TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1 2 GENERAL SURVEY.......................................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 TERMINOLOGY AND SCOPE ................................................................................................................ 11 2.1.1 Percussion, Concussion, Impact, and Collision ............................................................................ 12 2.1.2 Explosion and Implosion .............................................................................................................. 18 2.1.3 Conflagration, Deflagration, Detonation, and Detonics ............................................................... 22 2.1.4 Hydraulic Jump, Bore, Surge, Tsunami, Seiche, Sea Shock, and Rogue Wave ........................... 25 2.1.5 Shock and Shock Wave ................................................................................................................ 28 2.1.6 Collisionless Shock Waves........................................................................................................... 33 2.1.7 Shock and Vibration ..................................................................................................................... 34 2.1.8 Blast Wave, Blast, and Blasting ................................................................................................... 34 2.1.9 Gas Dynamics, Rarefied Gas Dynamics, Magnetogasdynamics, and Cosmical Gas Dynamics........................................................................................................ 36 2.2 INITIATION OF PERCUSSION RESEARCH.......................................................................................... 38 2.2.1 Natura Non Facit Saltum .............................................................................................................. 38 2.2.2 Foundation of Dynamics .............................................................................................................. 41 Classical Percussion Research ▪ Center of Percussion ▪ Vis Viva Controversy ▪ Corpuscular Models ▪ Newtonian Demonstrator 2.2.3 Further Investigations................................................................................................................... 46 Hertzian Cone ▪ Bulb of Percussion ▪ Conchoidal Fracture ▪ Percussion Figures ▪ Percussion Marks ▪ Percussion Force and Contact Time ▪ Billiards ▪ Ballistic Pendulum 2.2.4 Applications of Percussion ........................................................................................................... 49 Pile Driving, Steam Hammer ▪ Percussion Drilling ▪ Crushing, Fragmentation ▪ Fluid Jet Impact ▪ Firearms ▪ Intense Sound Generation ▪ Medical Diagnostics ▪ Biomechanics 2.3 EARLY SPECULATIONS ON SUPERSONIC PHENOMENA................................................................ 52 2.3.1 Observations in Nature: Stimulating Riddles ............................................................................... 54 Thunder ▪ Hydrometeors ▪ Bores ▪ Tsunamis ▪ Surges ▪ Earthquakes and Seaquakes ▪ Explosive Volcanic Eruptions ▪ Meteorite Impact ▪ Cosmic Shock Wave Phenomena ▪ Cosmic Explosion Phenomena ▪ Cosmogony 2.3.2 Early Man-Made Shock Generators: Tools and Toys................................................................... 69 Clapping of Hands ▪ Whip-Cracking ▪ Snapping Belts and Snapping Towel ▪ Electric Sparks ▪ Musical Instruments 2.3.3 Ballistic Studies: Birth of Supersonics ......................................................................................... 71 x TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.4 EVOLUTION OF SHOCK WAVE PHYSICS........................................................................................... 72 2.4.1 Nonlinear Acoustics..................................................................................................................... 72 2.4.2 Main Periods of Evolution ........................................................................................................... 73 From 1746 to 1808 ▪ From 1808 to 1869 ▪ From 1822 to 1893 ▪ From 1888 to 1930 ▪ From 1930 to 1939 ▪ From 1939 to 1949 ▪ From 1950 to the Present ▪ Documentation and Dissemination 2.4.3 Aerial Waves of Finite Amplitude: a Challenge for Mathematicians........................................... 76 Water Waves ▪ Approach to Shock Waves ▪ Motivations ▪ Superposition of Shock Waves 2.4.4 Shock Waves in Gases: First Experimental Proofs of Their Existence ........................................ 80 The Roots of Gas Dynamics ▪ First Studies of Intense Air Waves ▪ Mach Reflection ▪ First Laboratory-Scale Supersonic Experiments ▪ Studies of Nozzle Outflow ▪ Wind Tunnels ▪ Shock Tubes 2.4.5 Shock Waves in a Liquid: the Peculiar Fluid ............................................................................... 86 Shock-Induced Freezing ▪ Liquefaction ▪ Water Hammer, Water Ram, Hydraulic Ram and Hydrodynamic Ram ▪ Underwater Explosions ▪ Water Ricochets ▪ Cavitation ▪ Supercavitation ▪ Photodisruptive Effect ▪ Sonoluminescence ▪ Electrohydraulic Effect 2.4.6 Solid-State Shock Wave Physics: Initiation by Nuclear Weaponeers.......................................... 93 Roots ▪ Establishment and Motivations ▪ Materials Dynamics ▪ Dynamic Fracture ▪ Equations of State ▪ Off-Hugoniot States ▪ Stimulation of Secondary Effects 2.5 PIERCING THE SOUND BARRIER: MYTH AND REALITY................................................................ 100 2.5.1 Unmanned Vehicles: First Demonstrations of Practicability ....................................................... 101 2.5.2 Manned Vehicles: from Venture to Routine................................................................................. 103 2.5.3 New Challenges, New Threats ..................................................................................................... 104 2.6 EVOLUTION OF DETONATION PHYSICS ........................................................................................... 105 2.6.1 Black Powder: the Maid of All Work........................................................................................... 106 2.6.2 The Riddle of Detonation: Steps Toward an Understanding........................................................ 108 High Explosives ▪ Firing Devices ▪ Firedamp Explosions ▪ Coal Dust Explosions ▪ Detonation Wave ▪ Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) Theory ▪ Zel’dovich-von Neumann- Döring (ZND) Theory ▪ Complex Detonation Processes ▪ Evolution of Chemical Kinetics 2.6.3 Detonics: the Key to Ultrahigh Shock Pressures, and New Applications .................................... 114 2.6.4 Nuclear and Thermonuclear Explosions: the Ultimate Man-Made Shock Phenomena................ 115 Milestones in Nuclear Physics ▪ The First Types of Nuclear Bomb ▪ U.S. Plowshare Program ▪ Soviet Plowshare Program ▪ New Generations of Nuclear Weapons ▪ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Explosion 2.7 EVOLUTION OF SEISMOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 119 2.7.1 Explosion Seismology & Vibroseis.............................................................................................. 119 2.7.2 Seismoscopes, Seismographs, and Seismometers ........................................................................ 120 2.7.3 Seismic Prospecting and Research ............................................................................................... 121 2.8 HIGH-SPEED DIAGNOSTICS................................................................................................................. 122 2.8.1 Precise Time Measurement: the Crucial Condition...................................................................... 123 Chronoscopes and Chronographs ▪ Electronic Timing Devices ▪ Triggering ▪ Prerigger Framing Photography 2.8.2 Optical Methods of Visualization: the Key to a Better Understanding ........................................ 127 Schlieren Methods ▪ Shadowgraphy ▪ Interferometry ▪ Other Methods 2.8.3 The Soot Technique: Ingenious ‘Black Magic’............................................................................ 130 2.8.4 High-Speed Photography and Photonics: Freezing the Instant .................................................... 130 Single-Shot Photography ▪ High-Speed Cinematography TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 2.8.5 Flash X-Ray Techniques: Visualizing the Hidden........................................................................ 132 Flash Radiography ▪ Flash X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 2.8.6 The Correct Measurement of Shock Pressure: an Evergreen Problem ......................................... 133 Mechanical Gauges ▪ Piezoelectric Gauges ▪ Piezoresistive Gauges ▪ Examples of Other Methods 2.9 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS................................................................................ 137 2.9.1 The Pre-Computer Era: Triumph of Mechanical and Graphical Methods.................................... 138 Digital Mechanical Machines ▪ Analog Mechanical Machines ▪ Graphical Concepts 2.9.2 Revolution in Calculation: the Automatic Digital Computer ....................................................... 141 Digital Electromechanical Computers ▪ Digital Electronic Computers 2.9.3 The Tricky Problem: Treating Flow Discontinuities Numerically ............................................... 144 2.10 CONCLUDING REMARKS.....................................................................................................................