2015 Para universitarios y escolares

DISEC HGA (SPECPOL) OIT COP 21 FMI Consejo de seguridad JCC Comité de prensa

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Dear Delegates, Hello and welcome to PUCP MUN 2015! My name is Claudia Herbert Colfer and I will have the pleasure to be the Director of the Special Political and Decolonisation Committee (SPECPOL). I was born in but, currently, I live in the United Kingdom where I study Politics and International Relations at the University of Bath. Aside from academics, I consider MUN to be my favourite extracurricular activity. I have been involved in it since high school and I have participated in PUCP MUN for the past two years: I was delegate of SOCHUM in 2013 and, last year, the Director of the Security Council. is one of the most rewarding activities I have ever done: it is not only a fantastic opportunity to get to know many young and motivated people from all over the world but it also is a great chance to improve negotiation skills and to gain valuable knowledge. I will always be eager to attend as many conferences as possible. Nonetheless, whenever I am not chairing or debating, I love learning new languages, dancing salsa, watching Friends and spending time with friends. I just want to say that I am really excited about this conference and I am sure that the level of debate will be extremely high. I am looking forward to meeting you all in person. If in the meantime you have any questions about the topics, the debate or just feel like saying hi, feel free to contact me at [email protected]. See you soon and happy researching! Best, SPECPOL

Claudia Herbert Directora del Comité SPECPOL PUCPMUN 2015 3

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Dear Delegates, It is my distinguished pleasure to welcome you to PUCP MUN 2015, the 5 of its kind, and I am thrilled that we will be sharing this experience together. My Name is Leonard Heberer and I will have the honor to be the Assistant Director of the Historical General Assembly’s fourth subcommittee, SPECPOL. I am an economics student at the University of Hamburg in Germany, but at the moment I am doing an exchange semester in Lima at the USIL. I have been doing MUN since April 2014 and found out quickly that I am able to improve my debating and negation skills, while combining this with my passion for international politics. My first conference was the HolylandMUN in in August 2014, in the BIENVENIDA midst of the Gaza war. Simulating diplomacy, while a war was fought less than a 100 km away, convinced me that MUN is more than just a fun hobby, it offers the great opportunity of strengthening peaceful, inter-cultural boundaries in an increasingly polarized world. Since then, I have attended three more conferences as a Delegate. I was also part of the Staff of Hammun 2014 and this January I was elected Chairman of the board of the HanseMUN association, the MUN society of my home University and host to the Hammun, which is the largest and most prestigious German MUN conference as well as one of the largest in all of Europe. I am looking forward to meeting you all very soon and share this unforgettable experience with you! If you have any questions concerning the committee, do not hesitate to ask me at: l.heberer@ hansemun.de Best regards, SPECPOL

Leonard Heberer

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Dear Delegates,

My name is Maria del Pilar Lindley Esteves and I am an Industrial Engineering student at Universidad de Lima. I have been involved in MUN since 2011, year in which I became part of “Peruvian Universities (PU)”, a team that represents at Harvard International MUN conferences. Model UN has undoubtedly become an essential part of my life since then. I have participated in Harvard World Model United Nations 2012 (Vancouver, ), Harvard World Model United Nations 2013 (Melbourne, ), Nations 2014 (Brussels, Belgium), and Harvard NationalHarvard ModelWorld United Model Nations United 2015 (Boston, USA), and I have won awards in both conferences.

Last year I decided to start a new project with a group of friends, and we created Promotora Internacional de Debates (PRIDE Peru), an association focused on promoting debate among high school and university students, mainly through Model United Nations. PRIDE Peru sponsors the competitive MUN team “Peruvian Debate Society (PDS)”, which has won a record of 31 national and BIENVENIDA international awards in less than a year, including the “Best Large Delegation” Award at Harvard National Model United Nations Latin America (HNMUNLA) 2015, which took place at Universidad del Pacifico in January this year. I have been part of this team since its beginnings, both as a delegate and as Faculty Advisor.

Regarding MUN events, I was actively involved in the organization of Lima Model United Nations (LiMUN) 2012 as part of the logistics team; Lima Model United Nations (LiMUN 2013) as Head of the Logistics Team, Head of the Substantial Affairs Team and Committee Director; Nations (LiMUN 2014) as Secretary General. I am alsoand incurrently Lima Model organizing United a new MUN conference for high-school students with the help of my school, Villa Maria Model United Nations (VMMUN) 2015, where I will be Secretary General.

I am thrilled to be serving as moderator for the Historical General Assembly in this four session of PUCPMUN. For those of you who will be debating for the first time, welcome to the MUN world! And for those of you with a little bit more of experience, welcome back and I hope we can make this your best conference yet! Best regards, SPECPOL

Pilar Lindley 7

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 COMMITTEE HISTORY WELCOME TO THE HISTORICAL GENERAL ASSEMBLY’S SPECIAL POLITICAL AND DECOLONISATION COMMITTEE (SPECPOL)

SPECPOL is the fourth committee in the General Assembly and was established in 1993. Being a mixture of the Special Political committee and the Decolonisation committee (formerly known as fourth committee), SPECPOL discusses topics such as the ones related with decolonisation, Palestinian refugees and human rights, peacekeeping, mine action, outer space, public information, atomic radiation and University for Peace.i

All 193 states are members of the United Nations’ Special Political and Decolonisation committee and have the objective of helping developing states in need. The two topics that will be discussed in this conference are especially important for SPECPOL. On the one hand, the Congo Crisis is especially relevant because, after the Second World War, most of the colonies gained independence from their colonisers. In some cases, such as Ghana, this transition went smoothly. However, the Congo was a perfect example of how an independence process can go terribly wrong if it is not properly organised. As the Belgian colonisers were forced to give up their colony, they did not prepare an elaborated strategy. This resulted in chaos with the separation of several provinces and internal struggle between different parties. In order to solve these problems, the United Nations Special Political and Decolonisation committee (in cooperation with the

SPECPOL IN SESSION Security Council) plays an important role because it has to intervene to SPECPOL re-establish peace and to find solutions for the future development. On the other hand, the second topic, the Six-Day war and its repercussions, is also very relevant because after the end of this war, Israel had created completely new facts and changed the political landscape. It held former Arab i United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/ga/fourth/ (15:37 21.04.2015) 9

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 territories occupied, from which many Palestinian inhabitants, who are now living as refugees, flew. One of the topics of this agreement was the diversion of water. Israel wanted to pump water from the Sea of Galilee through a pipeline to its desert regions in the south. This alarmed the Arab League, which feared to be cut off its water resources and as an answer, developed an own plan to divert the rivers Hasbani and Banias, which would have meant water shortage for Israel. In this scenario, SPECPOL faces two main tasks: firstly, to take care of the refugees, to give them shelter and food and to work for a political solution in order to reintegrate them to their homeland and, secondly, to find and coordinate a plan to divert the water usage in an equitable way. SPECPOL’s main task is to assist countries in overcoming a harsh past to lead them in their way towards independence, ensuring that their inhabitants can live freely and without fear and to integrate the new decolonised countries into the international community- studio E de

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 TOPIC A THE CONGO CRISIS

INTRODUCTION The area in which today’s Democratic is located, was settled since the 5th century by people who lived from hunting and gathering. From the 1870s, Belgium invaded the Congo and, at the beginning, intended to establish a colony in order to exploit the many natural resources that this region had to offer. Finally, in 1885, Belgium’s king, Leopold II, acquired the area as private property. In the following years, he and his partners exploited the country with brutal methods, neglecting the needs of the indigenous population, resulting in the death of millions. Due to the Belgian influence, the very different tribes and ethnicities, and rivalries between the different Congolese leaders, a crisis, which tore apart the country, broke out. You as delegates have the task of finding proposals on how the resentments between the various tribes can be lessened, how a reconciliation between the rivarling fractions can be achieved, and how this beleaguered country can be guided into a better and more peaceful future. SPECPOL

The Congo under Belgian rule 11

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 HISTORY OF THE TOPIC The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the second largest country in Africa by area and the shares frontiers with the Republic of the Congo (Congo Brazzaville), Central African Republic, South , Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Angola.ii Before 1908, the Congo was in private possession of the Belgian King, Leopold II. Under this King’s rule, the Congolese population lived in very harsh conditions and was brutally forced to work for the benefit of the King. Thus, the international community started to protest and undertook diplomatic actions, which forced the King to change this property into a colony. iii THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CONGO’S INDEPENDENCE In the 1960s, the colonial powers, and the United Kingdom, released their African colonies, which then became independent states. Belgium, however, did not want to lose the Congo as a colony because that would have meant that it would no longer profit from the Congo’s wealth. Therefore, Belgium implemented a policy of immatriculation (i.e. the Congolese population was granted Belgium citizenship) and this way; Belgium could maintain political influence over the Congo. Nonetheless, many Congolese were not satisfied with this situation and aimed for an independent Congo. Especially two types of movements developed: some dreamed of a united Congo – which included all the different ethnicities and people- whereas others preferred a more fractioned area with smaller independent states. The two most relevant movements advocating independence were the “Association culturelle des Bakongo” (ABAKO) led by Joseph Kasa-Vubu and the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) with Moïse Tshombe in charge. iv studio E de

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Map of the Democratic Republic of the Congo In 1958, the tension between the Congolese and the Belgium colonists became so strong that Belgium decided to grant Congo independence. This should have taken place until 1965. However, due to the tense situation, the Belgium government invited sooner than planned the representatives of both movements to a meeting in order to negotiate Congo’s independence. Despite their ideological differences, both movements made front to the Belgium government and, finally, agreed on holding general elections in May 1960 and gained independence the 30th of June of 1960.v THE START OF THE CRISIS In Congo’s first democratic elections, none of the parties received the majority of votes. Thus, Joseph Kasa-Vubu was named President and Patrice Lumumba, Prime Minister. The ceremony between Belgium and Congo of handing over the country, ended in chaos because the Belgium felt offended when Patrice Lumumba told the Belgians that the Congolese were “not their monkeys anymore”. vi Five days later, riots and rebellions started in the country because Lumumba increased the salaries of all the state employees except the armed forces. The discontent of the soldiers erupted in lootings and began to destabilise the young state. Due to this situation and in order to get away from the chaos, Moïse Tshombe declared Katanga (a province in the south) an independent

state. This action had several consequences. Firstly, it showed that instability SPECPOL of the new state (which was not able to integrate all the regions) and secondly, the central government could not benefit from the natural resources anymore which were mainly found in the Katanga region. Moreover, as revenge for the v Ibid vi Ibid 13

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 events that took place in the independence celebration, Katanga’s army was trained and supplied by Belgian forces. Additionally, Belgian troops were stationed in Katanga. vii Moreover, another region called South Kasai also declared its independence, which was equally important because the main copper mines of the country are located in this area.

Patrice Lumumba

Moïse Tschombe UNITED NATIONS’ INVOLVEMENT Prime Minister Lumumba could not accept Katanga’s secession because he needed the income from Katanga’s resources. Therefore, he asked the United Nations for help. On the 14th of June 1960, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that gave the Secretary General, Dag Hammarskjöld, the authorisation to intervene in this scenario. Shortly after, the United Nations created the “United Nations Operation in the Congo” (ONUC).viii ix studio E de

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G vii US Department of State (2015). https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/congo-decolonization (15:43 21.04.2015) viii Ibid 14 ix United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onucM.htm (15:43 21.04.2015)

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Soon after, the disagreements between Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld began. x Lumumba wanted to use these troops to attack Katanga whereas Hammarskjöld wanted to use them as a peacekeeping force with the objective of protecting refugees and avoiding harm to civilians. xi INTERNAL DISPUTES The crisis deepened as President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba also disagreed on how to confront the current problems. On the one hand, Kasa-Vubu was a moderate politician who wanted to solve the crisis in an internal way without involving foreign states. On the other hand, Lumumba was left orientated and asked the Soviet-Union for help, who promptly sent troops. (It is important to keep in mind that this took place during the Cold War where both, the Soviet-Union and the , were trying to gain influence on other countries). As a consequence, Kasa- Vubu dismissed Lumumba from his charge. As a response, Lumumba stated that Kasa-Vubu was no longer President and declared himself responsible for the country. xii In the meantime, the ONUC closed all the airports and therefore cut the Soviets off. The United States fearing the Soviet influence in the Congo, organised through the CIA a coup d’état, ousting Lumumba and establishing Joseph Mobutu as its person of confidence.xiii

Joseph Mobutu EXPANSION OF THE CRISIS The former Congo was now separated into four independent states: SPECPOL

x The Guardian (2015). http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/17/dag-hammarskjold-congo-trou- bled-history (15:46 21.04.2015) xi Ibid xii To Katanga and Back, a UN Case History, O’Brien, Conor Cruise xiii Ibid 15

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 The Congo’s four independent states The central government controlled less than half of the territory especially the regions located in the West, the second biggest region was Gizenga in the East, the richest of all states, Katanga, was located in the South and, finally, the smallest of them was South Kasai located in the centre of the country. xiv At the beginning of 1961, Lumumba was tortured and executed which caused an international outcry. As a consequence, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution (nr.146) which confirmed once more that ONUC might enter Katanga for the purpose of fulfilling their task but that the United Nations would not interfere in the internal issues of the country. xv At the same time, negotiations between the various leaders of the different Congolese states took place with the result that the leaders agreed to reunite Congo into one single state. At the start, only Tschombe wanted to keep Katanga separate but finally also joined the new state. However, in the following months, he did not undertake any efforts to unite Katanga with the other states. Thus, the ONUC intervened by throwing the Belgian soldiers out and by seizing the armament.xvi In the next stage, the ONUC had the assignment of arresting Katanga’s leading politicians, including Tschombe. This mission made a slow progress and xvii

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 At the end, South Kasai reverted its agreement of joining the Republic of the Congo and Katanga remained independent, which meant that no progress was made at all. xviii POLITICAL ANALYSIS There almost did not exist any legal treaties between the leading politicians of the four states. Most of the agreements were made in a verbal manner. Furthermore, the international relations of, for instance, Katanga with Belgium or Lumumba’s government with the were based on informal pacts. The most promising approach was the Coquilhatville Conference of Congo Leaders, where all the leaders tried to find a way of how to reunite the four states, unfortunately, without success at the end.

UN troops in the Democratic Republic of the Congo UNITED NATIONS ACTIVITIES DURING THE CRISIS The first involvement of the United Nations in the Congo Crisis started with Resolution 143 passed by the Security Council, which requested Belgium to remove its troops from Katanga and to enable the United Nations to send peacekeeping forces in order to restore the country. xix As this was not enough, Resolution 146 followed, which allowed the troops of the United Nations to play a more active and aggressive role. After Lumumba’s execution, Resolution 161 was passed demanding an investigation about the circumstances of his death. xx SPECPOL

xviii Ibid xix United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onucM.htm (15:48 21.04.2015) xx United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/sc/documents/resolutions/1960.shtml (15:49 21.04.2015) 17

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 The United Nations Security Council THE CONGO CRISIS IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT The whole crisis erupted during the Cold War with the confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union. Both nations tried to gain allies, especially in Africa. Additionally, in the Congo, the interests of Belgium (who benefited from Congo’s resources by owing many mines) were also relevant. This meant that the Soviet Union supported Lumumba and his left orientated government, the United States backed Mobutu, and Belgium supported Tschombe in Katanga. The support of the great powers was divided into different Congolese states, which did not only cause tension within Congo but also in an international context. This was an obstacle on achieving a reunification of the country. SOME PROPOSALS TO END THE CRISIS There are several solutions that can be discussed that would help end the crisis: 1. An optimum solution would be to oblige Belgium to give up its interest in Katanga and to force the various regional leaders to create a renovated nation. There could be two alternatives to rebuild this nation: the first one would be a centralised republic with a strong government able to control even remote sectors of the country and the second would be a federal republic with certain independence of each province. 2. Congo could be divided into two parts: one of them controlled by the United States and the other one controlled by the Soviet Union,

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 them has membership in international organisations, exchange of ambassadors, and worldwide recognition). QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST ANSWER (QARMA S) 1. What can SPECPOL do in order to achieve an agreement and make the hostile leaders sit together to negotiate? 2. What political order can SPECPOL propose in order to guarantee a peaceful future of the country (e.g. a strongly centralised state or a federal state)? 3. What solutions can SPECPOL propose for an equitable distribution of the country’s resources? 4. How can SPECPOL’s member states participate in helping building Congo’s future (e.g. aiding in the improvement of the education and infrastructure and training of Congo’s’ police force)? 5. Does SPECPOL have the mandate to take aggressive actions or is it its only task to provide peace in a defensive way? SPECPOL

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TOPIC B THE SIX-DAY WAR AND ITS REPERCUSSIONS

INTRODUCTION Today is the 21st of November 1967. Tomorrow the United Nations Security Council will come together and is expected to decide upon a reaction to the recent war in the Middle East, which altered the balance of power dramatically. Between the 5th and 10th of June, Israel launched a major military offensive and occupied the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from , the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan and the Golan Heights from Syria. The territories, which are now under Israeli control, are adding up to three times of its former size as a country. You, the Delegates of SPECPOL, must now to decide how the UN shall react to the Israeli attack and the following occupation. HISTORY Founding of Israel until the Suez Crisis Most would argue that the so-called Middle-East-Conflict (or Arab-Israeli- Conflict) started with the declaration of independence by the State of Israel on May 14th 1948. Backed by the GA-Resolution 181 (II)xxi, which sought to create two separate States, one for Jews and one for Arabs, the Israeli founding fathers declared the Jewish State to be the Homeland of the Jewish People. SPECPOL

xxi United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/ RES/181%28II%29 (12:32 09.04.2015). 21

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UN Partition Plan of 1947: Orange: Proposed Arab State, Turquoise: Proposed Jewish State

However, its Arab neighbours never recognised the UN Partition Plan and declared war on Israel the very day it declared independence. Israel won the war and thereby created the fact of its existence on the ground. It even occupied a larger part of territory than it was originally awarded in the GA Resolution, the territory which is today commonly accepted to belong to Israel, while Jordan gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem and Egypt of the Gaza Strip. The first years of the newly created state were dominated by the efforts to integrate large numbers of Jewish refugees and immigrants from the Arab world as well as from Europe, whilst dealing with continuing border clashes and terrorist attacks by Arab guerrillas. Egypt closed the Suez Canal for Israeli ships in 1950 and in 1952 a group of young officers, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, took over power in a coup d’état overthrowing King Faruk of Egypt. The new government had a socialist, Pan- Arabic policy and formed close ties with Syria and Jordan, thereby effectively surrounding Israel.xxii

studio THE SUEZ CRISIS E de The nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956, which had until then been owned

uía by the British and the French, led to the Suez crisis. In secret negotiations, G

xxii Dr. Abdel-Nasser (2015). http://nasser.bibalex.org/Common/pictures01-%20sira_ 22 en.htm#1 (11:17 09.04.2015)

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Israel agreed with France and Britain that they were to take back the Suez Canal and topple the Nasser regime.xxiii The Israeli invasion began on October 29th 1956 and, after a short period of time, the Egyptian forces were defeated and on retreat to the Canal. Britain and France demanded a ceasefire to be enacted, which both Israel (as it was agreed on before) and Egypt refused. As a consequence, British and French troops invaded Egypt and took over Port Said and the Canal. Though the operation was a military success, it was a political disaster. Massive pressure from the USSR and the USA led to a ceasefire on the th7 of November and a complete withdrawal of French and British forces until December and Israeli ones until March 1957. The Suez Canal was soon reopened for shipments, the Sinai peninsula demilitarized and a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF)xxiv was set up to protect the Canal and police the Egyptian-Israeli border. Nasser was able to secure his position as the uncontested leader of the Arab world. THE YEARS PRECEDING THE WAR During the following years hostilities between Israel and its neighbours continued with border clashes provoked by both sides and ongoing terrorist attacks against Israel. In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a political union calling themselves the United Arab Republic. The UAR did not last long and was dissolved again in 1961. However, Syria remained Egypt’s closest ally. They formed a unified military command in 1964, which also included Jordan. The tensions with Israel grew over the time especially over the issue over water usage. Israel sought to divert some of the water from the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee through the National Water Carrier to the water deficient regions of the center and south of Israel.xxv The Arab League stated in 1964 that the diversion of the Jordan River posed a threat to the Arab people and developed its own diversion plan, the Headwater Diversion Plan. It was an expensive and technically difficult programme, but once completed it would have reduced Israeli overall water capacities by 11%xxvi. Tensions rose continuously, fuelled through martially rhetoric from the Arab site. Egyptian President Nasser stated in 1965: ““Our path to Palestine will not be covered with a red carpet or with yellow sand. Our path to Palestine will be covered SPECPOL xxiii BBC (2015). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5199392.stm (12:14 09.04.2015) xxiv United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1back- gr2.html (13:36 09.04.2015). xxv Kantor (2015). http://research.haifa.ac.il/~eshkol/kantorb.html (13:52 09.04.2015). xxvi The UN University(2015). http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unup- books/80858e/80858E0m.htm (14:13 09.04.2015) 23

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 with blood… In order that we may liberate Palestine, the Arab nation must unite, the Arab armies must unite, and a unified plan of action must be established.”xxvii Egypt and Syria signed a defense pact in November 1966 whereby each country would support the other if attacked. Jordan joined the pact in May 1967.xxviii

From left to right: Jordan King Hussein I., Egyptian President Nasser and Egyptian Chief of Staff Amer at the signing of the mutual defense pact, May 30th 1967

After a major border incident between Israel and Syria on April 7th, 1967, which included heavy artillery fire as well as large-scale air strikes from both sides, Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol stated that Israel would not hesitate to use air strikes as a measure of self-defense against Arab terrorists. These threats mounted up to the point where Israeli officials openly threatened to overthrow the Syrian government, if the Palestinian guerrilla actions would not stop.xxix THE SIX-DAY WAR In response to that, the Egyptian government demanded the withdrawal of the UNEF from the Suez Canal on the 16th of May 1967 and began mounting troops on the Sinai Peninsula.xxx The UN agreed without hesitation and began the withdrawal on the 19th of May. The cornering of Israel reached its top, when Egypt closed the Strait of Tiran for Israeli ships on the 22nd of May, studio E

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 through which 90% of the Israeli supply with oil passed.xxxi

The Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba

Israel viewed the closing of the Strait as an act of aggression in accordance with Article 51 of the UN Charter xxxii and thereby a Cassus Belli. Though Prime Minister Levi Eshkol still hesitated, he agreed to mobilize reservists after facing heavy pressure from the IDF (Israeli Defense Forces), notably their Chief of Staff Yitzhak Rabin. On May 29th a national unity government formed including both left and right wing parties and on June the 1st Moshe Dayan, former IDF Chief of Staff, was appointed Defense Minister. In the night of June 4th, Israel decided to execute a preemptive military strike against Egypt and its allies, which began on June 5th at 7:45 Israeli Time. The following surprise attack by the Israeli Air Force destroyed most of the Egyptian on the ground and was the beginning of a military disaster for the Arab states on a scale they had never experienced before. The fighting ended on June 10th and a ceasefire was agreed upon on June 11th. By that time, Israel had captured a territory three times of its size: The Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, East-Jerusalem and the West SPECPOL Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights from Syria.

xxxi Read Tiger (2015). https://readtiger.com/wkp/en/Straits_of_Tiran (13:50 09.04.2015). xxxii United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml/chapter7. shtml (14:07 09.04.2015). 25

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 From left to right: Gen Narkiss, Defense Minister Dayan and chief of Staff Rabin in the Old City of Jerusalem studio E de Territories held by Israel after the Six day war uía G

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 One of the direct consequences of the war was the resignation of a devastated President Nasser, which he retracted on the next day, after hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in Cairo expressed their support for him.xxxiii In September 1967, the Arab League passed a resolution on its summit in Khartoum, which became famous as the three “no´s”: “No peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with Israel”.xxxiv Israel sought to consolidate the strategic depth it had won in the war and use the land as an asset in future negotiations. In a controversial move, Israel annexed East- Jerusalem on the 25th of June 1967xxxv POLICY ISSUES Pre-emptive Strike vs. Unjustified Attack Article 2, Section 4 of the UN Charter states that: “All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purpose of the United Nations”.xxxvi Without being attacked themselves and without a formal declaration of war, the Arab States and the USSR viewed the Israeli attack as an act of aggression, illegal under said article. They argued that the closure of the Straits of Tiran was not a sufficient Cassus Belli, as it did not connect two regions of open sea and it was not to be seen as a Strait, and thereby did not fall under the International Court of Justice decision of 1949, which rules that every country is required to allow free passage through it.xxxvii The continuing border clashes in the previous years to the war were as well not a sufficient reason as aggressions were committed by both sides. Israel, however, argued that the closure of the Straits of Tiran was indeed a sufficient Cassus Belli because international waterways have to bekept open under the Geneva Convention on the Law of the Sea from 1958xxxviii. However, one has to mention that the Arab States had not signed the Geneva Convention of the Law of the Sea at that point. xxxiii Dr. Abdel-Nasser (2015). http://nasser.bibalex.org/Common/pictures01-%20sira_ en.htm#1 (15:32 10.04.2015). xxxiv Council of Foreign Relations (2015). http://www.cfr.org/world/khartoum-resolution/ p14841 (15:44 10.04.2015). xxxv Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/mfadocu- ments/yearbook1/pages/13%20law%20and%20administration%20ordinance%20-amend- SPECPOL ment%20no.aspx (16:00 10.04.2015). xxxvi United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml/chap- ter1.shtml (17:32 10.04.2015). xxxvii International Court of Justice (2015). http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/1/1665.pdf (17:38 10.04.2015). xxxviii Legal office of the UN (2015). http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/gclos/gclos.html (17:40 10.04.2015). 27

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Given this interpretation, the Israeli attack would not have been unjustified, but a pre-emptive strike as a matter of self-defence covered by Article 51 of the UN Charter. xxxix ISRAELI OCCUPATION AND THE STATUS OF JERUSALEM The international frameworks for the definition of occupation as well as the duties and responsibilities of an occupying power are the Hague Regulations of 1899 and 1907 as well as the 4th Geneva Convention. Article 42 of the 1907 Hague Regulations (HR) states that a “territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. “xl The regulations apply whether or not an occupation is considered lawful. One essential features of the Geneva Convention is that the occupying power may not acquire sovereignty over the territoryxli. Many viewed the unilateral annexation of East-Jerusalem through Israel as a violation of this law. Israel, however, never spoke of East-Jerusalem being annexed. Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained: ″The term ‘annexation’ which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate. The steps that were taken [by Israel] relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem.″xlii USS LIBERTY INCIDENT During the Six-Day War, on June 8th, Israeli jets and torpedo boats attacked the USS Liberty, which was at that time in international waters, 47.2 km north of the Sinai Peninsula. 34 crew members died and 171 were wounded. Israel apologized for the attack, saying that it had being mistaken for an Egyptian shipxliii. WATER ACCESS One of the main suppliers of fresh water for Israel, Jordan and Syria is the Jordan River Basin. Before the war the three countries met at the Yarmouk River, which is one of the influxes to the Sea of Galilee. The shared usage of

xxxix United Nations (2015). http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml (19:00 10.04.2015). xl Dutch Government Treaty Database (2015).http://www.minbuza.nl/en/key-topics/treaties/ depositary-duties-of-the-kingdom-of-the-netherlands/other-treaties-for-which-the-nether- studio lands-acts-as-depositary/the-hague-peace-conventions-1907.html (9:44 11.04.2015) E

de International Comittee of the Red Cross (2015). https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/doc- xli uments/misc/634kfc.htm (10:15 11.04.2015) uía

G xlii https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=DA4-XPy-6hIC&pg=PA53&redir_esc=y#v=one- page&q&f=false xliii IDF History report (1982). http://thelibertyincident.com/docs/israeli/IDF-history-re- 28 port-en.pdf (13:21 11.04.2015).

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 the limited resource of water is crucial for the survival of each state and it has been a constant source of conflict since the foundation of Israel. As previously mentioned, Israeli main source of water is the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, which supplied over 80% of Israeli fresh water at that point of time. To increase the supply in the south, Israel began to build the National Water Carrier, which was created to divert waters from the Sea of Galilee through a Pipeline System to the south. In 1955 a plan for shared resource of the water from the Jordan River Basin, the Johnston Planxliv, failed. The response to the National Water Carrier by the Arab League was called Headwater Diversion Plan with the aim of diverting both the Hasbani and the Banias to the Yarmouk River and thereby cutting Israeli water supply. The plan never came into existence, as it was too difficult and expensive to realise. However, the tensions over the water scarcity in the region provoked several violent border clashes in the years preceding the war. With the occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights, Israel now controlled the two influxes of the Jordan River, the Hasbani and the Banias, and had through that considerably increased its ability to determine the water supply, not only for itself, but also for its neighbouring states. THE SITUATION OF PALESTINIAN PEOPLE The end of the war led to a massive exodus of Palestinians from their former land. Up to 300.000xlv Palestinians fled from West Bank, Golan Heights and Gaza Strip meaning that now more Palestinians are living outside the occupied territories than inside. The majority of them have left to Jordan. They are represented by the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), which is currently led by Ahmad Shukeiri and was founded on the initiative of President Nasser to give the Palestinians a political voice. They are not recognizing the State of Israel and claim the entire former British Mandate as a state for the Palestinians. They are responsible for various terrorist attacks within Israel. Through the occupation now for than 200.000 Palestinians are living under Israeli Military Rule. The previously mentioned Geneva Convention sets forth a specific framework of how the occupying power has to deal with the inhabitants of the occupied territory. INTERNATIONAL SHIPMENT As of the moment, the Suez Canal is closed for ship traffic of any kind. It is one of the world’s most important waterways and a prolonged closure SPECPOL would have a severe influence on the world economy. Furthermore, the Strait xliv The UN University (2015). http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unup- books/80858e/80858E0m.htm (13:56 12.04.2015). xlv The Jewish Virtual Library (2015). http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/67_ War.html (15:17 12.04.2015) 29

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 of Tiran is now under Israeli control. After the discussion whether or not its closure was a justified reason for war a solution needs to be found that such an event shall not happen again. PROPOSED SOLUTIONS There are several ways of dealing with the problem, but whichever you choose: keep in mind that SPECPOL does not have executive powers. 1. Pro-Israeli solution: This would require the recognition that the existence of the State of Israel was in danger and it subsequently had the right for a pre-emptive strike. Following that logic the occupation is not illegal under international Law as long as the Geneva is not violated. Israel did not annex Jerusalem, but merely extended its administrative rule over the entire city. The rest of the occupied territory shall be returned once a peace treaty is signed. 2. Pro-Arab solution: The Israeli existence was not endangered, which means the war was an unlawful act of aggression. Israel has to return the occupied territories immediately and after that has happened peace talks may be recommended. In an extreme form, even an Israeli withdrawal to the borders of the UN Partition Plan could be demanded.

3. The neutral solution: This would mean recognizing the facts on the ground. Israel exercises control over the occupied territories and will probably only hand them over in exchange for peace. Whether or not the war was justified is a separate issue. This would involve reminding Israel of its duties as occupying power. Concerning the status of Jerusalem a compromise would be necessary. QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION MUST ANSWER (QARMA’S): 1. Was the Israeli attack justifiable under international law or not? 2. Does Israel meet its obligations as an occupying power? 3. How to deal with the question of Jerusalem? Annexation: Yes or no? 4. How can a fair sharing of the Water resources be ensured? 5. How can a long lasting peace in the region for the benefit of all people be established? studio E de

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 BIBLIOGRAPHY TOPIC A: THE CONGO CRISIS International Organisations such as the UN: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onucM.htm http://www.un.org/en/sc/documents/resolutions/1960.shtml

The Congo Crisis To Katanga and Back, a UN Case History, O’Brien, Conor Cruise Politics in the Congo; Decolonization and Independence. Young, Crawford The Congo Free State – a colony of gross excess. Keyes, Michael The United Nations and the Congo. Historylearningsite.co.uk Patrice Lumumba: 50 Years Later, Remembering the U.S.-Backed Assassination of Congo’s First Democratically Elected Leader. Democracy now! The Assassination of Lumumba. De Witte, Ludo Lumumba: Africa’s Lost Leader. Zeilig, Leo

Others http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13283212 http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafri- ca/14chapter7.shtml https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/congo-decolonization SPECPOL http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/17/dag-hammarsk- jold-congo-troubled-history

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10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 Suggestions for further research As delegates it is essential to research about the country you are representing and should have a clear view of what opinion your country has in this matter. This Study Guide provides a brief synopsis of the events that took place in The Congo’s transition from a colony to an independent state. It covers human tragedies as well as international politics. However, each delegate should investigate further about the United Nations’ actions related to this conflict and should be able to discuss whether the activities of the UN were appropriate to the situation or whether something could have been done differently in the framework of international law.

TOPIC B: SIX-DAY WAR International Organizations and treaties such as the UN, ICRC, ICJ http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/ RES/181%28II%29 - The UN official website The UN official website -http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1backgr2. html

United Nations University website -http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/ unupbooks/80858e/80858E0m.htm

The UN official website - http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml

Legal office of the UN - http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/gclos/gclos.html

International Court of Justice - http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/1/1665.pdf

The UN official website - http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/ index.shtml/chapter7.shtml International Comittee of the Red Cross - https://www.icrc.org/eng/ resources/documents/misc/634kfc.htm The UN University website -http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/ unupbooks/80858e/80858E0m.htm Studies in international Law - http://www.internationaltraderelations.com/ The%20Withdrawal%20Of%20UNEF.pdf studio

E The UN official website - http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/ de index.shtml/chapter1.shtml uía G The Hague Resolution - http://www.minbuza.nl/en/key-topics/ treaties/depositary-duties-of-the-kingdom-of-the-netherlands/other- 32 treaties-for-which-the-netherlands-acts-as-depositary/the-hague-peace-

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 conventions-1907.html

Arab Sources Gamal Abdel Nasser, Pre-Election Speech, 1965, quoted after Paul Bogdanor Biography - A historical sketch of President Gamal Abdel-Nasser, Dr. Abdel- Nasser

Western Sources The Khartoum Resolution, Council on Foreign relations Country studies: Egypt, U.S. Library of Congress http://news.bbc.co.uk//hi/middle_east/5199392.stm

Israeli Sources The Liberty Incident, IDF History Department, 1982. The Six Day war, the Jewish virtual library 13 Law and Administration Ordinance -Amendment No 11- Law, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs The National Water Carrier, Kantor

Others http://www.sixdaywar.org/timeline.asp https://readtiger.com/wkp/en/Straits_of_Tiran https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=DA4-XPy-6hIC&pg=PA53&redir_ esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false SPECPOL Suggestions for further Research Further research will be critical before arriving to the conference. This background guide is meant to offer a basic overview of history of the Middle-East-Conflict, while focussing on the events of 1967 as well asthe 33

10 al 13 JUNIO 2015 possible violation of international law. The reality and position of each delegate as a representative of his or her member state should (and will) vary widely from the general picture presented. A lot of the issues for this topic arise from interpretation of vocabulary (i.e. when are we talking of a pre-emptive strike and when of an unjustified aggression? Is occupying Jerusalem an annexation or not?). Therefore, it will be particularly important to consult past UN treaties and agreements (such as the Geneva Convention, The Hague Declarations and others mentioned above) to become familiar with the diplomatic language associated with this topic. Checking the voting record for these documents will also be helpful for finding potential like- minded member states. studio E de

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Asociación Civil Internacia 10 al 13 http://www.internacia.org.pe/ JUNIO 2015