%) (13.6%) (6.2%) l

The dominant forest species within the ROWs are:

* Darchula - tropical mixed hardwoods (TMH) (61%), and Sal. TMH and Chir pine (39%); * Martadi - mixed broadleafs (MB) and Chir pine (39%), TMH (33%), Sal and TMH (22%) and Chir pine (6%); * Mangalsen - Chir pine (87%) and Sal (13%); * Jurnla- TMH (68%), Oak species (17%), MB (9%) and Blue pine and MB (6%); * Jajarkot - TMH (66%), TMH and Chir pine (26%) and Chir pine (8%).

Using the regional fuelwood and wood conversion factors listed in Table 49 (based on WECS, 1988), ROW fuelwood and wood yields have been estimated in Tables 50 and 51.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 79 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 3 Table 49: Regional Fuelwood and Wood Conversion Factors (mi )

Development Conversion Factor by Crown Densitv (m ) 1 Product Region I Coniferous i Hardwood Mixedwood l______1 10-40% 40-70% 1 10-40% '^ 40-70% 10-40% 40-70% Fuelwood | Far-western 0.53 1.15 | 2.08 4.58 1.57 3.44 Mid-western 0.52 I 1.15 1 2.07 4.58 F 1.56 3.44 I Wood Far-westem _ 47.00 125.50 33.68 80.42 L 31.11 81.99 |______|Mid-western 80.80 161.50 34.41 79.86 39.30 99.40 Source: WECS, 1988.

Table 50: Estimated Fuelwood Yield Within the Right-of-Way

Proposed Fuelwood by Crown Cover Density (m3 ) Total 3 Road Coniferous Hardwood Mixedwood (m ) 1040% 40-70% I 1040% 1 40-70% 1040% 40-70% Darchula - 4.8 - 5.7 10.5 Martadi 0.1 9.6 10.5 0.7 1.0 21.9 Mangaisen 2.9 [ - --0 I- 2.9 Jumla I 6.5 8.0 12.0 5.4 .6 33.5 Jajarkot [ - - 19.5 | 27.0 6.7 2.8 56.0 124.8

Table 51: Estimated Wood Yield Within the Right-of-Way

Wood by Crown Cover Density (m3 Road Coniferous Hardwood I Mixedwood Total 3 ______10-40% |40-70% 10-40% | 40-70% 1040% 40-70% (m ) Darchula - - 77.5 - - 135.3 212.8

Martadi 6.6 - 154.9 184.2 14.6 23.8 F 384.1 Mangalsen 254.7 - 254.7 |Jumla 1,014.8 139.0 222.0 142.7 109.3 1,627.8

[Jajarkot - 323.5 471.2 r 168.2 81.5 1,044.4 3,523.8

The clearance of the road formation area will result in the permanent loss of approximately 125 m3 of fuelwood and 3,524 m3 of wood. This loss of 62 ha of forest resources is a relatively minor impact when compared with the total ROI forest area of 132,600 ha.

8.5.2 Land Stability

Geologically, the Himalayas are the youngest mountains in the world. They are tectonically active and morphologically dynamic, constantly changing shape due to geological, tectonic and morphologic dvnamism. The steep slopes and "V" shaped valleys are the manifestations of these ongoing processes.

The proposed roads cross features of instabilities. The magnitude of these instabilities vary considerably from section to section along each alignment, as a function of geology, tectonic activities and geomorphic processes (rivers, snow falls, rainfall, earthquakes, etc.).

Road Maintenanceand Deveio menzProject 80 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Land stability along the proposed road alignments was assessed using hazard ratings. Hazard ratings were based upon topography, slope. geomorphology, hydrology. geology and engineering geological properties of slope materials.

For rating purposes. slopes were classified as either rock or soil. Areas with less than I m soil depth were classified as rock slopes, whilst areas with greater than 1 m soil depth were classified as soil slopes.

For each of the identified rating factors, ratings were assigned based on the degree of vulnerability. The applied ratings for the selected rating factors for rock and soil slopes are detailed in Tables 52 and 53. These hazard ratings have been modified from the Mountain Risk Engineering Handbook (ICIMOD, 1991) to allow for local field conditions.

Table 52: Rock Slope Hazard Ratings*

Characteristics Factor Expected Mode of Failure Rating Central Wedges Lateral Wedges Plane Failure Topple Slope (Number) (Number) _ >60° _ - Structural 0 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0!1 7 0 >1 O 0/1 14 0 0 I 0! 10 0o 1 1 0/1 17 0 o >1 I 0/1 23 i0___ 0 1 0/1 15 I 1I1 0 0/1 21 _ I__ _ _ _ > 1 ______1 i 1 2 I __>I__ 0{ 0/1 275 I OI I I 0/1 28 I >1 1 j 0/1 1 34 > I 0 0 1 0/ 21 >1 1 0 0/1 27 >i >1 0 l 0/11 33 >1 0 1 0/1 T 29 >1 I I 0/1 l 34 l >1 >1 I_0/1 40 Possible circular failure 30

______I(for very random orientation in soft weathered rock) Geo-mechanical High rock mass strength 5 (lithological) Medium rock mass strength 7 Weak rock mass strength 10I Hydrogeological Dry and rain induced 5 No springs, seeps 8 l Permanent springs and streams 10 Seismo-tectonic Minor fault or fold axis 10 Maor fault or fold axis 20 Land use Forest 0 Grassland | Cultivated land 5 |______|Dry barren land 8 Rockslide Rockslide 12 - modified from ICIMOD (1991).

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 81 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Table 53: Soil Hazard Rating*

Component o Characteristics Rating I Typeof Soil Slope _ _ _ Alluvium ! <25 degrees 8 i25-40 decrees 10 >40 degrees 19 Soil tvpe/Slope I Colluvium <25 degrees 19 l I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~21540 degreesI i ______|>40 degrees 13 Residual <25 degrees 11 25-40 degrees 13 l______{>40 degrees 15 Depth Thick (> 6 m) 1i Medium (3-6 m) 12 Shallow (1-3 m) 1_ I Hvdrogeological Dry and rain induced 5 No springs,rare seeps 7 No springs, seeps 10 Rare springs, seeps 12 Springs and seeps 15 Hydro-dvnamical Low gradient Medium gradient 10 High gradient 15l i Land use Forest 0 Grassland 2 Dry cultivatedland 5 Dry barren land 8 Wet cultivatedland 10 Seismo-tectonic Minor fault or fold axis 8 Major fault or fold axis 15 Landslide and Erosional Presence of landslides and erosiongullies 15 Gully * - modifiedfrom ICIMOD (1991).

The major stability-influencing factor on rock slopes is the underlying rock structure. Along some road sections, lithological and seismo-tectonic components have significant influence on rock slope stability. Structurally influenced rock slopes have the potential for deep seated and large-scale instabilities. On soil slopes, the dominant features that influence land stability are soil type, slope and land use, in combination with the hydrogeological component. Unlike rock slope hazards, land instabilities on soil slopes are shallow and medium to small scale.

A total hazard rating score for each rock or soil section of alignment was then calculated by adding the individual ratings. Each alignment section was then classified as low, medium or high hazard based on the hazard level ratings defined in Table 54. to reflect the cumulative hazard of each section.

Table 54: Slope Hazard Classifications

Hazard Level Total Rating Low <40 Medium 40 - 65 High > 6 5

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 82 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Low hazard sections are generally stable and should remain so during the construction and operation of the roads.

Medium hazard sections have the potential of small to medium scale instability. Land instability under this hazard level could be triggered or accelerated by road excavation.

High hazard sections are highly prone to instability and need greater care during construction and operation. A priority of alignment selection was to avoid high hazard areas, although some sections of the proposed roads had to cross these areas due to their size down the hillslope face or the need to construct excessively long and steep roads to traverse around them.

The different hazard levels for rock and soil slopes by length along each road alignment are summarised in Table 55.

Table 55: Alignment Slope Hazards

Proposed Road Rock Slope Hazard Soil Slope Hazard Road (length km) (__length km) Length

High Medium Low High Medium Low (km)__ L Darchula 13.9 1.5 1.8 12.3 15.9 354 Martadi 11.4 1.3 7.5 16.7 36.9 jMangalsen 2.7 l 12.0 | 14.7 l Jumia 0.9 20.2 12.5 0.1 36.7 18.0 88.4 Total 14.8 34.3 | 15.3 7 9.4 77.7 23.9 175.4 Note: the Jajarkot alignment geological assessment could not be undertaken.

In general, the road alignments cross medium hazard rock and soil slopes, comprising 64% of the total length of aligm-nents. There are only limited stretches of high hazard rock slopes along the proposed road corridors (8%). Most rock slope hazards along the alignments are rated as medium and are not expected to pose serious risk to the safety of the road corridor during construction and operation. However, excavation of these road sections needs to be strictly controlled.

Along some road alignments, high hazard soil slope sections extend for significant lengths, but only make up 5% of the total length of alignments. However, a considerable length (44%) of the proposed alignments is rated as medium hazard. Appropriate drainage, spoil management and bio-engineering techniques on cut and fill batters on medium hazard slopes are required to stabilise these sites.

Road Mainienanceand DeveloPmentProject 83 EnvironmentalImpaci Assessment - April 1999 8.5.3 Ecology

Ecological degradation from the construction of the proposed roads will result from the direct loss of vegetation from ROW clearing. It also has the potential to occur due to the indirect loss and degradation of vegetation. habitat and species in the ROI. Ecological degradation of the ROI may occur from vegetation harvesting and wildlife poaching by the construction workforce, and increased harvesting during road operation due to greater accessibility and additional local demands from road-induced activities.

Ecological degradation may result from the following increased human uses:

* Increased forest harvesting - of fuelwood, timber, forage, food (fruits. edible plants). medicinal plants and other products; * Increased wildlife and fish harvesting; * Increased earth and rock extraction - for building construction and garden topsoil.

Improved resource access and additional demands

The construction of new roads provides improved access to the valleys through which the roads pass and to neighbouring areas, thereby enabling easier natural resource access and removal. In addition, new roads promote service industries along their corridors. resulting in a population increase in these areas and an increased local demand for natural resources to service the new businesses and for personal use. The main sites where increased natural resource harvesting is likely to occur are from forests.

The population increase along the road corridor will most likely be derived from people migrating to the roadside from the immediate area (i.e. the 5 km region of influence and adjacent to this). Additional people will also come from within the district and outside the area. Existing market areas are likely to become larger, whilst new markets will be established, particularly at sites where major trails dissect the alignments.

The population that migrates to the roadside will mainly earn a living from service industries, such as tea shops and related work. This will create an increased local demand for fuelwood and construction timber, as well as other forest products to support secondarvy enterprise activities, such as forage collection for grazing animals. Hunting is also likely to increase, as is fishing, where the roadside population has access to rivers and streams.

Conversely, the migration of peopie from the local area to the roadside should decrease forest product demand in those areas from where people have migrated, thus partly offsetting the increase in demand near the roads. The roads should also lower the price of fuel and thereby make it more available, partly offsetting the additional fuelwood demands.

Road Maintenanceand Development Project 84 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 It should be noted that the majority of the proposed road alignments follow or are located close to major access trails. Almost all forest areas neighbouring these trails are currentlv easilv accessible, therefore the road will only increase access to these forests. not open them up to access.

Extent of the region of influence (ROI)

The extent of a road's ROI in terms of increased harvesting and wildlife poaching cannot be definitively bounded. The area of increased forest resource use will be largely determined by forest access and product demand, the ease of harvest and transport of forest resources to the roadside and to the market, and the creation of additional resource demands along the roadside.

Ecological degradation within the road ROIs is likely to be greatest near the road and is likely to continue to occur over an extended period of time. e.g. The Syaule-Dipayal road has been constructed for over 15 years but forest degradation within the road's ROI near the large settlement of Bandungrasen appears to be steadily extending, even after this period of time.

For the proposed Arun III road, the ROI was defined as one day's walking distance from the road (King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation. 1991), which seems to have equated to approximatelv 6 km linear distance perpendicular to the alignment. In the PIP report (DOR, 1997a), the ROI was defined as 10 km either side of the road alignment.

For this assessment. a 5 kImlinear distance perpendicular to the alignments, providing a 10 km wide ROI, has been adopted as the extent of the ROI (see Section 6.8.2). This equates to approximately 0.5-1 day's walk from the alignmnents. The approximate ROI areas for each road are listed in Table 20.

It is recognised that this ROI area does not account for local topographical features which will both limit (e.g. major rivers, cliffs and ridges) and extend (e.g. easily accessible major tributary valleys) the influenced area at different locations. Given the inevitable inaccuracies in attempting to site-specifically define the likely extent of the ROI. the adopted ROI is seen as giving a good indication of the area and type of forest resources likely to be affected.

Vegetation

Vegetation within the road ROWs and ROls will be affected by road construction and operation. The extent and value of vegetation loss from clearing of the ROW during road construction is relatively easy to quantify, but forest loss or degradation in the ROIs during the operation of the roads is difficult to quantify. FRR (1998) commnentedthat "the role of road construction in forest degradation is still unclear". -

Road Maintenance and Development Project 85 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 A direct impact on vegetation will occur as a result of ROW clearance. where 0.62 km2 and 0.30 km' of forest and shrubland respectivelv will be cleared (see Section 8.5.1). This is a relatively minor loss of forest and shrub habitat, particularly when compared to the total ROI forest area of 1.326 km 2. It is also likelv that some additional loss of forest will also result from road-induced landslides, as well as some forest degradation from illegal forest harvesting bv road workers during construction, but the net effect is unlikely to be significantlv greater than the ROW clearing.

Forest loss from ROW clearing and road-induced landslides will fragment contiguous areas of forest and shrub habitat, exposing them to edge effect. Given the limited width of clearing (generally 15 m or less), this impact will be minor in large areas of forests and shrubs, and moderate in small areas.

The conservation value of the ROW vegetation that will be cleared does not appear to be high. Government forest areas crossed by the ROWs are highly utilised. while some Community Forests crossed showed greater species diversity, apparently due to recent protection and a reduction in harvesting. Of the 13 plant species protected by HMG (1995 and 1996), only Sal (Shorea robusta) has been confirmed as occurring in the ROW. As stated in Section 6.8.2, Sal exists as the dominant forest species in two forests that will be crossed by the proposed ROWs (on the Darchula and Martadi alignments). Individual Sal trees are also scattered within all proposed ROWs, generally below 1,200 m, and cannot be totally avoided during the proposed road construction. Despite the fact that Sal is a protected species and will have to be cleared at some sites, it should be noted that Sal is 'Widelydistributed throughout Nepal below 1.200 m and that it is a highly utilised species despite its protected status.

Apart from Sal, no protected plant species were identified as occurring in the proposed ROWs, although further investigation to identify the occurrence of these protected species that may grow between 500-2,500 m has to be undertaken during the process of forest clearance permit application and approval. Possible protected species that mav occur in the ROWs are Cinnamomum glaucescens, Lichens spp., Rauwolfia serpentina, Taxus baccata, Abies spectabilis, Nardostachys grandiflora, Valerianna wallichii, Acacia catechu and Michelia champaca.

A loss of vegetation will also occur from increased forest use within the ROI during road operation. This loss of vegetation over time will potentially be greater than that cleared from the ROW loss. The main increase in vegetation harvesting that is likely to occur in the road ROls will be for fuelwood, fodder and timber. Fuelwood is the main forest product harvested in the ROI areas. It should also be noted that there is limited rural electricity supply in the alignment areas. Only 10% of households interviewed along the proposed ROWs reported having electricity supply, with average use reported as only 2 davs per week. therefore this energy supply cannot be expected to offset increased demands.

During and following road construction, local markets will be established along the roadsides, which will result in an increased local fuel demand. This demand will primarily be met by fuelwood collected in local forests, resulting in some degradation. In addition, an

Road Maintenance and Development Project 86 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 increased demand for timber for building materials and forage for livestock raising will also be mainly met from ROI forests. The volumes of these additional demands are difficult to quantifv, as the roadside population increases and new business demands cannot be accurately estimated. Based on established roads in the western regions of Nepal. additional fuelwood and timber demands along the proposed roads are likely to be small and concentrated at a number of sites.

A moderate to significant ecological impact that may occur in the ROIs could be an increase in the harvesting of herbs in areas around Jumla and Martadi. Current harvesting is at excessive, unsustainable levels according to District Forest Office staff. Despite this. the level of harvesting appears to be capped bv the difficulties herb traders have in managing herb collection and transportation. Most herb traders are located in the Terai region. Local communities collect herbs for traders, but appear to have little knowledge of the full commercial value of these products. The opening of the Martadi and Jumla roads is likely to produce increased competition among herb traders and will allow individuals and local communities to more easily transport their products to the Terai. This may lead to the increased harvesting of this valuable resource as local people realise its full commercial value.

Wildlife

Wildlife will be impacted upon by a loss or degradation of habitat from increased forest use, increased poaching and road kills.

The main wildlife habitat types that the alignments cross are forests and shrublands. As discussed, ROW clearing will generally be 15 m wide or less, with the total clearance on 0.62 km2 and 0.30 km2 of forest and shrubland respectively. This is a minor impact, particularly when compared to the total ROI forest area of 1,326 km2.

Forest and shrubland habitat degradation or loss in the ROI over time is difficult predict as described above. The net likely effect is some general forest degradation around new and expanding roadside market centres.

In terms of the conservation value of the habitats that will be lost from the ROWs and degraded in the ROTs, it is considered to be low given the current high use and broad local distribution of these forest types.

As a general rule, the habitat value of a forest or shrubland to a diverse range of wildlife and bird species is dependent upon the degree of disturbance or degradation that has occurred to the vegetation. Most forests and shrublands within the ROTs are currently accessed and heavily utilised. as evidenced by the crown cover densities almost exclusively in range of 10-70%.

The illegal poaching of animals is currently occurring within the road ROTs. According to local people interviewed during the walkover surveys, some mammals are rapidly declining in number due to poaching and the degradation of forests and shrublands. Poaching of

RoadMaintenance and Development Project 87 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Musk Deer for the musk, a valuable commodity used to make perfumes and medicines. has reportedly caused a serious decline in its population.

The road-induced increase in population that is likely to occur along the alignments can be expected to increase wildlife poaching in the ROI, particularlv near the expanding settlements. In addition. improved access to the alignment area for people livingyoutside the area can also be expected to increase poaching. Despite this likelv increase in poaching, the net effect will probably be minor.

In terms of potential road kills of wildlife, FRR (1998) commented that limited numbers of wildlife are affected by roads in Nepal. possibly due to low traffic speeds and the warning effect of vehicle noise levels. The projected daily vehicle movements on the proposed roads are very low (between 28-64 in the first year of operation), with the majority of traffic likely to occur during daylight hours. therefore road kills are likely to be minimal.

Fisheries

Fish can be affected directly by road projects by the degradation of habitat from sedimentation resulting from road excavation. landslides and erosion. and indirectly from an increase in fishing.

The direct impact on aquatic ecology from a reduction in water quality due to increased river sediment loads will be very minor given the limited duration of construction and the relative size and quantities of sediment that may be generated by the roads in comparison to natural river sediment loads. The greatest impact on water quality is likely to be when river and river sediment levels are low between November and May, when no significant overland runoff is discharging from the catchment. With the use of recommended cut and fill disposal measures this impact will be minor.

Protected Areas

The three Protected Areas of Khaptad, Rara and Shey Poksundo National Parks may be affected to some extent by the improved access that will be provided by the Martadi and Jumla roads, but these impacts and their severity are difficult to predict.

It is unlikely that increased local demands for basic forest products (i.e. fuelwood, forage and timber) as a result of road operation will have an impact upon the three National Parks as these products can be harvested from ,forests closer to the roads.

If an impact on these protected areas does occur, it is likely to result from the increased harvesting of higher value forest products, such as herbs, due to the improved ease of resource export created by road access, or illegal harvesting associated with an increase in tourism.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 88 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Khaptad National Park is located approximately 10 km west of the start of the proposed Martadi road at 19.400km. Closer road access to the Park already exists at two locations. At approximately15.000 km along the existing section of the Martadi road, the road runs within 8 km of the Park's westem boundary,whilst the Dipayal-Sanfebagarroad runs within 3 km of the Park's southern boundary. In addition, access to the Park from the proposed Martadi road would be via steep trails rising 1,600 m from the roadside to the westem edge of the Park (900 m elevation up to over 2,500 m), therefore no significant impact on the Park is expected.

The closest straight line distancebetween the proposed Jumla road and Rara National Park is approximately21 km from the nearest point (Jumla township). The estimated minimum walking time to the nearest Park boundary is 1.5 days. Accordingly, if the Jumla road indirectlypromotes Park degradation,it is likely to be to a minor extent.

The closest straight line distance between the proposed Jumla road and Shey Poksundo National Park is approximately 34 km from the nearest point (Jumla township). The estimated minimumwalking time to the nearest Park boundary is 2 days. Accordingly, if the Jumla road indirectlypromotes Park degradation,it is likely to be to a minor extent.

Significant Unprotected Forests

As discussed in Section 6.10, Badi Malika has been recommended for protection in the Draft National Bio-diversityAction Plan (1998). This area lies approximately 16 km in straight distance from the nearest point on the proposed Martadi road and approximately22 km from the nearest point on the proposed Mangalsen road. The constructionof these two roads will provide closer road access to Badi Malika, improving pilgrim access. This is likely to promote some forest degradationin the area, but the number of additional visitors, and thereforetheir impact on the area, cannotbe accuratelypredicted.

Wetlands

None of the seven wetlands identified in three of the districtscrossed by the proposed roads are located in the vicinity or downslope of the aligrnents (see Section 6.11). Therefore, these wetlands will not be affected by sediment generated during road construction or operation.

8.5.4 Archaeological,Religious and CulturalSites

Damage to archaeological,religious and cultural sites from road constructionactivities and subsequentoperation has the potential to occur as a result of foundation destabilisationfrom road earthworks, vibration and dust generation from construction activities and vehicle traffic, and damagefrom increasedaccess by people due to improved local access.

A total of 26 archaeological,religious and cultural sites are located within the VDCs crossed by the proposed roads (Table 56), with many of these sites dilapidated and neglected. No sites are located within 200 m of the proposed alignments. Accordingly,

Road Maintenance and Deveiopment Project 89 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 direct impacts from road construction activities are unlikely to occur if ancillarv construction sites are located at least 200 m from any identified site and controlled blasting is practiced within 500 m of these sites.

Table 56: Archaeological, Religious and Cultural Sites Within Alignment VDCs

Proposed Road Site VDC/Location

Darchula | Hunenath Temple KhalangaVDC, eastern bank of the Mahakali River, near the aligrunentnear Golfain village. Martadi NateswariTemple Martadi VDC. Ward 1. Malikarjun Malikarjun VDC. Mangaisen MangalsenBhagawati MangalsenVDC, Ward 1. Temple MangalsenPalace l Mangalsen village, Achham. SadashadeviTemple | Mangalsen VDC. Ward 5. Jlumia Tatopani l Tatopani VDC. Bhairavnath Temple ChandanNath VDC, in the main bazaar, Jumla village,

______near the proposed road head. Bayal Katika Devela Talium VDC. ChandanNath Chandan Nath VDC. Jumla. Panchadevala Mahat VDC. Shivalava Raralihi VDC, Ward 3. Mastamandu RanchuliVDC, Ward 1. SatvabatiMandir Jubitha VDC. KalesilloMandir Jubitha VDC. Kalikot Tempae Mungraha VDC, Kalikot. W MahadevMalchi MungrahaVDC, Kalikot, Ward 3. lJajarkot Bagabati KhalangaVDC, Ward 9, next to the Bheri River. Ganesh Temple KhalangaVDC, Ward 9. Hanuman KhalangaVDC. Ward 7, right bank of the Bheri River. Kalika KhalangaVDC, Ward 2. Jajarkot Palace KhalangaVDC, Jajarkot District headquarters. [Patangani Devi Jaktipur VDC, Ward 1. Rhadha Krishna Temple KhalangaVDC, Ward 1. RamnJanki Temple KhalangaVDC, Ward 9. !______[Khadga Deveta Jaktipur VDC. Ward 1. Source: Inventoryof Heritage Sites of Nepal (IUCN, 1997)and RMD Project fieid survey.

Many identified sites within 5 km of the proposed road alignments are currently difficult to access due to their distance from existing roads. These sites are likely to receive additional visits as a result of the improved access provided by the proposed roads. This increased access may result in greater public concern for the preservation of these sites, and in turn may lead to their restoration.

8.5.5 Noise and Vibration

Noise is generated during construction from blasting, hammering and other excavation activities. The most significant noise that will be generated by the proposed road construction will come from blasting. Blasting produces a high level, short lived noise in - the range of deafening (100-140 dBA) near the source (US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1985). Since blasting will not be regularly produced during

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 90 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 construction and will be carried out during the daytime, the associated noise pollution is considered to be minor. The labour based construction techniques of hammering and excavation generally produce a minor noise increase over background levels, therefore these activities will not create any significant noise problems for local communities.

During road operation, vehicle noise levels within 50 m of the roads are expected to slightly exceed 65 dBA (US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1985. in Canter. 1996). Approximately 200 m from the roads, vehicle noise levels will only be marginally above background levels. Since the total number of vehicle movements per day are projected to be less than 70 on the proposed roads, noise impacts will be minor.

Strong vibrations are produced from road construction blasting which can damage nearby houses and other structures. Controlled blasting using low volume charges will reduce the potential for damage to structures, whilst owners of houses that will obviously be damaged will be fully compensated.

During road operation, heavy vehicle movements can cause vibration damage to nearby house structures. However, these vibrations will have a minor impact on houses located fiurther than 50 m from the roadways unless the vibrations are accentuated by local geological conditions. Between 21-48 heavy vehicle movements (tractors, niini trucks, trucks, mini buses and buses) are projected to use the proposed roads in their first year of operation, therefore the total vibrations produced by these vehicles will be negligible.

8.5.6 Air Quality

The deterioration in air quality from dust generation and vehicle emissions during road construction and operation will be a relatively minor environmental impact. Air quality will not be significantly affected because of the limited duration of construction at any one site, and the limited number of vehicles and the dispersed nature of traffic that will utilise the roads in areas with generally good air quality.

Dust

A deterioration in air quality during road construction will primarily occur from dust generated by road excavation, spoil transportation and disposal. Construction will be primarily labour based, with excavation and material transportation undertaken by hand, therefore dust generation should be minimal due to the small area and volume of soil disturbance at any one time. In addition, most construction activities will progressively move along the alignment, so prolonged deterioration in air quality will not occur at any one site. The minor volumes of dust generated will cause a short-termn localised problem through settlements. Road construction workers will be exposed to minor dust emissions over the construction period, with the quantity of dust partly dependent upon wind conditions.

Road Maintenance and Development Projecr 91 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Dust generation from road operation is also expected to be minor due to the limited number of vehicles that will use the roads (see Table 10). According to Hesketh and Cross. 1981 (in Canter. 1996), average fugitive dust emissions from unpaved roads amount to approximately 21 kg per vehicle kilometer. Using this value, approximate daily fugitive dust emissions during the first year of road operation will be 19.6 T, 17.2 T. 42.3 T, 106.2 T and 25.3 T for the Darchula. Mangalsen. Martadi, Jumla and Jajarkot roads respectivelv. These low volumes of dust will have a negligible effect upon regional air quality, but they may cause a nuisance in villages within 50 m of the roads.

It is recommended that road heads and road sections through major villages should be graveled to reduce dust generation at these high use sites, thus reducing the likelihood of related health problems.

Exhaust Emissions

Exhaust emissions from traffic utilising the new roads will be minor. Estimated vehicle traffic rates for the first year of road operation (see Table 10) translate to an average of only 28-64 vehicle moments per day. Exhaust emissions from this traffic, calculated from Resource Institute data (in Canter, 1996), are detailed in Table 57. Emissions released over 15-88 km new road lengths will be well dispersed.

Table 57: Approximate Annual Exhaust Emissions From Vehicle Traffic (kg/year) f Proposed Carbon Organic 1 Carbon T Sulfur Nitrogen Road Dioxide Compound Monoxide I Dioxide Oxides Darchula .35,440 j 69 405 <1.5 ! 312 Martadi 84,460 160 945 3 1,204 Mangalsen 34,612 66 397 | <1.5 3l321 Jumla 215,290 423 2,536 8 1,964 Jajarkot | 51,504 97 | 569 j <1.5 474 Source:Canter, 1996.

Note: emissions were calculated by categorizing traffic types into two groups: (1) gasoline cars with average occupancy; and (2) diesel buses (transit). Cars and motorcycles were counted as "cars". whilst all other vehicles were counted as "buses".

The very minor, local deterioration in air quality that will result from dust and vehicle emissions, should also be viewed in light of the high incidence of respiratory problems from which manv people in hill districts suffer, due to poor indoor air quality (see Section 6.13). Minor volumes of dust and exhaust emissions are unlikely to add to these problems.

8.5.7 Other Pollution

Potential pollutants associated with the roads, other than exhaust emissions, include fuel. oil and other contaminants from vehicles, as well as indirect pollution from road-induced developments and activities.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 92 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 Pollution that has resulted from vehicles on similar earth roads inspected (i.e. at Sanfebagar. Kalikot, etc.) had occurred at "source point" locations, principallv at major trading centres and roadheads. At these locations, vehicles stand idle for extended periods (i.e. over night) and are serviced. Some oil contamination of soil occurs but it is minor and generally limited to the bus park area and the main street. Oil leaks and other residues from vehicles during operation amount to minor volumes, dispersed over long distances.

Fuel is usually transported and stored at new roadheads and market places in 200 L drums. The in-ground bulk storage of fuel usually only occurs at locations along major and well established road routes. Accordingly, soil contamination from fuel spillages from 200 L drums occurs at new roadheads and market places, but again this is a very minor pollutant.

Poor rubbish disposal by businesses and residences at road heads and major roadside market places is common. Rubbish is often dumped into the nearby watercourses.

8.5.8 DrinkingWater Catchments

Most villages along the road alignments obtain their water via gravity-fed reticulation systems from upslope streams or springs. In the settlements close to major rivers, where community drinking water supply facilities do not exist, people draw drinking water direct from the river.

Damage to drinking water supply facilities and a reduction in water quality can potentially result from catchment destabilisation from road construction excavation activities and the poor disposal of excess fill. The sedimentation of supply facilities, cutting or diversion of supplies and an increase in turbidity may result.

The proposed road aligmnents are generally aligned close to the contour near the foot of the hillslope. They cross numerous small creeks, many of which are used as water supplies by small downslope settlements (with populations of less than 1,000 people) and scattered dwellings. Where the alignments reach destination district headquarters, they all approach these towns from below and terminate on the lower side, and therefore do not cross the main water supply catchment areas. None of the proposed alignments cross major town water supply catchments.

Sediment deposition in small creeklines crossed by the alignments is inevitable. During periods when hillside streams are naturally clear (generally non-monsoon) this is likely to result in turbidity and may cause blockages to supply lines.

Coarse and suspended sediment deposition in streams will be minimised by quickly reinstating cut water supply lines, installing all major drainage structures in the initial phase of construction, rapidly revegetating completed road batters and strictly controlling the disposal of excess fill. In addition, temporary erosion control drains will be installed prior to the monsoon and no new road excavation will be commenced during the monsoon.

Road Maintenance and Development Proiect 93 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 8.5.9 Future Likely Impacts

The five proposed roads are likely to be upgraded to bituminous standard in some time in the future as they form part of the strategic road network. This may realistically occur in 20-25 years time. when sufficient funds are available, when the traffic volumes justify road sealing and when most of the road batters have stabilised.

Bitumising has a number of positive and negative environmental effects. The major benefits are:

* Improved access; * A reduction in road surface erosion, which reduces off-site sedimentation and lowers road maintenance costs: * A significant reduction in dust generation; and * A reduction in fuel and vehicle maintenance costs.

These benefits occur during the road operation phase, however negative impacts usually originate during biturnising. Negative impacts may include:

* Leakage of bitumen - bitumen for road tarring is transported and stored in 200 L drums. Drum leakage can occur during transportation, in storage yards, from bitumen plants, on applied road surfaces and from disposed drums. Bitumen is a derivative of crude oil and contains number of pollutants which can adversely impact upon soil, air and water. Historically, very little care is taken to minimise and control bitumen leakage in storage yards, from bitumen plants and from disposed drums.

* Loss of forest resources and air pollution during bitumen heating - local forest resources are used to heat the bitumen in asphalt plants prior to application. thereby causing forest degradation. Normally, bitumen heating is undertaken as an open activity, which causes extreme air pollution at the site and creates a fire hazard.

* Temporary labor camps - bitumising is a slow process and requires intensive labour. The labour force normally resides in temporar,y camps next to the roadside, and moves as the work progresses. Activities associated with camps, such as forest harvesting for fuelwood, can degrade local resources, particularly forest vegetation.

* Occupational health hazards to construction workers - bitumen is applied at a high temperature. Construction workers are often not adequately equipped with protective gear durine application, which often results in bums and other related health hazards.

* Accidents - due to the inappropriate application of bitumen. bleeding of bitumen on the road surface can occur, especially during hot sunmner periods. Road surface bleeding can cause accidents due to vehicle skidding and gliding. Vehicles on bitumised roads normally achieve higher speeds than on earth roads, thus increasing the risk of accidents on otherwise low speed mountainous roads.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 94 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 8.6 SOCIO-ECONOMICIMPACTS

The Eighth Plan (National Planning Commission, 1992), as well as the Agricultural Perspective Plan, emphasise the importance of rural road linkages in the development process. The lack of appropriate levels of infrastructure (of which rural roads are a key component) is seen as a major impediment to community development. The rural population, in particular, is restricted from participating in economic growth, because of inadequate access to health, education, transport, communication and market facilities. Apart from the periodic repair and maintenance of highways, the Eighth Plan proposed the construction of 1.200 km of rural roads, 125 km of main tracks and 830 km of mule trails (Ministry of Local Development, 1997). As a component of this infrastructure development programme, the RMD Project, particularly the new road section, is anticipated to aid the Government's poverty alleviation efforts as detailed in the Ninth Plan (NPC, 1997).

This emphasis on the role of roads in economic growth and poverty alleviation highlights the fact that roads create opportunities for development: for example, by stimulating new or enhanced income-generating opportunities. These indirect impacts are often much more significant than the direct impacts caused during road construction (e.g. land acquisition and construction employment opportunities), since they may induce enduring socio-economic changes.

The positive reaction of roadside communities and district officials to road construction underscores the importance attached to these indirect impacts. It was frequently stated, for example, that the roads would improve access to market areas, lead to a reduction in the cost of imported household goods (consumer items), create opportunities for the export of crops and stimulate local development. Their support of the project does not imply a lack of concern over property losses (the effect of land losses in particular), but a belief that the development potential associated with the roads outweighs direct adverse impacts.

This section considers the key direct and indirect impacts associated with road construction, as identified in the Scoping Report, under the following headings:

* Loss of buildings and structures (direct impact); * Loss of cultivation land and other natural resources (direct impact); * Population displacement (direct impact); * Road construction employment (direct impact); * Potential for social change and development (indirect or induced effects);

The discussion of direct negative impacts only refers cursorily to compensation and mitigation measures, since these are explained in detail in Section 10.

Road Maintenance and Developmenr Project 95 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 8.6.1 Loss of Buildingsand Structures

Given the context of local subsistence farming practices, the acquisition of land within a ROW as specified in DOR design standards (normally 30 m), will have far-reaching effects on roadside households and communities. In order to minimise land acquisition and population displacement, DOR and the World Bank agreed to limit the ROW on the new roads to an initial corridor of 15 m, except where a wider area is required for construction purposes.

A breakdown of the different buildings and structures recorded in the 15 m ROW is provided in Table 58. Houses constitute 45.0% of the total of 393 privately-owned structures located within this ROW, followed by commercial establishments (32.1%) and sheds (22.9%).

Table 58: Houses and Other Private Buildings in the Right-of-Way

Road PrivateProperties in the 15 m ROW House Shed Shop/Stor_e Darchula 50 I 1S0 Martadi 39 22 16 Mangalsen 17 11 i Jumla | 71 66 100 Total [ 177 90 126 Excludes Jajarkotroad, SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99.

The Jumla road, due to its length, has the largest number of houses located in the ROW. accounting for 40% of all the recorded houses. When considered by road length, however, the Darchula road has the biggest impact, namely an average of 1.4 relocated houses/km of road construction. For the other roads the magnitude of impact is similar (about one relocated house/km of road construction).

This implies a low impact on population displacement, confirmed by the fact that the houses to be relocated comprise less than 1% of the projected number of households currently residing in the 28 road VDCs.6 When relocated comrnercial establishments are included, the percentage rises to approximately 1.5% of the total VDC households.

Nonetheless, as shown in Table 59, the impact on housing and population displacement mav be significant in particular localities. In seven of the 28 VDCs crossed by the roads, 10 or more houses will be relocated. Taken together, the 117 houses to be relocated in these seven VDCs account for more than 66% of the total houses in the 15 m ROW. Formal

Even though DOR design standards refer to a 30 m (and in some cases 50 m) ROW, DOR will have no right to the land located in the 'remaining" design standard ROW. Any future acquisition on the roads will be undertakenaccording to the principlesestablished in the EntitlementPolicy (refer to the ResettlementAction X Plan for details). 6 Excluding the five VDCs crossed by Jajarkot road. still to be surveyed. Some owners will lose more than one house and/or commercial establishment, further reducing the magnitude of population displacement. Refer to the Resettlement Action Plan for details.

Road Maintenance and Developmenr Project 96 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 resettlement planning mav, therefore, be necessary in these VDCs. depending on the settlement distribution of the affected houses.

The seven VDC are:

* Darchula road: Dhap VDC (30 houses) and Khalanga VDC (11 houses);8 * Martadi road: Budiganga VDC (17 houses) and Barhabis VDC (10 houses); * Mangalsen road: Mangalsen VDC (13 houses); * Jumla road: Tatopani VDC (22 houses) and Lamra VDC (14 houses).

Other VDCs where between eight and nine houses are located in the 15 m ROW, include:

* Martadi:Martadi VDC; * Jumla: Kundari, Rainchuli and Ranka VDCs.

Table 59: Distribution of Affected Houses by VDC

Numberof Houses in Numberof VDCs F Total Numberof Houses the 15 m ROW_l 0 7 0 Ito 5 10 26 6to9 4 34 I0 andmore 7 117 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99.

As shown in Table 60, the loss of commercial establishments, although spread across 19 of the 28 road VDCs, is concentrated in five VDCs, all on Jumla road. The 83 affected shops/stores in these five VDCs comprise nearly 66% of commercial establishments in the 15 m ROW. The five VDCs are: Phui Mahadev (23 shops/stores); Kundari (19); Tatopani (18); Lamra VDC (12) and Rainchuli VDC (11).

Table 60: Distribution of Commercial Establishments by VDC

Numberof Shops/Storesin Number of VDCs Total Numberof the 15 m ROW Shops/Stores 0 9 0 Ito 5 i 13 34 6to9 1 9 10 and more 5 83 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998!99.

Most of the sheds in the 15 m ROW are similarly concentrated in eight VDCs, six of which are again situated along the Jumla road.

Manyof the affectedhouses in Dhap VDC are permanentstructures (i.e. Pakki houses; see footnote7), but the owners do not have land titles.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 97 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 61: Distribution of Sheds bv VDC

Number of Sheds in Number of VDCs Total Number of Sheds

the 15 m ROW l 0 9 0

ito 11 221 6to 9 6 i 43 IO and more | 2 26 1 SMEC-CEMAT Field Survey, 1998/99.

In summary, 15 of the 28 road VDCs have more than ten buildings/structures (houses. commercial establishments and sheds) located in the 15 m ROW. Formal resettlement assistance/planning may be required in the following 11 VDCs, because of the number of houses and commercial establishments located in the ROW:

* Darchula: Dhap and Khalanga VDCs; * Martadi: Budiganga and Barhabis VDCs; * Mangalsen: Mangalsen VDC; * Jumla: Lamra, Tatopani. Kundari, Rainchuli, Jubitha and Panka VDCs.

The impact on community buildings and structures is considerably less than for private buildings, amounting to 37 community/government buildings and 54 other structures (e.g. irrigation canals and wells). Of these, the most important are five schools, 10 temples and two health posts that may have to be relocated. A number of irrigation canals and taps/wells will also be affected, notably along Jumla and Martadi roads.

Table 62: Other Structures in the 15 m ROW

Road Sdl | HTea k Tm1er j TapWel Odiers

Darchula i 2 [2 1 - 8 1 3

Martadi _ - 4- I I 14 1 5

Mangalsen _ , __ _ 4 4

Jumla 22_ 4 6 1_1 . 5 _

Total 5 2 10 7 24 30 _13 SMEC-CEMAT Field Survey. 1998/99.

Finallv, the majority of the private and comm unitv buildings are classified as Kacchi, with only Darchula having a considerable number of Pakki houses in the ROW, particularly in Dhap VDC.9

9 Buildingsin Nepal are often groupedinto three categories.according to the type of building materials used: Jhupro is a "rural hut" made of wood, bamboo or stone with mud mortar, and a thatched roof: Kacchi is a "semi-urban srructure' made of stone with mud mortar, and clay, timber, slate or corrugated iron roofing; Pakki is a "permanent structure" made of bricks with mud or cement mortar, and slate, cor7ugated iron or RBC/RCC roofing.

Road Mainmenanceand DevelopmentProject 98 Environmentalimpact Assessment- April 1999 Table 63: Buildings bv Construction Tvpes

Road | BuildingConstruction Tvpes in the 15 m ROW l ______Jbupro Kacchi Pakki Darchula 3 4 59 IMartadi I12 74 - Manazalsen X 18 Jumla 42 '2 2 Total 57 306 61 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99; see RAPfor details.

The majority of households (99.4%) with residential buildings in the ROW indicated a preference for cash compensation. Only in one case was replacement housing, to be constructed by DOR, requested.

8.6.2 Loss of CultivationLand and Other Natural Resources

Approximately 264 ha of land will be permanently acquired for the contruction of the five proposed roads. Of this, an estimated 146.96 ha (55.8%) is privatelv-owned. Nearly two- thirds of the private land was recorded as cultivation land, and the remainder as other private land. Approximately 31.5% of the cultivated land is irrigated and 68.5% is rainfed. 10

The private land is owned by 3,801 owners, the majority (60.7%) of whom are located along the Jumla alignment. However, as a proportion of the total area within the 15 m ROW. private land losses along the Jumla alignment are the lowest of all the roads (34.9%), followed by Martadi (72.7%), Mangalsen (74.4%) and Darchula (82.8%).

Table 64 also shows an overall land loss (cultivated and other private land) of 0.038 ha (approximatelv 0.76 ropani) per affected owner. The Darchula alignment has the highest average land loss (0.109 ha), while average land losses on the other three roads are considerably lower, ranging from 0.02-0.054 ha. Average cultivation land losses ransges between 0.012-0.041 ha.

When measured against the mean household landholding size obtained in the survey (1.35 ha), the average loss is small (nearly 3%). Nonetheless, as shown in Section 7.3, some 20% of the surveyed households had landholdings of 0.5 ha or less, and for these small landowners the land losses could be significant.

'° Thetotal excludesChhedegad-Jajarkot, which still has to be surveyed.Based on the walkoversurvey, it is estimatedthat thisroad will acquire approximately 10.35 ha of cultivationland and 7 ha of otherprivate land.

Road Mainmenanceand Developmeni Project 99 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 64: Private Land by Proposed Road

Total Area I _ Private Land in the 15nm ROW (ha) _ in the 15 mI Non- Number of l Average i Ave. Non- Road ROW Cultivated Cultivated Owners Cultivated Cultivated (ha)l ______LandLoss Land Loss i Darchula 53.83 1 15.28 1 28.78 402 - 0.038 0.071 Martadi 55.35 29.69 i 10.54 745 0.040 0.014 Mangaisen 22.08 14.36 2.07 3347 0.041 0.006 Jumla 132.66 27.83 18.41 I 2.307 0.012 C 0.008 Total 263.92 E 87.16 59.80 3,801 - - SMEC-CEMATField SurveN.1998/99: exciuding Chhedegad-Jajark-ot road.

Table 65 shows that in 16 of the 28 VDCs land losses are estimated to be less than 5 ha. The remaining 122VDCs where land losses exceed 5 ha or more, will lose an estimated combined 112.61 ha (76.6% of total land losses). In all five VDCs along the Darchula alignment, land losses will be 5 ha or more; along the Martadi alignment. only one of the five VDCs will lose less than 5 ha; along the Mangalsen alignment, two of the three VDCs will lose less than 5 ha each; and along the Jumla alignment, 13 of the 15 VDCs will lose less than 5 ha each. Land losses along the Jumla alignrnent show that the five VDCs closest to Jumla Bazaar comprise approximately 46% of the total number of affected owners on all the roads, but only about 10% of the affected private land. This implies relatively small losses per affected owner, but also small landholdings that will be reduced even more by these losses.

The five VDCs with the largest land losses are:

* Darchula: Dattu and Shankarpur VDCs; • Martadi: Barhabis VDC; X Mangalsen: Mangalsen VDC; * Jumla: Chhapra VDC.

Table 65: Distribution of Land Losses by VDC

PrivateLand (ha) in Number of VDCs Total Private Land 15 m ROW (ha) less than 5 ha 16 134.38 5 ha to 9 ha 7 53.05 i10ha and more 59.56 SMEC-CEMATField Survey. 1998/99.

Household and community responses show that people are willing to make their land available for road construction. However, there is little doubt that this loss is regarded as the most important negative impact of the project. The concern over these losses revolves around the already high levels of household food deficiencies. For example, only 34.5% of the household respondents indicated that they produced sufficient crops for their subsistence. a statement that was confirmed in the group discussions. Based on the survey, average annual food sufficiency from own crops is as low as 4.9 months per household.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 100 Environmentallmpact Assessment - April 1999 Accordingly. most of the respondents (81%) believed that the loss of land would have an effect on household subsistence, a concern that was again raised in the group discussions.

The group discussions also highlighted a number of other land acquisition issues. A concern was raised that persons severely affected bv land losses should be identified and assisted. In some VDCs people stated a willingness to donate their land in the 15 m ROW, but insisted on compensation should a 30 m corridor be established. In other VDCs. there was an insistence on compensation for any land acquired bv the project. Compensation should generally be in cash. although land-for-land was requested in some instances. The household interviews elicited similar responses. with 52.8% of the respondents indicating that compensation for land losses should be in cash, followed by replacement land (26.9%), land donations (4.1%) and employment on the road construction (0.5%).

Road construction is not anticipated to have a significant effect on communal areas such as grazing land. Nevertheless, just over 60% of the respondents believed that the roads would have some effect on livestock farming, notably on grazing and the risk of animals being killed by vehicles. On the other hand, it was acknowledged that the roads would create an opportunity to sell livestock products.

Road construction will also lead to the acquisition of large numbers of trees (possible in excess of 22,000). A large proportion of this is community- or government-owned, although 699 owners of trees were recorded in the survey. The group discussions revealed that people are concerned about receiving compensation for privately-owned trees. The inpact on forest products was also raised, but in a much less serious light than for losses of private property. A general concern about the impact of road construction on communal resources was the possibility of their increased exploitation (e.g. illegal trade in medicinal plants and other forest products).

8.6.3 PopulationDisplacement

Nepal's economy revolves around subsistence agriculture, yet cultivation land comprises less than 20% of the country's total land area. As stated before, in an effort to reduce the substantial impact that land acquisition will have on household production levels, adjustments were made to the ROW (normally between 30-50 m for Feeder Roads and National Highways) specified in DOR design standards. Accordingly, for the RMD Project, land acquisition will be limited to an initial ROW of 15 m.J I

During the walkover surveys, too, every effort was made to reduce the impact on population displacement. The refinement of alignments was dominated by geological and topographical considerations, but the teams nevertheless endeavoured to select the shortest possible length to minimise land take. They also attempted to avoid or reduce impacts on a

Landacquisition for road constructionis generallybased on land donations(i.e. affectedowners do not receivecompensation for land losses).For mostexisting roads, DOR has not legallyacquired the ROWas definedin design specifications.On these roads, DORhas thereforeestablished a much narrowerROW, namelythe actualroad formationarea and associatedstructures. The same procedures are generallyused for the constructionof newroads.

Road Marntenanceand DevelopmentProject 101 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 prioritised list of features, consisting of: (a) archaeological, religious and cultural sites; (b) large settlements; (c) irrigated cultivation; (d) high conservation value forests areas; (e) rainfed cultivation; (f) degraded forest areas, grassland, etc.

Given land use and settlement patterns in the hill districts, alignment changes to minimise impacts in one area frequently lead to new or increased impacts in other areas. For example, at Sridhuska village (Talium VDC) on the Jumla alignment, the displacement of 17 households was avoided, but the realignment had to traverse cultivated land. It is estimated that alignrment refinement reduced population displacement (i.e. relocation of houses and commercial establishments) by some 17%.

There is little doubt, however, that selection of a 15 m ROW (as opposed to a 30 m corridor) has greatly reduced land take and population displacement, as shown below.

* Private land: Acquisition of private land has been reduced from approximately 276.47 ha (if a 30 m ROW had been established) to 146.99 ha (for the 15 m ROW), representing an overall reduction of nearly 47%. For cultivated land alone, acquisition is down from an estimated 193.72 ha to 96.71 ha, a reduction of some 50%. An estimated 3,801 landowners will be affected by land acquisition in the 15 m ROW, increasing by about 758 owners if a 30 m ROW had been established.

* Buildings: Relocation of private and communal buildings (excluding other structures such as irrigation canals) has been reduced from 597 (if a 30 m ROW had been established) to 417 (for the 15 m ROW), representing an overall reduction of over 30%. The impact on private buildings is down from 567 to 388, while the relocation of residential structures alone has been reduced from 306 to 177, a decrease of over 42%.12 The number of affected sheds has also been considerably reduced (from 119 to 90), while the impact on commercial establishments is marginally reduced (from 137 to 126).

An estimated 3,985 property owners will be affected by the establishment of a 15 m ROW, as detailed in Table 66. A large majority (89.2%) will lose land only, while the remaining 10.8% will lose either buildings only, or a combination of land and buildings.

12 The additional 129 houses are predominantly concentrated in the following VDCs: (a) on Chameliva- Darchula: Dhap, Khalanga and Bhagawati VDCs; (b) on Sanfebagar-Martadi: Barhabis and Budiganga VDCs; (c) on Sanfebagar-Martadi:Mangalsen VDC; (d) on Kalikot-Jumla:Tatopani and Mahat VDCs.

Road Maintenance and Development Projec- 102 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 66: Affected Property Owners by Category of Loss in the 15 m ROW

i I Buildi g Only Building and Land j Road Other House Shop Other Land House Shop Bld. Total and and Bid. Total Only Land Land and

Darchula 25 2 - 27 25 8 1 34 368 Martadi 13 10 38 1 61 26 6 17 49 696 Mangalsen I I l 2 16 - 11 17 1330 Jumla 25 43 26 1 94 46 _ _57 44 147 |2160 Total 64 55 665 184 113 71 63 247, 13554 SMEC-CEMATField Survey, 1998/99.

The magnitude of household displacement is small in comparison to the total number of affected property owners (166 households, or just over 4% of the total).13 Nevertheless, for those being displaced, the experience is significant and often traumatic. Based on the average household size (7.9 people) obtained in the sample survev, the displaced households consist of an estimated 1,311 persons. Apart from compensation for building losses, rehabilitation measures (as detailed in Section 9) will be necessary to ensure effective reestablishment of these persons.

The owners of the estimated 121 commercial establishments being displaced will, likewise, require additional support for the reestablishment of their businesses.

It should also be bome in mind that cultivation land losses may in some cases have a severe impact on household production levels. As shown in the description of the socio-economic environmrent (Section 7) and discussed in Section 8.6.2, more than half of the surveyed households have landholdings of 1 ha or smaller. Given this scenario, the loss of even a small portion of cultivation land may seriously disrupt household subsistence strategies. Here also, appropriate rehabilitation measures will be required to support those most adversely affected by land acquisition.

8.6.4 Road Construction Employment

Access to construction employment opportunities is often regarded as an important (albeit short-term) beneficial impact associated with a development. This sentiment is shared, not only by Government and development agencies, but also by affected communities.

On large-scale projects with significant local impacts and large numbers of construction jobs (e.g. hydroelectric projects), the employment of local workers is often a sensitive issue.14 In the road sector, however, construction is generally undertaken through the annual allocation of small contracts (e.g. 10 km road sections) and it may take a number of years to complete a short road. This implies a relatively small construction labour force per contract, in contrast to, for instance, the Arun road project, where it was estimated that the

'; Estimatedafter the deduction of multiple house ownership.Refer to the RAP for details. 14 For example,protests and disruptionsoccurred at Kali Gandaki 'A' hydroelectricproject in 1998,inter alia over the reported mismanagementof employmentprocedures.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 103 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 road contractor would employ a peak labour force of more than 6,700 during drv seasons. Access to construction emplovment opportunities, while not nearly at these levels. is nevertheless a potentiallv important beneficial impact.

The maximisation of local participation in road construction and maintenance should be encouraged. From discussions with a sample of contractors (summarised below), the biggest constraint to achieving this aim appears to be the unavailability/irregular supply of local workers resulting from agricultural obligations. Crop cultivation is a key part of household survival, and therefore agricultural work takes precedence in decisions about the allocation of household labour. However, because subsistence agriculture is seldom sufficient for household survival, people also seek other income-earning opportunities during the slack season. During these periods, the employment-seeking decisions of people (men, mostly) are influenced by the returns they expect to get from their efforts. As opposed to potential work on road contracts that are awarded according to the availability of Government funds, seasonal migration to the Terai and India probably offers the best chance of earning a cash income.

Responses obtained from the household interviews give an indication of local experiences with, and attitudes to, employment on road projects. Some 30% of the respondents indicated that they or their household members had worked on road construction before. Yet, while only a small number (around 6%) thought that construction employment would impinge on their agricultural and other household activities, there does not appear to be an overwhelming eagerness to work on road projects (30% of the respondents indicated- a willingness to work on such projects).' 5 However, the group discussions showed that rather than being unwilling to work on road construction, people are concemed about wage rates offered by contractors. It was commonly stated that people are prepared to work on road construction if they are paid acceptable wages. In a few settlements participants indicated their willingness to work voluntarily on the project.

All of the contractors interviewed (categories A-D) indicated that they employ, or are willing to employ, local labourers on construction projects (see Annex 7). They highlighted a range of benefits associated with the employment of local labour. An important obligation is the creation of income-earning opportunities for local people: "to provide employment to local workers" (i.e. from the project area and other districts) was a fairly common statement. The perceived benefits of employing local labourers, reported by the contractors, often revolved around the advantage for the company:

* It is not necessary to provide accommodation for local labourers; * It is easy to employ and lay off local labour; * It is not necessary to provide advance payments to local labourers; * Local labour is sometimes cheaper than foreign labour; * Local labourers are used to the hard conditions in the mountains;

15In addition,most respondents (88.5%) believed that constructionemployment would not compensatefor the loss of cultivation land.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 104 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 * The emplovment of local labour improves comrnmunityacceptance of the project and creates a feeling of ownership.

Local persons are invariably employed in unskilled job categories. although some contractors stated that jobs like office clerks, supervisors and carpenters are filled bv local persons. Nevertheless. skilled work is generally reserved for foreign workers, or persons permanently employed by the contractor. All the contractors stated that local persons are generally happy and willing to work on road construction projects. No formal recruitment procedures are used, other than direct contact with local leaders (e.g. Ward Chairmen) and communities. Contractors use various employment contract procedures: some stated that local persons are employed on a contract basis. which includes stating the period of employment and the rate of payment. Others indicated that workers are organised in groups of between 10-20 to complete a task, with a single amount of money paid to the group to distribute amongst themselves.

The problems and constraints associated with the employment of local persons were also raised by contractors. The most frequently raised problem was that local workers are not available on a regular basis because of agricultural commitments. Other problems experienced (some of which contradict the perceived benefits) included the following:

- Local workers demand more money than foreign workers; * Local workers are more difficult to manage (e.g. absent without notice and strikes); * Local persons lack construction skills.

Some contractors also stated that the employment of local and foreign labour on a single project occasionally leads to difficulties. Quarrels sometimes occur, either because of cultural divisions or differences in the employment contracts of local and foreign labour (e.g. local workers being paid on an attendance basis and foreign labourers on a monthly contract basis).

Finally, three international organisations were asked to share the experience they have gained in organising and funding community-based road construction projects in Nepal (GTZ, Care Nepal and Helvetas). All three organisations highly recommended the employment of local persons, stating that it creates local income-generating opportunities, helps to overcome food deficiencies, contributes to poverty-alleviation and promotes skills development. Foreign workers have not been employed on any of the road projects funded by these organisations.

Workers are generallv appointed on a contract basis and paid according to district rates. There is no discrimination in the employrnent of men and women (although physically strenuous work can often only be done by men), nor in their rates of pay. Short on-the-job training courses are often provided, while community involvement in road maintenance is encouraged through District and Village Development Commnitteesand the establishment of local road user groups/committees.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 105 Envtronmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 While projects funded by the three organisations focus on community involvement, some constraints in the employment of local workers where nevertheless noted. As with contractors. the most important of these relate to the unavailability of local persons during key agricultural periods (i.e. planting and harvesting). Apart from agricultural work, other obligations (e.g. festivals) may lead to irregular work attendance and interruptions to construction schedules. However, if properly planned and monitored, there is no significant disadvantage in employing local workers.

8.6.5 Impact of ForeignConstruction Workers

Experience on infrastructure projects shows that a foreign workforce may have a number of effects on the local social environment. These effects range from greater demand for, and pressure on, social services and facilities (e.g. health, educational and water supply facilities and systems), increases in the incidence of diseases (e.g. alcoholism, STDs and tuberculosis), to disturbances to the social practices and fabric of local communities (e.g. changes to the position of women and vulnerable groups; pressure on local authorities to maintain autonomy).

The occurrence and significance of these impacts are a function of workforce size and composition: the larger and more foreign the workforce, the higher the anticipated social disturbances. The "development status" of local communities, similarly, determines the extent to which social disturbances may occur: the more isolated and underdeveloped the area, the higher the anticipated disturbances.

Contract packaging arrangements for the proposed RMD Project roads are likely to consist of contracts of 1-2 krm, executed through national competitive bidding, with the possibility of community-based contracting in settlement areas. Employment of local job seekers will further be maximised through the application of preferential employment procedures, wherever feasible.

This packaging scenario implies a relatively small workforce (approximately 100 per contract) and emphasis on the use of local labour. If implemented in this manner, the impact of foreign workers on the local social environment will be significantly reduced. Nonetheless, some or all of the impacts referred to above may occur, albeit at a reduced scale. For those individuals and households affected by these impacts, the disturbances could be highly significant.

8.6.6 Social Changeand Development

As with most large-scale infrastructure developments, roads create a potential for social change and development. Given the key features of the socio-economic environment (described in Section 7), the following key indirect impacts may result from road construction.

* Potential for human development through access improvement essential services; * New or adjusted economic opportunities within the agricultural and off-farm sectors; * Changes to population distribution and settlement pattems.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 106 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Potential for Human Development

The first of these impacts is fairly clear: the proposed roads are anticipated to improve general mobility and access for an estimated population of 124,314 in the road VDCs, and nearly 370,000 in the roads' wider zones of influence (DOR, 1998). For people in close proximity to the roads, this benefit is considerable. Consequently, nearly all the respondents (96.4%) interviewed along the new roads believed their living standards would be improved, through the improvement of access to market centres and towns in the Terai, health facilities and schools. More distantly-located people, too, will benefit from the new roads, since their journey time to services and, opportunities in the Terai and elsewhere, while remaining high, will nevertheless be significantly reduced.

Substantive increases in levels of human development depend not only on improved access to existing facilities, but also on accompanying developments in the non-road sector (e.g. increases in the number of health facilities and schools). While it is difficult to separate road-induced impacts from other regional/national development efforts, evidence from other hill/mountain roads, nevertheless, suggests that roads do have a development effect. Earlier reports on the impacts of the Lamosangu-Jiri Road Project (LJRP) and the multi-focused Integrated Hill Development Project (IHDP), for instance, did not observe significant differences between national improvements in socio-economic indicators and those recorded in the project area (SDC. 1990; 1991). Four years later, though, the final monitoring report found that people in the area considered the road to have "induced rmore lasting and relevant changes than the IHDP". It has opened up the area, stimulated the creation of new business opporttunities and reduced the prices of imported goods. Accordingly, "many of the mega-trends observed in the development of the regional economy can be attributed to the road" (SDC, 1995). This conclusion underscores the fact that development projects such as the IHDP are interventions that rely on continued effort. and are often constrained from serving more than a selected nurnber of beneficiaries. In contrast, roads are more or less permanent, and their primary benefits (increased access and mobility) are available to a wide pool of people.

The LJRP-IHDP reports, along with other studies (DOR, 1995; 1996; 1998), note the social development effects associated with improved access and mobility. Since the new road sections are situated in the two most underdeveloped regions of Nepal, the RMD Project is expected to contribute in a similar manner to:

Road Maintenance and Development Project 107 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The literature also points to a range of other socio-cultural effects (both positive and negative) that may result from improved access, particularly to previouslv isolated areas. For instance, it was postulated that the Arun III access road into the remote Arun vallev may lead to an erosion in traditional values, the displacement of traditional crafts due to an influx of consumer products. more substantive houses (with greater use of non-traditional materials) and changes in the physical form and social patterns of settlements (NEA. 1993). The LJRP-IHDP monitoring reports found that younger people in the project area strive for an urban lifestyle, that women from poorer households increasingly assume farm management responsibilities while their husbands migrate in search of seasonal work. and that labour shortages and access to new economic opportunities are leading to a shift in occupational patterns across caste/ethnic lines (SDC, 1991; 1995). The group discussions show that people are aware of these types of effects. For example, it was stated that the roads would:

* Increase the incidence of theft and other crimes; * Transmit "outside" cultural practices and fashions to the roadside settlements; - Attract the young generation to "outside"/urban areas.

Many of these changes are occurring across Nepal, as the country becomes more integrated with the "modem" world. Some may be considered as positive changes, others negative. All of them will probably be accelerated by the new roads, particularly in the more isolated districts located in the FWDR.

Economic Stimulation and Adjustment

The roads may stimulate or induce adjustments in (a) local agricultural production and (b) off-farm income-earning activities and opportunities. The group discussions elicited many responses about the potential effects of the roads on local economic activities. For example, it was stated that the roads would:

* Provide easier access to agricultural inputs (e.g. fertiliser and seed); * Create opportunities for the export of agricultural products; * Create opportunities for the establishment of local businesses; * Attract people from outside the area to start large-scale businesses; * Reduce the use of porters and other providers of non-vehicular transport;

- Impel porters and other existing transport providers to sell their services in other areas of the district, or to supplement their livelihoods with other forms of income-generation; * Reduce the cultivation production levels of households whose land is acquired; * Increase land prices along the road and at market areas; * Attract "outsiders" to buy land in the area (local people may sell their land and become poor); * Lead to smuggling of medicinal plants from the area.

In the road districts, where subsistence agriculture is the dominant activity, production increases can be expected for the range of subsistence crops, as may diversification to

Road Adainienance and Development Project 108 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 higher value crops.16 Other studies confirm that roads may lead to these production increases and changes. For instance, construction of the Arun III access road was expected to provide access to southern markets for hill products, specificallv livestock products and cardamom (NEA. 1993). Reference is made in RMD Project Interim Report No.], 1998 to the diversification to higher value export crops that occurred after construction of Ilam- Fikkal-Charali and Fikkal-Pashupatinagar roads.

However, these changes are not necessarily automatic, nor do they occur in a short period of time. The Larnosangu-Jiri road studies, for example, found that. apart from the export of seed potatoes, there had been no "major export trend observable since the road opened." There had been considerable production increases in the project area in the period between 1975-1995. similar to increases reported for other hill areas. These increases were considered to be the result of "many small changes in the agricultural system," an important one being the introduction of chemical fertiliser following the opening of the road. While production of potato and oranges had increased substantially, that of other staple crops had apparently stagnated (SDC, 1995).

A profit-maximising response to new and enhanced commercial opportunities in the agricultural sector is, therefore, not necessarily automatic. It is more likely where there is already an established commercial agricultural sector, together with associated credit services, input supplies and marketing arrangements. Additionally, subsistence farmers may (understandably) be averse to diverting resources away from a known and secure form of farming practice to a commercial one which carries considerable risks. Thus, while the new roads will create the potential for economic diversification, and while nearly all of the household respondents believed that the roads would provide these opportunities, it may take time for them to be fully realised.

Changes may also be expected in local off-farm economic activities. As perceived by participants in the group discussions, the roads will create opportunities for the establishment of small commercial enterprises along the roadside (e.g. stores, shops and lodges). However, while respondents thought that local people would be able to take advantage of this opportunity, there was a concem that "outsiders" would be attracted to the area, particularly market areas, to buy up land and start larger businesses.

Participants in the group discussions also stated that the roads would have an effect (mostly negatively) on the workLof porters and other providers of non-vehicular transport. They were of the opinion that porters and other transport providers would change their professions, or extend their "areas of operation" to other parts of the road districts. In the household interviews, on the other hand, only 10% of the respondents felt that road construction would have an adverse effect on these types of income-earning opportunities. This is somewhat contradictory to the relative importance of income from this source as recorded in the survey: income from goods conveying was recorded for 13.7% of the households, and had the second highest mean income after wages earned in India.

16 Kalikot-Jumlaroad. for instance,may stimulatean increase in the productionand export of applesfrom Jumla District.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 109 Environmental Impact Assessment - Aprii 1999 Interviews with a sample of 90 business owners along the proposed road alinments, point to the importance of porters and rented animals for the conveying of consumer goods. Similar interviews with a sample of 120 owners of commercial establishments located along the upgrading roads in the RMD Project, show that trucks are the dominant form of transport of goods to/from market centres, but that porters and animals are nevertheless used. This suggests that roads do have an effect on the work pattems of porters and other providers of non-vehicular transport. Long haul work may decline, but since the roads will increase the import of goods into the districts, there may be additional opportunities for porters and other transport providers to convey goods to off-road settlements. One of the LJRP-IHDP monitoring reports reached a similar conclusion: porters undertake goods conveying over shorter distances, but because of increased imports, their work opportunities remain more or less the same (SDC, 1990). Nevertheless, it will be necessary to monitor the impact of the roads on these types of local activities, and provide appropriate support to persons whose livelihoods have been compromised (see Section 9).

Changes to Population Distribution and Settlement Patterns

The proposed roads may lead to changes in migration and settlement pattems, as well as population growth rates, in the concerned districts/regions. RMD Project Interim Report No. 1 (SMEC, 1998) anticipated a slight increase (0.25%) over current population growth projections for all the new road districts, primarily due to expected reductions in the migration of people to the Terai, as well as the possibility of re-migration to hill areas (DOR, 1998). For instance, after construction of Dhanghadi-Dadeldhura and Ilam-Fikkal- Charali roads, people were attracted to the concerned hill districts to take advantage of new crop production opportunities (e.g. oranges, tea and cardamom). The report on the Larnosangu-Jiri road and Integrated Hill Development Project (IHDP), on the other hand, notes that, notwithstanding evidence of the return of some migrants to Dolakha and Sindhupalchok Districts, "the continued population growth and the slow growth of off-farrn employment force people to migrate ... there is a loss of 'human capital."' (SDC, 1995).

Population growth is influenced by a number of variables, and it is difficult to predict what effect the roads may have on growth rates. Improved access to health services and family planning programmes may affect fertility and mortality rates, and stabilise growth rates in the long-term. Migration patterns may be affected. Improved access to the Terai may increase both seasonal labour migration and permanent migration. Or it may attract out- migrants and other sectors of the population to the newly opened areas. While it is highly likely that some out-migrants who have hamessed sufficient funds and skills may return to exploit new opportunities, the overall effect, as noted for the Lamosangu-Jiri road, is likely to be an increase in out-migration.

Population redistribution may also occur within the road districts and VDCs. as people are attracted to the road corridors to exploit opportunities. Existing market areas proximate to the roads (e.g. Mangalsen on the Mangalsen alignment, Martadi on the Martadi alignment and Manma and Tatopani on the Jumla alignment) are likely to expand. New market areas

Road Maintenance and Development Project 110 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 17 and population concentrations are likely to occur at intersections with major trails. However, a major movement of people from the road districts and VDCs towards the road corridors is not anticipated. as confirmed bv current settlement patterns along the upgrading roads in the RMD Project.

Temporarvmarkets may also develop at the roadhead during the constructionperiod.

Road Maintenance and Development Project Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 9. DESIGN,CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE MITIGATIONMEASURES

This section describes the incorporation of environmental impact mitigation measures in the preliminary design to date. the need for additional mitigation measures and recommended measures contained in the Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) and Resettlement Action Plan (RAP). Both the EMAP and RAP should be referred to for details on the responsibilities and timing of mitigation measures.

Design, construction and maintenance mitigation recommendations for the proposed roads have been formulated to avoid or mitigate potential bio-physical impacts. These recommendations were primarily formulated from observations made during the inspection of constructed roads leading to or in the vicinity of the proposed alignments. They have been discussed with the RMD Project design team. with agreement reached on their incorporation into the project.

In addition, specific socio-economic impact mitigation measures have been proposed for the displacement of people and acquisition of land for the roads.

Road Design Constraints

The preliminary design of the RMD Project roads involved alignment refinement and the design of major structures. It was undertaken based on the two overriding requirements of:

1. "Fair weather earth track" design standards; 2. Low cost roads.

As required by DOR, these two design requirements were paramount. setting the basis for road design. Within these requirements, where possible, environmental mitigation measures have been incorporated to date, as described below.

The preliminary design process involved reaching a compromise between short-term cost savings on road construction and long-term environmental damage and high road maintenance and repair costs.

9.1 ALIGNMENTPLANNING

The alirunments initially proposed by DOR have been refined in the RMD Project, as described in Section 4.2. Refinement was primarily based on selecting the most stable alignment. Active landslides and areas with a high landslide hazard were avoided. Non- floodprone land was selected where possible. Lower slope land was also commonly selected in order to minimise construction costs, reduce excavation and the need for retaining walls. The next main factors considered were road length minimisation in order to limit construction costs and the total land take, and the utilisation of the lowest value land in terrmsof structural features, production or ecological values.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 112 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 ' to' L 0 *...o 42*

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on i Note: I1)These design drawilngs are based (N~~~~~~~~~~~~~N aprelimnalnry topographics survey. Thp finnl ahorizontal aligmenit rnay require adjustment i at the time of final design pegging.

2)Refer also to drawingsl showing vertical profile alnd schedule of drailnage aind retaining structure.

IIIS UAJESTY'S GOVERNMENTOF NEPAL iiio,ltr; t*j i_ AI L DESIGNLt DAu- _ _ ^ = Q 1 z o.>Ads ttjtl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~MNISTRYOF WORKS ANYDTRANSPORT SMEC/56,/J7 _. _ _ _ _ (llrslD __ tw al^ Y J e n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~EPARTMtENTOF RoADs-ler

7 F x arnple of a Pretim-nary Desgn DrawRng rMDP//P101 a_prel_mintop .ry =c ure h roD SMFC INTEPNATIONAI PTY t TD (urveyFigure _ _ horizontawwl- augment may require ad-just_ment__ _ In *w-or-ll? ._ ___._._ Where possible, alignments were located on or near existing main trails. Road construction along these alignments will achieve maximum road utilisation by all forms of transport given the existing use of these routes.

The walkover survey generally set the alignment to within 20 m horizontal and 10 m vertical of the final preliminary alignment location.

Following the walkover survey, a detailed survey was undertaken of each alignment. Using the DOR design specifications for fair weather earth tracks and the above selection criteria, the walkover alignment was refined. The detailed survey alignment generally followed the walkover alignment, but occasionally differed substantially due to the need to fit standard road specifications or avoid features that had not been previously noticed.

Utilising the detailed survey data, the preliminary design alignment was set within the surveyed corridor using CivilCad. The CivilCad Road Designer set the alignment by following the shape of the terrain, both horizontally and vertically, wherever possible (within DOR design specifications) in order to minimise earthworks and the number and size of retaining structures. Minimum horizontal curves of 12.5 m radius were used, as well as ascent/descent gradients of generally up to 5-7% (although grades as steep as 12% were used for short distances).

Earthwork quantities were calculated using a standard road width of 4.5 m plus an average of 0.6 widening (5.1 m total), although this was increased to 6.1 m to accommodate a trapezoidal side drain where required. An additional 10% earthworks (cut) allowance was made to accommodate 3 m wide passing bays.

Cut and fill equalisation was adopted as a major road design principal in the preliminary design where it was economically possible within DOR road specifications. Where this was not possible, the aim was to minimise excess fill. Equalisation of cut and fill reduces excavation and reduces the total land take by the road formation.

The incorporation of cut and fill equalisation was primarily achieved by locating the alignment centreline horizontally near the natural slope surface on slopes of less than 600. This helped to ensure that the volume of fill required to construct the downslope earth embankment or backfill the retaining wall was close to equalling the volume to be cut. As the centreline is moved horizontally further into the slope, the available fill volume decreases whilst the cut volume increases.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 113 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 9.2 ROAD DESIGN MITIGATIONMEASURES

The following road design recommendations were formulated during the environmental assessment of the proposed roads to avoid or minimise impacts. These recommendations have either been incorporated into the preliminary design or will be incorporated into the final detailed designs (see Diagram 1).

9.2.1 Excavation and Road Formation

A common construction practice used on many of the recently constructed roads inspected was the excavation of the full road width to provide an in situ road foundation (see Figure 8). Fill material is rarely used to form the road foundation and is disposed of by being loosely sidecast over the edge of the excavation. This construction method results in additional excavation, additional land taken for the road formation and fill disposal area. a highly erodable fill embankment and subsequent downslope sedimentation. The higher cut batter that is created is also more prone to slides and erosion.

Figure 8: Impact Areas of Different Road Construction Techniques

Width of impact

N Width of impact

NEs X~ ~Si

Full Cut and Sidecasting Cut and Fill Balancing

Another common construction practice is the formnation of excessively steep cut banks which are highlv prone to landslip. Cut batters through colluvial material are often left with grades in excess of 2:1(V:H), resulting in landslips over a number of years following construction.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 1 14 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 PreliminaryDesign

Embankmentsand retaining walls were designed to achieve long-termroad stability and to attempt to equalise cut and fill or to minimise excess fill. At the same time, a "low cost" road was designed, incorporatingearthworks on lower slopes as they are generally cheaper than rock or masonryretaining walls, and can be effectivelyconstructed on these grades.

Accordingly,preliminary road designs were based on the minimisationof excavation, the use of compactedearth fill embankmentswherever possible and the extensive use of rock retaining walls on slopes that are too steep for earth embankments. The general design specificationsadopted for cuttings, fill embankmentsand retaining walls were primarily based on slope angle and surfacematerials, as summarisedin Table 67.

Table 67: EmbankmentDesign Guidelines

Terrain j Material Fill Batter Cut Batter

l0-25 Soil 1:1.5(V:H) compactedfill 1.5:1(V:H). embankment. Soil Retainingwall, typicallydry stone No steeper than 1.5:1 (V:H) for natural or gabion. For very steep slopes, cut batter. May require breast wall retainingwall constructionmay not dependingon site conditions. >250 Rock be practical,therefore the road will Soundrock can stand vertically. Final be constructedby benching fully batter slope will depend on rock I into the hillslope. compositionand dip angles.

Note: For estimating purposes during preliminary design, cut batters through all rock slopes were designedwith a 10:1 (V:H) slope.

The preliminary design specifications for embankmentsand retaining walls attempted to balance "low cost" design standardswith the minimisationof enviromnentalimpacts. They are primarilybased on the followingprinciples:

* Utilisation of compacted earth fill embankmentswherever possible (i.e. generally on slopes of less than 250), where sound construction is achievable and the land takle required is minimal.

* Increasing cut batter grades through rocky areas in order to reduce excavation, slope disturbanceand constructioncosts.

* Use of hill side retaining walls and breast walls to reduce earthworks where high cut batters are required throughsoil.

* Minimumexcavation of slopes above 60°. These steep slopes will either be stable (i.e. stable rock) or prone to slides (e.g. overlying colluvial material). If a site is prone to slides, material can be removed from the road once it has fallen, thus saving significant excavationcosts.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 115 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 * Use of gabion or dry stone retaining walls on the hill side where the road passes through irrgated cultivation land prone to seepage and land slips.

* Minimising the amount of excess fill material.

Quantity estimates for costing purposes were based on the following design features.

Compacted earth fill embankments were preferred on all slopes below 25°. These embankments can be effectively built on slopes of up to 250 bv benching the slope then layering and compacting fill, using a standard 1:1.5 (V:H) batter grade.

Retaining walls were preferred on the valley side of the road on slopes between 25-60° in order to attempt to equalise cut and fill and create a stable road formation. Dry stone retaining walls were designed where the vertical height was less than 3 m. Gabion walls were designed for heights above 3 m. Selection of type of retaining wall may vary at final design stage depending on foundation conditions encounted.

Detailed Design

The detailed design shall attempt to equalise cut and fill by fixing the alignment centreline to try to achieve half cut and half fill on all slopes below 600, as in the preliminary design. Excavated fill will be primarily used in compacted earth embankments and to backfill retaining walls.

At sites where major unstable areas are crossed by the alignment, a reduction in standard DOR road width specifications shall be considered (e.g. a decrease in width from 4.5 m to 3.5-4.0 m), without side drains or passing bays. Reducing the width of the road will reduce slope excavation and hence slope destabilisation.

Breast walls shall be considered at all sites where alignments cross irrigated cultivation and the cut bank is over 1 m high. The breast wall shall consist of a gabion wall two thirds the height of the cut batter in order to provide a stable, free draining bank toe whilst minimising costs. This will enable the unprotected batter grade above the wall to be reduced to 1:1 (V:H). The breast wall will protect these colluvial slopes which are prone to saturation. and reduce the loss of high value land.

9.2.2 Drainage

Drainage on hill roads is usually provided by cross-road drainage in the form of culverts or causeways to pass catchment flows past the road (either over or beneath it). Road surface drainage is usually provided by in-fall cross-fall and causeways at major creek locations to direct runoff off the road surface. Masonry drop inlet structures for culverts are common. whilst lined side drains are also used on FWET design standard roads. Top drains above cuttings appear to be rarely used, probably due to the difficulty of construction on steep hillsides.

Road Maintenance and Deveiopme::. Project 116 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Common drainage problems observed on the existing roads inspected following the monsoon included an insufficient number of cross-road drains. Culverts or causeways were often spaced too far apart (up to 300 m) on road sections with in-fall drainage, resulting in rilling of the road surface due to the excessive length of overland flow. Occassionally causeway weirs in streams had insufficient cross-sectional crest capacity to discharge flood flows, resulting in erosion around their sidewalls.

Road surface drainage was often inadequate with flows commonly by-passing culvert inlets. Rill erosion along wheel ruts was conmmon. The road surface at the toe of the cut bank-had often eroded due to the provision of infall but absence of lined side drains.

Adequate and stable cross-road and road surface drainage is essential to ensure that storm runoff across the roads causes minimal damage to the road and downslope features.

Preliminary Design

Major cross-road drains were designed at all locations where defined flowlines on 1:50,000 topographic maps cross the proposed alignmnents. Cross-road drains were designed for specific sub-catchment sizes and the specific cross-sectional shape of drainage lines, with the provision of 1 in 10 year discharge capacity. Side drains were designed with a 1 in 5 year discharge capacity. These design return periods were selected as a compromise between flow capacity and cost given that intense monsoon storms occur every year.

Fords have been preferred to pipe culverts for major cross-road drains due to their reduced likelihood of blockage, lower maintenance requirements and large capacity. The main type of ford structure designed was a causeway weir. Where fords were not been practical due to steep gully crossings, pipe culverts scuppers or slab culverts were considered.

Existing drainage lines were used as drain locations wherever possible in order to collect concentrated flows where they meet the road and dispose of them inmmediatelyat stable disposal locations, preventing damage to other downslope features.

Lined side drains were designed at the base of cut slopes where the cut was not though sound rock and road grades exceed 5%.

Detailed Design

Minor cross-road drains and road cross-fall shall be designed in the detailed road design. These designs shall be based on reducing the concentration and velocity of runoff. and reducing the potential for drain failure, and hence reducing drain maintenance. Accordingly, the following drain design criteria and specifications shall be used in the detailed design.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 117 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 * Existing drainage lines shall be used as drain locations wherever possible to collect concentrated flows where thev meet the road and dispose of them imrmediately at stable disposal locations, preventing damage to other downslope features (see Figure 9).

* Allowing for the above design criteria, minor cross-road drains shall be provided between major drains to minimise the volume of runoff handled bv a single drain and thereby help ensure the functioning of drains during torrential monsoon storms. These drain spacings should approximately coincide with the length of overland flow where significant rill erosion will conumence, which is critical on road grades of less than 5% that will not have lined side drains. As a general rule, side drains should not carry water for more than 200 m without disposal.

Figure 9: Location of Road Drains at Natural Drainage Sites

* The provision of outfall cross-fall drainage shall be considered at sites where compacted fill embankments are less than 2 m high, where retaining walls occur or on exposed rock slopes, providing a traffic hazard will not be created. Outfall cross-fall reduces the concentration of runoff and the reliance on cross-road drains remaining operational during intense storms. It also reduces construction costs by Teducing the number of culverts and length of side drains.

* Infall cross-fall drainage shall be provided where outfall cross-fall is not provided.

* Lined side drains shall be provided at the base of cut slopes where the road grade exceeds 5% and infall cross-fall drainage is provided, unless the road cutting is through rock.

Road Mlaintenance and Development Project 118 Envzronmental impaci Assessment - April 1999 * Minor cross-road drains and side drains shall be approximately sized according to the sub-catchment area.

9.3 ROAD CONSTRUCTION MITIGATION MEASURES

Road construction to avoid or minimise environmental impacts is seen as a critical and difficult stage of road development. Road construction methods have a direct baring on the degree of direct environmental impacts that will result from new roads. The key principles that have to be adhered to are limiting the area of disturbance and land take, sequencing construction activities to save the double handling of materials, installing all major retaining and drainage works in the initial year of construction (prior to the monsoon) and progressively revegetating the completed batters.

9.3.1 ConstructionProgramme

Road construction in the hills of Nepal often involves the initial construction of the road to a minimum standard, with the primary objective being the establishment of the maximum length of road possible for the available budget. Construction usually involves the full excavation of the road formation, with the installation of a limited number of drainage structures and retaining walls. Construction activities then continue on this section of road over the following 3-10 years, with the installation of additional drains and retaining walls, additional excavation and the repair of the often considerable damage to the road that occurs during the monsoon.

This long-term construction method involves a relatively low initial cost in the first year, but high on-going costs in the following years until the road has been fully constructed. This often results in uncontrolled landslides and watercourse erosion over the initial 2-3 years following construction. The road formation suffers considerable damage, primarily from landslides and erosion, which results in land loss above the road and significant downslope sedimentation and impact on adjacent fields and some structures. In addition, road use is usually restricted to less than 6-8 months of the year as clearing and repairs are required to make it passable. Roads are cleared by hand or dozer after each monsoon season, and usually kept open until the start of the next monsoon.

The altemative to the construction of the maximum length of road in the initial years, followed by an extended period of installing additional works, is to fully construct a short length of road each year, cormrnencing at the existing road head. This construction programming would require a high initial cost followed by a low on-going maintenance cost. It has the advantages of providing a section of road that is operational for 9-10 months of the year, has low repair and maintenance costs and causes less damage to the adjacent environment. It may also reduce the total road establishment and maintenance costs over the first 10 years due to savings on the repair of works. Accordingly, it is recommended that each of the proposed RMD Project roads be constructed in this manner, with all road structures (except those likely to be damaged or removed by landslides in the initial few years following construction) installed at the time of initial road formation excavation.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 119 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The construction of the project roads shall be staged over four vears. thus limiting the extent of construction in any one year to manageable lengths (between 4-20 km). Individual contracts shall be limited in size to 1-3 km to enable each contract to be completed in a single drv season (over 9 months from mid-September to mid-June) by labour-based construction.

Full construction over a single dry season will minimise the overall site landslip and erosion hazard prior to the installation of all designed retaining walls, drains and the majority of revegetation works.

This programming includes the priority recommendation that road cuttings through cultivation terraces should be stabilised immediately following excavation. Measures should include revegetation, gabion and dry stone retaining walls, and laving back cut batters to stable grades.

The one exception to the installation of all road structures at the time of initial road excavation is at sites where high landslide hazards exist and large landslides are inevitable. At these sites, retaining walls should only be installed once the major initial slides have occurred in the first 1-3 years following excavation. This construction delay saves excavation costs and the need to replace retaining wall structures damaged by these inevitable major slides.

9.3.2 ConstructionMethods

Roads in Nepal are commonly constructed either by hand or by a combination of labour and dozer. Labour-based construction has the advantages of creating maximum local employment and potentially reducing the amount of uncompacted sidecasting that inevitably occurs with the use of dozers to excavate and form roads. Conversely, the use of dozers can greatly accelerate the rate of road construction.

Labour-basedConstruction

A stated objective of the RMD Project is to use labour-based road construction methods. Accordingly, all roads shall be constructed by hand wherever possible, although not exclusively using labour for all work. The use of small tractors and trailers to efficiently cart excess fill, and the use of small mechanical compacters, will be encouraged.

Blasting

In steep, rocky areas excavation by labour is not always possible due to the hardness of material, length of time required to excavate and safety of excavating difficult sites. At these locations rock blasting will be undertaken.

"Controlled blasting" using the "split blasting" technique is currently the best blasting practice used for road construction. This involves initially blasting the upper limit of the

Road Maintenance and Development Project 120 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 road formation batter to create a split along the rock face, then progressively blasting upslope from the lowest extent of rock face to be blasted, splitting off layers. It is undertaken by hand drilling up to 50-60 holes per blast to a depth of 1.1 m (1.5 m depth for machine drilled holes), at a spacing of 1.5 m between holes. A charge of 0.1 kg/hole gelatin is used.

Controlled blasting is rarely practiced in Nepal, with mass blasting usually carried out (as reported by DOR personel in the RMD Project Scoping Workshop). There are no standard mass blasting techniques, but it usually involves drilling approximately 200-300 holes, at an average spacing of one hole per square meter, to depths of between 0.3-1.5 m. Holes are drilled by hand or dug with a crowbar. About 50-70 holes are then charged with between 0. 15-0.5 kg/hole gelatin and blasted in a single series.

Mass blasting often results in slope destabilisation and excessive material casting with more than 70% of the blasted material deposited indiscriminantly on the slope. Excessive rock fracturing on previously stable slopes has been common as a result of the overuse of explosives on hard rock cuts on mountain roads. This has caused severe long-term stability problems (e.g. Chhinchu-Jajarkot road - FRR, 1998).

DOR does not have blasting guidelines for road construction through different geological and slope conditions. A HMG licensed blaster (normally a person with blasting experience and knowledge of safety measures) designs the blasting operation but usually has no technical knowledge of controlled blasting techniques for different conditions.

Blasting shall only be conducted where excavation by labour will take an excessively long time. Controlled blasting shall be used to limit the volume and extent of rock throw, and to reduce the disturbance of local people.

All blasting shall be strictly undertaken in accordance with the principles set out in the proposed DOR "Controlled Blasting Training Workshop", including restricting this activity to the hours of 9.00-16.30.

9.3.3 Construction Management and Certification of Works

In discussions held during the preparation of the EIA, a common comment was that strict supervision of the construction Contractor is required to ensure that road construction is undertaken in accordance with detailed road designs and approved construction methods. This is particularly important given that the Contractor can make considerable cost savings by ignoring labour-based and labour-intensive construction practices. Accordingly, the following recommendations are made:

* The Contractor needs to have measurable incentives or disincentives built into the Contract conditions to ensure that the prescribed designs and construction methods are strictly followed.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 121 Environmental Impact Assessment - April J1999 * Emphasis should be placed on contract payments per unit of designed structure constructed. * Clauses for the non-payment for items not constructed, or for withholding pavment if specifically-banned construction practices are used (e.g. side casting). should be built into the contract. * A short course covering approved construction methods should be run for the Contractor's supervising staff. * Full-time overseeing of the Contractor's work shall be undertaken bv the Supervising Consultant.

The full cost of designed works, including environmental measures contained in the EMAP, have been included in the construction contracts.

The correct construction of designed roadworks is most effectively achieved by basing contract payments on the actual volumes of designed works constructed, and non-payment for sub-standard constructed works.

The Contractor is able to make considerable cost savings by constructing a full cut instead of constructing half cut and half fill with retaining walls. Likewise, labour costs can be reduced by forming batters steeper than the design standards or sidecasting excess fill.

Construction contracts shall specify payment per unit of designed work constructed, as well as non-payment for sub-standard construction below the detailed design specifications.

Completed works shall be strictlv certified against the detailed road designs and the EMAP conditions.

9.3.4 Training

Limited training appears to have been given to Contractors' Field Supervisors and construction workers in the past, which has been reflected in the use of poor construction practices. Most construction skills appear to have been gained in the field.

In order to help improve the qualitv of road construction and environmental management work to the standard required on the RMD Project, construction and environmental management training and accreditation is required for Consultants' Field Supervisors.

A training workshop shall be provided in the implementation of the main approved road construction and environmnental management measures, including site survey and delineation, retaining wall and drainage construction, slope excavation. excess fill disposal, initial revegetation techniques, and environmental monitoring and reporting. The workshop will also include discussion of approved land acquisition procedures, as detailed in the Resettlement Action Plan.

A second training workshop shall be provided in controlled blasting techniques.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 122 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 9.3.5 Worksite Survey,Pegging and Approval

The proposed roads (including the full extent of works) and ancillary sites shall be surveyed and pegged prior to any construction or related activities to ensure that they are correctly sited in accordance with the detailed road designs and permits. This allows previously unnoticed design and environmental issues to be recognised prior to construction, and either avoided or mitigated. It also allows the final verification of affected persons and assets, to be undertaken prior to conmmencementof construction.

All roadwork survey and pegging shall be undertaken with a level to ensure that works are correctly located.

The pegging of the road formation areas and ancillary sites enables works to be confined to the minimum area required, reducing the area of disturbance and loss of productive resources. Construction workers can clearly see the proposed extent of work and landowners can recover or harvest resources prior to construction.

Sites shall be located in accordance with the following criteria:

* No ancillary site shall be sited within 100 m of an identified archaeological, religious or cultural site; * Ancillary sites, except fill disposal sites, shall be sited above flood level and at least 10 m away from watercourses.

Ancillary site areas shall be kept to a minimum to reduce the area of vegetation clearance and ground disturbance.

9.3.6 AdditionalRoad Design

Additional road design is required prior to and during road construction in order to account for site-specific features.

Prior to road construction, services that cross the road alignment have to be identified for temporary connection during construction and for reinstatement following construction. The type and quantity of these works will only be determined during the site inspection immediately prior to construction.

The foundation materials underlying some retaining wall sites will only be known once excavation has occurred during construction. Accordingly, many retaining wall types will only be selected following foundation excavation, with dry stone walls generally used on stable sites and gabion walls used on unstable sites.

During and following construction, local conditions may dictate the need to delay the construction of some designed works or the need for additional works. Where major landslides are likely to occur following road excavation, the construction of associated

Road Maintenance and Development Project 123 Environmenral Impact Assessment - April 1999 retaining walls may be delaved for 1-3 years to prevent their loss. 'Where sub-surface seepage occurs from cut batters. additional retaining or breast walls mav be required to stabilise these sites.

Following the first monsoon season after road construction, the design of additional works mav be required if batters have failed due to insufficient retaining wall protection.

9.3.7 Vegetation Clearance

Vegetation clearance shall be confined to the minimum area required for construction activities within the ROW in order to limit the loss of production resources. limit damaze to surrounding features and limit ground disturbance and the associated erosion hazard. This shall be achieved by clearlv marking out the extent of the proposed clearing and ensuring that clearing is only undertaken within these areas. Trees within the boundaries of ancillary sites shall be retained wherever possible.

9.3.8 RetainingWall Construction

Retaining walls shall be constructed prior to the bulk excavation of the hill slope above the wall site so that backfilling of the wall can occur at the time of excavation (see Figure 10). This will save the double handling of fill and reduce the likelihood of fill sidecasting below the road formation area.

Figure 10: Sequence of Construction Activities

I CLEARAND 2 STRIP TOPSOIL AS REMOVE REQUIRED. GRUB VEGETATION OUT ROOTS

3 CONSTRUCT / P!LOT TRACK, IF \ PRACTICAL \

6 BENCH HILLSIDE, \ 7 CONSTRUCT EXCAVATEROAD \ - RETAININGOR PROFILE AND \ - BREASTWALL,IF \ CONSTRUCT / / ANY 9 TRIM SLOPES A EMBANKMENT REQUIRED

8 CONSTRUCTSIDE DRAIN

t-_ _ 7 _ _ 4 CONSTRUCTCROSS DRAINAGE,IF ANY

5 CONSTRUCT RETAININGWALL. IF ANY Adapted from ODA Overseas Road Note 16 (1997)

Road Maintenance and Development Project 124 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 At sites where large landslides are inevitable in the first few years following road excavation, retaining walls shall only be installed once the major slides have occurred in order to avoid significant damage to retaining walls. These slides are most likely to occur in the initial three years following excavation.

9.3.9 Excavationand EmbankmentConstruction

Cut batters are commnonlyconstructed on grades steeper than the design standards. whilst fill embankments are often not adequately compacted. These unstable features result in slides and erosion, off-site sedimentation, road closure and high maintenance costs.

All cut and fill banks shall be strictly constructed to design specifications to ensure that correct batter grades. road widths and earth compaction are achieved. This shall be achieved by fully surveying and pegging roadworks prior to construction and strictly inspecting and certifying them against the detailed designs following construction.

The natural surface foundation of earth embankments shall be benched prior to filling to enable the keying in and compaction of earth. Filling shall then occur in layers no deeper than 150 mm, with each layer compacted with a small mechanical compactor or hand held tamper before the next layer is applied.

9.3.10Topsoil Savingand Re-use

Topsoil is a valuable resource for the revegetation of cut and fill banks. Accordingly, it shall be saved from all ROW sites that will be disturbed during road construction.

Topsoil shall be stripped from each site prior to any associated filling or sub-surface excavation. It shall be saved by either stockpiling it adjacent to the proposed road formation batter sites, either immediately upslope or downslope of the extent of works. or by stripping it from the road section about to be excavated and respreading it immediately onto the previously completed adjacent section of road.

The preferred method is topsoil stripping and respreading immediately. This has the advantages of only single handling the material and using topsoil when it is fresh, when soil fertility and seed viabilitv have not been reduced by stockpiling.

If topsoil is to be stockpiled, it shall only be done above the excavation site to avoid mixing it with excavated sub-soil.

Topsoil shall only be respread on batters with a grade of 1:1 (V:H) or flatter. Topsoil spread on steeper batters will not stay in place.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 125 Environmental Impact Assessment -April 1999 9.3.11Fill Disposal

The disposal of excess fill immediately below excavation sites was common along the sections of existing roads inspected. This loose material had subsequentlyr eroded, depositing sediment on downslope cultivation land and around houses. In addition. fill deposited on steep slopes often results in the slippage of the underlying slope due to profile saturation and surface loading.

The RMD Project preliminarv road designs have incorporated cut and fill equilisation where it is physically and economically feasible. Despite this, excess fill will be derived from the excavation of the road on slopes above 600, at sites where box cuts are required to achieve design specifications and at other sites where cut and fill equalisation can not be achieved.

The disposal of excess fill at low impact sites shall be undertaken to minimise damage to envirorunental and social features. Excess fill shall generally not be sidecast over the edge of the excavation or placed in small drainage lines. above houses or at other sites where it is likely to cause damage to natural features or structures. Sidecasting will only be allowed on steep slopes in excess of 60° located immediately above major rivers, where a permnissable fill location is not available within 300 m of the excavation site.

Suitable fill disposal locations include:

* building sites; - erosion gullies to be rehabilitated; * major riverbeds; - road widening sites on low value land.

Major riverbeds can be used to dispose of excess fill as long the fill is not placed directly into drv season river flows (November to Mav). Fill shall be placed in the monsoon flood zone so that it is removed during periods of high sediment flow without diverting flows into river banks or other features.

9.3.12 Reinstatementof Services

Local services, including water supply lines, drainage ditches and trails, are commonly cut during road earthworks. These services are required by local people for crop production, drinking water supply and access, and have the potential to damage road works. These services are often either inadequately reconnected or not reinstated at all.

All irrigation canals, water supply lines and stand pipes, drainage ditches and walking trails shall be maintained during construction or, if necessary, temporary services shall be arranged or the owner/user's permission for temporary cessation shall be gained. Services shall be progressively reinstated as soon as road excavation has been completed (see Figure 11).

Road Marntenr r and DevelopmentProject 126 Environmentc~ .-(ct Assessment- April 1999 Figure 11: Replacement of Existing Water Supply Line with a Standpipe

A. Existing pipe

B3. SLandpipe beiow cut batter

C. SLandpipe below fill batter

9.3.13Quarries and Borrow Pits

The construction of the proposed roads will require hard rock for dry stone and gabion retaining walls and weirs, as well as side drains and some cross drains. This rock will primarily be sourced from road formation excavation sites. Where insufficient rock is available from the road excavation, additional rock shall be sought from neighbouring landholders willing to dispose of loose rocks on their land. If additional hard rock is required it will be sourced from local sites suitable for extraction.

Potential borrow pit and quarry sites include exposed hillside rock faces and river beds. All quarries and borrow pits shall be located in accordance with the following criteria:

* Restricted to small areas; * Preferably located at existing quarry sites; * Preferably located on sites without any tree cover; * Located at least 60 m from any dwelling; * Located at least 200 m from any identified archaeological, religious or cultural site.

Sediment shall be controlled at each site by ensuring that the base of the quarry or borrow pit drains into a sediment trap prior to discharging from the site.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 127 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 9.3.14Stockpiling

The stockpiling of rock, topsoil. sub-soil and other materials will be required during road construction. These materials shall be stock-piled to prevent damage to local features which can be caused by diverting runoff and creating sedimentation.

Stockpiled materials shall be stored on non-hazardous sites. awav from both habitation and drainage lines to minimise off-site sedimentation and protect off-site features.

All stockpile sites shall be located in accordance with the following criteria:

* At least 10 m away from drainage lines and out of flood level; * On land with less than a 10° slope; * On sites already clear of trees and shrubs; * Not above houses or other structures; * Further than 2 m away from vegetation to be retained.

The stockpiling of fill material shall not be permitted during the monsoon season unless it is appropriately covered. Where topsoil is to be stockpiled for longer than one month the stockpile shall be seeded with an appropriate cover crop.

9.3.15Workforce Camps

Workforce camps are temporarily required during the period of construction. Only one camp will generally be required along each 1-3 km contract length of road. Carnps shall be located on low impact sites where temporary damage to local resources is minimised.

Workforce camp sites shall be located in accordance with the following criteria:

* Above flood level and at least 10 m from any drainage line; * Away from potential landslide areas; * Preferably on degraded land of low production value; * On cleared land requiring no or minor vegetation clearance: * Not inmmediatelyupslope of local drinking water off-takes; * Only one camp site per contract or 3 km length of alignment.

Proper drinking water, sewerage and waste disposal facilities shall be supplied and maintained. In water deficient areas, drinking water shall be provided from outside the area. Solid waste generated at the camp shall be recycled or disposed of as directed. Appropriate facilities shall be provided for women, where they are employed on the contract.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 128 Environmenial Impact Assessment - April 1999 9.3.16Workforce Management

RMD Project workers will generally live in temporary workforce camps in close proximity to the roadworks and numerous local communities. Workers shall be instructed to act in a responsible manner during and after working hours, respecting the rights, property and practices of local people.

Workers shall be prohibited from hunting wildlife hunting and forest harvesting, including tree felling and the collection of forest products. No wood shall be burnt by any workers on or off site, with kerosene used for all cooking needs.

Working hours shall not extend outside the hours of 7.00-18.00 to ensure that local people are not unduly disturbed.

The incidence of child labour shall be monitored in consultation with local communities and officials, to prevent exploitation.

9.3.17 Noise Pollution

Noise levels generated from construction activities will generally be low due to hand construction, although blasting will produce high level, short duration noise.

Noise pollution shall be controlled by restricting work hours to between 7.00-18.00. restricting blasting hours to 9.00-16.30 and prohibiting the use of air horns on construction vehicles in settlement areas.

9.3.18Hazards and HazardousMaterials

The mishandling and incorrect storage of explosives, combustible and toxic materials such as petrol, diesel, oil and lubricants can lead to explosions, spills and leaks which pose a safety hazard to workers and may cause soil and water contamination. Minimal amounts of these materials will be used during the labour-based construction.

Hazardous materials shall be safely handled and stored in accordance with the following requirements.

* Hazardous materials shall be stored above flood level and at least 20 m from any watercourse; * Explosives shall be stored in strict accordance with HMG regulations; * Hazardous liquid substances (e.g. petrol, diesel, oils) shall be stored on top of sealed plastic sheets in a secure, flat bunded area. Bund walls shall be at least 25 cm high.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 129 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Used lubricants and oils shall be collected and disposed of or recycled without causing pollution or a hazard to worker safetv. Spills of hazardous materials writhin or outside bunded storage areas shall be cleaned up immediately. Contaminated and torm or worn plastic sheets shall be disposed of appropriatelv.

Fires on or adjacent to construction or ancillary sites shall be suppressed.

9.3.19 Revegetation

The revegetation of disturbed banks is rarely undertaken immediatelv after the banks have been forrmed. As soon as earthworks have been' completed. exposed slopes should be seeded with a cover crop to provide some rapid, initial ground cover. This has the advantages of providing rapid surface stabilisation, reducing weed invasion and providing a more stable seedbed for later vegetation plantings. Standard cover crop seed mixes for hand seeding are provided in the Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP). All banks less than 4 m vertical in height should be hand seeded as soon as the Supervising Consultant has approved the excavation or fill work.

Disturbed areas shall be revegetated following construction activities, with bio-engineering measures used extensively to stabilise cut and fill banks. Vegetation stabilises banks and other disturbed ground surfaces by providing ground cover to protect against raindrop impact and reduce overland runoff velocities, and binding soil through plant root development.

The only batters disturbed during construction where bio-engineering will not be undertaken following initial construction will be slopes prone to major landslides and rock slopes. Slopes prone to major slides in the first few years following road construction will be revegetated once the slides have occurred and the slopes have reached a relatively stable angle of repose. Rock slopes or slopes with predominantly rocky materials will not be revegetated.

Batters and disturbed areas shall be progressively stabilised in order to rapidly reduce the erosion hazard of the site. Revegetation shall be undertaken in two stages following construction:

1. Cover crop sowing. 2. Long-term vegetation establishment.

Revegetation has been split into these two phases in order to ensure that the cover crop is sown as soon as possible following construction and that a specialist Bio-engineering Consultant is responsible for the establishment and maintenance of long-term bio- engineering measures.

The establishment of initial ground cover with a cover crop is the first priority of revegetation. The cover crop provides some rapid erosion protection and creates a micro- climate favourable for the establishment of other vegetation. The establishment of long-

Road Maintenance and Development Project 130 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 term vegetative cover requires the use of a range of specialist bio-engineering techniques and adequate follow-up maintenance, including replanting. Vegetation maintenance is essential to the success of batter revegetation, therefore bio-engineering maintenance will occur for a 2 year period.

9.3.20Ancillary Site Rehabilitation

All ancillary sites (stockpile sites, quarries and borrow pits, workforce camps) have to be rehabilitated following their temporary use in order to stabilise the sites, ensure that they are non-polluting and return them to their previous condition.

Sites shall be fully rehabilitated within 1 month of the final day of use. This shall involve the removal of all structures except permanent buildings that the landowner has requested to remain. All refuse, stockpiles and other temporary features shall be removed.

All previously stripped overburden and topsoil shall be spread across the site, with all topsoil spread evenly on the surface. Temporary surface drainage shall be provided on sites that are prone to erosion prior revegetation. This drainage shall be in the form of small catch drains or earth banks located immediately above and at intervals no greater than 50 m down the slope. The drains shall have 0.5-1% grade and outlet at a stable disposal sites.

Where possible, access shall be restricted to these sites by placing rocks to form a barrier to vehicle access. Each site shall then be broadcast with a cover crop and planted with appropriate long-term vegetation.

9.4 MAINTENANCE RECOMMENDATIONS

Considerable lengths of existing earth roads inspected at the end of the 1998 monsoon had been damaged due to inadequate, poorly constructed or damaged drains, and the blockage of drains by landslide material. It appeared that very little drainage maintenance had occurred over the monsoon season, resulting in accelerating erosion over time.

The key to road maintenance is maintaining or repairing road drainage. Particular attention must be given to the early repair and periodic maintenance of drainage as unchecked minor drainage problems have the potential to cause considerable damage to the road formation and downslope land use and structures.

At present, road construction and maintenance contractors usually bring in their own labour force from outside the district. This practice is resented by local people as no local employment is created by road works. At the same time many people in the available workforce have to travel to India to find work. Accordingly, it is recommended that the following be adopted for the maintenance of the roads.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 13 1 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 * Local teams should be employed to undertake road maintenance. This would have the advantages of providing:

an on-site labour force able to repair drains all year round; a labour force that has "ownership" of a section of road and a direct interest in ensuring that the road is stable and does not damage downslope land; direct local employment and therefore greater local acceptance.

* The maintenance of roadworks should be undertaken under a separate contract to the construction contract. commencing at the end of the defect liability period. This will cover the construction of additional roadworks not included in the detailed design but deemed necessary to stabilise or maintain the road.

* In the initial 3 years following road construction, inspections of all drainage structures should be undertaken within 3 davs following major storm events, fortnightly during the monsoon season and monthlv during the rest of the year. These inspections will identify drainage maintenance requirements.

* Maintenance teams should be employed "on call" during the monsoon season so that works can be undertaken when required.

9.5 MITIGATIONOF DIRECTSOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS

9.5.1 Objectives

The RMD Project is being prepared under HMGN policies and World Bank guidelines. Bank policy emphasises the need to avoid or minimise involuntary resettlement on development projects. Where the acquisition of private property is unavoidable, involuntary resettlement should be an integral part of project design and preparation (Operational Directive 4.30/Operational Policy 4.12).

HMGN policy, too, acknowledges the importance of avoiding adverse socio-economic impacts in road design and construction: "in fixing the road alignment, an attempt should be made to avoid areas of small land parcels, homes, shops and other structures, and to minimise the number of people who will have to be resettled ... judgement must be used when agricultural land is utilised for road construction ... the acquisition of strips of prime agricultural land from a small farm could make farming unprofitable" (DOR, 1997).

The preparation of the RMD Project has been guided by these Government and Bank objectives. and social considerations are, as far as possible, being incorporated into aligrnmentselection and road design. However, geological and topographical factors, as well as land use and settlement patterns, make the acquisition of private properrt for road construction inevitable. A key objective directing the development of the project's Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) has therefore been to ensure that the pre-project living standards of affected persons are restored (and where possible improved) at no cost to

Road Maintenance and Deveicpment Project 132 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 themselves. This will be achieved through the measures specified in the project's Entitlement Policy. The successful implementation of these measures requires an enabling. supportive environment. This will be achieved through the following objectives:

(a) Ongoing community consultation will occur to ensure that people's views. concerns and suggestions, particularly those of vulnerable groups, are satisfactorily incorporated into implementation procedures.

(b) An institutional framework will be developed as an integral part of the project to ensure that appropriate social impact management mechanisms are set up and maintained during implementation. These mechanisrts and arrangements will ensure that compensation, resettlement and rehabilitation are carried out timely and effectively.

(c) Construction work will comrnmenceon road sections only after acquisition procedures as detailed in the Entitlement Policy have been successfully initiated.

9.5.2 EntitlementPolicy

Through the Entitlement Policy (detailed in the RAP), the project is committed to ensure that the livelihoods of project-affected persons are at least restored to pre-project levels, with the opportunity to improve on living standards where possible. The Policy addresses the following adverse impacts associated with road construction activities:

* Loss of land and other privately-owned assets; * Adverse impacts on subsistence/livelihood or income-earning capacity; and * Collective adverse impacts on groups (e.g. through the loss of communal resources and assets).

To mitigate unforeseen effects on roadside communities and promote general upliftment, rehabilitation and support measures will be extended to include vulnerable social categories who may be adversely affected by road construction.

Entitlements have been developed according to domestic legislation and supplemented, where necessary, with additional measures to comply with World Bank specifications. Entitlements are organised around categories of loss (e.g. cultivation land, residential structure, commercial establishment) to ensure that persons who suffer more than one type of loss. receive compensation or rehabilitation support for each type of loss.

Road Maimnenanceand Development Project 133 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Those project affected families (PAFs) who are severely affected by land acquisition wNill qualify for additional rehabilitation and support measures. A severelv affected project family (SPAF) is defined as:

* A household who has to be resettled because of the acquisition of its house. business enterprise. or rented accommodation: or

* A household from whom land acquisition exceeds 25% of its total landholdings, in the case of landholdings larger than 0.25 ha. or 15% of its total landholdings, in the case of landholdings of 0.25 ha or smaller, or where land losses lead to the remaining landholding not being economically viable (as identified through the participatory application of context-specific criteria).

Entitlements for Land Losses

Throughout Nepal, cultivation land is at a premium and replacement land is! accordingly, not readily available. Areas not under cultivation are generallv not suitable for crop production (because of factors such as slope and poor soil quality), while agricultural resettlement on government-owned forest land is prohibited. Entitlements for land losses will, therefore, mainly be in the form of cash compensation. Every effort will, nevertheless, be made to provide additional land-based options to households whose production levels are severely affected by land acquisition. This will primarily be achieved through Local Consultative Forums (LCFs), established at VDC-level to assist with the identification of suitable privately-owned cultivation land in the vicinity for purchasing by affected households.

Temporary occupation of privately-owned will be undertaken within the framework of the Public Road Act. A temporary occupation contract will be signed with affected landowners. specifying:

* The period of occupancy; * The formula for the calculation of production losses (the market value of crops nornnallv produced on the land) and annual inflation adjustments; * The frequency of compensation payment; and * Land protection and rehabilitation measures.

Entitlements for Building Losses

For buildings, as well, compensation will be in cash. For fullv acquired houses, two approaches will be followed. Displaced households with alternative accommodation will receive a cash lump sum payment. Displaced households who do not have alternative accommodation will receive their compensation in two installments: an initial payment and a final payment after the construction of replacement housing has successfully commnenced.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 134 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Formal resettlement planning will be undertaken where more than 10 households from the same settlement/residential area have to be relocated.

Crops and Other Natural Resources

Construction works will as far as possible be planned to allow for the harvesting of non- perennial and perennial crops before land is acquired. Where crops can not be harvested or the destruction of crops is unavoidable, cash compensation will be paid, based on crop market values as determined by the Compensation Determination Committees (CDCs). All other resources from privately-owned trees (e.g. timber/fuelwood) will remain the property of the concerned owner.

Compensation will also be paid for the loss of future production from individually-owned fruit, fodder and timber/fuelwood trees, and other perennial crops. Compensation rates will be calculated by the CDCs, based on five years of annual net production for fruit and fodder trees, and three years of annual net production for timber/fuelwood trees and other perennial crops.

Community Assets and Resources

Affected community buildings and facilities will be repaired to their previous condition or replaced in areas identified in consultation with affected communities and the relevant authorities. These include schools, temples, health posts, water points, irrigation canals, water mills and footbridges.

It is not envisaged that the project will have a significant impact on communal land (e.g. grazing land). However, where such land is acquired by the project, the Departments of Agriculture and Forestry will assist affected communities in the improvement of remaining grazing areas and fodder resources to ensure that pre-proj ect levels are maintained or improved upon.

Where community-owned trees are acquired, the Department of Forestry will consult with user groups regarding future production losses and compensation modalities. These consultations will be formally recorded to ensure equitable access to rehabilitation measures. User groups will also be assisted with the reestablishment of new trees/perennial crops and the establishment or improvement of community forestry programmes.

Loss of trees in the ROW will furthermore be mitigated by means of afforestation exercises (as specified in the Public Road Act), to be undertaken by DOR in consultation with local communities and the Department of Forestry.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 135 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Rehabilitation Measures

In addition to compensation for asset losses. SPAFs will be entitled to the following allowances:

* A Housing Displacement Allowance for households who are required to relocate: * A Business Displacement Allowance for owners of commercial enterprises who are required to relocate; * A Cultivation Disruption Allowance for households whose landholdings are no longer economically viable as a result of land losses (as defined above); * Displaced households of rented accommodation will receive a Rental Stipend.

Apart from theses allowances. the rehabilitation of SPAFs will additionally be supported through the following measures:

* Counselling regarding project impacts. compensation alternatives and risks, and resettlement options (where required); * Preferential access to road construction employment opportunities, to the extent possible; * Assessment of current economic activities and potential for improvement to these activities, as well as altemative income-earning opportunities; * Assistance with training in life skills, such as household health and sanitation practices, household economics and resource management, and household micro-enterprises; and * Assistance to gain access to national poverty alleviation and credit programmes.

These rehabilitation measures will be extended to vulnerable groups in the vicinity of the road corridor who may be adversely affected by the project, even though they do not lose assets within the RO'W. These social categories will be identified in consultation with local communities and may include:

* Porters and other non-vehicular transport providers; * Tribal groups; and * Landless households.

Finally, through the establishment of Local Consultative Forums (LCFs), PAPs and local communities will be able to discuss the position of severelv affected and vulnerable people within their communities, monitor their rate of reestablishment, and recommend additional corrective measures where necessary.

Road Afarntenanceand Developmen:Project 136 EnvzronmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 9.5.3 Land Acquisition

PAFs will be given written notice of the intent to acquire their properties in accordance with the provisions of the Land A cquisition Act. They will furthermore be given written notice to vacate their properties not less than 35 days prior to the intended acquisition date.

HMG/N will not take possession of any private property prior to the full payment of compensation entitlements and, where applicable. initiation of relocation arrangements and economic rehabilitation measures. The project will make every effort to ensure that displaced households have access to replacement housing prior to their evacuation from the ROW, through appropriate advance compensation and shifting allowance payments at the time of serving the notice to vacate, or other forms of relocation assistance agreed with the concerned households.

All government taxes and duties related to the acquisition and registration of affected assets will be the responsibility of the project.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 137 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 10. IMPROVEMENTPROPOSALS

Practical proposals for the rehabilitation of degraded land and for the enhancement and development of environrnental assets were identified during road alignment inspections and discussions with local people and District officials, in line with the requirements of the World Bank TOR.

The two aims of improvement proposals, as stated in the World Bank TOR, are to:

I. Select existing areas which have experienced environmental degradation and prepare cost-effective proposals.

2. Select areas which provide opportunities as a result of the proposed highway improvements and associated environmental mitigation measures for environmental enhancement and the development of cost-effective sustainable environmental assets.

Improvement proposals have been developed for each of the proposed roads based on the following principals:

* Cost effective - potential proposals were compared to analvse the best value for money. Emphasis was placed on providing the means to achieve management objectives, not to fully fund work. * Sustainable - environmental assets must be maintained or improved over time and to achieve this the commitment and participation of local people needs to be gained. • Independenthv managed - for proposals where DOR has no authority or expertise, the relevant Departments or local bodies will be asked to manage the proposals as separate programmes funded by DOR. * No replacement of existing programs - no effective and timely existing Governmnent prograrns will be replaced by improvement proposals, although programnacceleration has been recommended. * No replacement of commercial market forces - improvements are not designed to replace mark-etforces but to assist with the means to meet these demands.

Identified improvement opportunities have been divided into two groups based on the above aims and principals.

1. Improvement of Existing Degraded Environmental Features

* Community Forest establishment and support * Trail improvement * Revegetation of degraded land * Landslide stabilisation

Road Maintenance and Development Project 138 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 2. Improvement Relating to the Proposed Roads

* Road head and mark-etcentre planning * Cash crop development

These proposals. both common and road-specific, are described below. Proposed cost estimates are outlined in Appendix 17.

10.1 IMPROVEMENTOF DEGRADEDENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES

10.1.1Community Forest Establishmentand Support

The planting of degraded land and forest enrichment plantings were considered as two separate initiatives that could be supported by the RMD Project. It was eventually decided not to support these initiatives as it was recognised that unless community 'ownership' of these areas occurs first, these proposals would not be sustainable, but merely supported by funding until it was discontinued. To promote community ownership of forests, the promotion of Community Forests is proposed.

A major potential impact of the proposed road construction, as assessed in Section 8.5.3, is the degradation of forests in the road ROIs over time. This may result from improved access to/from forests, thereby enabling easier natural resource access and removal, as well as additional forest product demands from an increased localised population near the roads and new roadside service industries.

Forests in Nepal are owned and managed by either the Government, communities or privately. Since 1979 many Government forests have been established as "Community Forests" under the Forest Act (1993). This has involved transferring the user rights of national forests to Forest User Groups (FUGs) for their management, including forest conservation, development and utilisation.

Based on field discussions and observations, Community Forests in the road ROIs appear to be better managed than Government forests, with controlled harvesting, less utilisation and greater regeneration occurring. This is essentially the result of community "ownership" of these forests, resulting in their active protection and management'8. Community Forests also have the operational advantage of decentralising management decision making from District Forest Offices (HMG) to villages (FUGs).

To date, some 6,763 Forest User Groups (FUGs) have been established in Nepal under the Community Forestrv Development Programme, covering 458,852 ha of forest and involving 736,039 households. Despite the successful establishment rate of this programme across Nepal, it is anticipated that the establishment of Communitv Forests will continue for some

s WhilstCommunity Forests are generally being well protected using controlled harvesting, it is likelythat the increasedharvesting of Governmentforests is occurringas a result.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 139 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 time. Across Nepal some 1.500 Operational Plans for Communitv Forests have vet to be prepared in conjunction with the Department of Forests due to the shortage of extension Foresters (K. Shrestha - pers. comm.). In addition. extension support for manv FUGs is minimal, limited to NRs. 500/month over the first 2 vears.

Proposal

It is proposed to assist in the creation of Community Forests within the ROIs and to provide some extension support to FUGs in the initial two years of their operation in order to achieve greater protection of forests in the ROIs prior to and following the operation of the proposed roads. This will help to improve the livelihoods of forest users by helping to achieve the sustainable use of forest resources.

This proposal is essentially aimed at forming FUGs that are motivated to manage their forests. This management will include providing protection against potential illegal harvesting that may result from the proposed roads.

This proposal involves two separate phases:

I. The establishment of Community Forests; 2. The support of Forest User Groups (FUGs).

Phase 1: Communitv Forest Establishment

The RMD Project will assist in the establishment of Community Forests in road ROIs over the initial 2.5 years of the project. This will involve establishing a separate programme within the Department of Forests under which the following additional Departmental Foresters will be employed to promote and assist with the establishment of Communin' Forests in the ROIs.

Table 68: Forester Man-month Requirements Per Road ROI

Road ROI ROI ForestArea Total ROI Area T Field Foresters Total l______(km2) (km2) Man-months Darchula 44.4 131 1 1 24 Martadi 133.7 287 1 24 Mansalsen/Martadi* l 24.7 79 l 1 24 Jumla 289.8 ! 677 3 72 Jajarklot 73.0 152 I 24 Total 565.6 l 1.326 j 7 166 * -iven the limited size of the Mangalsen ROI, the Forester responsible for this area will also cover the southern end of the Martadi ROI.

Full-time Foresters will be funded for a period of 2.5 years. Each Forester will be responsible for an ROI area of between 130-230 km2. The programme will cover the entire ROI areas but will focus on forests within 5 km of each of the destination district headquarters, with particular emphasis on the diverse forests around Martadi and Jumla.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 140 EnvzronmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Community Forests will be established by the following methodology:

1. Identification of ROIforest distribution and existing Community Forests

The Forester responsible foT each ROI shall delineate the ROI on air photos. identify forest distribution within this area and map established Community Forests.

2. Promotion of Community Forestry

Commencing at the destination district headquarters and based on ROI forest distribution and the location of existing Community Forests, the Forester will visit all villages that heavily utilise Government Forests within the ROI. He/she will inspect the forest and determine the traditional users of that forest, then organise a meeting of users in conjunction with the local VDC/Ward representatives. At the meeting the Forester will provide briefings on the different aims, benefits and responsibilities associated with Community Forests, and outline the legal process to form a FUG.

If some initial interest is shown by local people, the Forester will make a date to return within 3 months to facilitate a prospective Forest Users' Group meeting.

This initial stage of promoting Community Forestry will take approximately 3 months to complete.

3. Prospective Forest Users Group Meeting

The Forester will facilitate prospective Forest Users Group meetings. The meetings will raise awareness and start discussions amongst local forest users. The focus will be on the users' common aims and management capacity, two criteria that are used by the DFO to decide upon the handover of national forests to local users. The Forester will fully explain Community Forest policy, the legal requirements for ownership, the User Committee formation process and the forest handover process.

4. Formation of the Forest Users Group and Users Committee

Interested local forest users shall form a Forest Users Group and then constitute the Users Committee by voting to elect comrnittee members. The Users Committee is recognised as the working authority in relation to the management of the local forest that is to be duly handed over by the DFO upon fulfillment of the legal requirements.

With the assistance of a local organisation (e.g. VDC), the Forester will act as a facilitator in assisting the Users Committee to prepare its Constitution: the working rules that govern user members in terms of Community Forest development and related issues.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 141 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 5. Registration of the Forest User Group and Cornmittee

The Users Committee is required to submit an application to the DFO to register the Forest Users Group and Comrnittee. Having found the Users Group, including its Committee, constituted in accordance with its 'Constitution', the DFO shall register it and issue a formal 'Users Group Certificate' after having a bond to comply with the Forest Act 1993 and Forest Regulations 1995.

6. Preparation of an Operational Plan

Once the Users Group Certificate has been issued, the Forester shall return to assist the Users Group/Committee to prepare the Operational Plan. The Operational Plan provides a brief description of forest conditions, protection measures to be adopted, forest and wildlife harvesting management. the proposed use of income from the sale of forest products and penalties for forest offences by user members.

Handover of the Local Forest to the Forest User Group

Upon completion of the Operational Plan, the Forester will assist the User Group to make application to the DFO for the handover of the forest. The DFO, upon investigation into the application and after alteration (deemed necessary) with the consent of Users' Group, shall issue the 'Handover Certificate' to the Users' Group.

Phase 2: Forest User Group Support

The RMD Project will assist with the support of the Community Forests that it assisted to establish within the ROls, following the establishment phase, up until the Foresters' 2 year terms of emplovment are completed. Extension support shall be tailored to meet each Forest User Group's Operational Plan objectives and their requests for support. This support will most likely include:

* Silvaculture workshops - advice on the management of forests to promote regeneration and biodiversity, and optimise production. This shall include discussion on sustainable harvesting rates and forest regeneration techniques (including species selection and seedling planting).

• Nursery establishment workshops - advice on establishing nurseries for the replanting of Community Forests. degraded areas and other sites. This shall include advice on all necessary techniques for growing different seedling species.

The estimated cost of this proposal is NRs. 6.320,000 (see Appendix 17).

Note: forest enrichment plantings within degraded forests to improve forest production, and a programnnmeto encourage the protection of medicinal plants in the Martadi and Jumla areas, were assessed as separate proposals. It was concluded that these two initiatives

Road ,l.ainienance and Development Project 142 Environmental impact Assessment - April 1999 would only work under the framework of local forest management provided by Community Forestry, therefore they have not been proposed.

10.1.2Trail Improvement

After the proposed roads have been constructed, a number of existing neighbouring trails will continue to be used, with some trails leading to the roads actually increasing in usage.

The main trail from Sanfebagar to Mangalsen will continue to be used following road construction because it is a far shorter foot access route. Existing village trails that will be crossed by the Jumla road will play a more important role in local transportation as foot access to the roadside will be important.

Additionally, existing major trails that lead downslope to the proposed road alignment are often poorly drained and eroding. If these trails are not drained they will concentrate runoff onto the roads at trail intersections, thereby increasing the potential for erosion.

Proposal

It is proposed to improve two sections of the main trail to Mangalsen and four separate trails that lead to the proposed Jumla alignment in order to provide better, more stable access and to prevent the diversion of large volumes of runoff onto the roads.

Mangalsen: a 500 m section of the main Mangalsen trail that runs southwards down a ridge towards the Kailash Khola foot bridge, is eroding due to uncontrolled runoff. It is proposed that this section of trail be stabilised by constructing permanent, rock-lined drains across the trail at intervals of 50-80 m, depending upon the slope. As this section of the trail is generally located on the ridge, drains will only have to be 10-30 m in length. Additionally, no settlements or cultivatiorn land is located on this ridge therefore drain outlet points will be easy to locate.

In addition, it is proposed that the final 2,000 m of the main trail leading southwards up to Mangalsen also be stabilised by the construction of rock-lined drains. This section of the trail has severely eroded and is now 1-3 m below the level of the adjacent hillside. If left unchecked, part of this section of the trail, will divert runoff onto the proposed road, which meets the trail at least once.

Rock-lined drains should be constructed at 50-80 m intervals to divert channalised runoff off the trail. These drains should generally be located at changes in slope and where the track level is similar to or higher than the level of the adjacent hillside. Drains should outlet into stable drainage lines, not onto agricultural fields or similar production areas. In addition, steps will be constructed down road cut and fill batters froni/to the trail to reinstate sections of the trail cut by the road formation.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 143 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Jumia: four existing trails that lead from nearbv major settlements to the proposed Jumla road will form primary accessways to/from the road. These trails are generally eroding due to uncontrolled runoff. It is proposed that 5,200 m of these trails (Table 69) be stabilised by constructing rock-lined drains at 50-80 m intervals across the trails to divert channalised runoff off the trails, as proposed for the Mangalsen trails.

Table 69: Jumla Trails for Improvement

Location Length ______. (approx. m ) Sirangaonto Chati 1.000 Roadside to Manma 3,000 Roadside to Kalikot 500 Roadside to Ghorivana 700 Total L 5,200

These proposed works include the improvement of the trail to Manma, the Kalikot District headquarters.

The proposed Mangalsen and Jumla trail improvement works shall be undertaken by VDCs, with DOR providing technical advice and overseeing the quality of work. Separate contracts shall be let to a number of VDCs, with the total length of trail under a single contract limited to 3,000 m in order to distribute employment. Implementation shall be carrned out durin2 the associated road construction.

The estimated cost of this proposed is NRs. 488,000 (see Appendix 17).

10.1.3 Revegetation of Degraded Land

A 1.5 ha area on the low ridge on the main Mangalsen trail, immediately north of the Kailash Khola foot bridge, is bare and severely eroding. It is proposed to construct permanent drains on the trail that runs through the centre of this area to stabilise it (see Section 10.1.2), but vegetative cover is also required to stabilise the site.

Proposal

It is proposed to stabilise this 1.5 ha site by constructing earth cross drains and planting tree and shrub species. This would be achieved by employing a forester to approach the local forest users and seek their support to revegetate the site. Earth drainage banks would then be constructed by hand on a very low grade off the contour (i.e. 1%) every 40 m down the degraded hillside. outietting to each side. These works would link into the proposed trail stabilisation rock-lined drains. A brush fence will be constructed around the site to prevent grazing. The site would then be planted out and maintained for a period of 2 years.

The forester would provide technical advice, arrange planting stock and oversee the work.

Road Mainsenance and Development Project 144 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The works will be funded by DOR. including labour, tree stock and other materials, whilst it is proposed that it is managed by the Department of Forests, who would employ the forester and oversee the quality of the work.

The estimated cost of this proposal is NRs. 85,000 (see Appendix 17).

10.1.4Landslide Stabilisation

A landslide stretching for approximately 200-300 m below Dhand Bhikhma village, adjacent to the Jumla alignment, will eventually destabilise the village and adjoining agricultural fields. The slide will also eventually impact upon the proposed road alignment if left unchecked.

It appears that the landslide can be stabilised by vegetative means and sufficient interest exists in the village to provide labour.

Proposal

It is proposed to stabilise the landslide if it is cost effective to do so. An initial assessment of the site will be undertaken by a Geotechnical Engineer to assess the slide, design works, discuss stabilisation options with the affected people and estimate costs for the most cost- effective method of stabilisation. If the cost of works is under NRs. 250,000 utilising local labour (half donated and half voluntary) the works shall be undertaken, funded by DOR.

It is proposed that the Department of Soil Conservation oversee the work, coordinating with the local VDC. Implementation of this proposal should commence as early as possible, when Jumla road construction commences.

The estimated cost of this proposal is as much as NRs. 324,000, based on NRs. 74,000 for the initial study and as much as NRs. 250,000 for the works (see Appendix 17).

10.2 IMPROVEMENTSRELATING TO THE PROPOSEDROADS

10.2.1 Road Head and Market CentrePlanning

Following the construction of new roads, businesses and dwellings commonly encroach upon the roads, particularly at road heads, existing market centres or where main trails cross the alignments. Buildings are usually constructed well inside the 30 m ROW, particularly in steep terrain, often reducing the road width to less than 15 m. In addition, the narrowed road is used for commercial activities, including the loading, storage and sale of materials. This unpaved/ungravelled road surface is usually poorly drained, and results in a boggy area during the monsoon and localised excessive dust in the dry season.

Road Maintenance and Developmenm Project 145 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 On some bitumen roads inspected in Nepal the encroachment of structures within the ROW has been controlled bv the tarring of a wide road area through villages to provide a large. dry. useable area for local people. This has resulted in buildincgsbeing constructed up to the edge of the tar., leaving the bitumen area free.

Proposal

At each of the five proposed district headquarter road heads and at major existing or potential market places along the proposed alignments. market centre planning shall be undertaken. This shall involve:

1. Planning: a Town Planner shall walk each aligmnent prior to road construction to identift potential major market centres. An assessment will be made of the likelv activities and structures that will develop at these potential sites, as well as at existing major markets and the proposed road heads. A basic market place plan will then be formulated in consultation with each local VDC. which will include a minimum main road width of 25 m, the location of the bus park. the drainage plan and access laneways between building sites.

Note: due to local personal interests regarding increased land values, the Town Planner shall select the best market place site prior to seeking VDC input. Selection shall be based on finding a flat site, where possible, which can be adequately drained.

2. Survey: the Town Planner shall survey, peg and sketch each proposed market centre and road head site, providing the VDC with a copy of the plan and walking them through the pegged area and development restrictions. Painted rocks or tree trunks shall be used to delineate the site.

Construction contract: following road head and market place planning, the proposed road formation and graveling specifications will become part of the forthcoming road contracts.

4. Road formation, drainage and gravelling: road formation and drainage shall be constructed in accordance with the market place plan. The road shall then be gravelled to a depth of 250 mm through the market place and for a distance of 60 m on either end. The width of gravel will be 25 m through the market area. The edge of the graveled area will be clearly defined by masonry drains and/or peg or markers following graveling.

Two Town Planners will be employed to undertake the above planning. One planner will cover the Darchula, Martadi and Mangalsen roads, whilst the other will cover the Jumla and Jajarkot roads. They will be employed for a period of four months each.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 146 Envwronmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 This proposal will be funded by DOR, whilst it is proposed that the employment and management of the Town Planners be undertaken by the Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning. The implementation of the road plans. including road formation, drainage and graveling works will be undertaken by road construction Contractors and managed by DOR.

Planning should be undertaken prior to anv road construction so that rational, unencroached road head and market centre areas can be selected. The works at these sites should be undertaken at the start of the contract for each section of road leading to a planned site so that they are established well prior to the first traffic.

This proposal, based on the establishment of the 5 road heads and 10 other market places, is estimated to cost NRs. 3,683,000 (see Appendix 17).

10.2.2Cash Crop Development

The construction of the proposed roads will enable perishable agricultural produce to reach new markets and will reduce the cost of the transportation of produce. It should also reduce the cost of some agricultural inputs. Accordingly, there will be opportunities for the development of cash crops where suitable land and climate types exist within the road ROIs.

At present, excess production or low prices for citrus fruit, apples and potatoes is occurring in some of the destination district headquarters. The development of cash crops may actually help to reduce the quantity of forest products harvested for sale by providing an altemative income.

Proposal

It is proposed that DOR fully brief the Department of Agriculture about the location and programming of RMD Project new road construction as soon as project funding has been approved. This will enable the Department of Agriculture to integrate the agricultural production and market development opportunities that will be provided by this development into its long-term extension programme.

The briefing will be undertaken by the preparation of a summary report on the proposed road construction programme and a briefing meeting.

Road Mfaintenance and Development Project 147 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 11. PROJECT BENEFITS AND COSTS

11.1 PROJECT BENEFITS

Project benefits. largelv relating to economnicdevelopment, have been described in detail in Section 8. In terms of quantification of the net benefit of each road. the internal rate of return (IRR) was calculated for each road over a 25 year period and is detailed in Table 70.

Table 70: Internal Rate of Return of Project Roads

Proposed Road InternalRate of Return ~~~(%)I Darchula 12.2 Martadi 51.7 Manaalsen t 18.1 Jumla 47.2 Jajarkot I 65.3 [Average l 38.9

The average IRR for the five proposed roads is 38.9%.

11.2 PROJECT COSTS

11.2.1 Road Construction Costs

Cost estimates for the construction of the proposed roads are detailed in Table 7 1.

Table 71: Road Construction Cost Estimates

|Proposed Road | EstimatedCost (NRs. million) AveragePer Total _ Kilometer Darchula 7.483 264.9 Martadi 7.631 281.6 Man2alsen 5.415 79.6 Jumla 9.965 880.9 Jajarkot 5.333 112.0 Total 8.243 1,619.9

11.2.2 Environmental Mitigation Costs

The cost of environmental mitigation measures has been estimated in Table 72. No allowance has been made for mitigation measures that are included in the standard road desions. including drains. retaining walls and other standard road works. In addition, the cost of the supervision of environmental mitigation works by the Supervising Consultant has also not been costed in this section as it is covered in the total cost of project supervision.

Road Mvaintenanceand DevelopmentProject 148 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment - April 1999 Table 72: Cost Estimates of Environmental Mitigation Measures

Estimated Estimated l Proposed Road* | Total Cost Measure Total Cost/Unit Darch. Martadi Mang. Jumla Jajarkot (NRs.) Units (NRs.) I Bio-engineering 866.928 m: 70 8.889.000 13.624.000 5.836.000 25.476:000 6.860.000 60.685.000 works (86.7ha) (126,989) (194.625) (83.376) (363,938) (98.000)*

Construction of 47 11,000 88.000 165,000 77.000 132.000 55,000 517,000 standpipesand (8) (15) (7) (12) (5) associated drains l Constructionof 23 9,000 27,000 54.000 27.000 81,000 18.000 207,000 trail steps to/from (3) (6) (3) (9) (2) the road l Reconnectionof 30 3.500 7,000 98.000 28.000 77,000 14,000 224,000 major irrigation/ (1) (14) (4) (11) (2) drainage channels Total 9,011,000 13,941,000 5,968,000 25,766,000 6,947,000 61,633.000

*the number of units estimated for each road are provided in brackets.

The total estimated cost of environmental mitigation measures in NRs 61,633,000.

The area of bio-engineering required along each road has been estimated by multiplying batter areas for different slope class cross-sections by the associated road lengths, except for Jajarkot where the total batter area was estimated.

The average cost per m2 of road batter to be bio-engineered was calculated by estimating the based on extent of each of the recommended techniques along the proposed roads. The unit rates for each technique are provided in Table 73. It is estimated that bio-engineering will cost an average of NRs. 70/m2. This cost includes the maintenance of planting for 1 year (I 15% allowance), which covers the replanting of areas or individual plants that have not survived due to normal conditions. The replanting of slides due to slope instability is not included in this estimate.

Table 73: Bio-engineering Cost Rates

Bio-engineeringMeasure Unit Rate/Unit (Ns. IL Slopepreparation l m2 5.6 Grassplanting I m: 37.0 Tree/shrubplanting I plant 15.3 Brush layering lmI 35.4 Fascines I m 38.4 LBolster cvlinders I m 229.7 Palisades i m J 116.3 Jute netting 1 m2 l 69.3

The number of standpipes required has been estimated at one standpipe per 2 km of settlement/cultivation land use along each road. The distance of settlement or cultivation crossed provides a good indication of the number of water supply lines that will be cut.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 149 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The number of trail steps that need to be constructed has been estimated for each road based on the number of significant trails that cross the proposed road and will continue to be used following road construction.

The number of major irrigation and drainage channels requiring reconnection bv either pipes or channel reconstruction has been estimated by doubling the number of these features recorded in the 15 m wide ROW during the field survey.

11.2.3 Environmental ImprovementCosts

The costs estimates of environmental improvements proposed in Section 10 are summarised in Table 74. The total estimated cost of environmental improvements is NRs 10.914,000.

Table 74: Cost Estimates of Environmental Improvement Measures

Measure | Improved Road l Total Cost |Darchula Martadi Mangaisen I Jumla Ja'arkot (NRs.) Community Forest 903,000 1,354,000 451.000 2,709,000 903,000 6,320,000 established/support | | . Trail improvement - 158,000 330,000 - 488.000

Revegetation of degraded - 85,000 85,000

Landslide stabilisation - - - 324,000 - .324,000

Road head and market 664,000 692,000 276,000 394,000 3683,000,1,657,000 centre planningw 1 l Cash crop development 14 000 Total 1,567,000 2,046.000 { 970,000 5,020,000 1,297,000 10,914,000

* - The cost estimate for each road has been calculated based on its road distance.

Road Maintenance and Deve!opment Project 150 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 12. PUBLICCONSULTATION

The preparation of this EIA involved consultation with local people. Government officials and other stakeholders during the scoping of the EIA. data collection and alignment selection. and formulation of mitigation and improvement measures.

The people consulted and subjects covered during the course of the EIA are summarised in Table 75.

Table 75: Summary of Public Consultation

EIA Phase People/Organisations Consulted I Subject

Scoping All interested stakeholders. Notification of the proposed development and canvassing of opinions on environmental impacts. People living along the proposed alignments. Project introduction and identification and community representatives. of environmental and social issues related to road development and potential mitigation measures. District Government Officials, Chief District Officers, Local Development Officers, Chairmen of District Development Coimmittees. Kathmandu-based Government and non- gg m_ment organisations Data Collection and Local people and VDC representatives. Identification of potentially affected Aiignment Selection household and community assets; presence of protected flora and fauna species; forest use. District Government officials. Local development issues, agriculture, forestry, wildlife, health issues in the project districts. Sample surveyed households and businesses, Household statistics; opinions on and other affected households during asset potential asset loss and population l recording. displacement. Formulation of Mitigation and Samples surveyed households and Compensation and resentlement Improvement Measures businesses. preferences, interest in working on the proposed roads. GTZ ("green roads"). Low impact road design and Gconstruction methods. IUCN. Road construction contractors. Employment of local labour in road construction. Engineers Association of Nepal, Geological i Comments on the draft EIA. Society of Nepal. l_j

Road Maintenance and Development Project 151 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 12.1 EIA SCOPING

Public consultation during EIA scoping involved publication of a Public Notice. discussions with local people along the proposed alignments, discussions with Government officials at destination District Headquarters and a Scoping Workshop in Kathmandu.

A Public Notice was published in the national Nepali newspaper Gorkhapatra on 8/6/2055 (24/9/98), as per the Environmental Protection Regulations 2054, Rule 4(1) and 4(2). The Notice sought "opinions and suggestions from all concerned parties to identif7 potential primary environmental impacts relating to the proposed roadworks as part of the Scoping exercise to be undertak-en for EIA and IEE studies".' The Public Notice was then mailed to the Chief District Officer of each district crossed by the alignments, to ensure that it was brought to their attention. No responses were received to the Public Notice call for comment.

Infornal discussions were then held on environmental and social issues associated with the roads with people/community representatives living along the proposed alignments during the walkover inspections. The demand for the road by the local people was extremely high. with discussions mainly involving the perceived benefits from the roads.

Interviews were then conducted with key Government departments at all destination district headquarters to introduce the project and scope the main EIA issues. Government representatives interviewed included Chief District Officers (CDOs), Local Development Officers (LDOs) and chairmen of District Development Committees (DDCs) (see Appendix 2).

A Scoping Workshop was held in Kathmandu on 30/10/98 to provide Kathmandu-based Government and non-government organisations with an additional opportunitv to identify potential primary environmental issues. The meeting was attended by nine Government and three NGO representatives (see Appendix 3). The issues raised in the meeting were incorporated into the Scoping Report which was subsequentlv submitted to MOPE.

12.2 DATACOLLECTION AND ALIGNMENTSELECTION

WValkoverinspections of the proposed road alignments included discussions with local people to collect sufficient local data to estimate the likely major environmental impacts and, where necessary, to receive comment on alignment preferences at some specific sites.

12.2.1Data Collection

Local people were interviewed about forest and other natural resource use, and the conservation significance of local ecology. This data was recorded on Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets (Appendix 7). They were also asked about a range of other environmnentalfeatures, including the presence of historic or archaeological sites.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 152 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The potential indirect impact of increased forest use over time on the local ecology included structured forest use and protected species interviews. Interviews were held with an average of one local forest user per 4 km of alignment to identifv local forest use and management, and the local presence of protected flora or fauna species. The interviews were directly related to forests and other major local natural resources crossed by or within the region of influence of the roads. The interviews included a checklist of protected species (plants. animals. birds, reptiles, fish) and questions on forest use, ownership and management. In addition, the sample socio-economic survey included questions on natural resource use.

A rapid assessment of potential impacts on private and community assets (e.g. houses, cultivation land, schools and temples) was undertaken during the walkover surveys. All potentially affected assets were recorded on Summary Asset Registers during the subsequent joint socio-economic and engineering surveys. This included recording asset types and ownership details (where available) and an estimate of asset sizes.

A sample socio-economic survey of 197 households and 90 businesses was also undertaken to:

* Establish average household size and composition, landholding sizes, local reactions to potential population displacement and resettlement preferences;

* Gain an understanding of local agricultural and economic activities, obtain individual reactions to assets losses, and discuss possible compensation/mitigation options;

* Establish the willingness and availability of local residents to work on the road construction. The employment of local labour was also discussed with community representatives during the walkover surveys and settlement group discussions, as well as wvithdistrict officials.

The sample for the various questionnaire interviews and group discussions is shown in Table 2.

Consultation and information collection at district level was undertaken based on the District Interviewi Sheets (Appendix 8). Interviews were conducted with key Government Departments at all destination District headquarters, including the Administration Office, Development Office, Agricultural Office and Forestry Office. Interviews were also conducted with VDC and community representatives.

Agricultural production information was collected from District Agricultural Development Offices. Structured interviews were held with District Forest Offices to identify Government and Community forest ownership within each VDC crossed by the proposed road alignments, legal and illegal natural resource use in the area, high conservation value features, and other forest management issues.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 153 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 The socio-economic survev interviews were supplemented with group discussions at selected settlements. The structured discussions covered topics such as: perceived benefits and disbenefits of the roads; impacts on local agriculture and livestock farming; impacts on natural resource use; impacts on local businesses and economic activities: and compensation options and preferences.

12.2.2Alignment Selection

Discussions were occasionally held with local people regarding their preference for the road alignment. This occurred along the final 20 km of the Jumla alignment where the two main alignment options were through settlements or across cultivation land.

12.3 FORMULATIONOF MITIGATIONAND IMPROVEMENT MEASURES

Existing roads in the locality of the proposed roads were inspected to identify the local environmental impacts associated with road construction. During these inspections brief informnal discussions were held with individuals if they raised issues or at sites where specific issues were present.

Structured interviews were conducted with 22 Contractors (seven category A. three category B, 11 category C and one category D) to obtain their views on the employment of local labour in the road construction sector. Discussions concentrated on recruitment and emplovment preferences and practices, availability of local labour, benefits and constraints associated with the employment of local labour and general labour management practices.

The assessment of the potential for general district-level social development involved structured interviews with district officials (e.g. Chief District Officers, Local Development Officers, Health Officials) to discuss the key social issues and explore development opportunities associated with the road construction (e.g. stimulation of the local economy and improved access-to markets and social seTvices).

The household interviews and group discussions provided people the opportunity to identify/discuss potential local development benefits associated with the road construction and operation.

A presentation of EIA impact findings and proposed mitigation and improvement measures was made at a Government and NGO stakeholder meeting in Kathmandu on 15 April 1999.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 154 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 13. CONCLUSIONS

The roads are anticipated to improve general mobility and access for a estimated population of 124,314 in the road VDCs, and nearly 370,000 in the roads' wider region of influence. The living standards of these people may be enhanced through an improvement in access to market centres and towns in the Terai, health facilities and schools.

In regard to road design, the RMD Project has incorporated environmental mitigation measures into alignment refinement, road specifications and construction management recommendations (see Diagram 2). Sensitive bio-physical and socio-economic features have been avoided along the proposed alignments wherever possible by refining the general alignments proposed by DOR. Road specifications, operating within "low cost" road design limitations and standard DOR specifications. have been prepared to achieve effective operational roads, long-terTn road stability and low maintenance costs, and to minimise environmental impacts. In addition, the Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) has included a strict construction supervision and reporting methodology to try to ensure that designed road works are constructed.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 155 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 IDiagram2: Main Constraints, Mitigation Measures and Likely Benefits and Impacts

Major Constraints Main Mitigation Measures Main Likely Impacts i Benefits

* Bio-phvsical . Alignmentselection . ROW land loss (295 ha) - steep topography' - avoid sensitive features * Increased land instability - often unstable geology * Road design * Some ecological degradation - monsoon rainfall - maximise road stabilitn * RO' structure loss * Socio-economic . Construction supervision (est. 417 buildings) - relatively high population densitn * Compensation'rehabilitation * Population displacement - intensive land use - for private asset losses (est. 166 households) * Available funds - for house/business displace. * Improved access - "low cost" roads - for community facilities ' Stimulation of the local economy

A relatively high 'low cost" road design has been proposed, incorporating significant slope stabilisation and drainage measures. The construction of these measures will significantly lengthen the annual operational periods of the roads and minimise the level of envirornmental impact that will result, particularly in terms of land stability, loss of productive resources and off-site damage to adjacent features, primarily from excess fill disposal and sedimentation. These measures will also significantlv reduce the subsequent maintenance costs incurred.

The construction of the designed road works by the construction Contractor is the final main determinant of environmental impact. If construction is regularly and strictly supervised against the road designs and EMAP conditions, including non-payment for sub-standard work-,environmental impacts can be effectively minimised.

The major potential project environmental impacts and associated mitigation measures are surnmarised in Table 76.

Road Maintenance and Development Project 156 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 Table 76: Summary of Major Potential Environmental Impacts and Associated Mitigation Measures

Potential Environmental Impact | Main Mitigation Measures Loss of agricultural land and I * Location of alignment on lowest value land. forest resources along the ROW * Cut and fill balencing where possible. * Controlled disposal of excess fill. * Extensive use of retaining walls on 25-605 slopes, including breast walls to stabilise cut slopes below irrigated cultivation. Landslides * Location of road alignment to avoid major unstable sites wherever possible. * Minimum excavation by attempting to balance cut and fill, and by the extensive use of retaining walls on 25-60° slopes.

Useof controlled blastinsg._ Erosion and Sedimentation * Construction of a stable road formation. * Location of cross-road drains at natural drainage sites. * Controlled disposal of excess fill. * Bio-engineering. Ecological degradation * Promotion of Community Forestry in the ROW. * Prohibition of forest resource use by construction workers, and supply of kerosene for cooking to workers. Loss of private assets * Asset compensation - cash at replacement cost for full or partial loss of buildings; cash at market value for land losses; support with identification of replacement land. * Lease of temporarily occupied land. * Displacement allowance for relocated households and businesses, and disruption allowance for severe impact on agricultural production. * Rental stipend for occupants of rented accommodation. * Cash compensation for loss of trees, based on 3-5 years annual production losses. Loss of community services and * Repair or full replacement of facilities. facilities Impacts on cultural traditions * Support programmes and counseling. Social and economic * Support programmes for alternative income-generating development opportunities. * Support with access to poverty alleviation and credit programmes.

Road Maintenanceand DevelopmentProject 157 EnvironmentalImpact Assessment- April 1999 14. REFERENCES

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Road Maintenance and Development Project 161 Environmental Impact Assessment - April 1999 APPENDIX 1: Design Standards for Road Construction

Construction Development Stage 11(ii) - Fair Weather Earth Track Design Standards for Hilly Terrain

Design Standards FeederRoad

Right-of-way(m) 30 Formationwidth (m) 4*5 Carriagewavwidth (m) _4.5 Shoulderwidth (m) Camber (%) 5 Minimumhorizontal curve radius (m) 12.5 Minimumvertical curve radius (m) |150 Maximum goradient()12-2 Limitationof the maximumgradient length (m) I300 Minimumculvert size (mm diameter) 1 600 Pavementsurfacingc Earth Streamcrossings Ford I - a 15m wideROW has beenadopted for the RMDProject. 2 - sectionsexceeding 7% mustbe pavedwith either clay-bound macadam or gravel. Source:Department of Roads. 1994. APlPENDlX)2: D)istrictOffiiciIs aii(i Otliers Interviewved

Rload Name lal I)'e risol Desiglaationland S(Irnmaryof Discussin lInterviewedl OrganisationiSemnryf lstsji 1. D)arclhula 3 Nov'98 RamilKaji Act. (1)0 - Darchula a) 'I'lheproposed roa(d will assistthe Chaimieliyaand Suniserahy(dro power plant. Klianal District b) Iocaltdevelopimienit projects will be completed in time becauseof' timilely available of raw materials. c) Problemnsof travelling IthrouighiIndia will be minimise(l. d) Easyaccess and frequenttravel within the Nepaleseterritory. e) Envir-onimentaldegradation, restricte(d me(dicinial herbs as well as timber may be smiuggledto India. 1) 'I'lherewill be accessto export antdimport commodities within Nepal. Peoplewill get reasonable ._21. Oct'98 ……___ - .price for export as well as import of goodlsand comtodities__ ___. 2. Martladi 15Oct'98 Sitatai Pokhrel CD)O- 3ajura a) Accessof conisuimergoods easily withi low price. District b) E'asyaccessibility of constr-uictionmaterials for the local developimienitprojects. c) Commuitnicationwill be very easy.Electrification in (il'ferent villages will be faster. d) Lot of applescan be exportedoutside. e) Social changemight occur. 1) Lot of agricultural land, forest will be lost dne to the existenceof road. g) Medicitial ticibs, timber will be (lestroyedas well as smiuggledout of thlecountry. h) Poli(icianswill not interfere in thieroadl consttuctiomn activities. i) Seasonalmigrationi to In(lia and othierparts of Ilic couniitrycan be checkedto certain exteinltif Ille ______.______people could get workin the roadconstruictioni. 16Nov'98 D)ibya Dev D)istrict Agricultiur(al a) Afler the consti-tictionof road, people can export apple, orange, leImo, polato etc to otlher 13hatta Office - Bajura region. b) Peoplewill motivated to grow more cash cr-ops in the (listr-ict. c) 'I'lTerewill be negativeimpact on agriculttureland and forcst sillce thicy liave to be used for tlhe road. d) t'herewill be easyaccess of cliemical fertilizers and improvedseeds. c) It slioul(dbe betterto compensatethose people whol have lessland bhul lost more. f) Compenisationshouild be more Ior the COI thIanithe ROW land. g) 'I'herewill be negative impactto thieporters and the mille owners. .______h) Road willypomote thiedevelopmnent of women. 15Oct'98 Ial l3ahadur Act. I.DO, Bajura a) Citrits as well as woolen carpet,medicinal helibscati be exportedin lhugequantitiy. 'I'hapa . b) 'I'Tiereis a hiighiprobability in the increaseof dlomesticas well as tout-ist if the link road goes fiom Rarato Khaptadand Clhededalia. c) Due to lack of road, people are suffering from higih price of foo(d items and other basic conimonlitiesfor subsistenceliving. Road Nam e Persoti DesignationandS Daleterviewel Orgaiii Summary ofDiscssion 16Nov'98 Rang Man Vice l)DC Chairman, a) Due to lack of road, the price of goocds,constrmction mater ials arevery expensive.For example, Shahi Bajura peoplehave to pay Rs. 2,200 per 50kg bag of cement. So afler the road, goods of daily needs and otlier commoditive will be easily accessiblewith low price. b) 1'eople are highly willing to participate and cooperatewith the project. I lowever those, who are goingto lose their land are not happy. c) 'I'lle mode of compensationshouild be land for land. d) 'I'lTecompensation rate for COI and ROW slhouldbe thlesame. e) LaboUrersfor road constriction can be available fi-om Novemberto March. f) Roadwill have positive impact on agriciltiuiial production since seeds,pesticides, fertilizers will be easilyavailable with reasonableprice.

______g______~)TI'herewill benoneftoi effect to thlemule and porter. ______lrwl 16 Nov'98 LDO- 13ajura I.DO askedRs. 000 as a consuiltantfees to respondthe questionsasked by the researci tearn.After

District not gettingthe moneyle deniedto diseusswitlh the socialteam. ___ 3. Mangalsen 17 Sep'98 I)aya Rain CDO - Acchaam a) ILocalpeople can sell their produictssuch asgliee, citris in higher price afterthe roal. Sharima District b) 'I'le basiccommodities such askerosene, cereals, clotlhes can bepurchlased at low price. c) T'helocal developmentprojects will be completed in time andmore projects can be (lonefor the developmentof the district. d) There was sormepolitical interferencein thieroad alignmlentbut IIOw there is no such problem. The roadaligunient fixed by the tecliical experts will be acceptedby the politicianisas well as by the communtiiity. e) Remittaniceis one of the major sourcesof livelihood of the district. This, it is very (liflictift to findadequate labour in the time of road constrtiction. 18 Sep'98 Krishnial'rasad DDC Chairman, a) After the road, the developmentactivities will be faster tlianprevious. Jaishi Accliam District b) Export of local products such as orange, apples,gliee, medicinal herbs to external mauketwill be easier. c) 'I'he level of awarenessas well as peoples incomewill increasetremtlendotusly. d) The volumeof trade i. e. export and imiiportof goods will increase. e) 'I'he installationiof bio -- gas plant will be increased. f) Seasonalas well as permanent migration to India and othier parts of the counttry will he decreased. g) Peoplehave very positive attitu(le to belp arid to co-operatethe outsiders wlhoare involved in the developmentwork of the district. hi) Specialcompensation should be given to thosewho lost all tlheirland(s or lost majority of lan(. i) A major portion of the population migrate from the district eiller for work, eduicationor lor other reasons,it is very difficuilt to find the worker to work in road constructioni. lhowever ______. ipcoplefrom the neigiboring VDC canparticipate in the constructiontaactivities. Road Name DIc _ _ Iersoii )csignatn alln(1 Summary of _iscussion Iunterviewled Origanisation__ Summ :ry Or _)isc ___sion 4. Jtuila 28 Oct'98 HiisinuNalMh CDtD1 Jittnla D)istrict a) The local developmentactivities suchias tlhe constrictioni of irrigationcanals, Irinkingwater, Sharm a healithpost, police post will he fasterby theroa(l b) Travel by plane and getting tickets is a very difficult task blrithe local people. lhe road will easethis tr-ouible c) Developimentactivities in tile villagelevel can be anticipated d) Peoplewill beinitiated for morepro(luction anid foi- export because of accessof road e) Juiollais deficit in food,so, the food stufllsand otlier re(luisitescan be brougitl very easilywith lair price f) Aller the roadis constructed,the life of thiepeople will be very fastand challenging I Ia_ .___. _DOJua_)i_tr.ct_han_ces for newmar-ket cenitres for tradelike let bal niedicine,pinitus oil will beestalbilislld _ 29 Oct'98 Slheellari LD)0 Juiila District a) Developmentactivities need a lot of construictionimaterials on time. 'Ihis, materialscan be Sliarimia carr ied out fromithe roadeasily and(in low price b) Apples, beans, potatoes and vegetables are produced in tlhe distiict. I lowever, apple is produced in massivescale anid it can be fuithierexpan(led if the road is available c) '[lheroad passestihrougih 7 - 8 VDCs of the district, so they will be benefited d) People are very mtucihpositive about the roa(l. As in other development activities suchias drinikinig water, local track maintenance,irrigation cannal, tiey will participate in road construictloll e) Peopleshiould be compensatedwhatever possible becauisepeople living here are desperately poor f) '[herewould be no probiem of labour for constrmictiotl in tlle disitrict 5. Jajarktol 3 Nov'98 I lari 3ashista LDO -- Surkihet a) Ihere is no sucihcoordiniationi between the l)epartment of Roads and District Development District Office in Surkliet District. b) P'eoplehave positive attituidetowards the construictioniof roa(ds. c) Medicinal lierbs,timber can be smiuggledoutisi(le. d) 'Ilere are not sucihcominodities whicih can be exported, however, daily consumnablegoo(s, clotlies, me(liciniesare impnt'tedin hiugeamount. e) 'Ihe road has been consideredas a prerequisitesfor development. It will help to tihcfariners, businiessimienand everybody. f) Workers are available for the road coistir-iction. g) Cashishouild be provided in tlic form of compensationfor tIhosewlio lose landor hiouise. It) '[lie roa(lmiglit createthe problenmof resettlemnciit i) 'Itle roadwill benefit mostly to tile ricihand high class persons. j) I'eople will not provide lat(i witlioutcompensation. .______k) 'Ihe mulc owner, traders may have problems after the roa(d is constiicted. 3 Nov'98 Nabaraj Raut DDC Vice Chairimiani a) PIeoplewill enjoy the transportationfacility for different purposes. Surkliet District b) 'I'he price of the consumergoods will be decreased. c) New employmentopportunity will be increased. d) The farmerswill increasetheir farm production due to the availability of market and price. e) The governmentshould managethe project-affectedpeople immediatelyotherwise it will create political and social problemsto the governmeit. 13ecausepeople are so poor, that they cannot provide their land voluntarily to the governmenit. f) Thle governmentshould provide employmentopportunity, vocational education,proper hoising to those who areseriously affectedby the project.

______~g) 'I'he tourism will be flourishedin this district afler the completioniof the roadconstrictioni. 3 Nov'98 Dolakhi CDO - Surkhet a) The district is deficit in food. Thus huge quanitityof cereal grainiare imported in the district. liahadur District Thle proposedroad will help in easyaccessible of the commodities.Similarly, the price will also Gurmng decreasein the essentialcommodities. b) The road is necessarynot only to the Surkliet District but also its neighibor-ingdistricts. c) I'he road will have positive impact on agricultiure,trade and commerce,politics, etc. d) Thlereshould be some arranigemenitto the project affected people otherwise there will be the problem for their settlement. e) 'I'lhebusinessmen will be benefite(dmore from the road. f) One separatecompenisationi committee on whicil the project affectedpeople shotild be involved to make the (lecision. g) Peoplewill not be involved in the repair an(imainitenianice of the roa(l. h) 'I'here will be no suchieffect to the porters, mule ownersand tradersafter tile constrilction of the road. Shiva Prasad CDO, Jajarkot a) Road is one of the main prerequisitesfor development. Nepal D)istrict b) Road can play a vital role for the developmentactivities in the district. c) Jajarkot district is very backward dueto lack of road transport. d) We will start to findlout the local rcsourcesand their extensiveuse after the existenceof road. e) Road transportwill assistto improve the social andeconomic status of tile local people. f) Afler the road, the proper market of local productswill be established. g) Road will assistto improve agriculttjre, businiess,small-scale iildustries, vegetable, fruits and livestock fariiiig h) Road canlplay a vital role to overall developmentof this district. i) Some conflicts may happeniwith those people who lose their houses and agricultural lan(d .______.______duringtheroad alignment by the technicians. ______t_th-tehiciai_ ____s Discussionswere also held with the following people:

1. Mr. Devi Bhakta Jaishi. District AgriculturalOfficer. Bajura District. 2. Mr. Tek Raj PanL District AgricultureOfficer, AcchamDistrict. 3. Mr. Ramesh Raj Regmi. District Cottage and Village Development Officer. Accham District. 4. Mr. Basudev Poudel.CDO, Salvan District. 5. Mr. BharatK. Budathoki,LDO, Salyan District. 6. Mr. Dhal Bahadur Singh, Head Master. Devisthal L.S. School. Devisthal VDC, Salvan District. 7. Mr. Mahesh R. Sharma. Under Secretary, Ministry of Local Development, Kathmandu District. 8. Mr. Purushowtam Kunwar, Under Secretary, Ministry of Population and Environment. KathmanduDistrict. 9. Mr. Puspa Raj Upadhayaya, Deputy Director, Department of Land Revenue, Kathmandu District. 10. Mr. Gokarna Pd. Sapkota, General Manager, Rural Housing Company Ltd. Kathmandu District. 11. Mr. Ramesh Prasad Rijal, Project Coordinator, RMRP, Department of Roads, Kathmandu District. 12. Mr. Basant Raj Gautam, Under Secretary, Ministry of Local Development, Kathmandu District. 13. Mr. M.G. Malekhu. DeputyDirector, Departmentof Roads,Kathmandu District. 14. Mr. Meghan Shah, Propritor, Rabi & Babee Co., Dang District. 15. Mr. Jagat bahadur Gharti Magar,Propritor ,Seram Nirman Sewa,Rolpa District. 16. Mr. Dilli Bahadur Raut, Propritor,Devsthal Nirman Sewa, Salyan District. 7 Mr. Bhim Bahdur Bam, Propritor ,V&B Nirman Sewa, Seeona,Kalikot District. 18. Messers Yakchya Dhoj karki and Kumar Dhoj Karki, Managing Directors, Sky Builders Pvt. Ltd, New Baneshwor,Kathmandu District. 19. Mr. Nanda K. Rajbhandari,Propritor, Shree Gokama Nirman Sewa ( Pvt.) Ltd. and Kanti Bhairab Nirman Sewa. Jorpati, KathmanduDistrict. 20. Mr. Ramesh Sharma,Managing Director, Sharma & co. Pvt. Ltd. Tripureshwor,Kathmandu District. 21. Mr. SatyalalHirachan , Propritor,Hirachan LumbiniJIV, Bhairahawa.Rupandehi District. 22. HMG/ National ConstructionCo. Nepal (NCCNLtd.) ,KathmanduDistrict. 23. Shree Amar ConstructionPvt. Ltd., Kalimati,Kathmandu District. 24. Mr. Bikram Pandey, Propritor, Kalika Construction (pvt.) Ltd., Maharajgunj, Kathmandu District. 25. PalanchowkBhagawati Construction Pvt. Ltd. Ramshahpath.Kathmandu District. 26. Mr. Anagat Ratna Kansakar, Propritor, Shree Balkumari Nirma Sewa (Pvt.) Ltd., Jorpati. KathmanduDistrict. 27. Mrs. Durga Giri, Mr. Sambhu Raj Giri,Propritors,Shree Param Bhakta Construction Pvt. Ltd. Kathmandu District. 28. Mr. Abhaya Ratna Kansakar, Propritor ,Maitidevi Construction , Dillibazar, Kathmandu District. 29. Shree HimalayanEngineering Associates Pvt. Ltd.. Maharajgunj,Kathmandu District. 30. Mr.Prahlad Sharma. Propritor ,Koshi & Neupane Nirman Sewsa.Baneshwar. Kathmandu District. 31. Mr.Kumar Dhoj Karki. Managing Director. Laliguras Construction Pvt. Ltd.. Nava Baneshwor. Kathmandu District. 32. German Technical Assistance. (GTZ), Sanepa. Kathmandu District. 33. HELVETAS, Jawalakhel. Kathmandu District. 34. CARE, Nepal. Pulchowk. Kathmandu District. 35. Mr. Surendra Singh Mahara, Proprietor, Surmiya Nirman Sews., Baitadi District. 36. Mr. Deependra Bd. Chand. Proprietor. Rauleshwor. Nirman Sewa. Baitadi District. 37. Mr. Bharat K. Karki, Proprietor, Neaven Construction, Darchula District. 3 8. Mr. Jahendra Singh Aitwal, Proprietor, Java Byas Nirman Sewa, Darchula District. 39. Mr. Kalu Singh Kumal, Proprietor, Jalapa Devi Nirman Sewa, Accham District. 40. Mr. Lokendra Gurung. Proprietor, Chandani Construction. Dadeldhura District. 41. Mr. Ganesh Singh Thaguna, DDC Chairman, Darchula District. 42. Mr. Matha Bir Singh Thapa, Local Development Officer, Darchula District. 43. Mr. Late Prem Singh Dhami, Local member of Parliament, Darchula District. 44. Mr. Heera Singh Mahara, District Aoriculture Officer, Darchula District. 45. Mr. Ram Chandra Bhatt, Technical Assistant. Darchula District. 46. Mr. Ramesh Bdr. Chand, District Forest Officer. Darchula District. 47. Mr. Nain Singh Khatri, Ranger, Darchula District. 48. Mr. Urba Datta Bhatt. Local Development Officer, Bajura District. 49. Mr. Kikmat Bdr. Shah, Local Member of Parliament, Bajura District. 50. Mr. Nanda Raj Pandit, VDC Chairmen, Bajura District. 51. Mr. Buddhi Singh Thapa, VDc Representative on the DDC, Bajura District. 52. Mr. Karna Singh Dhami, Acting LDO, Bajura District. 53. Mr. Bishowraj Pandi, Technical Assistant, Bajura District. 54. Mr. Narendra Bdr. Chand, District Forest Officer, Bajura District. 55. Mr. Bhakta Raj Giri, Ranger. Bajura District. 56. Mr. I.B. Bhandari, General Technician, Achham District. 57. Mr. Kaman Singh Bohara, Administrative Officer, Achham District. 58. Mr. Ram Pandi, District Forest Officer (Acting), Achham District. 59. Mr. Rajendra Kumar Shriwastab, Ranger, Achham District. 60. Mr. Ram Bdr. Shah, District Agriculture Officer (Acting), Jumla District. 61. Mr. Khem Raj Shahi. Technical Assistant, Jumla District. 62. Mr. Bishnu Mahat, JTA, Jumla District. 63. Mr. Sampat Lal Yadav, District Forest Officer, Jumla District. 64. Mr. Shambhu Raya, Ranger, Jumla District. 65. Mr. Jagsharad Shah. Rangier, Jumla District. 66. Mr. Deepak Jung Shah, Local Member of Parliament, Jajarkot District. 67. Mr. Om Datta Regmni,Engineer, Jajarkot District. 68. Mr. Rhidaya Nath Ghimire, Asst. District Agriculture Officer, Jajarkot District. 69. Mr. Tejendra Prasad Poudel, Technical Officer, Jajarklot District. 70. Mr. Khem Nath Chapagain, District Forest Officer, Jajarkot District. APPENDIX 3: Scoping Workshop Participants

S. Participant Organisation No. Mr. RameshBista RMDP.DepartmentofRoads

_____ Project Coordinator Mr. S.P. Upadh\aI Directorateof Roads, Western DevelopmentRegion. The Regional Director Pokhara 3 D Mr. R.C. Amarva Directorateof Roads, Far-westernDevelopment IThe Regional Director Region.Dipaval 4r j Mr. M.B. Maleku Directorateof Roads | DDG and MeetingChairman ; 5 k Mr. ShivaP. Upreti Departmentof Roads

_ Engineer I 6 Mr. Basudev Jha Ministry of Works and Transport DDG, DOR 7 Mr. Kamal R. Pande Ministrn of Works and Transport I___ SDE 8 Mr. Ghana Shvam Gurung,Project 1WorldWildlife Fund (WVWF),Nepal CountryOffice jCo-Manager I 9 Mr. Dila Raj Khanal Federationof CommunityForestry Users | Leeal Advisor 10 .SPOMr. Naravan Dhakal King MahendraTrust for Nature Conservation Mr. Sushil Bhattarai Ministr' of Forests and Soil Conservation Joint Secretary F12 Mr. Rabindra Maharjan Departmentof Forests Asst. Forest Officer 13 Mr. Matt Corbett SMEC InternationalP. Ltd. - ProjectEnvironmental Specialist 1 14 fMr. Eddie Barendse SMEC InternationalP. Ltd. !_ IProject Social Specialist 15 Mr. Batu Uprety SMEC InternationalP. Ltd. | Project EnvironmentalSpecialist _ 16 Mr. Rov Bartlett SMEC InternationalP. Ltd. ProjectTeam Leader 1 Mr.E7 Madhusudan Raj Joshi |_SMECInternational P. Ltd.I 1 EnvironmentalSpecial'ist S n

Other organisations invited to attend but unable to included the World Bank (Mr. Surendra Joshi). the Ministry of Population and Environment - Environrnent Division (Dr. Madhav P. Ghimire. Joint Secretary), the IUCN (Dr. Ram B. Khadka, Program Coordinator. EIA Program) and the NGO Federation. APPENDIX 4: EIA Scoping Issues

The priority EIA issues identified during EIA scoping were:

Bio-physical Issues

* Land stability - slope stability hazards. erosion. drainape. * Land loss - agriculture, forests and other resources. * Ecological degradation - direct impact of alignment clearinsg on forests, indirect impacts of road operation on forests, wildlife. protected areas and other significant features.

Secondary bio-physical issues:

* Archaeological, cultural and religious sites * Air qualitv - Water quality * Noise e Geographically significant features * Refuse pollution

Socio-economic Issues

* Population displacement. * Loss of assets - structures and productive resources. * Social development potential. * Employment. APPENDIX 5: Road Alignment Recommendations

Appendix 5.1: Darchula Alignment Recommendations

1. From the existing roadhead at 93.000 km to the southern and western edges of Thakthali village. run the alignment at least 10 m vertical above the four houses.

2. Near Dattu village? the alignment should be set back at least 20 m horizontal from Dattu Temple which is located 5 m west of the main trail.

3. At Dattu village. run the alignment at least 20 m vertical above the main bazaar.

4. At Thetebagar village the alignment should run along the existing mule trail to avoid damaging the upper terraces (second terraces). A retaining wall is required along the low side of the road in the lower terraces (first terraces).

5. Approximately 500 m before Golfain village, alignment should be set back at least 20 m horizontal from the Hunenath Temple which is located immediately alongside the main mule trail. This temple has a high religious significance in the area.

Appendix 5.2: Martadi Alignment Recommendations

1. When approaching and passing Singara village, run the alignment above the houses, preferably at least 10 m vertical above. Pass the alignment on a flat grade above the village, then descend through the cultivation and grassland to the marked DOR alignrment.

2. At the Psulant Khola run the alignment well above the single house in the base of the valley.

At 22.800 km the alignment has been pegged by DOR to go through ? village. If possible, the alignment should be re-pegged to run 6-8 m vertical above the houses. If this is not possible it should run between the two small groups of houses, with a retaining wall installed on the lower side.

4. At approximatelv 28.600 km the alignment should run towards Similkot village, across the low value rainfed cultivation terraces partly overgrown by lantana. This will enable all but 60 m of irrigated cultivation to be avoided. The alignment should then turn through rainfed cultivated terraces to reach the grassland slope fronting on to the Budhi Ganga.

5. At Sayal village run the alignment 15-20 m vertical above the houses to avoid them and a lower area of cultivation. The alignment should then run on a low grade to 5- 10 m above the pipal tree on the point, possibly requiring the removal of only 1-2 houses. 6. The irrigated fields below Borabada village should be protected by running the alignment across the "plateau" of irrigated cultivation immediateiy below the small terraced hillslope below the village. Road construction at this location will therefore only require minor cut and f ill, leaving the steeper terraced slope intact. This section of alignment should run on a level grade until it reaches the rainfed cultivation to the north.

7. Once the alignment reaches the rainfed cultivation below Borabada village it should then convert from zero grade to the grade required to traverse the hillslope to the lower landslide area.

8. The alignment is planned to run on the "mule trail" (Korean aid construction) at the rear of / above Basarli village. A retaining wall is required along the low side of the road to enable the compaction of fill material and therefore minimal cultivation land take.

9. Below Tapra village the alignment is planned to run along the "mule trail", at the rear of the lower level of irrigated cultivation paddies, below the stable vertical embankment. The alignment and road design should leave the stable vertical embankment intact. Road formation would involve excavation of the mule trail and construction of a retaining wall on the low side of the road along the edge of the lower area of cultivation.

10. At Balder Tanpra Bazaar, where two shops are located, the alignnment should run along the existing mule trail to avoid damaging the upper irrigated terraces (second terraces). A retaining wall is required along the low side of the road in the lower terraces (first terraces).

11. At Dwari. the alignment should be set back at least 60 m horizontal from the Dwari Devi Temple which is located imnmnediatelyalongside the main mule trail. This temple has a high religions significance in this area.

12. At Seraghat power house, the intake pipelines should not be disturbed. The road should run over the pipelines via a bridge.

Appendix 5.3: Mangalsen Alignment Recommendations

1I The road alignment on rainfed fields below the partially-constructed Matela Primary School should run at a high grade along the right side crest of the drainage gully that flows southwards in order to reduce the length of road and area of cultivation land required. This will prevents the need for the road to cross and therefore destabilise the gully.

2. Below the raiafed fields in Matela the road should descend at a high grade across the steep lantana slope down to the hydropower canal to reduce the length of the road and excavation volume and to arrive at the lowest part of the irrigated cultivation. 3. The road should cross the hydropower canal at the lowest end of the irrigated cultivation, turning back along the edge of the cultivation down to the Kailash Khola. This will leave only a small segment of downslope cultivation cut off from the main parcel. thus reducing irrigation and drainage impacts. Additionally. minimal river bank-excavation will be required to create a ford crossing.

4. The road leading across the slope towards Matela village and above it should be on a high grade as height is required to avoid a 10 m high colluvial landslip in one of the gullies.

5. Once the road reaches its most eastern point above the Tapi Khola it should rise rapidly (e.g. at 8%) to the north to get above most houses in Nakatola village.

6. Below Radha school the alignment crosses irrigated terraces. Long lengths of gabion retaining walls or similar are recommended to stabilise the cut face above the road given the large scale slumping that would result if no retaining measures are installed.

7. The proposed alignment runs west to Khati village before switching back to the east. The road should turn at or before the powerline leaving all village houses intact and nearly all village vegetable gardens untouched.

Appendix 5.4: Jumla Alignment Recommendations

1. The alignment should descend from its starting point above Sirane village (131.900 km) towards the Kali Khola to an elevation of approximately 100-150 m above the Karnali riverbed, just below the winter grassland. From this point, run the alignment on the contour across the verv steep left bank of the Karnali River up to the Tila River confluence.

2. From the Tila River confluence to the Bhorta Gad, pass the alignment through the first break of slope just above the Tila River gorge, across the marginal land below the areas of cultivation as far as possible.

3. From the Bhorta Gad, grade the road up to the cultivation land at Rara Batis, just above the suspension bridge at Rara Ghat. passing through the grassland below the pine forest and cultivation land up to Bali Gad.

4. From the Bali Gad to the Ghatte Gad, pass the road aligznmentthrough the first break of slope above the Tila River gorge, below the cultivation land.

>. Approaching Pantadi, align the road along the toe slope just above the cultivation land and through the upslope crest of the fan up to the Pantadi suspension bridge. 6. From the Pantadi suspension bridge, align the road generally along the existing foot trail.

7. At Serabara run the alignment through the rainfed cultivation land below the existing trail to avoid of the loss of houses at Serabara.

8. At Takula run the road alignment through the grassland and rainfed cultivation above the existing trail up to east of the lower Bali settlement to avoid the loss of houses and irrigated cultivation.

9. At Bhainsegauda run the road alignment below the existing trail to avoid the loss of houses.

10. Near the Khalla Gad bazaar, the road alignment should pass through the grassland and rainfed cultivation about 100 m west of and 10 m above the existing bazaar trail to avoid the ioss of houses.

11. At Dhanad the road alignment should pass through the irrigated and rainfed cultivation approximately 10 m below the existing trail to avoid the loss of houses.

12. At Rachuli the road alignment should run approximately 5-10 m below the existing trail through rainfed cultivation and grassland to avoid the loss of houses and to improve the road grade.

13. At Dhad Bhigrna and Chyar Bhigma the road alignrnent should pass 20 m north of the existing trail through irrigated cultivation to avoid the loss of houses.

14. At Kalikot Nagma run the alignment 30 m horizontal and 3-5 m below the existing trail through the rainfed cultivation to avoid the loss of houses.

15. At Jumla Nagma run the alignment approximately 20 m horizontal and 2-3 m above the existing trail to avoid the loss of houses.

16. At Rara Sita Nagar run the alignment 60-70 m horizontal and 5-10 m above the existing trail to avoid the settlement.

17. At Kudari the road alignment should run approximately 40 m horizontal and 3-5 m below the existing trail to avoid houses.

18. At Raka run the alignment 100 m horizontal and 10 m below the existing trail through the irrigated and rainfed cultivation to avoid houses.

19. At Litakot run the alignment through grassland and rainfed and limited irrigated cultivation approximately 100-300 m horizontal and about 5 m above the existing trail to minimise the loss of irrigated cultivation. 20. At Dhaulapani run the alignment though grassland and rainfed cultivation 70 m horizontal and 5 m below the existing trail to avoid the loss of houses.

21. At Larmi and Nawaghat run the alignment through irrigated cultivation approximately 50 m horizontal and 3 m below the existing trail along the embankment of the irrigation canal to avoid the loss of houses.

22. At the Um Khola and Shridiska run the alignment through the irrigated cultivation along the embankment of irnigation canal to avoid the loss of houses.

23. From Micha village to Jumla Khalanga run the alignment about 3-5 m below and 30-200 m horizontal from the irrigated cultivation to avoid the loss of houses in Micha, Tallo Rawatbada and Jumla Khalanga villages.

Despite of the changes in alignment from the existing trail to avoid the loss of structures and prime agricultural landI four houses at Tatopani village fall within the road ROW. Similarly, a total of about 25 houses fall within the ROW near Kudari, Raka, Dhad Bhigma, Rachuli and Dhanad villages.

Appendix 5.5: Jajarkot Alignment Recommendations

1. When approaching and passing Dhaira village at 87.500 km, run the alignment below the houses, preferably at least 30 m horizontal from the flat terrain. Pass the alignment on a flat grade, then descend through the forest and shrubland along the DOR pegged line.

2. At 88.500 km the alignment should run at least 20 m vertical below the houses, passing across cultivated land along the DOR pegged alignment.

3. Once the alignment ascends to the hill summit at 89.400 km. it should then descend and traverse a gentle hillslope to Barahchaur through degraded forest and shrubland.

4. Once the alignment reaches Barahchaur it should pass behind the Bal Primary School and run through shrubland up to Kudu village.

:. At Kudu village, the Detailed Engineering Survey team should measure and compare the total cultivated length to be destroyed by two alternative alignments: one already pegged by DOR and one running behind the village. The team will then select the alignmnentthat minimizes cultivation land loss.

6. At Metela village. run the alignment from the existing foot track to the inner side from the right bank of the Ivargad Khola. The alignment should cross the Ivargad Khola about 500 m inside and turn back from the left bank of this Khola to the existing foot track to Khalanga.

7. At Bajukosthan village, run the alignmnent 50 m vertical below the houses. The alignment should then ascend from 95.540 km to the inner side of the Pasha Gad. The alignment should cross the Pasha Gad 600-700 m above the existing foot bridge on the way to Khalanga. traversing the hillslope to approach Boharagaon.

S. From Boharagaon onwards. run the alignment uphill to below the school, following the existing foot track to its termination point at Snati Chautari in Khalanga. Hllslop 1

b - I

> 0 -20 ,= | | Hill slope |~

V' I |Irrigated

2d -3d ______z i jRainfed

> _ _ LILevel terrace Sheet L Sloping terrace

Gully > 9- |Abandoned land

______|_____| * ( Grassland IRill -| KT '| Settiement

Under Cutting I Riverine feature

Rock fall Rocks/cliffs/scree

Debris flow Hardwood L ^. I | 5 ~~~~~~~HardwoodiIj | Deep landslide Coniferous

Slow creepingi I~Strong Mixedwood

I | i Moderate I| 8 [ Shrubland

{I I Weak < 1 1 1 | Wetland f |WFreshak Dominant species

Moderate _ Government

Deeply Weathered 1 Community

- High (stable) t m < Crown density (%) High(stable)Jf

. |T I I ir I { IMature (dbh) . Moderate Immature (dbh)

Low (unstable) i Regenerating (dbh)

Height (m) - - o -

Jo~~~~~C

Village

Intersection of major track/trail

Major market

Village water intake

Standpipe / well

Electricity supply

Historical site

Temple >

Festival site l~~~~~~~* -c

X Cremation site

Other cultural site

Major geographic lx feature

Tourism site

-~~ APPENDIX 7: Forest Use and Protected Species Interview Sheets

Road: Aliatnment Chainage'Location: VDC: Forest Name: Forest TNpe: Coniferous,/Hardwood/Mixedwood Altitude: (m) Aspect: north/southl'east'west

1. Forest Use

* Primary forest use: Main products harvested:

* Secondary forest use: * Who manaaes/protects the forests: * Controls and/or fees on forest harvesting: * Other sources of vour forest products: * Sale of forest products: * Forest condition over the last 10 years improved degraded/remained the samne: * Other comments/issues:

1. Wildlife Hunted or Trapped

Species / Name Use Number/year Personal Use or Sale I (e.g. food, skin, etc.) | |

* Number of times hunting per month:

* Main locations of hunting

Location Ownershipof Place WalkingDistance I(comm., Gov., private) from Home l ______I ______(m inu tes)

F~~~~ .*__!_'I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ 3. Plant Species Legally Protected

Scientific Name Local Name Status Remark Common | Sparse Rare Ban on collection. use. sale, distribution. transportation and export Cordyceps sznensis Yarsa gomba | Orchis incarnata Panch Aunle Ban on export except processed in tlhecountry and issued permission by the Department of Plant Resources Cinnamomum glaucescens Sugandakokila Lichens sps Jhayu Rauwolfia serpenmna* Sarpaganda Silajit (rock salt) Silajit Taxus baccata* Lauth salla Abies spectabilis [Talis patra Nardostachvs grandiflora Jatamansi Valerianna wallichii Sugandabala Ban on felling transportation and export Acacia catechu KKhayer Michelia champaca [Champ Shorea robusta [Sal _ Source: Forest Act. 1993. HMG, 1995 and 1996. Nepal Gazette - Section 44/46, Additional 54/No. 32. also listed in CITES Appendices.

4. Mammals Legally Protected

Scientific Name Local Name English Name Status R Comment Com. Spar. Rare| A.ilurusfulgens* Habre Lesser Panda Antilope cervicavra* Krishnasar Blackbuck Bos gaurus* Gor budson Gaur Bos nmutus# Yok nak Wild Yak Bubalus arnee* Arna Buffalo Canis lupus* Bwanso Grey Wolf Caprolagus hispidus* Hispid kharayo Hispid Hare Cervus duvauceli* Barasinghe Swamp Deer Elephasmaximus* Jangali hatti Elephant

Felis iynx Lynx Lynx _

Hvaenahvaena Hundar Striped Hyena _ Macaca assamensis Rato bander Assamese i | Macaq. Manis crassicaudata Salakl Indian Pangolin Manispentadactyla Salak Chinese ______j ______Pangolin MVoschuschrvsogaster {Kasrurimriga Musk Deer Ovis ammon Nayan Great Tibet ______T Sheep _ _ _ _ Panthera tigris* Bagh Tiger j _ i Panthera uncia* Hiun chituwa Snow leopard | Pantholopshodgsoni Chiru |Tibetan

I antelope ji i PardofelisPantholop nebulosahogsn ChrieaDwanshe chituwa PJatanista gangetica* Sauns Gangetic dolpin | Prionailurus Chari bagh Fishing Cat bengalensis Prionodo1-pardicolor Linosang Tiger Civet Rhinoceros unicormis* Gainda Rhinosceros ! Sus sakanius' Pudke bandel TvPygmyhou Terracerzis Chauk Four-horned 1 quadricornis* antelope | Ursusarctos Rato bhalu Brown Bear Source: NPWCA. 1973. * - also listed in the IUCN Red Data Book. 1994. Note: aithough 26 species of mammals are listed in National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973, common name Pangolin refers for two Manis species. as mentioned in the Biodiversity Profiles Project Report, 1996.

5. Birds Legally Protected

Scientific Name Local Name Status | Remark Comm. Sparse Rare Bzzceros bicornis Thulo dhanesh Catreus wailichii' Cheer pheasant Ciconia ciconia Seto stork Ciconia n:gra Kalo stork Grus grus Saras Houbaropsis bengalensis Khar mujur Lophophorus impejanus Danfe _ _ Sypheotides indica Sano khar mujur Tragopan sazvra Monal | ' - also listed in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1994.

6. Reptiles Legally Protected (under NPWCA, 1973)

Scientific Name I Local Name Status Remark | ______. ___ | Common Sparse Rare Gavialis gangeticus Ghadial gohi Pvthon molurus Azingar | _ _ _ _ _ [aranusflavescens Sun gohori 7. Endemic Fishes of Nepal

Common Status Scientific Name Name Location* Common z Sparse Rare Schi-othoraxnepalensis I Asala S. macrophthalmus Asala S. rarensis Chuchche asala S. annandaiei Asala Raimas guttams Jalkapoor Psiolorhvnchuspseudechnets Titae Lepdocephalichthysnepalensis Lata Pseudentropiusmurius Jalkapoor batraensis Note: Indicatethe name of the river/streamand the altitude of the survey location. APPENDIX 8: District Interview Sheets

1. Administrative Office

Position Name Phone Fax CDO

Introduction of the project Introduction of the EIA. issue scoping and remaining planning process

* What do you see as the main potential environmental issues associated wNiththe proposed road? * What will be the benefits of improved access provided by the road? (to the district and to the local people) * What existing developments, or planned or potential development opportunities exist in the District? * Will the road assist these developments? * W'hat will be the adverse affects of improved access provided by the road? * Comments/issues 2. Development Office

Position Name Phone I Fax v ~~DDCChairman ______1Local Development Officer______Local Memberof Parliament

VDC Chairmen ______VDC Representativeson the DDC

Introduction of the proj'ect Introduction of the EIA. issue scoping and remaining planning process

* Potential benefits I'impacts of the proposed road: - transportation of the local population - export of produce

-export of goods (types of products and quantities) * Road influence area (distance and location from the proposed alignment) - transportation - export of local goods - forest harvesting and forest product export - import of goods * Other developments in the local area (underway/planned) * VDC level alignmnentinformation: - water supply facilities - villagzemajor catchments and intake points - ao-riculture - other infrastructure - cultural &-archaeologi'cal sites - electricity supplies * Availability of laboourfor construction and maintenance * Other issues/commnents 3I Agricultural Office

Position Name Phone Fax District Agriculture Officer I w j Technical Assistant

* District / VDC agricultural statistics

- total area of cultivation in the District and VI)C - total area of irrigated cultivation - total area of rainfed cultivation - District / VDC average paddy and rice yields over the past 5 years - for irrigated and rainfed land (obtain printed copies of averages) - major tvpes of ag-riculturalproduce - main trade routes - major markets - local and external - current marketing difficulties i Potential improvements to agriculture from the road - improved access to inputs - improved access to markets - cash crop development * Other issues/comrnments 4. Forest Office

Position Name j Phone I Fax District Forest Officer j Ranger |

* Total District forest cover (kIM2 ) * Main forest association tvpes * Forest cover and association types along the road corridor * Endangered plant species potentially occurring within the road region of influence (use survey form) * Local forests containing high biodiversity l Community forests along/next to the road corridor

Community Forest Location Along Corridor Area User Group

(name number) _ (ha) __l f ______

_ __ _ , ___ 1 __

- Management advantages/disadvantages of Community forests

• Major forest products harvested in the District - legal and illegal X Main sources of these products (locations) * Uses of these products - local and/or export * Likely effects of the road on forest harvesting - what, where, how far from the road, etc. * Fauna in / near the road corridor - common wildlife - endangered wildlife and habitat locations (use survey forrn) - major migratory routes of wildlife across the proposed road corridor - wildlife hunting / poaching in the area / district APPENDIX 9: Proposed Road Alignments

Darchula Road Alignment

The proposed Darchula alignment, starting at the end of current roadworks 93.000 km from Satbajh (where the road splits between Baitadi and Darchula). had been pegged by DOR for 7 km up to 100.00 km mark. This initial 7 km of alicrnment was refined during the walkover inspection to avoid unstable or steep sites and loops/hairpins.

The proposed alignment descends from the current roadhead at 93.000 km down approximatelv 50 m Tuakthali village via two switchbacks through grassland and with some rainfed cultivation. It then runs at a minor grade up to the Southern end of Thakthali villa2e. parallel to the right bank of the Gadet Khola. mainly through steep grasslands with some patches of rainfed cultivation. It then runs northwards at a minor gradient to approximatelv 50 m below-Thakthali village.

The aligonrmentdrops down to the Bartola Khola via 8-10 switchbacks through Somarjibali and Simaldhukuri villages. The main land/types crossed by the switchbacks are steep grasslands (comprised mainly of thatch grasses) and degraded shrublands on limestone bedrock. The alignment then crosses the Bartola Khola below Melak-hetvillage and ascends graduallv to Bartola village. The alignment then generally follows the existing trail via Dhumari. Bhartola and Ansingada villages running parallel to the Bhartola Khola. It then crosses a moderatelv dense Sal and tropical mixed hardwood government forest, generally following the existing trail about 100 m vertical above the Bhartola Khola.

At about 100 m vertical above the confluence of the Bhartola Khola and Mahakali River, the alignment turns northwards running parallel to the left (eastern) bank of the Mahakali River. It then runs at a minor, arade up to Bet village mainly through steep grasslands.

From Bet village. the alignment generally follows the existing trail to Darchula, running parallel to the Mahakali River approximately 10-20 m vertical above water level. It then crosses the Chuchain Khola below a moderately dense immature forest, then ascends behind Chuchain village through rainfed cultivation.

From Chuchain village the alignment generallv follows the existing trail, 30-60 m above and parallel to the Mahakali River via Udavan, Dattu, Sakar and Kankada villages, passing mainly through shrubs and grasslands with some areas of cultivation.

From Kankada village. the alignment follows the existing wide mule trail (more than 2 m) to Darchula, 20-30 m vertical above the Mahakali River mainlv through grasslands of less than 50 slope. It then passes through the middle of Dhap village following the mule trail.

At the end of Dhap village the alignment crosses the Thaligad Khola and runs 20-30 m above and parallel to the Mahaklali River through steep thatch grasslands, along the mule trail via Masinabagar and Thetebagar villages. The alignment then crosses the Kimtari Khola just before Kimtari village. along the main mule trail. At Kimtari village. it passes throuah irrigated cultivation approximatelv 20 m above the main trail.

* Just after Kimtari village, the alignment passes across a scree to the slope approximatelv 100 m wide. It then follows the main trail, parallel to the left bankl of the Mahaklali River passing through the steep. rocky grasslands. At Golfain village. the alignment crosses the Doligad Khola and passes through irrigated tar behind Golfain village where the Darchula District Hospital and District Agricultural Office are located.

From the end of Golfain village, the alignment descends to the main trail paved with concrete, then passes through grasslands and finallv reaches Darchula at Khalanga.

Martadi Road Alignment

The proposed Martadi alignment starts at the end of current roadworks at Singada village (19.400 km). The alignment passes above Singada village then descends on a low grade down to the Foolaut Gad via two switchbacks. It then ascends on a minor gradient to the Chiphalpadu Khola, crossing the Kharra Khola, Bagh Khola, Kaule Khola and Ritha Khola. The alignment then climbs up to Betalmandu village via two switchbacks, then generally follows the contour to Similkot.

The proposed alignment then switches back through rainfed cultivation and grassland which is predominantly lantana infested. As the alignment reaches the deep Baxju Khola valley it descends via six switchbacks to a crossing point immediately downstream of the existing suspension bridge. The alignment then runs parallel to the Budhi Ganga, ascending via two switchbacks through the Ratamato (Sayal) Community Forest. It then passes across grassland hilislopes, up to approximately 100 m above the Budhi Ganga, running just above Sayal and below Borabada villages, where it crosses some cultivation.

The alignment then drops down to the Khuli Gad, crossing this stream below Phalasen village, then ascending behind Basali village, generally following the "mule trail" at the rear of the village across steep hillslope grassland. The alignment generallv continues along the existing trail via Balder Tanpra and Bafaune villages.

From Bafaune village, the alignment passes approximately 10-20 m vertical above the main trail through rocky grasslands, running parallel to the Budhi Ganga. It then crosses the moderately dense Dwari forest and Dwari Bazaar. The alignment makes a switchback at Dwari Kanda to avoid the sharp bend. It then runs parallel to the mule trail and the Budhi Ganga through degraded grasslands located below mature chir pine forests up to Jadanga village.

At Jadanga village the alignment crosses the Budhi Ganga., then, via two switchbacks, crosses the Kodali Gad. It then runs several vertical metres above the main trail, parallel to the Budhi Ganga along its eastern bank. It mainly crosses steep rocky grasslands up to Rapak village via crossings over the Nunepani, Bire, Aulabisauna and Gharas Kholas, before diverting towards the Bauli Gad and entering this valley.

The alignment then descends down the eastern bank of the Bauli Gad, crossing it immediately above Seraghat village at the foot of the mountain. It reaches Seraghat power house after crossing the Gaire and Biro Kholas. The alignment then ascends into Martadi via 9 switchbacks. terminating at the rear of the Martadi Prison.

Mangalsen Road Alignment

The initial 4 km (23.000-27.000 km) of aligrnment descends a steep Chir pine forest with patches of mixedwood forest (Chir pine and Sal). The alignment then traverses grazing land (partially covered in lantana) and rainfed cultivation down to riverside irricated cultivation on the Kailash Khola.

The alirgnment fords the Kailash Khola then ascends westwards across irrigated cultivation and steep grassland hillsides, turning back to the east across a number of well defined gullies interspersed with small areas of rainfed cultivation.

On the eastern ridge above the Tapi Khola the alignment turns to the south runnina approximately 100 m above and parallel to the river mainly through rainfed cultivation and short sections of forested gullies. Immediately before an unstable stream the alignment switches back to the north. crossing rainfed and irrigated terraces with some grassland up to the Radha ridge.

At the ridge the alignment traverses westwards across approximatelv 200 m of grassland and rainfed cultivation, then across a broad expense of irrigated cultivation. Immediatelv before Khati village the alignment switches back to the east to avoid the village, agcain traversing across steep grassland slopes, rainfed cultivation and some areas of irrigated cultivation.

The alignment ascends above Naubis and Dhungro villages through rainfed level terraces via 4 switchbacks. touching the main Mangalsen trail located to the west. It then traverses towards Kurbasti village and then to Mangalsen across rainfed terraces, finishing on a small area of relatively level land on the eastern side of Mangalsen jail.

Jumla Road Alignment

The proposed Jumla road alignment starts at the current road works at 131.900 km, approximatelv 150 m above the Karnali riverbed and 60 m above the survey pegs established by Multi Disciplinarv Consultants. DOR has pegged only several hundred meters of the proposed alignment.

The proposed alignrmentpasses through very steep and rocky forested terrain approximately 100-150 m above the riverbed along the left bank of Kamali River up to its confluence with the Tila River, a distance of approximately 5 km from current road works. The initial 3-3.5 km of the road up to Kali Khola passes through dense Sal Forest. From the Kali Khola to the Tila River confluence the alignment mainly crosses rocky slopes with few scattered trees up to Tila River. From the Tila River confluence, the proposed alignment follows the Tila vallev. The alignment to Jubitha crosses difficult terrain. Tila River has made a deeplv entrenched valley in the crystalline rocks. The valley walls are rocky and rise steeply on either side for 50-150 m above the riverbed. Above the rocky cliff section a break- of slope occurs on either valley flanks, the cliff joins the lower talus slope mostly utilised for agriculture and winter cattle sheds. Further up section mountain slope are steep and rockv which join the relatively gentler slopes of the middle hill slopes lying approximately 5 00-600 m above the riverbed. It is these middle hill slopes which have been the locus area of agniculture and settlement along the Tila River valley.

The proposed road alignment passes through the first break of slope above Tila River, some 50-100 m above the riverbed. From the Karnali-Tila confluence to the Bharta Gad, past Hakma, Poripalli and Hakesaruwa villages, the road alignment mainlv traverses marginal land between agricultural land and shrubland, with several hundred-meter sections of rainfed and irrigated cultivation, forest and rocky cliffs. At Bharta Gad the road alignment enters the Deep River valley before switching back into the Tila valley. From Bharta Gad to Bali Gad, the road mainly traverses across a grassed rocky area below cultivation land. However, at Rara Batis, just above the Rara bridge, it pass across approximately 400 m of prime irrigated cultivation. Upon reaching the Bali Gad, the road alignment enters into the Bali Gad valley and switch back to Tila River. From the Bali Gad to the Ghatte Gad the alignment runs through the steep grassy and rocky slope. Near Ghatte Gad, some 500 m north of Kalikot Temple, it passes through irrigated cultivation for 200-300 m. Further north-east of Ghatte Gad alignment crosses grassland and several areas of rainfed cultivation up to Pantadi.

At Pantadi, the alignment runs through irrigated cultivation for 200 m followed by grassland. Just above the Pantadi suspension bridge, the road alignmnentcrosses the Tila River to the right (northern) bank and generally follows the foot trail (about 20-30 m above the Tila riverbed) to Jumla Khalanga and up to Bhasigauda. For most of this stretch, the road alignrment passes through rocky, debris-ladden, moderate to steep grassland. At Serabara, Takula and Bhasigauda, the alignment crosses 200 m of rainfed, cultivation then traverses 200 m across irrigated cultivation.

From Bhasigauda, the alignment leaves the foot trail and runs parallel to the Tila River approximately 10-30 m above the riverbed until it meets the foot trail north-east of Jubitha, south of Khalla Gad bazaar. The section from Bhasigauda to opposite Kamikot village crosses a steep grassland and shrubland slope below a pine forest. North of Kamikot village, below the alluvial tar of Jubitha, the alignment crosses 200 m of irrigated cultivation.

The road alignment from Jubitha to Jumla Khalanga crosses comparatively less difficult terrain as the Tila valley widens considerably. Valley slopes are relatively gentle with considerable colluvial material overlying bedrock. There already exist a 2-4 m wide foot trail 5-20 m above the river bed.

The proposed alignment generally follows the existing trail, crossing grassland or rainfed cultivation of low economic value. Irrigated cultivation lies in locations near Dhanad, Bhigma. Lihi. Kudari. Rak-a. Litakot. Larmi. Nawaghat. Um Khola. Shrediska and near Jumla Khalanga. The road alignment only leaves the trail in sections where grade improvement is required or where facilities such as settlements and individual houses.

Jajarkot Road Alignment

Chhinchu - Jajarkot road alignment starts at Chhinchu. Surkhet and runs through the left bank of Bheri River. The road alignment crosses Bheri River at about 45 km. in Salli bazaar. Salvan. During the field study period the public transports fleet were also seen up to this site. The alignnmentpasses through Melkuna. Sahare. Dharapani etc. before approaching to Salli Bazaar.

After crossing Bheri River the alignment runs from the Right Bank almost in parallel to the River passing through villages Rakam. Jamune. Baligaon. Pustagaon. Agrigaon. Kakretara Thanti bazaar and Chedegad. The mileage from Chhinchu to Chedegad is 70 km and is one of the upgrading candidate road corridors under the present project. A part some sections of hard rocks and river and khola crossings the earth track up to Chedegad is almost completed. However. formation width in some stretches of the road is to be widened including construction of side drains and other retaining structures.

From Chedegad onwards also the proposed road alignment runs along the right bank of Bheri River and runs on gentle gradient parallel to the Bheri River, occasionallv crossing cliffs. The alignment passes through Lirta, Thara, Bhutchaur, Dhaira, Laje, Kudu, Majhghat villaaes before reaching Matela bazaar. From Matela the alignment ascends with loops and cradients and reaches at Boragaon. From Boragaon onwards the alignment again ascends with appreciable gradients and ultimately reaches at Santi Chautari, Khalanga, and headquarters of Jajarkot District at a mileage of 21 km. from Dhaira and 107.5 km. from Chhinchu. APPENDIX 10: Species Associations in the ROIs

Hardwood Forests

Sub-tropical and tropical mixed hardwood broad leafed species found in the lower ROI areas below 1,200 m. Major associated species recorded in the ROIs are Shorea robusta (Sal), Terminalia alata (Saj), Alnus nepalensis (Alder). Trewia nudifiora (Gurel), Toona ciliata (Red Cedar), Ongeinia dalbergioides (Sandau), Bauhinia spp. (Tanki. Koiralo spp.) and Ficus spp. (figs). Hardwood species are generally represented by immature or mature trees, with forests close to settlements being more heavily degraded.

Temperate and cool temperate broad leafed forest species are found in the upper ROIs at the elevations ranging from 1,200-3.000 m. Major species associations are Schima/Castanopsis and Quercus/Rhododendron. Other associated species are Schima wallichii (Chilaune), Castanopsis spp. (Chestnuts), Rhododendron arboreum, Quercus spp. (Oak spp.), Lyonia formosa (Angeri), Betula utilis (Birch). AMyricaescalenta (Kafal) and Alnus nepalensis (Alder). These species appear to be depleting as well due to increasing timberwood, fodder and fuelwood harvesting.

In the Darchula ROI, no prominent mature hardwood forest is recorded. however an immature forest with a crown cover of more than 50% is located in the north facino upper slopes of Dhap village, approximately 2 km from the alignment.

In the Martadi ROI, pure mature hardwood species forest stands are mostly limited to the upper ROI, mainly in relatively inaccessible areas. They are located on the upper slopes of K.imtan and Pantali villages, approximately 3-4 km from the alignment. In addition, some forests on the upper slopes north and north-west of Martadi bazaar are covered by the mature hardwood species. The crown cover of these forests, however, ranges between 10- 50%. Immature hardwood forests with more than 50% crown cover are located on the upper slopes of Simalkot and Bangaon villages, approximately 1.5 km from the alignment. In addition, north facing upper forests of the Martadi bazaar, approximately 4 km north of the aiignment. are covered by the immature forests with more than 50% crown cover.

In the Mangalsen ROI, immature and mature hardwood forest stands with crown cover of 10-70% are located on the north facing upper slopes above Mangalsen bazaar in the Pale Ban Communitv Forest, approximately 3-4 krn from the alignment.

In the Jumia ROI, hardwood forests are widely distributed in the lower half of the ROI, mainly on the south facing slopes of the Tila River. These forests are predominantly composed of Oak species in association with other temperate broad leafed species. Mature Oak forest stands with more than 50% crown cover occur on the south facing upper slopes of Shera. Dehan and Chhapra villages, approximately 2-5 klm from the alignment. Lower hardwood forests near settlements are degrading rapidly due to an increasing forest products demand. resulting in the conversion of dense mature forests into sparse immature forests.

In the Jajarkot ROI, only a few areas of hardwood forests occur. These forests are composed of immature and regenerating tropical mixed hardwood species with crown cover of less than 50%. Thev are located on slopes near Borigaon village and are crossed by the alignmrent. In addition, regenerating hardwood forest stands are located on the upper slopes above the Pasagad Khola. Coniferous Forests

Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine) is the main coniferous species found in the lower ROIs below 2.000 m. It is harvested for wood used for carpentry. building construction and rough furniture. Chir pine is also tapped for resin which is used for the production of turpentine. The dominant coniferous species recorded in the upper elevations above 2.000 m are Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine), Tsuga dumosa (Hemlock), Cedrus deodara (Cedar), Abies spectabilis and Abies pindrow (Silver Fir) and Picea smithiana (Spruce). These high altitude coniferous forest stands are only located in the Jumla and Martadi ROIs. Abies spectabilis (Silver Fir) is a legallv protected plant under the Forest Act. 1993.

In the Darchula ROI, coniferous forests comprise only a small portion of all forests, with Chir pine being the dominant species. A mature Chir pine forest with crown cover of 10- 30% is located on the north facing upper slopes of Kimtari village, approximately 1.5 km away from the alignrnent.

In the Martadi ROI. pure immature Chir pine forest stands are located on the eastern slopes above the Budhi Ganga River. approximately I km across from Rapak village. Mature Chir pine forests with crown cover of 10-50% are located on the upper slopes of Jugarakot village. approximately 3-5 km north and north-west of the aligmnment.

In the Mangalsen ROI. a small area of Chir pine coniferous forest is located on the upper slopes of Bhartoli village in the Thaple Community Forest, approximately 3 km from the alignment. It is composed of mature or immature trees with a crown cover of 10-50%. A second coniferous forest is located in the Chule Community Forest to the south and south- west of Mangalsen bazaar, approximately 3-4 km from the alignment. This is composed of mature and immature forests with a crown cover of 10-70%.

The upper half of the Jumla ROI is primarily composed of coniferous forests. including Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine), Tsuga dumosa (Hemlock), Abies pindrow (Silver Fir), Cedrus deodara (Cedar). Picea smithiana (Spruce), and Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine). Abies spectabilis, a protected tree species under the Forest Act, 1993 is also present. Chir pine is located at the elevations below 2,000 m and other coniferous species are generally located above X,000 m, approximately 1-5 km from the alignment. These coniferous forests are mostlv represented bv mature or immature trees with a crown cover of 10-70%. Forests close to settlements are more degraded.

In the Jajarkot ROI, coniferous forests are composed of Chir pine. They consist of mature or immature trees with a crown cover of 10-70%. These forests are located on the upper slopes of Majhighat and Boragaon villages and the Jajarkot bazaar, in the Ibar Gad, Pasa Gad and Holu Khola catchments, approximately 1-4 km from the aligrnment.

Mixedwood Forests

Mixedwood forests, associations of hardwood and coniferous species. are widely distributed in the Martadi and Jumla ROIs, but less prevalent in the Darchula. Mangalsen and Jajarkot ROIs. At lower elevations below 1.200 m. associations of Chir pine. Sal and tropical mixed hardwood species are mainly found. At hiaher elevations above 1,200 m, associations of broad leafed species including Oaks, Tsuga dumosa (Hemlock), Abies spp. (Silver Fir), Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine) and Pinus roxhurghii (Chir pine) occur. These forests are covered by mature or immature species with a crowVIncover ranging between 10-70%.

In the Darchula ROI. two areas of mixedwood forest occur. The first stand is located on the upper slopes of Dattu village, approximately 2 km from the alignment. It is composed of immature Chir pine trees in association with broad leafed species. with a crown cover of 10- 30%. The second area is located in the north-eastern direction of the Darchula bazaar. approximately 4 km from the alignment. It primarilv consists of immature mixed broad leafed species in association with Hemlock. with a crown cover of 30-50%.

In the Martadi ROI, mixedwood forests are mainlv located in the upper half of the ROI. In the lower ROI. only a few areas of mixedwood forests are recorded. composed of Chir pine, Sal and broad leafed species associations. They are located on the upper slopes of Toli, Barju Gad and Juapani villages. Upper slopes across from Rila village. approximately 1 km from the alignrment.are covered by mixedwood forests of mature Chir pine and broad leafed species with a crown cover of 10-50%. A large portion of the mixedwood forests with species associations of Hemlock and broad leafed trees are located to the east and south-east of Martadi bazaar. approximately 2-5 km from the alignment. They are mainly composed of mature and immature trees with crown cover ranging between 10-50%.

In the Mangalsen ROI, a few mixedwood forests occur on the lower slopes of Jamalgaon and Bhartola village in the Kailash Khola catchment area, approximately 2-3 km from the alignment. These forests are composed mainly of Chir pine and Sal species. These forests are composed of mature or immature trees with a crown cover of 10-50%.

In the Jumla ROI, mixedwood forests in association with Silver Fir, Blue pine, Hemlock, Oak. Birch and broad leafed species are widely distributed at elevations above 1,200 m. They are located on the upper slopes of Thana, Gilam. Ghunkha, Chilthae, Dhana, Nagina villages, 1-5 km from the alignment ranging between. They are covered by mature and immature trees of crown cover ranging between 10-70%.

In the Jajarkot ROI, four mixedwood forest stands occur on the right bank- of the Bheri River below 1,200 m. Thev are mainly composed of immature or regenerating Chir pine in association with Sal and tropical mixed hardwood species. Crown cover ranges between 10-70%. They are located on the upper slopes of Majhaghat and Kolthar villages and on the lower southern slopes of Jajarkot bazaar. Two of the four forests are crossed by the alignment, whilst the other two areas are located approximately 2-3 km away. APPENDIX 11: Communitv Forests Within the Region of Influence

Darchula District ROI Community Forests

Communitv Forest Location Area Number of User ______(V'DC/Ward)C (ha) Households Shreebagar Chhapari-8 3 7.0 230 Angle Chhapari-6 4.5 194 Malena Chhapari-5 6.5 40 Kaphaldhari Chhapari-5 7 17 236 Latinath Chhapari-2. 9 162 360 Yuba_ Dhari-9 8.9 97l Daulabhuinkot Pairo Dhari-5. 6 6.3 60 Tun, tun titar Dhari-6. 7 55.0 121 i Jaiahul |Khalanga-7 F 24.3'2 100 ,Khetteba-ar Khalanga-. 8.48 1 131 Kimtadi Khalansa-I T 3.92 30 Dhaulagad Khalanaa-2 39.0 73 l Bhainskhark Khalan2a-2. 3 3.25 38 Gaipahi Khalanga-2 2.2 17 Galibab j Khalanga-3 ] 2.72 1 20 Laxmi Mahila I Khalan2a-4 0.52 19 Chiuramela Khalanza-6 36.0 1 52 | Siddhanath Khetle Khola ! Khalanga-3. 6 11 .64 76 Bhaawativuba Bha-wati-4 17.0 73 N-awalpani Kaiipal I Bhagwati-7 8.48 j 42 Ghangal Pangal Bhagwati-7 11.6 45 Bhaise Khark Bhagwati-7 6.0 48 Katai Kha]idhara Dattu-5 15.36 18 Kataiuienidhura Dattu-2 25.76 29 Sakar Dattu-9 4.50 L 37 i Malliraikhali Dattu-5 [ 18.76 30

Kataitatopani I Dattu:2 11.00 _ - _ Salghari Datr-3 i 10.8 35 Salanidhar Datw-4. 8 10.5 i 53 Bansadi Shankarpur-3. 5, 6 13.5 1 39 I Bajadi j Shankarpur-2 4.2 36 Bherepad Shankarpur-I 10.0 31 Kakreuli Shankarpur-3 11.4 104 j Kotila Shankarpur-3 9.5 104 Bhuwarkot Shankarpur-I F 16.0 | 90 Shankarpur Shankarpur- I 23.5 86 Balidhar Shankarpur-3 4.5 63 Dhampanera Chhapan-7. 9 L 5.20 j 59 Source: DarchulaDistrict Forest Office. Bajura District ROI Community Forests

FCommunitv Forest Location Area Number of User 1 I I______(MDC/Ward) (ha) L Households Basure Pale Ban Barahabish-6 0.40 127 Doil Khokila Barahabish-2 25.20 57 Badedalatamandu ! Barahabish-2 4.49 60 Mastamandu Saleri Barahabish-4 i 9.40 192l Basaddhungadand Ko Barahabish-5 50.14 92 Raupale _ , |Mathiloo Kavretola Barahabish-5 j 83.75 ! _46 Rithabira Kavretola Barahabish-7 J 19.25 57 Thulasen Nainasen Barahabish-9 j 34.00 67 ShantiBan Tali-1.2,3 6.00 92 Dhakdhake Mudhila j Tali-1,3 [ 7.00 140 Hari Pale Tali-2 4.00 125 Purbi {Tali-4 7.00 60 Gatad Tali-1,4 13.10 67 Salime Melo Kaprekat | Tali-2 16.69 40 Chandry Danda j Tali-5,7 10.00 65 Badimalika Kailashmandu-9 52.00 122 Khinaii Kailashmandu-8 12.88 ] 87 Nateswari | Kailashmandu-2 16.80 132 Sugarmela Mandupatal Kailashmandu-2 21.00 i 116 I SilkeniPada Kailashmandu-6 4.68 ! 63 Badimalika Kailashmandu-6 1.93 l 12 Pokhari Thapaldanda 1Kailashmandu-4 60.16 104 Dhanchendi Pale Kailashmandu-5 14.00 148 |Selapatal Malebasen 1 Barmhatala-5,6,7 100.00 450 !Pariban Barmhatala-1,9 100.00 205 Lamabannu Barmhatala-2 60.00 84 Laromela Baber Kantia Barmhatala-8,9 6.00 145 Kaladhunga I Barrnhatala-3 11.25 199 Kundikot I Barmhatala-3 192.00 75 l Bahukunda Mahila TBarmhatala-3 j 24.75 101 Githipani Nigal Chepto Barmhatala-4 |_27.75 102 Bandredhunga | Barmhatala-2 8.20 79 Bendughanti I Kuldevmandu-6 10.50 109 Ratomato Kuldevmandu-7 38.81 154 Saredeou Danda Kuldevmandu-9 4.34 160 :aj:u:D::haram Dharo |Kuldevmandu-9 ]6.68 I Koil Kuldevmandu-l 40.00 73

Densaxal Kuldevmandu-2 - 8.50 93 Dandugado l Kuldevmandu-5 11.00 1 71 Panipatal Kuldevmandu-6 31.25 109 |Tama Khani Kuldevmandu-4 8.75 75 Pipal Tola Kuldevmandu-4 17.50 I 39 Kamalabati | Gudukhati-5 75.00 142 2Brindaban I Gudukhati-5 75.00 172 Khadeni Patal I Gudukhati-5 l 35.00 I 12 | _Bhendbha_h JJaibageswari-6,7 73.50 I 83 Rangolotva Jaiba-eswari-6 5.60 50 BhangobuvaPatal Antichaur-4 L 24.76 ] 64 DhalaQar Antichaur-4 19.25 63 Bheralamandu Antichaur-5 0.93 35 Chandipatal Chainchaur I Antichaur-5 20.70 48 Bhautikudo Darimpani Budhiganga-5 700i i59 iRatopahad!I Bhantiodhar Budhiganza-4 88.00 197 Kardabadimalika Budhi2anga-6.7 41.56 i 198 Munakaileswari Budhiganna-1,2.3 60.00 172 Kaileshwari I Budhiganaa-8.9 22.50 132 Dhalpurimandu Jugeda-2 3379.5 109 Pinalek Juaeda-4 20.75 70 Jalpadevi Jugeda-4 F 41.50 104 iGhatala Jugeda-8 69.25 64 Kalika Saieri Jugeda-9 i 88.00 8 Bimikat IJugeda-1_ 650.00 821 JalpaJanshak-ti Krisi Jugeda-I 120.00 162 Baunidanda j Jugeda-5 j 30.25 70 Nuwakot! Juaeda-3 1 59.64 65 Janauti Martadi-3 72.30 400 Katho Martadi-3 49.00 160 BhueentalaKriodo Martadi-l 469.72 300 I Kosavado Martadi-2 352.64 655 Source: Bajura District Forest Office. Jumla District ROI Communitv Forests

Communitv Forest Location Area Number of User I (VDC/Ward)_ (ha) Households Dhanthapla Chandan Nath-3.4.5 543.0 330 Chimara Chandan Nath-1.2 102.39 210 Namuna* Chandan Nath-6. 7, 8 100.0 250 and Kartik Swami-1.2 _ l Bhagwati Mahat-7. 8, 9 28.96 1 124 Babiral Mahat-1,2,3 and 150.0 235 l ______|Chandan Nath-9 _ Churi Khola Talium-5. 6 13.0 98 Shyanli Patal Talium-7. 8 75.68 150 Maj Patal Talium-5, 6, 9 62.82 210 Shambhu Nath Talium-4 20.0 140 Maha. Dha Lamra-6.7 l 50.2 56 | _Guadaparli Lamra-1.2.3.4,5 36.33 196 GhairaBhawani Lamra-7, 8. 9 5.53 33 IMahabahi |- -Tatopani-3_ 18.15 _ _ 103 _ Romi Patal Tatopani-7, 8. 9 75.12 213 Ranka Tatopani-1, 2 161.12 195 Chimara Tatopani-6 21.74 122 Paisara Tatopani-4 8.85 53 Sim Khola fKundari-9 ] 24.72 25 Sundar Kundari-1 31.32 25 Majha Patal Kundari-8 48.87 85 Salleri Raralihi-1.3.421 27.16 155 jRani Raraihi-5,6,7 & 8 j 26.2 104 Source: Jumla District Forest Office. ProposedCommunity Forests.

Aehham District ROI Communitv Forests

Communitv Forest I Location Area 1Number of User Pal B~(Ward/VDC) (ha) Households lPale Ban Mangalsen-3,5,6,7 Thaple Mangalsen-1,8,9 1,500 IHungre Ko Pato Timilsain-1,',6,7 _ Woligaun

Jajarkot District ROI Community Forests

F CommunitvForest Location Area FNumber of User 1 ______(ha) Households Bhagwati Khalanga Bhagwati-1 105.0 150 Bohara Khalanga Bhagwati-4 42.0 100 Kukurpot Jagatipur- 1 50.0 150 Asauje Jagatipur-6 Mahila Hariyali Samuha Jagatipur-I 23.0 Janaki Khalanga-3 158.0 APPENDIX 12: Protected Plant Species Reported to Occur in the ROIs

Scientific Name Local Name I Location Darchula t Martadi Mangalsen Jumla Jajarkot Ban on collection. use. sale, distribution, transportation and export Cordvceps sinensis Yarsa gomba D-s D-r LD-c Orchis incarnaza , Panch Aunle D-s D-r LD-s LD-c.'s Ban on export except processed in the country and issued permission by the Department of Plant Resources Cinnarnomum glaucescens Sugandakokila D-s LD-c I L-c I-ic-hensspsp Jhayu LD-c's D-c L-s LD-c

Rauwolfza serpennina* Sarpaganda LD-s I ____ |_ L-s Silajit (rock salt) Silajit LD-s/r LD-s/r j LD-cir L-s Taxus baccara* Lauth salla D-s D-c LD-c/s I Abies specrabilis i Talis patra D-s D-c Vardostachv'sgrandit7ora i Jatamansi D-s LD-r LD-c L-s

Vlierianna uallichii Sugandabala ILD-c.zs D-c _ L _ L-s

Ban on felling transportation and export -

Acacia catechu Khaver D-r D-r _ I L-r Michelia champaca Champ D-r L _ Shorea robusta Sal LD-cls LD-clr LD-c/s LD-c/r L-s Source: HMG, 1995 and 1996. Nepal Gazette. Section 44/46, Additional 54/No. 32. HMG press, Kathmandu. - also listed in CITES Appendices. Note: D = reported by District Forest Office L = reported by local people c = common s = sparse r = rare APPENDIX 13: Mammals Reported to Occur Within the ROls

Unprotected Species

Species j Location Habitat* Darchula ! Martadi Mangal. Jumia l Jajarkot Rhesus monkey L LD LD LD LD Forests near villages

1 - LD (up to 2.400 m) Langur L LD L LD L Tropicalto temperate forests ILeopard LD L LD LD L Forests near settlements

______I_ __ !_ I. _ _ _ _ !_ _ __! Jackel | LD L L LD Forests and open plains ace I LD l(below 3.660m) Barkingdeer L L LD LD LD Ulsually thickforests ______I______I______Z______I______(1.500-2,50 0 m ) Spotteddeer L . Riversideforests and ! ______~grasslands Himalayan L LD LD LD D Steep forests black bear I _ _ | (1,500-3,600m) Ghoral LD L L LD LD Rocky forests,rugged ______cgrasslands (900-4.200im)n Wild boar LD LD D Grasslands and forests

! ~ ~~ ______Fox L L L LD Rocky hills, wasteland PorcpineL D L LD LD !and cultivated land Porcupine 1 LD | L i LD | LD Rocky hills ______(below |______2,400 m) Mongoose L L LD Burrows under bushes I =______=!Iand shrubs Himalayan thar L Cliffs, rocks. steep scrub ______| ______| ______|______andforest (2.500-4.400) Common hare L LD j LD L Bushy area. forests near ______- ______I I______I_____ cultivation(beloA 2.400) - S.H. Prater, 1997. Note: L = reported by local people D = reported by District Forest Office Protected Species

Species _ _ Location Habitat' L______Darchula Martadi Mangal. Jumia Jajarkot Grev wolf L-s I L-c-sj Rocky hills or dry ______j______opencountry Assamese macaque L-c/r I Hill forests ______j______(600-2,000 m) i Swamp deer L-r L-s D Swampy forests and MLusk______deer ______i ___ _ dry grasslands IMusk deer , D-r D-r LD-s* Forests in the sub- i ______alpine zone Great tibetan sheep L-cis* Rocky areas in trans- himaiavan region ! i Snow leopard { D-r L-c/r* Trans-himalavregion ______1______!( I O.800-5.SOOm) Clouded leopard L-s Tropical and sub- | ______j ______|__tropical zone Leopard cat LD-s LD-sir L-cir Forests and near 1 -IIIJCN.199j. - ______I______settlements I - IUCN,.1I997 . Note: c = common; s = sparse; r rare; only in high altitude. APPENDIX 14: Protected Bird Species Reported to Occur in the ROIs

Scientific Name Local Name Location ______jDarchuia Martadi ! Mangalsen 1 Jumla Jajarkot j Bucerosbicornis i Thulo dhanesh I j j Catreuswaliichii* Cheer pheasant I_ _ j L-c!s 1 Ciconiaciconia 1 Seto stork j _ j L-c I L-s I Ciconianigra Kalo stork j |Grus grus 'Saras Houbaropsisbengalensis Khar mujur Lophophorus impejanus Danfe D-c L-c L-r Svpheotidesindica Sano khar mujur I , j i _ i Tragopansatyra Monal D-s _ L-c L-s * - also listed in the IUCN Red Data Book, 1994. Note: D = reported by District Forest Office L = reported by local people c = common s sparse r rare APPENDIX 15: Wetlands in the Road Districts

Wetlands Districts Khaptad Daha Achham and Bajura Dauii Daha Jumla Girl Daha Jumia Jogi Daha IJumla Rinigabas Tal Jumla and Muau Dahatheki Daha Jumla Lamo Daha IJumia Source:IUCN, 1998. APPENDIX 16: Historical/Cultural/Archaeological Sites in the Road Districts

Heritage Site District/VDC Significance Structure

DARCHULA DISTRICT ! Lathinath Temple Jayapur village, Social and religious.* I A two-storied pagoda type Rithachaurpata VDC. temple located at a hill top

A i Darchula. about 2 hours | j surrounded by the sparse walk from the proposed j mature chir pine forests. alignment. I About 400 years old. Hunenath Temple Khadanga VDC. on the Social and religious.* A single-storied pagoda type eastern bank of the temple about 5 m in height. i Mahakali River, very close to the alignment

near Golfain village. Byas Garkha Tinkar VDC. Social and religious.* A famous religious hermitage

______related to V edas Byas Himal Darchula. Aesthetic. Mountain named after the sage I l who wrote Vedas. Gokuleswor Temple Gokuleswor VDC. 1 Social and religious. A small Lord Krishn o Looked after by the in ruin.

_ Guthi Sansthan. Harihar Temple Gokuleswor VDC, Ward Social and religious. A small Lord Krishna temple 3. Looked after by the in ruin. Guthi Sansthan. Mallikarjun Malikarjun VDC. Social and religious.* A pagoda type temple located and reIigious. at the hill top. It is about 400

______years old. Masta Mandau Marma Latinath VDC.. |Social and religious.* A thatched roofed, mud stone Ward 2. _ temple. Pipalkota Malika Lali VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious.* A small open shrine at the top iof a small hill. Saipal Mandau UTkuVDC, Ward 6. |Social and relicious. A complex of small temples in Bhagabati Temple Looked after by the Uku Kot, an important Bhairab Temple Department of archeological site in western Kalika Temple Archaeology. Nepal, with inscriptions and artifacts of 12thand l3' l ._ l _ 9 ~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~centurv.: BAJURA DISTRICT ___ I Badi Malika Malika VDC, Ward 5. Social and religious.* A famous historic temple on

I ______I______top of a m ountain Bajurakot Bajura. Historic.* Ruins of a l5' century Bajura M!nkot VDC, Ward 7. castle. Dare Masta Mankot VDC, Ward 7. Social and religious.* A small thatched temple in

Notieshwori Devi Kailashmandu VDC, 40 | Social and religious.* A single storey temple built in Temple km south of Martadi 1843. Bhagawati is said to village. Within the ROI. have originated here 500-600 ______years ago. Badimalika Temple lLocated in Social and religious.* A single storey Bhagwati Kailashmandu VDC, temple. Devotees celebrate approximately 2 day's during Shrawan, especialy on walk from Martadi. "Shrawan Chaturdasi". Jugada Bajura. Historic.* Historic area comprising inscriptions and artifacts of

______| ______1 13'h and 14th century Sakas l______._____I______kin gs. K_rishnaTemple _ Dogri VDC. Ward 5. Social and religious., * A old dome shaped temple. Masta Mandau Pandusen VDC. Ward 5. Social and reli6ious.* A small temple with a stone I______-__ _!_ _ im age. Navadurga Bhawani Hartadi VDC. Ward 1. Social and religious. ! A Pagoda style tempie. Pandusen Devimandau Kothi VDC. Ward 7. Social and religious.* A small temple by the side of ! ______I ______astream . Tateka Kalika I Tate VDC. Ward 7. Social and relicious. A small temple founded b- Looked after by the Pala Raias of Bajura District. l l I Dist.Revenue Office. D Nateswari Temple Martadi VDC. Ward 1. I Social and religious. A smatl temple. Looked after by the l ______>G uthi Sansthan. Shiva Temple Kailashmandu VDC. 1Social and religious.* A Nepalese st"ie Shiva located on the left bank- temple. of the Budhi Ganga near Mauri viLlage. verv close to the alignment. ACHHAM DISTRICT |Bayalpata |Tadi Gaira VDC, Ward FRare. Looked afterby j A market place. 8. HMG. Baijanath Shivalayad Baijanath VDC, Ward 1. Social and religious. A small dome shaped Looked after bv the lstructure. Dept. of Archeologv. __| Barada Devi Temple r Gajara VDC, Ward 8. Social and religious. A small temple at the top of Looked after by the . the mountain. It is in ruin. ] ! | &~~~~~~~~~~~~uthiSansthan.i Bhagawati Temple Darna VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious. A small temple at the top of Looked after by the the Darna mountain. It is in Dept. of Archeology., ruin. Binavak Pancha Dewal Binayak VDC, Ward 5. Social and religious.* A complex of five temples ______l ______| ______. built in 1 338. Binavak Temole Achham. I Social and religious. A sikhar-stvle complex of five j______| lLooked after bv HMG. temples built in 1280. Darna Darna VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious.* A sikhar-style complex of five I temples. Dikaraini Sd&eswara VDC, Ward Social and religious.* A rebuilt temple. 9.ll Jaigadh Mangalsen VDC, Ward | Social and religious. An ancient fort built by the 3. Looked after bv the then rulers. ______| Dept. of Archeologv. Kal Bhairab Sddheswara VDC, Ward f Social and religious. A 17w'century small temple. ______I1. _ ___ Kalosisto Masto Binayak VDC. Social and religious.* | A smatl stone structure. Kantheswar Mahadev Sddheswara VDC Ward Social and religious.* An ancient stone structure.

Malikadevi jArudwala VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious. IA small stone and timber I _ Looked after by the structurein ruin. I ______._____!_____- _____ !____D ept. of A rcheologv. _ Mangalseni Bhagawati Mangalsen VDC, Ward Social and religious. Temple I Looked after by the l ______i ______|Dist. Revenue Office. Masta Mandau Masta Mandau VDC, Social and religious.* An old stone-walled, thatched iWard 4. _ roof structure. Masta~~~~~ ~ Dea_IBrdD,Wad3 tn epe Masta Devata i Barada VDC, Ward 3. Social and religious.* An old thatched roofed, mud stone temhle. r IMasta Mandau j Safe VDC Ward 3 Social and religious.* An old thathed roofed, mud MusemandoBinaIa TempleDC,Ward2. Socialandreligious Atwosstonetemple. e |MusemandoITemle l inavak VDC, Ward 2. Social and relizious- i A two storev 14 0 century_ Looked after by the temple.

| Guthi Sansthan. Mangalsen Palace i Mangalsen village. Social and religious. Built bv the then ruler. Looked after by local

______.______people. Nava Durga Temple lhimadi VDC, Ward 6. Social and religious. A two storey temple made of Looked after by the mud, stone and timber.

______lDept. of Archeology. ___

A j Sadashadevei Temple Mangalsen VDC, Ward Social and religious.* r A two storey temple built in 5. _ _i 1949. Siddeswar Hada Saina Sddeswar VDC, Ward 7. Social and religious.* 1 fireplace9covered bv timber

______I ______structure. | Srikot I Jalpa Devi VDC, Ward i Social and religious.* A small temple located on an q | 1. t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~important15'h and 16 thcenturyt

______I______site. JUMLA DISTRICT I Tatopani i Tatopani VDC. Social and religious.* I Hot water spring site. Bhairavnath Tempie Jumla village main Social and religious.* A dome-type Bhairavnath bazaar, near the temple.

proposed road head. Babira Masta Jumla Kot VDC, Ward Social and religious.* A small temple in a state of I| 8. ruin. One of twelve Masta ______temples in western Nepal. Bayal Katika Devela Talium VDC. Historic. A temple without image and a *d Apeculiar small structure. Bistadaha Chykhure Lekh VDC. Social and religious.* eAsmall ake-like water bod. at the top of the Chykhure

| ______L ekh. Chandan Nath Jumla. Historic.'* A 15h century dome shaped stone temple made in memorn

______9 ______|of Saint Chandan Nath. Dana Sangu Shivalaya Danasangu VDC, at the Social and reliious.*' A small stone temple. confluenceof Java and

______I Tila Rivers. Ganesh Gufa Bohora VDC. Social and religious.* A historic cave and temple. Garuda Bahini Sankhada VDC. Social and relinious. i A natural pool in the shape of | Conch shell. Gothichaur Devala Gothichaur VDC, Ward Social and religious.* A local historical temple in 3. . ruin.

Hanuman Temple . Kartikswami VDC, Social and religious.* | A small mud stone temple. Ward 5.

Kalika Malika Temple IKartikswami VDC, Social and religious.* A small stone temple in the I Ward 9. middle of the village., Kalika Temple Chimralekh Dhuri VDC. Social and reliaious.* A stone mould at the top of

-______-______,C him ralekh. Kanaka Sundari I Jumla. ISocial and religious.* A Bihar-stvle historic temple. Lama Thada TJumla. Historic. An archeological site ofthe castle of the 15'h century kings

I______I______o f S in ia.

Malikasthan Chimralekh Dhuri VDC. - Social and religious. The hilltop is the symbol of

I ______I _I__ the 2oddess. Nariswor Sinja VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious.* A historical cave with images I______I______of Nariswor. Panchadevala MahatVDC. Social and religious.* A complex of five temples. It

|______I , _ I is in ruin. Pandusera Gufa Sinja VDC, Ward 2. I Social and religious.* A prehistoric cave related to Mahabharata mvthological

Shivalaya Raralihi VDC, Ward 3. | Social and religious.* | A small temple at the top of ______N acm a H ill. Swami Kartikeya i Chykhure Lekh VDC. Social and religious. Only image of the Swamu ______j______K artikeva on a hilltop. iTatopani Shiva Danchaur VDC, Ward 2. Social and reHiiious.* A small shiva temple located at the Chaudhabise Khola hot ______l ______water spring. 2 Thakurjusthan ! Chykhure Lekh VDC. Social and religious.* i A small shrine with imaae of laurstnThakur on hilltop. JAJARKOT DISTRICT j Bagabati Khalanga VDC, Ward 9, Social and religious. I A small Pagoda style temple. next to the Bheri River. Looked after by Guthi I______L Sansthan. Ganesh Temple Khalanga VDC. Ward 9. Social and religious. A small temple. Looked after by Guthi l Sansthan. i Hanuman Khalan-a VDC. Ward 7, 1 Social and religious. A small temple in ruin. on the riaht bank of Looked after by Guthi I ______!Bheri River. Sansthan. _ Kalika Khalanga VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious. A small temple in the center of Looked after by Guthi courtyard. ISansthan. PainlkMasta Paink VDC, Ward 1. Social and reJigious.* A small temple in the center of !~~~~~~~~ I a forest, ijajarkot Palace Khalanga VDC, Jajarkot Constructed in 1843. District headquarters. Currently used as Jajarkot District offices. Patangani Devi 1Jaktipur VDC, Ward 1 Social and religious.* ! A small tempie in ruin in the middle of old palace. founded by Jakti Sing during the 151h ocIa and religious. centurv. Rhadha Krishna Temple Khalanga VDC, Ward 1. Social and religious. A small Pagoda stvle temple. Looked after by Guthi ______Sansthan. Ram Janki Temple Khalanga VDC Ward 9. Social and religious A small Pagoda style temple. |Looked after by Guthi l l ! ~~~~~~~~~~~Sansthan. Khadga Deveta Jaktipur VDC, Ward 1. Social and religious.* A small temple in ruin in the middle of an old palace, KI LI KO T DIS T RI CT I______Jajarkfou n d ed by th e first k ing o f

IKhALIKOT DISTRICT 4MaiaiMugraha Manma VDC, Ward 2. Social and religious.* A stone tap made by Malai I______IBarm a in 14' centurv. Mastamandu I Ranchuli VDC. Ward 1. Social and relieious.* 1 A Masta temple in ruin. Pancha Devala Manma VDC. Social and religious.* A complex of five temples built by Malaya Bamb in the I______14"' centurv. Satyabati Mandir Jubitha VDC. j Social and religious.* | Old shrine. Kalesillo Mandir Jubitha VDC. Social and reljgjou.* Old shrine. Kalikot Temple Mungraha VDC. Social and religious.* Constructed by the first Shahi I Rural of Kalikot. Manapoi Mabu Lekh. Social and religious.* Shiva sakti Mandir, festival on ______I ______Risipurne Chaturdashi. Khadachetra Manma VDC. Social and religious.* Old Palace of Baise-Chaubise i ______l ______I R ajas. !Mahadev Manchi Mungraha VDC, Ward Social and religious.* A small Shiva temple in the 3.i _ fi T centre ofthe village. * - managed by local people. APPENDIX 17: District Cultivation Areas and Average Crop Yields

District Cultivation Areas

District Irrigated Cultivation Rainfed Cultivation t l (ha) (ha) Darchula 1.722 21.200 Bajura - 3,010 L 17.1455 Achham 7,680 34,580 l Jumla 4.576 10,167 Jajarkot 5.767 22.940

Average District Yields for Rice, Wheat and Maize tl ______~Yield_(t/ha)______District Rice Wheat Maize (irrigated) Irrigated Rainfed (rainfed) Darchula 2.50 1.10 - 1.90 Bajura 2.73 1.02 - 1.78 Achham 3.00 1.89 1.39 1 1.50 Jumla 2.60 2.30 | 1.40 Jajarkot 2.70 2.00 1.19 j 1.63 Average 1 2.70 1.66 1.29 | 1.64 APPENDIX 18: Improvement Proposal Cost Estimates

1. Communitv Forest Establishment and Support

Item ! Estimated Cost EstimatePer Total Cost _ Number of Units 1 Unit (NRs.) 1 (NRs.) IForesters | x2.5 'ears 1 360,000 3,150.000 DFO expenses 6 x 2.5 vears i 40.000 600,000 Per diems | 7 x 220 davs 500 770.000 Other exposses(travel, stock. etc.) 1 1 1.800.000 Total l ______' 6,320,000

2. Trail Improvement

Based on the average construction of a 15 m long rock-lined drain every 60 m along the 7,700 m of trail identified for upgrading, as well as the implementation of associated trail work, the estimated costs of trail upgrading are:

Item EstimatedNumber l Cost EstimatePer Total Cost ______- _ | of Units Unit (NRs.) j (NRs.)

Rock extraction/gatherina ______120,000 Drain construction 128drains 2.400 1 308,000 iAssociated works I i _ 60,000 Total _ 488,000

3. Revegetation of Degraded Land

Item EstimatedNumber Cost EstimatePer Total Cost i =______of Unit (NRs.') ( I N R ) IEarth bank construction 180 m 100 18.000 Tree/shrubstock 1_ 12.000 Tree and shrubplantin. | _ _1 25.000 Brush fence construction 600 m 50 30,000 Total ______85,000

4. Landslide Stabilisation

Item EstimatedNumber Cost EstimatePer TotalCost of Units Unit (NNRs.) (NRs.) GeotechnicalEngineer 1.5 months 40.000 60,000 Perdiems 2FOdays 500 10,000 Travel L - __j 4,000 Works I 250,0002j_ Total _ I | 324,000 | 5. Road Head and Market Centre Planning

Item Estimated Number Cost Estimate Per Total Cost 2 of Units [ Unit (NRs.) (NRs.) Town planners 2 x 4 months 30.000 240.000 Per diems 2 x 90 davs i 500 90.000 Survey assistants 8 x 90 days 250 180.000 Hire of survev equipment 2 sets l 15,000 1 30,000 Transport | 2 sets 10.000 20,000

Report/other expenses . _ . 75.000 Road formation/gravelling l 3.000 m (15x200 m) 1.000 .000,000 Rock drains 1.800 m (15x120 m) 160 288.000 Total j_ 3,683,000

6. Cash Crop Development

Item Total Cost NRs. Report production |6,000 Meeting expenses 8.000 Total 14,000

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