TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2 GENERAL SURVEY...... 9

2.1 TERMINOLOGY AND SCOPE ...... 11 2.1.1 Percussion, Concussion, Impact, and Collision ...... 12 2.1.2 Explosion and Implosion ...... 18 2.1.3 Conflagration, Deflagration, Detonation, and Detonics ...... 22 2.1.4 Hydraulic Jump, Bore, Surge, Tsunami, Seiche, Sea Shock, and Rogue Wave ...... 25 2.1.5 Shock and Shock Wave ...... 28 2.1.6 Collisionless Shock Waves...... 33 2.1.7 Shock and Vibration ...... 34 2.1.8 Blast Wave, Blast, and Blasting ...... 34 2.1.9 Gas Dynamics, Rarefied Gas Dynamics, Magnetogasdynamics, and Cosmical Gas Dynamics...... 36

2.2 INITIATION OF PERCUSSION RESEARCH...... 38 2.2.1 Natura Non Facit Saltum ...... 38 2.2.2 Foundation of Dynamics ...... 41 Classical Percussion Research ▪ Center of Percussion ▪ Vis Viva Controversy ▪ Corpuscular Models ▪ Newtonian Demonstrator 2.2.3 Further Investigations...... 46 Hertzian Cone ▪ Bulb of Percussion ▪ Conchoidal Fracture ▪ Percussion Figures ▪ Percussion Marks ▪ Percussion Force and Contact Time ▪ Billiards ▪ Ballistic Pendulum 2.2.4 Applications of Percussion ...... 49 Pile Driving, Steam Hammer ▪ Percussion Drilling ▪ Crushing, Fragmentation ▪ Fluid Jet Impact ▪ Firearms ▪ Intense Sound Generation ▪ Medical Diagnostics ▪ Biomechanics

2.3 EARLY SPECULATIONS ON SUPERSONIC PHENOMENA...... 52 2.3.1 Observations in Nature: Stimulating Riddles ...... 54 Thunder ▪ Hydrometeors ▪ Bores ▪ Tsunamis ▪ Surges ▪ Earthquakes and Seaquakes ▪ Explosive Volcanic Eruptions ▪ Meteorite Impact ▪ Cosmic Shock Wave Phenomena ▪ Cosmic Explosion Phenomena ▪ Cosmogony 2.3.2 Early Man-Made Shock Generators: Tools and Toys...... 69 Clapping of Hands ▪ Whip-Cracking ▪ Snapping Belts and Snapping Towel ▪ Electric Sparks ▪ Musical Instruments 2.3.3 Ballistic Studies: Birth of Supersonics ...... 71 x TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.4 EVOLUTION OF SHOCK WAVE PHYSICS...... 72 2.4.1 Nonlinear Acoustics...... 72 2.4.2 Main Periods of Evolution ...... 73 From 1746 to 1808 ▪ From 1808 to 1869 ▪ From 1822 to 1893 ▪ From 1888 to 1930 ▪ From 1930 to 1939 ▪ From 1939 to 1949 ▪ From 1950 to the Present ▪ Documentation and Dissemination 2.4.3 Aerial Waves of Finite Amplitude: a Challenge for Mathematicians...... 76 Water Waves ▪ Approach to Shock Waves ▪ Motivations ▪ Superposition of Shock Waves 2.4.4 Shock Waves in Gases: First Experimental Proofs of Their Existence ...... 80 The Roots of Gas Dynamics ▪ First Studies of Intense Air Waves ▪ Mach Reflection ▪ First Laboratory-Scale Supersonic Experiments ▪ Studies of Nozzle Outflow ▪ Wind Tunnels ▪ Shock Tubes 2.4.5 Shock Waves in a Liquid: the Peculiar Fluid ...... 86 Shock-Induced Freezing ▪ Liquefaction ▪ Water Hammer, Water Ram, Hydraulic Ram and Hydrodynamic Ram ▪ Underwater Explosions ▪ Water Ricochets ▪ Cavitation ▪ Supercavitation ▪ Photodisruptive Effect ▪ Sonoluminescence ▪ Electrohydraulic Effect 2.4.6 Solid-State Shock Wave Physics: Initiation by Nuclear Weaponeers...... 93 Roots ▪ Establishment and Motivations ▪ Materials Dynamics ▪ Dynamic Fracture ▪ Equations of State ▪ Off-Hugoniot States ▪ Stimulation of Secondary Effects

2.5 PIERCING THE SOUND BARRIER: MYTH AND REALITY...... 100 2.5.1 Unmanned Vehicles: First Demonstrations of Practicability ...... 101 2.5.2 Manned Vehicles: from Venture to Routine...... 103 2.5.3 New Challenges, New Threats ...... 104

2.6 EVOLUTION OF DETONATION PHYSICS ...... 105 2.6.1 Black Powder: the Maid of All Work...... 106 2.6.2 The Riddle of Detonation: Steps Toward an Understanding...... 108 High Explosives ▪ Firing Devices ▪ Firedamp Explosions ▪ Coal Dust Explosions ▪ Detonation Wave ▪ Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) Theory ▪ Zel’dovich-von Neumann- Döring (ZND) Theory ▪ Complex Detonation Processes ▪ Evolution of Chemical Kinetics 2.6.3 Detonics: the Key to Ultrahigh Shock Pressures, and New Applications ...... 114 2.6.4 Nuclear and Thermonuclear Explosions: the Ultimate Man-Made Shock Phenomena...... 115 Milestones in Nuclear Physics ▪ The First Types of Nuclear Bomb ▪ U.S. Plowshare Program ▪ Soviet Plowshare Program ▪ New Generations of Nuclear Weapons ▪ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Explosion

2.7 EVOLUTION OF SEISMOLOGY ...... 119 2.7.1 Explosion Seismology & Vibroseis...... 119 2.7.2 Seismoscopes, Seismographs, and Seismometers ...... 120 2.7.3 Seismic Prospecting and Research ...... 121

2.8 HIGH-SPEED DIAGNOSTICS...... 122 2.8.1 Precise Time Measurement: the Crucial Condition...... 123 Chronoscopes and Chronographs ▪ Electronic Timing Devices ▪ Triggering ▪ Prerigger Framing Photography 2.8.2 Optical Methods of Visualization: the Key to a Better Understanding ...... 127 Schlieren Methods ▪ Shadowgraphy ▪ Interferometry ▪ Other Methods 2.8.3 The Soot Technique: Ingenious ‘Black Magic’...... 130 2.8.4 High-Speed Photography and Photonics: Freezing the Instant ...... 130 Single-Shot Photography ▪ High-Speed Cinematography TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

2.8.5 Flash X-Ray Techniques: Visualizing the Hidden...... 132 Flash Radiography ▪ Flash X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 2.8.6 The Correct Measurement of Shock Pressure: an Evergreen Problem ...... 133 Mechanical Gauges ▪ Piezoelectric Gauges ▪ Piezoresistive Gauges ▪ Examples of Other Methods

2.9 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS...... 137 2.9.1 The Pre-Computer Era: Triumph of Mechanical and Graphical Methods...... 138 Digital Mechanical Machines ▪ Analog Mechanical Machines ▪ Graphical Concepts 2.9.2 Revolution in Calculation: the Automatic Digital Computer ...... 141 Digital Electromechanical Computers ▪ Digital Electronic Computers 2.9.3 The Tricky Problem: Treating Flow Discontinuities Numerically ...... 144

2.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS...... 146

3 CHRONOLOGY ...... 169 Natural Shock, Explosion & Impact Phenomena: Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Chronology: ▪ Prehistoric Times ▪ Antiquity ▪ Middle Ages ▪ Modern Times

4 PICTURE GALLERY ...... 845

4.1 SHOCK AND PERCUSSION IN NATURE ...... 847 Lunar Surface, a Result of Meteorite Impacts ▪ Meteor Crater and Shock Metamorphism ▪ Asteroid Impact: Ries Basin and Steinheim Basin ▪ Two Famous Meteorites: Ensisheim and Murchison ▪ Great Earthquakes: Lisbon (1755) ▪ Great Earthquakes: San Francisco (1906) ▪ Explosive Volcanic Eruption: Krakatau (1883) ▪ Explosive Volcanic Eruption: Mount St. Helens (1980) ▪ Plate Tectonics ▪ Lightning and Thunder ▪ The Riddle of Ball Lightning ▪ Tidal Bores ▪ Hydraulic Jumps ▪ Tsunami Caused by Submarine Volcanic Eruption ▪ Tsunami Caused by Subduction ▪ Examples of Early Tsunami Research ▪ The Tsunami in Indian Mythology ▪ Destructive Tsunami Effects ▪ Rogue or Freak Waves ▪ Sunspots, Solar Flares, and Prominences ▪ Solar Flares and Solar Quakes ▪ Big Bang Portrait ▪ Earth’s Bow Shock ▪ Cosmic Jets, Shock Waves, and Mach Cones ▪ Animal World

4.2 PERCUSSION IN THE EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY ...... 876 Basic Tool of Civilization ▪ Early War Machines ▪ Devices Based on Rapid Expansion ▪ Devices Based on Rapid Compression ▪ Periodically Operating Devices ▪ Pile Driver ▪ Forge Steam Ram and Explosion Ram ▪ Explosion Tamper and Wrecking Ball ▪ Percussion Boring ▪ Ricocheting ▪ Big Guns of the 19th Century ▪ Superguns of the 20th Century

4.3 PERCUSSION STUDIES ...... 888 17th Century: The Pioneering Era of Percussion Research ▪ 18th Century: Percussion Machine for Demonstrating Central Percussion ▪ 18th Century: Percussion Machine for Demonstrating Oblique Percussion ▪ 18th Century: First Ballistic Pendulum ▪ 19th Century: Measurement of Shock Duration ▪ 19th Century: CORIOLIS’ Mathematical Studies on Billiards ▪ Oldest Known Seismoscope and 19th-Century Seismography ▪ 19th Century: Percussion Figures ▪ 20th Century: Measurement of Deformation and Force ▪ 20th Century: Pressure-Bar Devices ▪ 20th Century: Taylor Test ▪ 20th Century: Examples of Ball Percussion Studies ▪ 20th Century: Liquids under Impact ▪ 20th Century: Sweet Spots of Sports Equipment ▪ 20th Century: Seismology of Nuclear Explosions xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.4 PERCUSSION AND SHOCK WAVE MODELS...... 906 Corpuscular Models and NEWTON’s ‘Cradle’ ▪ Shock Wave Demonstration Apparatus ▪ One-Dimensional Shock Wave Models ▪ Apparatus for Demonstrating Hydraulic Jumps ▪ Traffic Shocks ▪ Amusing Cartoons

4.5 SHOCK WAVE VISUALIZATION ...... 910 TOEPLER’s Stroboscopy of Propagating Shock Waves ▪ ANTOLIK’s Soot Method ▪ Examples of Shock Wave Photography in Gases ▪ Shock Tube Studies ▪ Whip Cracking ▪ Muzzle Blast and Head Wave ▪ Color Schlieren Photography

4.6 HEAD WAVE STUDIES ...... 918 HUYGENS’ Principle of Wave-Front Construction ▪ DOPPLER, Father of the Head Wave Phenomenon ▪ Surface Wave Pattern Produced by a Moving Body in Water ▪ MACH and SALCHER: Prelude to a Pioneering Ballistic Experiment ▪ First Experimental Evidence ▪ Other Optical Methods ▪ Model Sonic Boom Studies ▪ Pressure Measurements Around a Flying Projectile ▪ Blunt Body Concept ▪ Phenomena at Hypersonic Velocities

4.7 NOZZLE STUDIES AND APPLICATIONS ...... 926 Early Safety Valve Constructions ▪ Predecessors of Steam Turbines ▪ Forerunners of the Laval Nozzle ▪ Use of the Venturi Nozzle in the First Wind Tunnel ▪ First Use of Laval Nozzle in a Steam Turbine ▪ Steam Flow in a Divergent Nozzle ▪ Laval Nozzles as Power Generators in Aeronautics

4.8 SUPERSONIC JET PHENOMENA...... 931 SALCHER and MACH’s First Free Air Jet Studies ▪ EMDEN’s First Steam Jet Studies ▪ PRANDTL and MEYER’s Nozzle and Jet Studies ▪ THOMER’s First Radiographs of Detonating Shaped Charges ▪ Formation and Structure of Liquid Jets ▪ Generation of Microjets ▪ Astrophysical Jets

4.9 WIND TUNNELS...... 938 Pioneering Supersonic Devices in France and England ▪ Prewar Supersonic Facility at TH Aachen ▪ Continuous-Flow Closed-Circuit Supersonic Facility at ETH Zurich ▪ Supersonic Intermittent Indraft Facility at the German Rocket Center, Peenemünde ▪ Slotted Throat of Supersonic Facility at NACA, Hampton, VA ▪ Ludwieg Tube Facility at AVA, Göttingen ▪ First Hypervelocity Facilities

4.10 SHOCK TUBES ...... 944 VIEILLE’s Pioneering Setup ▪ BLEAKNEY’s Triggerable Shock Tube ▪ Special Types

4.11 SHOCK WAVE GENERATION ...... 950 Snapping Belts and Whip Cracking ▪ Plane-Wave Generators ▪ Gun-Type High-Velocity Accelerators ▪ Other Methods ▪ Laser-Induced Spark ▪ Laser-Supported Detonation (LSD) ▪ Laser-Propelled ‘Lightcraft’

4.12 SHOCK FRONT ANALYSIS...... 954 In Gaseous Matter ▪ In Space ▪ In Solid Matter ▪ Hydraulic Jumps in Water

4.13 MACH EFFECT ...... 958 Interactions of Hydrodynamic Jumps ▪ Shock Interactions in Gases ▪ Shock Interactions in Liquids ▪ Shock Interactions in Solids

4.14 SHOCK WAVE EFFECTS ...... 966 Shock-Induced Creation of Prebiotic Substances ▪ Cavitation ▪ Supercavitation ▪ Condensation ▪ Aerodynamic Shock Heating ▪ λ-Shock Configuration ▪ Shock Focusing ▪ Transonic Shock Phenomena ▪ Aerodynamic Drag ▪ WHITCOMB’s Area Rule ▪ Pseudo Supersonic Wave Effects ▪ Gasdynamic Laser ▪ Shock-On-Shock Problem ▪ Shock Wave Interactions in Metals ▪ Shock-Induced Solidification ▪ Other Phenomena TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

4.15 SHOCK WAVE APPLICATIONS...... 978 Miscellaneous ▪ Determination of Seismic Wave Velocities ▪ Explosion Seismology: the Mintrop Wave ▪ Medical Therapy ▪ Materials Research and Metal Working Industry ▪ Oil Production Industry

4.16 EXPLOSION, IMPLOSION, AND DETONATION ...... 984 Early Use of Black Powder ▪ Hollow Charge Effect ▪ Underwater Explosions ▪ Implosion and Explosion in a Gas ▪ Nuclear Implosion Device: The ‘Gadget’ ▪ Examples of Nuclear Explosions ▪ Electric Guns ▪ Exploding Wires ▪ Large Yield Surface Detonations ▪ Precursor Detonation Phenomenon ▪ One-Dimensional Detonation Front Models ▪ Spinning Detonation ▪ Periodic Cell Structure ▪ Other Explosion Phenomena ▪ Explosive Ablation of Biological Tissue

4.17 EXPLOSION AND DETONATION DIAGNOSTICS...... 998 Maximum Pressure of Fired Gunpowder ▪ Maximum Pressure and Temperature ▪ Chamber Pressure of a Detonating Explosive ▪ Brisance Test of Gunpowder ▪ Brisance Test of a High Explosive ▪ Test of Explosives Used in Mining ▪ Dust Explosion Tester ▪ Detonation Velocity of a High Explosive ▪ Detonation Velocity of a Gaseous Explosion ▪ Interior Ballistic Studies ▪ Blast Wave Recording ▪ Streak Photography in Detonics ▪ Reflected-Light Photography in Detonics

4.18 OPTICAL METHODS FOR FLOW VISUALIZING ...... 1008 Schlieren Photography ▪ Shadowgraphy ▪ Interferometry ▪ Holography ▪ Surface Thermography

4.19 HIGH-SPEED DIAGNOSTICS ...... 1012 Chronoscopes and Chronographs ▪ Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes ▪ Time-Delay Generators ▪ Triggered Snapshot Photography ▪ Rotating Mirror ▪ Spark Chronography of a Flying Projectile ▪ Rotating Mirror Streak Cameras ▪ High-Speed Cinematography

4.20 HIGH-SPEED VEHICLES...... 1020 Mythologies ▪ First Supersonic Rocket Flight ▪ First Hypersonic Rocket Flight ▪ First Transonic Rocket Plane ▪ First Supersonic Rocket Plane ▪ Supersonic Propeller ▪ Supersonic Transport (SST) ▪ Hypersonic Aircraft ▪ Manned Spacecraft: Reentry Capsules ▪ Manned Spacecraft: Shuttles ▪ Rocket Sleds ▪ Supersonic Car

4.21 MAN-MADE DISASTERS ...... 1028 Steam-Boiler Explosions ▪ Firedamp Explosions ▪ Gun Barrel Bursts ▪ Grain Dust Explosions ▪ Nuclear Reactor Explosion ▪ World Trade Center: Terrorist Bomb Attack ▪ World Trade Center: Terrorist Aircraft Attack

5 BIOGRAPHIES INDEX ...... 1035 F.A. ABEL ▪ J. ACKERET ▪ G.B. AIRY ▪ L.V. AL’TSHULER ▪ K. ANTOLIK ▪ R.A. BECKER ▪ D. BERNOULLI ▪ P.E.M. BERTHELOT ▪ H.A. BETHE ▪ W. BLEAKNEY ▪ C.V. BOYS ▪ P.W. BRIDGMAN ▪ R.W.E. BUNSEN ▪ A. BUSEMANN ▪ L. CARRÉ ▪ H. CAVENDISH ▪ J. CHALLIS ▪ D.L. CHAPMAN ▪ G.G. DE CORIOLIS ▪ R. COURANT ▪ C.J. CRANZ ▪ L.M. CROCCO ▪ H. DAVY ▪ H.B. DIXON ▪ C.A. DOPPLER ▪ W.S. DÖRING ▪ H.L. DRYDEN ▪ P.M.M. DUHEM ▪ G.E. DUVALL ▪ S. EARNSHAW ▪ L. EULER ▪ A. FERRI ▪ A.A. FRIEDMANN ▪ K.O. FRIEDRICHS ▪ Y.A. GAGARIN ▪ G.A. GAMOW ▪ I.I. GLASS ▪ H. GLAUERT ▪ V. GOLDBERG ▪ J.S. HADAMARD ▪ C. HAEUSSERMANN ▪ R. HERMANN ▪ H.R. HERTZ ▪ A. HERTZBERG ▪ B. HOPKINSON ▪ E.P. HUBBLE ▪ P.H. HUGONIOT ▪ C. HUTTON ▪ C. HUYGENS ▪ W. JOHNSON ▪ J.C.E. JOUGUET ▪ I. KANT ▪ T. VON KÁRMÁN ▪ G.B. KISTIAKOWSKY ▪ K. KOBES ▪ H. LAMB ▪ O. LAPORTE ▪ C.G.P. DE LAVAL ▪ P.E. LE BOULENGÉ ▪ H.L. LE CHATELIER ▪ H.J.E. LEMAITRE ▪ N. LÉMERY ▪ M.J. LIGHTHILL ▪ E.W.J.W. MACH ▪ L. MACH ▪ N.V. MAIYEVSKII ▪ F.E. MALLARD ▪ R. MALLET ▪ J.M. MARCI VON KRONLAND ▪ E. MARIOTTE ▪ L.H.F. MELSENS ▪ M. MERSENNE ▪ V.A. MIKHEL’SON ▪ L. MINTROP ▪ C.E. MUNROE ▪ J.L. VON NEUMANN ▪ A.B. NOBEL ▪ A. NOBLE ▪ A.K. OPPENHEIM ▪ K. OSWATITSCH ▪ D. PAPIN ▪ W.H. PAYMAN ▪ S.D. POISSON ▪ T.C. POULTER ▪ L. PRANDTL ▪ W.J.M. RANKINE ▪ Lord RAYLEIGH ⇨ J.W. STRUTT ▪ H.V. REGNAULT ▪ G.F.B. RIEMANN ▪ B. ROBINS ▪ T.J. RODMAN ▪ J.S. RUSSELL xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

▪ A.J.C. DE SAINT-VENANT ▪ P. SALCHER ▪ R.J. SCHALL ▪ H. SCHARDIN ▪ O. VON SCHMIDT ▪ P. SCHMIDT ▪ F.C. SCHULTZ-GRUNOW ▪ L.I. SEDOV ▪ N.N. SEMENOV ▪ E.M. SHOEMAKER ▪ R.I. SOLOUKHIN ▪ T.E. STANTON ▪ K.P. STANYUKOVICH ▪ A.B. STODOLA ▪ G.G. STOKES ▪ J.W. STRUTT ▪ B. STURTEVANT ▪ P.G. TAIT ▪ A.H. TAUB ▪ G.I. TAYLOR ▪ A.J.I. TOEPLER ▪ M.A. TOEPLER ▪ A.N. TUPOLEV ▪ P.M.E. VIEILLE ▪ J. WALLIS ▪ H.M. WEBER ▪ C. WIESELSBERGER ▪ R.W. WOOD ▪ C. WREN ▪ C.E. YEAGER ▪ Y.B. ZEL’DOVICH ▪ G.V. ZEMPLÉN ▪ N.E. ZHUKOVSKY

6 SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES ...... 1201

6.1 GENERAL ENCYCLOPEDIAS...... 1203

6.2 SPECIAL ENCYCLOPEDIAS, DICTIONARIES & GLOSSARIES ...... 1203 6.3 HANDBOOKS ...... 1205

6.4 BIOGRAPHICAL CATALOGUES, DICTIONARIES, ENCYCLOPEDIAS & PERIODICALS...... 1205

6.5 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL CATALOGUES ...... 1207

6.6 BOOKS & REVIEW ARTICLES WITH HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE...... 1207 Acoustics & Nonlinear Acoustics ▪ Aerodynamics, Aeronautics & Astronautics ▪ Astronomy & Astrophysics ▪ Ballistics ▪ Bores, Hydraulic Jumps, Solitary Waves & Tsunamis ▪ Chemistry ▪ Collision, Percussion & Impact ▪ Combustion Research ▪ Computer, Early Developments & Applications ▪ Diagnostics, High-Speed Photography & Scientific Instruments ▪ Earthquakes & Seaquakes ▪ Explosions & Detonations ▪ Fluid Dynamics & Gas Dynamics ▪ General Reviews ▪ Geology & Geophysics ▪ Hydraulics & Hydrodynamics ▪ Mathematics ▪ Mechanics ▪ Mining Industry ▪ Nuclear Weapons Development ▪ Physics ▪ Seismology & Geophysical Prospecting ▪ Shock Waves & Blast Waves ▪ Shock Waves in Biology & Medicine ▪ Steam Boiler Explosions ▪ Thermodynamics ▪ Thunder ▪ Volcanoes

6.7 INTERNET HOMEPAGES...... 1214 Research Institutions ▪ Technical Museums

NAME INDEX...... 1217

SUBJECT INDEX ...... 1257