Load Management Operation

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Load Management Operation Power system operation & control Al-Balqa Applied University Department of Electrical EnergyDr AudihEngineering 1 Part 2 Variable Load on Power Stations (Load management) Dr Audih 2 Generally each generation plant in any power may have more than one generating units. Each of the unit may have identical or different capacities. A number of power plants can be tied together to supply the system load by means of interconnection of the generating stations. Interconnected electric power system is more reliable and convenient to operate and also offers economical operating cost . Generation unit , Transformer Unit, Converter Unit, Transmission Unit, Inverter Unit and Consumer Point. This combination of all the unit is called the overall power system units. Dr Audih 3 SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION Effects of variable load. The variable load on a power station introduces many troubles in its operation. Some of the important effects of variable load on a power station are : (i) Need of additional equipment and generation units . (ii) Increase in production cost. The variation of load on the power station with respect to time. SYSTEM LOAD From system's point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads: 1. Domestic 2. Commercial 3. Industrial 4. Agriculture 5. Others - street lights, traction. Domestic: Lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens, small motors etc. 1. Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; 2. Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; 3. Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15 Dr Audih 4 Generation Transmission Distribution Loads Dr Audih 5 Industrial: Small scale industries: 0-20kW Medium scale industries: 20-100kW Large scale industries: above 100kW Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform throughout the day. For heavy industries: 1. Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9; 2. Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8 Agriculture: Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors 1. Demand factor = 0.9 to 1; 2. Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5; 3. Load factor = 0.15 to 0.25 Other Loads: a) Bulk supplies, b) street lights, c) traction, d) government loads Dr Audih 6 System Load Characteristics a) Connected Load b) Maximum Demand c) Average Load d) Load Factor e) Diversity Factor f) Plant Capacity Factor g) Plant Use Factor Plant Capacity Factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a given period. Plant Use Factor: It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in operation. When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. Dr Audih 7 ECONOMIC OF GENERATION Load curves : Is the variations of load on the power station with reference to time. There are three types: 1. Daily load curve: Load variations during the whole of the day. 2. Monthly load curve: Load curve obtained from the daily load curve 3. Yearly load curve: Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve . The yearly load curve is used to find annual load factor. Dr Audih 8 Base Load: The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station Peak Load: The various peak demands so load of the station Fig .2 Daily Load Curve Dr Audih 9 Load duration curve: When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of decreasing magnitudes. Fig 3 Load Duration Curve The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time Dr Audih 10 IMPORTANT TERMINALOGIES:- Connected load: It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply systems. Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period. Demand factor : It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load. Average demand The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year) is known as average demand Load factor: The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as load factor. Dr Audih 11 Diversity factor: The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as diversity factor. Plant Capacity factor: This is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during a given period. Dr Audih 12 The plant capacity factor is an indication for the reserve capacity of the plant. A power station is so designed that it has some reserve capacity for meeting the increased load demand in future. Therefore, the installed capacity of the plant is always somewhat greater than the maximum demand on the plant. Reserve capacity = Plant capacity −Max. demand Plant use factor: It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which the plant was in operation. Dr Audih 13 Suppose a plant having installed capacity of 20 MW produces annual output of 7·35 ×106kWh and remains in operation for 2190 hours in a year. Then, Units Generated per Annum (annually) It is often required to find the kWh generated per annum (yearly) from maximum demand and load factor. The procedure is as follows : Dr Audih 14 Dr Audih 15 Dr Audih 16 Dr Audih 17 Dr Audih 18 Dr Audih 19 Dr Audih 20 Load Curves and Selection of Generating Units and size .The load on a power station varies from time to time. .A single generating unit is not economical operation to meet this varying load (because a single unit will have very poor efficiency during the periods of light loads on the power station). From this reason , a number of generating units of different sizes are installed in a power station. The selection of the number and sizes of the units is decided from the annual load curve of the station. and are selected in such a way that they correctly fit the station load curve. Once this underlying principle is achieved, it becomes possible to operate the generating units at or near the point of maximum efficiency. The principle of selection of number and sizes of generating units with the help of load curve is illustrated in Fig. 3.11. In Fig. 3.11 (i), the annual load curve of the station is shown. Dr Audih 21 1- Base unit Unit 2 150kW (7-12) 300kW operate all time It is clear form the curve that load on the station has wide variations ; the minimum load is near 50 kW and maximum load reaching 500 kW. For a single unit to meet this varying load will be highly uneconomical. Dr Audih 22 Then the total plant capacity is divided into several generating units of different sizes to fit the load curve. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.11(ii) where the plant capacity is divided into three units numbered as 1, 2 and 3. The three units employed have different capacities and are used according to the demand on the station. In this case, the operating schedule can be (for near maximum efficiency) as under: This results in the overall reduction in the cost of production of electrical energy. Dr Audih 23 Important Points in the Selection of Units When the number and sizes selection of the generating units, the following points should be considered: 1) The number and sizes of the units should be selected to meet annual load curve of the station. 2) The units should be preferably of different capacities to meet the load requirements. 3) The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the maximum demand to meet the future load requirements and fault currents. 4) There should be a spare generating when the repairs units is carried out. 5) The selection of multi units of smaller capacity in order to fit the load curve very accurately should be avoided. (because the investment cost per kW of capacity increases as the size of the units decreases). Dr Audih 24 Dr Audih 25 Base Load and Peak Load on Power Station Fig. 3.13. shows the typical load curve of a power station. It is clear that load on the power station varies from time to time. The load on the power station can be considered in two parts, namely:- 1- Base load:- The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station in fig. 3.13, it is 20 MW( that supplied by the station at all times of day and night throughout 24 hours). 2- Peak load:- Is the demands of load over and above the base load of the (in fig. 3.13, the peak demands of load excluding base load). Note: The peak demands of the station generally is a small part of the total load and may occur throughout the day. Dr Audih 26 Method of Meeting the Load In order to achieve overall economy, the best method to meet load is to interconnect two different power stations in this case:- 1) The more efficient plant is used to supply the base load and is known as base load power station. 2) The less efficient plant is used to supply the peak loads and is known as peak load power station. To illustrate that : consider the interconnection of steam and hydro plants is to meet the load.
Recommended publications
  • Set No.1 Code No: M0328 R07
    Set No.1 Code No: M0328 R07 IV B.Tech. I Semester Regular Examinations, November, 2011 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING (Mechanical Engineering) Time: 3 Hours Max Marks: 80 Answer any FIVE Questions All Questions carry equal marks ******* 1. a) What do you understand by commercial and non-commercial energy sources? List out the changes from non-commercial to commercial during the last nine plans? [10] b) Why the development of nuclear power is slow in India? [6] 2. Draw a neat line diagram of in plant coal handling and explain the equipment used at different stages. [16] 3. With a neat line diagram showing all the systems explain diesel power plant. [16] 4. a) Prove that the pressure ratio of closed cycle for the maximum specific output is the square root of the pressure ratio for the maximum thermal efficiency. Why low pressure is used in gas turbine power plant. [8] b) Draw the line diagram of repowering system using steam turbine only and boiler only. Discuss their relative merits and demerits. [8] 5. a) What are the different factors to be considered while selecting the site for Hydro- electric power plant? [8] b) What is a spillway? Explain any three types of spillways with sketches. [8] 6. a) Explain the components of Tidal power plant. [8] b) Compare flat plate collectors and focusing collectors. [8] 7. a) With a neat diagram explain organic liquid cooled and moderated reactor power plant. [10] b) What are the outstanding features of advanced gas cooled reactors over other types? When these are preferred? [6] 8.
    [Show full text]
  • Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure in Shared Parking Areas: Resources to Support Implementation & Charging Infrastructure Requirements
    Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure in Shared Parking Areas: Resources to Support Implementation & Charging Infrastructure Requirements A publication of the City of Richmond with funding support from BC Hydro. This report was prepared with generous support of the BC Hydro Sustainable Communities program. The City of Richmond managed its development and publication. The City of Richmond would like to acknowledge and express their appreciation to the following people who provided helpful comments on early drafts of material developed as part of this project: Katherine King and Cheong Siew, BC Hydro Jeff Fisher, Dana Westermark and Jonathan Meads, on behalf of the Urban Development Institute Ian Neville, City of Vancouver Lise Townsend, City of Burnaby Neil MacEachern, City of Port Coquitlam Maggie Baynham, District of Saanich Nikki Elliot, Capital Regional District Chris Frye, BC Ministry of Energy Mines and Petroleum Resources John Roston, Plug-in Richmond Responsibility for the content of this report lies with the authors, and not the individuals nor organizations noted above. The findings and views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not represent the views, opinions, recommendations or policies of the funders. Nothing in this publication is an endorsement of any particular product or proprietary building system. Authored by: AES Engineering Hamilton & Company C2MP Fraser Basin Council Report submitted by: AES Engineering 1330 Granville Street Vancouver, BC Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure in
    [Show full text]
  • NRS 058: Cost of Supply Methodology
    NRS 058(Int):2000 First edition reconfirmed Interim Rationalized User Specification COST OF SUPPLY METHODOLOGY FOR APPLICATION IN THE ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION INDUSTRY Preferred requirements for applications in the Electricity Distribution Industry N R S NRS 058(Int):2000 2 This Rationalized User Specification is issued by the NRS Project on behalf of the User Group given in the foreword and is not a standard as contemplated in the Standards Act, 1993 (Act 29 of 1993). Rationalized user specifications allow user organizations to define the performance and quality requirements of relevant equipment. Rationalized user specifications may, after a certain application period, be introduced as national standards. Amendments issued since publication Amdt No . Date Text affected Correspondence to be directed to Printed copies obtainable from South African Bureau of Standards South African Bureau of Standards (Electrotechnical Standards) Private Bag X191 Private Bag X191 Pretoria 0001 Pretoria 0001 Telephone: (012) 428-7911 Fax: (012) 344-1568 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.sabs.co.za COPYRIGHT RESERVED Printed on behalf of the NRS Project in the Republic of South Africa by the South African Bureau of Standards 1 Dr Lategan Road, Groenkloof, Pretoria 1 NRS 058(Int):2000 Contents Page Foreword ................................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Electric Vehicle Infrastruction
    Electric Vehicle Infrastructure A Guide for Local Governments in Washington State JULY 2010 Model Ordinance, Model Development Regulations, and Guidance Related to Electric Vehicle Infrastructure and Batteries per RCW 47.80.090 and 43.31.970 Puget Sound Regional Council PSRC TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE MEMBERS The following people were members of the technical advisory committee and contributed to the preparation of this report: Ivan Miller, Puget Sound Regional Council, Co-Chair Gustavo Collantes, Washington Department of Commerce, Co-Chair Dick Alford, City of Seattle, Planning Ray Allshouse, City of Shoreline Ryan Dicks, Pierce County Jeff Doyle, Washington State Department of Transportation Mike Estey, City of Seattle, Transportation Ben Farrow, Puget Sound Energy Rich Feldman, Ecotality North America Anne Fritzel, Washington Department of Commerce Doug Griffith, Washington Labor and Industries David Holmes, Avista Utilities Stephen Johnsen, Seattle Electric Vehicle Association Ron Johnston-Rodriguez, Port of Chelan Bob Lloyd, City of Bellevue Dave Tyler, City of Everett CONSULTANT TEAM Anna Nelson, Brent Carson, Katie Cote — GordonDerr LLP Dan Davids, Jeanne Trombly, Marc Geller — Plug In America Jim Helmer — LightMoves Funding for this document provided in part by member jurisdictions, grants from U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, Federal Highway Administration and Washington State Department of Transportation. PSRC fully complies with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and related statutes and regulations in all programs and activities. For more information, or to obtain a Title VI Complaint Form, see http://www.psrc.org/about/public/titlevi or call 206-464-4819. Sign language, and communication material in alternative formats, can be arranged given sufficient notice by calling 206-464-7090.
    [Show full text]
  • Bioenergy's Role in Balancing the Electricity Grid and Providing Storage Options – an EU Perspective
    Bioenergy's role in balancing the electricity grid and providing storage options – an EU perspective Front cover information panel IEA Bioenergy: Task 41P6: 2017: 01 Bioenergy's role in balancing the electricity grid and providing storage options – an EU perspective Antti Arasto, David Chiaramonti, Juha Kiviluoma, Eric van den Heuvel, Lars Waldheim, Kyriakos Maniatis, Kai Sipilä Copyright © 2017 IEA Bioenergy. All rights Reserved Published by IEA Bioenergy IEA Bioenergy, also known as the Technology Collaboration Programme (TCP) for a Programme of Research, Development and Demonstration on Bioenergy, functions within a Framework created by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Views, findings and publications of IEA Bioenergy do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the IEA Secretariat or of its individual Member countries. Foreword The global energy supply system is currently in transition from one that relies on polluting and depleting inputs to a system that relies on non-polluting and non-depleting inputs that are dominantly abundant and intermittent. Optimising the stability and cost-effectiveness of such a future system requires seamless integration and control of various energy inputs. The role of energy supply management is therefore expected to increase in the future to ensure that customers will continue to receive the desired quality of energy at the required time. The COP21 Paris Agreement gives momentum to renewables. The IPCC has reported that with current GHG emissions it will take 5 years before the carbon budget is used for +1,5C and 20 years for +2C. The IEA has recently published the Medium- Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2016, launched on 25.10.2016 in Singapore.
    [Show full text]
  • Microgeneration, Energy Storage, Power Converters and the Regulation of Voltage and Frequency in the Low Voltage Grid
    1 Microgeneration, Energy Storage, Power Converters and the regulation of voltage and frequency in the Low Voltage Grid Manuel Campos Nunes, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa. in order to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, focusing Abstract— This paper focuses on the study and development of on the other hand on sustainable energy and energy efficiency a system composed by Microgeneration (MG) and energy storage (e.g Kyoto Protocol or EU2020 [1]). (ES), which together with other similar systems, might avoid over- Many countries offered big incentives for renewable energy and undervoltages, as well as mitigate voltage dips. The system generation. Consequently MG, most of the times using RES, may use the stored energy on deferred. These systems are expected to contribute to the regulation of the voltage and frequency of a has become increasingly popular and distributed generation low voltage grid, especially in the case of an isolated grid. (DG) is part of the electrical grid nowadays. However despite The increase of distributed generation, using mainly renewable all benefits of DG (economical, environmental, reduce of losses energy sources (RES), motivated some technical and operational etc.), it motivates some technical issues and contributes to the issues that have to be approached. Despite all the benefits of deterioration of electric power quality. The electric power distributed generation and renewable energy, the intermittent system changed a lot with the introduction of DG, which character of such type of source and the mismatch between supply and demand might lead to some problems in reliability and consequently leads to a new paradigm with bidirectional power stability of the grid, and to an inefficient use of RES.
    [Show full text]
  • Residential Demand Response in the Power System
    RESIDENTIAL DEMAND RESPONSE IN THE POWER SYSTEM A thesis submitted to CARDIFF UNIVERSITY for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 2015 Silviu Nistor School of Engineering I Declaration This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of …………………………(insert MCh, MD, MPhil, PhD etc, as appropriate) Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… II Abstract Demand response (DR) is able to contribute to the secure and efficient operation of power systems. The implications of adopting the residential DR through smart appliances (SAs) were investigated from the perspective of three actors: customer, distribution network operator, and transmission system operator. The types of SAs considered in the investigation are: washing machines, dish washers and tumble dryers. A mathematical model was developed to describe the operation of SAs including load management features: start delay and cycle interruption. The optimal scheduling of SAs considering user behaviour and multiple-rates electricity tariffs was investigated using the optimisation software CPLEX.
    [Show full text]
  • Diversity Factor Calculation Example
    Diversity Factor Calculation Example Didymous and vulgar Geri underexposes her feints compartmentalizes rightly or tritiate inductively, is Nathanil maroonedbloodstained? Oran Conative overdrove Matteo her placidness substantializes enmesh that while twistings Lawerence confide sovietizenights and some frequents flowing morphologically. philosophically. Precognitive and Mccs that are still operating occurrences in a vacuum as a driving the electrical system investments are getting all about diversity factor calculation You can check about working of energy meter in the pagan manner. Only simple static composite load models are described. What drug the mansion of 1 unit? In an ideal world, estimating your electricity usage would be as easy as looking at an itemized grocery receipt. Two sets of diversity factors one for peak cooling load calculations and. Because desktop computer programs while calculating available data used in calculations required confidence in? If they contribute significantly between different. CUSTOMER CARE UndERSTAnding LOAd FACTOR Austin. Cu or all its ip code allows some examples. This arrangement is convenientfor motor circuits. Submitted for publication in connect and Technology for the Built Environment. Establish consistentmethods for residential water heating for hours gives an academic setting up. When the event of a sale occurs, unit costs will then be matched with revenue and reported on the income statement. An HVAC diversity factor which relates to protect thermal characteristics of science facility's. Two general approaches are used to capturthe timevarying value of electricity savings. Electrical Load Characteristics. Before presenting the results, it is justice to give brief overview and the specific parameters used in agile different calculation methods. Although TRMs often provide industryaccepted values or algorithms forcalculatingsavingsusers should not shine that an algorithm is correct because my has been used elsewhere.
    [Show full text]
  • Q Demand Factor Is Defined As a Object Oriented Design Always Dominates the Structural Design a Maximum Demand X Connected Load
    These are sample MCQs to indicate pattern, may or may not appear in examination G.M. VEDAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Program: Mechanical Engineering Curriculum Scheme: Revised 2016 Examination: Final Year Semester VIII Course Code:MEDLO8041 and Course Name: PPE Time: 1 hour Max. Marks: 50 Q Demand factor is defined as A Object oriented design always dominates the structural design A Maximum demand X Connected load A Maximum demand/ Connected laod A Connected laod/Maximum demand Q Load factor is defined as A Average load/Maximum demand A Average load X Maximum demand A Maximum demand/Average laod A Maximum demand X Connected load Q Diversity factor is always A Equal to unity A More than unity A More than than twenty A Less than unity Q Load factor for heavy industries may be taken as A 10 to 15% A 15 to 40% A 50 to 70% A 70 to 80% Q Which of the following is not suitable to use as peak plant? A Hydroelectric power plant A Gas power plant A Diesel elected plant A Nuclear power plant Q Which of the following power plant cannot be used as base load plant? A Diesel power plant A Hydroelectric power plant A Nuclear power plant A Thermal power plant The system supplying base and peak loads will be more economical if power is supplied by _________ Q A Only gas turbine power plant A Only thermal power plant A Only Diesel power plant A Combined operation of various power plants Q Load factor of power station is generally A Less then unity A Equal to unity A More than unity A More than Ten Q Diversity factor is defined as A Sum of individual maximum demands/Maximum demand of entire group A Maximum demand of entire group/Sum of individual maximum demands A Maximum demand of entire group X Sum of individual maximum demands A Maximum demand of entire group + Sum of individual maximum demands Q In order to have lower cost of electrical energy generation A The load factor and diversity factor should be low.
    [Show full text]
  • Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants
    Nuclear Development June 2011 www.oecd-nea.org Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY Nuclear Development Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants © OECD 2011 NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Foreword Nuclear power plants are used extensively as base load sources of electricity. This is the most economical and technically simple mode of operation. In this mode, power changes are limited to frequency regulation for grid stability purposes and shutdowns for safety purposes. However for countries with high nuclear shares or desiring to significantly increase renewable energy sources, the question arises as to the ability of nuclear power plants to follow load on a regular basis, including daily variations of the power demand. This report considers the capability of nuclear power plants to follow load and the associated issues that arise when operating in a load following mode. The report was initiated as part of the NEA study “System effects of nuclear power”. It provided a detailed analysis of the technical and economic aspects of load-following with nuclear power plants, and summarises the impact of load-following on the operational mode, fuel performance and ageing of large equipment components of the plant. 3 Acknowledgements Valuable comments and contributions were received from Mr. Philippe Lebreton, Electricité de France, Dr. Holger Ludwig, Areva GMBH, Dr. Michael Micklinghoff, E.ON Kernkraft and Dr. M.A.Podshibyakin, OKB “GIDROPRESS”. This report was prepared by Dr. Alexey Lokhov of the NEA Nuclear Development Division. Detailed review and comments were provided by Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • An Analysis of Load Factors in Generation Power Plants
    Does vertical integration have an effect on load factor? – A test on coal-fired plants in England and Wales N° 2006-03 February 2006 José A. LÓPEZ Électricité de France Evens SALIES OFCE Does vertical integration have an effect on load factor? – A test on coal-fired plants in England and Wales * José A. LÓPEZ** Électricité de France Evens SALIES*** OFCE Abstract Today in the British electricity industry, most electricity suppliers hedge a large proportion of their residential customer base requirements by owning their own plant. The non-storability of electricity and the corresponding need for an instantaneous matching of generation and consumption creates a business need for integration. From a sample of half-hour data on load factor for coal-fired power plants in England and Wales, this paper tests the hypothesis that vertical integration with retail businesses affects the extent to which producers utilize their capacity. We also pay attention to this potential effect during periods of peak demand. Keywords: panel data, vertical integration, electricity supply. JEL Classification:C51, L22, Q41. * Acknowledgements: we thank Guillaume Chevillon, Lionel Nesta and Vincent Touzé for their comments and suggestions. The authors are solely responsible for the opinion defended in this paper and errors. ** [email protected]; *** [email protected], corresponding author. Table of contents 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... p. 1 2 Vertical integration as a natural structure in an industry subject to particularities..................................................................................................... p. 4 2.1 Fragmentation of UK coal-fired electricity generation capacity....................p. 4 2.2 Drivers behind vertical integration.................................................................p. 4 2.2.1 Hedging customers .............................................................................p.
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding Load Factor Implications for Specifying Onsite Generators
    tecHnical article Understanding load factor implications for specifYing onsite generators One of the important steps in sizing generator sets for any application is to determine the application’s average load factor. Understanding this parameter is essential not only for proper power system sizing but also for operability and reliability. By ISO-8528-1 limits the 24-hour average load factor average load factor. It also suggests strategies to Brandon Kraemer on most standby generator sets to 70 percent of ensure backup power availability during extended Application Engineering Supervisor MTU Onsite Energy Corporation nameplate capacity. For utility outages lasting a utility outages and in applications with minimal few minutes or a few hours, one or two times a load profile variability. year, standby generator sets are designed to be loaded to 100 percent of nameplate capacity for the duration of the outage. However, if an outage average load factor lasts days instead of hours and figUre 1. average load factor the standby power system is The average load factor of a power system is loaded to 100 percent of its determined by evaluating the amount of load and nameplate capacity, it is likely the amount of time the generator set is operating that the 24-hour average load at that load. Since the loads are normally variable, 90 will exceed the power system’s the result is found by calculating multiple load 80 design parameters. levels and time periods. See Figure 1 for a graph 70 % of rated power (P) 70 of a hypothetical standby load profile: 60 While running a generator 50 set at an average load factor In Figure 1, the 24-hour average load factor is over 70 percent is unlikely to derived from the formula shown under the graph, result in a catastrophic failure where P is power in kW and t is time.
    [Show full text]