DOCSLIB.ORG

Microgeneration, Energy Storage, Power Converters and the Regulation of Voltage and Frequency in the Low Voltage Grid

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Microgeneration, Energy Storage, Power Converters and the Regulation of Voltage and Frequency in the Low Voltage Grid 1 Microgeneration, Energy Storage, Power Converters and the regulation of voltage and frequency in the Low Voltage Grid Manuel Campos Nunes, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa. in order to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, focusing Abstract— This paper focuses on the study and development of on the other hand on sustainable energy and energy efficiency a system composed by Microgeneration (MG) and energy storage (e.g Kyoto Protocol or EU2020 [1]). (ES), which together with other similar systems, might avoid over- Many countries offered big incentives for renewable energy and undervoltages, as well as mitigate voltage dips. The system generation. Consequently MG, most of the times using RES, may use the stored energy on deferred. These systems are expected to contribute to the regulation of the voltage and frequency of a has become increasingly popular and distributed generation low voltage grid, especially in the case of an isolated grid. (DG) is part of the electrical grid nowadays. However despite The increase of distributed generation, using mainly renewable all benefits of DG (economical, environmental, reduce of losses energy sources (RES), motivated some technical and operational etc.), it motivates some technical issues and contributes to the issues that have to be approached. Despite all the benefits of deterioration of electric power quality. The electric power distributed generation and renewable energy, the intermittent system changed a lot with the introduction of DG, which character of such type of source and the mismatch between supply and demand might lead to some problems in reliability and consequently leads to a new paradigm with bidirectional power stability of the grid, and to an inefficient use of RES. flow. The integration of energy storage systems (ESS) together with The use of ESS in parallel with Microgeneration can help to MG can help to achieve a better integration of RES, contributing mitigate some electric power quality issues and even improve to the reliability and stability of the grid. Besides that, the the integration of RES into the grid [4]. These systems might be decentralized action of these systems can help adjust the voltage beneficial for the consumers and for the grid operator. and frequency, contributing to the improvement of the electric According to the recently approved decree law in 2014 by the power quality when the values go beyond the limits imposed by the norm NP EN 50160. Portuguese government [5] (Decreto-Lei nº 153/2014) the The model of a system composed by Microgeneration and produced energy through MG should serve the effective energy storage was developed using the Matlab/Simulink necessities of the installation to which it is associated. An ESS software, as well as one rural low voltage grid. The capacity of installed in parallel to the MG is therefore highly benefic to the these systems to regulate voltage and frequency was simulated, consumers. For example, in case of photovoltaic energy there is analyzing the values of active and reactive power, the voltage level a huge mismatch between supply and demand [6]. Besides all profile, as well as the frequency. benefits for the consumer, these systems can also be very Index Terms— Distributed generation, Microgeneration, advantageous to the grid operator [6], one of them being the Energy Storage, Electric Power Quality, Frequency and Voltage improvement of electric power quality. This way, the impact of Regulation MG systems into the grid might be reduced, meaning that through the decentralized action of several of those systems the voltage and frequency of the grid could be regulated. I. INTRODUCTION Considering the above, it is intended this way through MG HE economic and social development in many developed and ES systems to avoid overvoltages and undervoltages, as T and developing countries is contributing to the growth of well as to mitigate voltage dips. These systems are expected to energy consumption in those countries. It is expected that this contribute to the regulation of voltage and frequency of a low tendency remains for the next decades, although efforts are voltage grid, especially in the case of an isolated grid. being made to improve energy efficiency [1]. According to [2], it is expected a 40% increase in world energy consumption by II. MODEL OF THE LOW VOLTAGE GRID 2040 in comparison to 2012. A rural low voltage grid was modeled using the software Almost 75% of the energy consumed nowadays is obtained Matlab/Simulink in order to study the impact of the MG with through fossil fuels [3]. However due to economic and ES systems on it. The main goal was to replicate a typical rural environmental issues, the interest in renewable energy has grid and therefore all components of the grid (Medium Voltage increased in the last years. There have been many agreements (MV) to Low Voltage (LV) Transformer, Electrical Lines and 2 Loads) were scoped according to the rules of low voltage grid of houses: installations [7], as elaborated in [8]. TABLE I The rated value of the voltage in the MV part of the grid is DIVERSITY FACTOR BY THE NUMBER OF HOUSES [6] 30kV, while in the LV part this value is 400V (line voltage). 10- 15- 20- 25- 30- 35- 40- N 2-4 5-9 ≥50 The connection of the medium to the low voltage is made by a 14 19 24 29 34 39 49 630kVA transformer. C 1,00 0,75 0,56 0,48 0,43 0,40 0,38 0,37 0,36 0,34 This way, the power consumed by each equivalent load and in the first branch of the distribution network is: TABLE II POWER CONSUMED BY EACH LOAD IN THE FIRST BRANCH Installed Actual power Equivalent Number of Diversity power supply required Load houses Factor [kVA] (3 phase) [kVA] 1 8 55,2 0,36 19,87 2 10 69 0,38 26,22 3 8 55,2 0,43 23,74 4 5 34,5 0,56 19,32 5 2 13,8 0,75 10,35 6 3 20,7 0,75 15,53 Fig. 1. Model of the low voltage rural grid 7 2 13,8 1 13,80 8 2 13,8 1 13,80 As it can be seen in Fig. 1 there are four branches in the LV 1st Branch 40 276 --- 142,62 part of the grid. The first branch (R1), which will be the focus of this paper, represents a collection of households, while the It can be seen that the apparent-power supply of each load second (RR1) and third branches (RR2) are some other rural must take into consideration the diversity factor, multiplying it grid networks. The fourth branch characterizes a local network by the installed power. (RL). The power assigned to the first branch is 200kVA as well For the other branches and since their loads are only as to the RR1 rural network, while the other branches receive represented by an equivalent load each, the load factor is 100kVA each. assumed to be 0,75. Due to computational reasons, each load of the first branch TABLE III represents a group of houses. In total there are 40 singular POWER CONSUMED BY EACH EQUIVALENT LOAD OF BRANCH 2, 3 AND 4 households, distributed by each one of the 8 equivalent loads. Each household consumption is assumed to be 6,9kVA [7]. The Installed Load Actual power supply Branch transmission of electrical energy is made by overhead power power [kVA] Factor required (3 phase) [kVA] lines and the distance between the last equivalent load and the 2 – RR1 200 0,75 150 substation is 514m, which is a reasonable value for this 3 - RR2 100 0,75 75 topology of grid. 4 - RL 100 0,75 75 Some systems, composed of MG and ES, are also placed in the modeled grid, and they represent some of the structures The power to be consumed by the 4 branches should be placed in consumer households. Like the equivalent loads, these 437,6kVA which corresponds to a high load scenario. In order groups might represent more than one MG with ES system, to size the electric lines, the power flowing in each line has to depending on the number of systems attributed to each be taken into consideration. The current might be calculated household. using equation (1), being S the apparent power supply required and Un the nominal voltage: A. Distribution network sizing 푆 퐼푠 = ( 1) The dimensioning of all electric cables was made, √3푈푛 considering the power consumed in each branch of the low voltage network. As mentioned before, all loads pictured in Hence, the maximum current transported in each branch can Fig.1 represent a group of houses. However, not all houses be calculated. The results are shown in Table IV: consume maximum power simultaneously. Therefore in order to proceed to the sizing of the cables, the power of such loads was multiplied by a factor that stands for the simultaneous maximum demand of many houses (diversity factor), downstream the point that is considered. The value of this factor C, can be seen in the following table considering N, the number 3 TABLE IV POWER CONSUMED BY EACH EQUIVALENT LOAD OF BRANCH 2, 3 AND 4 Transited Maximum Branch power [kVA] current [A] 1 – R1 142,623 205,86 2 – RR1 145 209,23 3 – RR2 75 205,86 4 – RL 75 205,86 Fig. 2. Model of Microgeneration with energy storage system (ESS) Keeping in mind that the maximum voltage drop in a LV network branch defined by the Portuguese distribution operator The connection of the system to the grid is made by an EDP is 8%, the following type of overhead power lines was inverter, converting DC waveforms into AC ones.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Residential Demand Response in the Power System
    RESIDENTIAL DEMAND RESPONSE IN THE POWER SYSTEM A thesis submitted to CARDIFF UNIVERSITY for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 2015 Silviu Nistor School of Engineering I Declaration This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of …………………………(insert MCh, MD, MPhil, PhD etc, as appropriate) Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… II Abstract Demand response (DR) is able to contribute to the secure and efficient operation of power systems. The implications of adopting the residential DR through smart appliances (SAs) were investigated from the perspective of three actors: customer, distribution network operator, and transmission system operator. The types of SAs considered in the investigation are: washing machines, dish washers and tumble dryers. A mathematical model was developed to describe the operation of SAs including load management features: start delay and cycle interruption. The optimal scheduling of SAs considering user behaviour and multiple-rates electricity tariffs was investigated using the optimisation software CPLEX.
    [Show full text]
  • Diversity Factor Calculation Example
    Diversity Factor Calculation Example Didymous and vulgar Geri underexposes her feints compartmentalizes rightly or tritiate inductively, is Nathanil maroonedbloodstained? Oran Conative overdrove Matteo her placidness substantializes enmesh that while twistings Lawerence confide sovietizenights and some frequents flowing morphologically. philosophically. Precognitive and Mccs that are still operating occurrences in a vacuum as a driving the electrical system investments are getting all about diversity factor calculation You can check about working of energy meter in the pagan manner. Only simple static composite load models are described. What drug the mansion of 1 unit? In an ideal world, estimating your electricity usage would be as easy as looking at an itemized grocery receipt. Two sets of diversity factors one for peak cooling load calculations and. Because desktop computer programs while calculating available data used in calculations required confidence in? If they contribute significantly between different. CUSTOMER CARE UndERSTAnding LOAd FACTOR Austin. Cu or all its ip code allows some examples. This arrangement is convenientfor motor circuits. Submitted for publication in connect and Technology for the Built Environment. Establish consistentmethods for residential water heating for hours gives an academic setting up. When the event of a sale occurs, unit costs will then be matched with revenue and reported on the income statement. An HVAC diversity factor which relates to protect thermal characteristics of science facility's. Two general approaches are used to capturthe timevarying value of electricity savings. Electrical Load Characteristics. Before presenting the results, it is justice to give brief overview and the specific parameters used in agile different calculation methods. Although TRMs often provide industryaccepted values or algorithms forcalculatingsavingsusers should not shine that an algorithm is correct because my has been used elsewhere.
    [Show full text]
  • Q Demand Factor Is Defined As a Object Oriented Design Always Dominates the Structural Design a Maximum Demand X Connected Load
    These are sample MCQs to indicate pattern, may or may not appear in examination G.M. VEDAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Program: Mechanical Engineering Curriculum Scheme: Revised 2016 Examination: Final Year Semester VIII Course Code:MEDLO8041 and Course Name: PPE Time: 1 hour Max. Marks: 50 Q Demand factor is defined as A Object oriented design always dominates the structural design A Maximum demand X Connected load A Maximum demand/ Connected laod A Connected laod/Maximum demand Q Load factor is defined as A Average load/Maximum demand A Average load X Maximum demand A Maximum demand/Average laod A Maximum demand X Connected load Q Diversity factor is always A Equal to unity A More than unity A More than than twenty A Less than unity Q Load factor for heavy industries may be taken as A 10 to 15% A 15 to 40% A 50 to 70% A 70 to 80% Q Which of the following is not suitable to use as peak plant? A Hydroelectric power plant A Gas power plant A Diesel elected plant A Nuclear power plant Q Which of the following power plant cannot be used as base load plant? A Diesel power plant A Hydroelectric power plant A Nuclear power plant A Thermal power plant The system supplying base and peak loads will be more economical if power is supplied by _________ Q A Only gas turbine power plant A Only thermal power plant A Only Diesel power plant A Combined operation of various power plants Q Load factor of power station is generally A Less then unity A Equal to unity A More than unity A More than Ten Q Diversity factor is defined as A Sum of individual maximum demands/Maximum demand of entire group A Maximum demand of entire group/Sum of individual maximum demands A Maximum demand of entire group X Sum of individual maximum demands A Maximum demand of entire group + Sum of individual maximum demands Q In order to have lower cost of electrical energy generation A The load factor and diversity factor should be low.
    [Show full text]
  • Load Survey and Maximum Power Demand of Transformers in Power System Network in Ondo State, Ondo West As a Case Studies
    International Journal of African and Asian Studies - An Open Access International Journal Vol.4 2014 Load Survey and Maximum Power Demand of Transformers in Power System Network in Ondo State, Ondo West as a Case Studies AKINRINMADE AKINKUGBE FEDELIS, IJAROTIMI OLUMIDE Electrical Electronics Engineering Technology Department, Faculty of Engineering, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, PMB 1019,Owo,Ondo State, Nigeria. [email protected], [email protected] Abstract There are number of matrices used to capture the variability of loads, some of them are mainly used in reference to a single end-user and some of them are mainly used in reference to a substation transformer or a specific factor. This paper will examine data like load density, demand factor, load factor, minimum load demand. The paper will critically look into the number of transformer substation under any of the functioning injection substation. Using the above data, the criteria for the stability of the electricity in the area could be carried out. The paper will reveal, the load density, ranges from 0.0003kvA/m 2 to 0.0329kvA/m 2. The load factor ranges from 58.1% to 91.9% and the demand factor that ranges from 1.1% to 4.0%. Keywords : Load density, Load factor, and Demand factor, Injection Substation, Transformer Substation and Stability. 1. INTRODUTION Most of the Industrial and Residential layout in Ondo State are experiencing power outage. This is as a result of over-loading of a particular Transformer in an injection substation which resulted to load shedding (Usifo and Paul 2006). This paper will define the following information: Load Density, maximum demand, Demand factor, Load factor, and Diversity factors.
    [Show full text]
  • SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY and MATLAB PROGRAM a Project Presented to the Faculty of the Department O
    SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY AND MATLAB PROGRAM A Project Presented to the faculty of the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering California State University, Sacramento Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Electrical and Electronic Engineering by Steve Ghadiri Majid Hosseini FALL 2013 © 2013 Steve Ghadiri Majid Hosseini ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGY AND MATLAB PROGRAM A Project by Steve Ghadiri Majid Hosseini Approved by: _________________________________, Committee Chair Turan Gönen, Ph.D. _________________________________, Second Reader Salah Yousif, Ph.D. _________________________ Date iii Student: Steve Ghadiri Majid Hosseini I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the Project. _________________________________, Graduate Coordinator Preetham B. Kumar, Ph.D. _________________________ Date Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Turan Gonen, Professor of Electrical Engineering at California State University, Sacramento, for his guidance, supervision, patience, and care in recommending and evaluating this project in the area of Power Engineering at California State University, Sacramento. The authors are also appreciative of Dr. Salah Yousif, Professor of Electrical Engineering at California State University, Sacramento, for his excellent instruction in the area of Power Engineering at California State University, Sacramento, as well as being a reader of this project. The author would also like to acknowledge Dr. Preetham Kumar, Graduate Coordinator, and Professor of Electrical Engineering at California State University, Sacramento, for his guidance and direction in completion of this project.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 10, Peak Demand and Time-Differentiated Energy
    Chapter 10: Peak Demand and Time-Differentiated Energy Savings Cross-Cutting Protocols Frank Stern, Navigant Consulting Subcontract Report NREL/SR-7A30-53827 April 2013 Chapter 10 – Table of Contents 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................2 2 Purpose of Peak Demand and Time-differentiated Energy Savings .......................................3 3 Key Concepts ..........................................................................................................................5 4 Methods of Determining Peak Demand and Time-Differentiated Energy Impacts ...............7 4.1 Engineering Algorithms ................................................................................................... 7 4.2 Hourly Building Simulation Modeling ............................................................................ 7 4.3 Billing Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 8 4.4 Interval Metered Data Analysis ....................................................................................... 8 4.5 End-Use Metered Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 8 4.6 Survey Data on Hours of Use .......................................................................................... 9 4.7 Combined Approaches ..................................................................................................... 9
    [Show full text]
  • Variable Load on Power Stations
    CHAPTER3 Variable Load on Power Stations Introduction he function of a power station is to de- liver power to a large number of consum 3.1 Structure of Electric Power System Ters. However, the power demands of dif- 3.2 Variable Load on Power Station ferent consumers vary in accordance with their activities. The result of this variation in demand 3.3 Load Curves is that load on a power station is never constant, 3.4 Important Terms and Factors rather it varies from time to time. Most of the 3.5 Units Generated per Annum complexities of modern power plant operation 3.6 Load Duration Curve arise from the inherent variability of the load de- manded by the users. Unfortunately, electrical 3.7 Types of Loads power cannot be stored and, therefore, the power 3.8 Typical Demand and Diversity Fac- station must produce power as and when de- tors manded to meet the requirements of the consum- 3.9 Load Curves and Selection of Gener- ers. On one hand, the power engineer would like ating Units that the alternators in the power station should run at their rated capacity for maximum efficiency 3.10 Important Points in the Selection of and on the other hand, the demands of the con- Units sumers have wide variations. This makes the 3.11 Base Load and Peak Load on Power design of a power station highly complex. In this Station chapter, we shall focus our attention on the prob- 3.12 Method of Meeting the Load lems of variable load on power stations.
    [Show full text]
  • Tier 2 Chapter 08
    U.S. EPR FINAL SAFETY ANALYSIS REPORT 8.3 Onsite Power System 8.3.1 Alternating Current Power Systems 8.3.1.1 Description The main generator provides power through the station switchyard to the transmission system via an isolated phase bus (IPB) system and three single-phase main step-up transformers (MSU). Incoming power to the onsite AC power system is from the station switchyard during all modes of plant operation, through the emergency and normal auxiliary transformers to the Class 1E and non-Class 1E distribution systems respectively. The main generator is connected to the switchyard via two circuit breakers in the switchyard. Either breaker enables the generator to provide power to the transmission system. During main generator startup and synchronization with the grid, a generator automatic synchronizer is used in combination with an independent synchrocheck permissive relay, which provides a closing signal to the main generator breaker. Prior to main generator synchronization with the transmission system, the plant loads are fed by the transmission system through the switchyard. The main generator circuit breakers in the switchyard are open at this time. The switchyard and offsite power supply arrangement allows station loads to remain powered from the same source during all plant operating modes and eliminates the need for bus transfers during plant startup or shutdown. Main generator protection is provided by a primary and backup protection scheme. Protective device actuation trips the main generator output breakers in the switchyard, trips the generator excitation and initiates a turbine trip. Main generator protection includes stator overcurrent, ground fault and reverse power.
    [Show full text]
  • Phd Thesis Nuno Silva Final V3
    Alternative design strategies of distribution systems A thesis submitted to Imperial College London For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Nuno Filipe Gonçalves da Silva Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Abstract In contrast with traditional approaches based either on the analysis of a small specific area or on idealistic networks, the proposed methodology determines optimal network design policies by evaluating alternative planning strategies on statistically similar networks. The position of consumers influences the amount of equipment used to serve them. Therefore, simple geometric models or randomly placed points used in previous researches are not adequate. Using an algorithm based on fractal theory, realistic consumer sets are generated in terms of their position, type and demand to allow statistical evaluation of the cost of different design policies. In order to systematically deal with the problem of determining justifiable network investments, the concept of economically adapted distribution network was investigated and applied in the context of a loss-inclusive design promoting efficient investment policies from an overall social perspective. The network’s components are optimized, after yearly load flow calculations, based on the minimum life-cycle cost methodology, balancing annuitised capital investments and maintenance costs against the cost of system operation. Evaluating the cost of each particular design over statistically similar networks allows statistically significant conclusions to be drawn. The main results include the optimal number of substations for typical urban and rural LV, HV and EHV distribution systems, network costs (investment, purchasing and maintenance) and losses as well as the sensitivity of optimal network design to future energy prices and cost of equipment.
    [Show full text]
  • Analysis of Heating Load Diversity in German Residential Districts and Implications for the Application in District Heating Systems
    Analysis of heating load diversity in German residential districts and implications for the application in district heating systems Claudia Weissmann, Tianzhen Hong, & Carl-Alexander Graubner Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Energy Technologies Area September, 2017 Disclaimer: This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. While this document is believed to contain correct information, neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor the Regents of the University of California, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by its trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof, or the Regents of the University of California. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof or the Regents of the University of California. Analysis of heating load diversity in German residential districts and implications for the application in district heating systems Claudia Weissmann (corresponding author) Institute of Concrete and Masonry Structures, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Franziska-Braun-Str. 3, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany; [email protected] Tianzhen Hong Building Technology and Urban Systems Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley CA 94720, United States; [email protected] Carl-Alexander Graubner Institute of Concrete and Masonry Structures, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Franziska-Braun-Str.
    [Show full text]
  • Neue Preismodelle Für Energie
    Neue Preismodelle für Energie Grundlagen einer Reform der Entgelte, Steuern, Abgaben und Umlagen auf Strom und fossile Energieträger STUDIE Neue Preismodelle für Energie IMPRESSUM HINTERGRUND ERSTELLT IM AUFTRAG VON Neue Preismodelle für Energie Agora Energiewende Anna-Louisa-Karsch-Straße 2 | 10178 Berlin Grundlagen einer Reform der Entgelte, Steuern, T +49 (0)30 700 14 35-000 Abgaben und Umlagen auf Strom und fossile F +49 (0)30 700 14 35-129 Energieträger www.agora-energiewende.de [email protected] VERFASST VON Dr. Barbara Praetorius, Agora Energiewende DANKSAGUNG Thorsten Lenck, Agora Energiewende [email protected] Für Vorarbeiten in diesem Projekt danken wir Herrn Dr. Thies F. Clausen, dem arrhenius Institut Dr. Jens Büchner, E-Bridge Consulting für Energie und Klimapolitik und der Stiftung Ass. jur. Franziska Lietz LL.M., Umweltenergierecht. Energie-Forschungszentrum der Technischen Universität Clausthal Dr. Vigen Nikogosian, E-Bridge Consulting Dr. Dominik Schober, Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung und Universität Mannheim Prof. Dr. jur. Hartmut Weyer, Technische Universität Clausthal Dr. Oliver Woll, Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung Satz: UKEX GRAPHIC, Ettlingen Bitte zitieren als: Titelbild: eyeem/Nicolás Agora Energiewende (2017): Neue Preismodelle für Energie. Grundlagen einer Reform der 111/03-S-2017/DE Entgelte, Steuern, Abgaben und Umlagen auf Version: 1.2 Strom und fossile Energieträger. Hintergrund. Erstveröffentlichung: April 2017 Berlin, April 2017. Vorwort Liebe Leserin, lieber Leser, im idealen Strommarkt geben Strompreise das Signal und Umlagen fällig werden. Auch an den Sektoren- dafür, dass sich Angebot und Nachfrage in Echtzeit grenzen stimmen die Preissignale nicht: Heizöl und ausgleichen, Flexibilität angeboten wird und Kosten- Erdgas, Diesel und Benzin werden nach anderen Kri- und Energieeffizienz erreicht werden.
    [Show full text]
  • Load Management Operation
    Power system operation & control Al-Balqa Applied University Department of Electrical EnergyDr AudihEngineering 1 Part 2 Variable Load on Power Stations (Load management) Dr Audih 2 Generally each generation plant in any power may have more than one generating units. Each of the unit may have identical or different capacities. A number of power plants can be tied together to supply the system load by means of interconnection of the generating stations. Interconnected electric power system is more reliable and convenient to operate and also offers economical operating cost . Generation unit , Transformer Unit, Converter Unit, Transmission Unit, Inverter Unit and Consumer Point. This combination of all the unit is called the overall power system units. Dr Audih 3 SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION Effects of variable load. The variable load on a power station introduces many troubles in its operation. Some of the important effects of variable load on a power station are : (i) Need of additional equipment and generation units . (ii) Increase in production cost. The variation of load on the power station with respect to time. SYSTEM LOAD From system's point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads: 1. Domestic 2. Commercial 3. Industrial 4. Agriculture 5. Others - street lights, traction. Domestic: Lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens, small motors etc. 1. Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; 2. Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; 3. Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15 Dr Audih 4 Generation Transmission Distribution Loads Dr Audih 5 Industrial: Small scale industries: 0-20kW Medium scale industries: 20-100kW Large scale industries: above 100kW Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform throughout the day.
    [Show full text]