Cultural Resources

CHAPTER FOUR THE HISTORY: CULTURAL RESOURCES

A CRADLE OF SETTLEMENT adobe bricks, for instance, was introduced by the Spaniards following methods For all the changes wrought by centuries borrowed from the Moors. Pueblo people of human habitation and environmental contributed their own methods of adobe change, the Northern Rio Grande National and stone construction. Both now find Heritage Area retains a recognizable expression in expensive homes in Santa Fe feeling and identity. Older ways of making and Taos and in more humble abodes in a living continue to hold meaning and historic area communities. value. Communities dating to the 13th and 14th centuries continue to be inhabited Cultural resources of the Heritage Area are today, while archeological sites document extensive and varied. They include human occupation in the region as far archeological sites, extensive petroglyph back as 12,000 years. collections, historic Native and Hispanic villages and buildings, plazas, churches This chapter presents a brief overview of and cemeteries, farms and acequias, and the history and culture of the Heritage cultural events and activities. At the Area and provides an introduction to the Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo’s San Gabriel long and fascinating unfolding of human archeological site, a Spanish mission activities here: the development of early church was built in 1598 – a generation agriculture, the complex architecture of before the Mayflower landed in the earliest inhabitants, the movement of Massachusetts; Santa Fe’s Palace of peoples as a result of environmental and Governors is the nation’s oldest societal pressures, the arrival of new government building, dating to the inhabitants, and the relations between all founding of the City of Santa Fe in 1610. the varied groups moving across and into the landscape. Descendants of the Pueblo Music, dance, ceremonies, fairs, and peoples retain much of their ancient lands, traditional arts and crafts, such as and continue to speak their respective weaving, pottery, basketry, and carved native languages, and to practice native and painted religious art, are found not religions. Similarly, descendants of only in local museums, but also at local Spanish explorers (the conquistadores) arts markets that draw visitors from all and settlers retain their cultural practices, over world. The historic and cultural a strong religious identity, and a dialect of continuity of the region is our inheritance the Spanish language dating to the and also our gift to the world. What sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. makes the Northern Rio Grande National Heritage Area unique is that so much of its The Heritage Area is a place where many past is still alive and vital. The life ways cultures have interacted over a very long and relationships of ancestors continue to time in a manner unique to the Southwest. echo in lives being lived today. The Traditional housing made of sun-dried Northern Rio Grande National Heritage

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Area intends to ensure that this distinctive agriculture supporting larger and larger nexus of cultures and landscapes is communities. preserved and celebrated. Between 200 and 700 A.D., an increasing THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS number of people settled in villages, and (FROM 10,000 B.C.) planted more corn and crops. Villagers lived in small, semi-subterranean pit- THE ANCESTRAL PUEBLOANS houses. Archeological sites document the increased use of tools for grinding grains, At the end of the last ice age, some 12,000 as well as, use of more sophisticated stone years ago, small bands of hunter-gatherers projectile points, knives, scrapers, drills, roved the Southwest. The Clovis culture, and choppers, for specific tasks. Villagers earliest of these groups, is named in made beautifully woven baskets, sandals, reference to the eastern New Mexican nets for hunting, and blankets of rabbit fur town that is near the place where and cotton cloth. By 500 A. D. they were distinctive spear points (made to hunt making pottery. now-extinct mammoth, camel, and bison) were found. Archeological evidence Despite the challenges of climate, found near Folsom, a town in northeast including droughts and severe winters, the New Mexico, points to a slightly later Southwest was a healthy environment in Paleo-Indian group known as the Folsom which to live. In time, people began to culture. Such ancient, ephemeral hunting build above-ground, creating stone and camp sites are rare. Thousands of years adobe houses with a row of rooms, often after the Clovis and Folsom cultures, after for extended families. Villages grew larger large animals died out, small groups of in size, and farming more important. what most likely were extended families lived in the vicinity of the Heritage Area, The earliest structures in Pueblo Bonito, in gathering wild plants, hunting small game, Chaco Canyon, date to around 800 A.D. and living in the dry caves of the From this core of adobe buildings grew the sophisticated architecture of the Southwest. They left behind only a few th clues about their mobile way of life. Chaco pueblos, which date to the 11 and 12th centuries. The complex often is Sometime around 500 B.C., just beyond referred to as American’s first apartment the western edge of the Heritage Area, building. Chaco, considered a center of Southwestern people began to grow corn. ritual and religion, trade and exchange, Corn supplemented hunting and wild plant was not the only such complex, as the Ancestral Pueblo people flourished. The gathering. A bit later, squash and beans th appeared. Prior to about 200 A.D., people Pueblo name comes from 16 century relied primarily on hunting. They left their Spanish settlers who recognized that the corn to grow in whatever moist spots they native people lived in towns, or pueblos. could find and followed after game. From The word continues to be used to identify these beginnings, the ancestors to the the native people and the places in which Pueblo peoples developed intensified they live.

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Like their tools, agriculture, and Within the Heritage Area there exist six architecture, Pueblo societies were Tewa-speaking Pueblos – Ohkay Owingeh, complex. Religion played an enormous Nambe, Pojoaque, Santa Clara, San role in their lives and communities. Ildefonso, and Tesuque; and two Tiwa- Relations, marred by competition for speaking Pueblos – Taos and Picurís. Both resources and warfare, were not always languages are a branch of the Tanoan harmonious. People moved, to find more language. Tewa traditions say ancestors game and better land and soil for their emerged from a lake somewhere in fields, and because they faced opposition southern Colorado, migrating south and from different groups and communities. establishing villages along the Rio Chama and its tributaries in Rio Arriba and Santa New Mexico, and the Northern Rio Grande Fe counties. [sidebar 3] Tiwa Pueblos were area in particular, experienced intense situated to the northeast, in present-day occupation in the 12th and 13th centuries. Taos County, and located on the northern Villages were as small as 20 rooms and as frontier in proximity to Plains tribes, large as 400 to 1,000 rooms. Villages had including the Comanche, with whom they a central space – a plaza –and kivas, which alternately fought and traded. Taos were large, underground rooms, nearly Pueblo was the site of annual trade fairs always circular, associated with religious with the Plains Indians and, later on, with societies and ceremonies. Nearly 300 fur trappers. [sidebar 4] Ancestral Puebloan archeo-logical sites have been recorded in the vicinity of Taos, some dating as early as 1000 A.D.

Prolonged, severe drought in the 13th and 14th centuries caused people to abandon their homes and migrate to new areas, including the Rio Grande Valley, where they reorganized their world and learned to interact with foreign cultures. Some large villages were built along the Rio Grande itself and others in the Heritage Area’s Chama River valley, Taos area, and Galisteo Basin. Villages included Te’ewi, Tshirege, Puyé, Otowi, Old Picuris, Arroyo Hondo, Pindi, Pueblo Largo, San Cristobal, San Marcos, and Las Madres. [sidebar 1] Some of these villages were abandoned hundreds of years ago; 19 other pueblos – eight of them in the Heritage Area – continue to thrive on the same sites, or nearby land, of their 14th- and 15th-century ancestors. [sidebar 2] Puyé Cliff Dwellings

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1. The Puye Ruins in Rio Arriba County is preserves one of the largest of the prehistoric Indian settlements on the Pajarito Plateau. The settlement was established in the late 1200s or early 1300s and abandoned by about 1600. The ruins, on the ancestral site of Santa Clara Pueblo, show a variety of architectural forms and building techniques.

2. Mesa Prieta is an elongated mesa situated above the confluence of the Río Grande and the Río Chama and extending north from Ohkay Owingeh to the village of Embudo, covering 36 square miles. Most of the land is privately owned, but it contains as many as 50,000 petroglyphs and other archaeological features that provide a record of area history dating from the Archaic period hunter-gatherers and early Puebloans, and extending to the current period. The mesa is considered a sacred place. The rock art collection is a unique record of impressions by multiple cultures, including Native, Hispanic, and Anglo visitors. The Mesa Prieta Petroglyph Project is a private non-profit community venture to record and preserve these stone images and the terrain and to provide education to visitors and local schools through tours, internships, and summer programs.

3. Pueblos are ancestral lands occupied for hundreds of years before the coming of the Spanish. Contemporary Pueblo people are descendants of the Ancestral Puebloans who lived throughout the Heritage Area. Each pueblo operates under its own government and establishes all rules and regulations for its own individual village. Tribal lands are open to the public at scheduled times for tours or attendance at feast days and dances.

Four of the six Tewa pueblos are listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Nambé, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, and Tesuque. Visitors are invited to attend many ceremonies and religious events at the pueblos, such as the June Feast Day at Santa Clara and the January Deer Dance at San Ildefonso. On feast days, it is courteous to accept an invitation to enter a Pueblo home to eat.

The Nambe Pueblo was a primary cultural and religious center at the time of the arrival of Spanish colonists. The name means “People of the Round Earth.” San Ildefonso Pueblo is famous for its matte and polished black-on-black pottery popularized in the early 20th century by Maria and Julian Martinez. Santa Clara Pueblo offers tours of the prehistoric cliff dwellings of Puye, as well as sightseeing, fishing and camping in the nearby canyon. The Tesuque Pueblo (pronounced Teh-sue-kay) is one of the most traditional of the Tewa-speaking pueblos in observing ceremonies and preserving culture. Tesuque dances are known for the excellence of the costumes and the authenticity of the execution of dances and rituals.

Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo (formerly San Juan Pueblo) has a well-known art center, the Oke Owinge Arts & Crafts Cooperative, where visitors may watch many of the artisans working in a variety of art forms. At the Pojoaque Pueblo (pronounced Po-hwa-kay), the Poeh Museum exhibits Pojoaque cultural history. In the nearby community of Pojoaque is the gallery of well-known pottery artist Roxanne Swentzell. At the annual Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Arts & Crafts Show, Indian artists themselves organize and operate the event.

4. Backed by mountains and facing a large plaza, Taos Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark and also a World Heritage Site. Taos has borrowed from Anglo- and Spanish-American cultures over centuries of contact, while retaining its cultural integrity and identity as a community. The pueblo provides daily guided tours for visitors. Its San Geronimo Feast Day in September features Buffalo, Comanche and Corn Dances, in addition to a trade fair, ceremonial foot races, and a pole climb. Picurís Pueblo (pronounced Pick-ah-reese) is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Picurís craftsmen produce pottery different from most Pueblo art; it is strictly utilitarian and without ornament.

PUEBLO SOCIETIES IN THE HERITAGE AREA

1. The Puye Ruins in Rio Arriba County preserves one of the largest of the prehistoric Indian settlements on the Pajarito Plateau. The settlement was established in the late 1200s or early 1300s and abandoned by about 1600. The ruins, on the ancestral site of Santa Clara Pueblo, show a variety of architectural forms and building techniques.

4. Backed by mountains and facing a large plaza, Taos Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark and also a World Heritage Site. Taos has borrowed from Anglo- and Spanish-American cultures over centuries of contact, while retaining its cultural integrity and identity as a community. The pueblo provides daily guided tours for visitors. Its San Geronimo Feast Day in September features Buffalo, Comanche and Corn Dances, in addition to a trade fair, ceremonial foot races, and a pole climb. Picurís Pueblo (pronounced Pee-coo-reese) is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Picurís craftsmen produce pottery different from most Pueblo art; it is strictly utilitarian and without ornament.

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THE ATHABASKANS: NAVAJO AND In 1874, the tribe entered into a treaty JICARILLA APACHE with the United States that established a reservation along the San Juan River in By at least the 15th century, the northwest New Mexico. President Athabaskans arrived in the Southwest Rutherford B. Hayes abrogated this after migrating south from west-central agreement in 1876, and ordered the Canada. Having similar linguistic Jicarilla to move onto the Mescalero characteristics, they comprise the Navajo reservation near Fort Stanton in southern and Apache groups, and include the New Mexico. Most of the Jicarilla, ignored Chiricahua, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains, the order and remained in northern New Western, White Mountain, and Jicarilla. Mexico. Policies fluctuated often until Today, the only group settled in the 1887, when President Grover Cleveland Northern Rio Grande National Heritage issued an executive order setting aside the Area are the Jicarilla Apache. current reservation in Amargo, in western Río Arriba County. The Jicarilla Apache By the late 1600s, the Jicarilla (hik-a-REE- The Jicarilla began moving back to ya) Apache occupied a region extending Amargo from the various places they had from southeastern Colorado to the Pecos gone. In the summer of 1987, the tribe re- River Valley in New Mexico’s Colfax enacted this trek as part of a centennial County, just beyond the eastern boundary commemoration of the establishment of of the Heritage Area. Named by the the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. [sidebar Spanish for the small baskets or cups 5] (jicaras) they made, the Jicarilla established adobe villages, farmed small, 5. Today, the Jicarilla Apache govern themselves irrigated fields, and had frequent contact under a constitution. During past decades, the with the pueblos and Spanish settlements tribe has negotiated oil and gas leases, managed of northern New Mexico. The Jicarilla its timber and livestock resources, developed an elk preserve widely known for its trophy hunting, were principally a bison-hunting culture and opened a casino. The two distinct tribal and retained many characteristics of Plains subgroups, or bands, are the Llaneros (from the Indians, such as the use of tepees. Spanish llano, meaning plains) and Olleros (from the Spanish olla, meaning storage jar). The Beginning in 1851, the United States Llaneros lived on the plains of northeastern New Mexico, while the Olleros were pottery makers government made several unsuccessful who lived in the mountains. Today, they gather attempts to establish a reservation for the annually for “Go-Jii-Ya,” which continues an Jicarilla in today’s western Río Arriba and ancient ceremonial relay race between the two San Juan counties. In 1854, open warfare bands. The nationally registered Jicarilla Apache with the Jicarilla broke out after a series of Historic District in Dulce is home to the Culture Center and Jicarilla Arts & Crafts Museum. raids on settlements along the lower Chama River. U.S. military forces and New Mexican militia brought the raiding to a The Navajo halt, and agencies for the Jicarilla were The Navajo call themselves Diné, meaning established at Taos and Cimarron. “the people.” They do not live in the Northern Rio Grande National Heritage

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Area, but have had a considerable effect SPANISH COLONIAL NEW MEXICO on the region. They joined with the (1540-1680) Pueblo people during the period of struggle with the Spanish, retreating to Spanish exploration of the American hidden sites far from the settlers and Southwest, including present-day New sharing living quarters and defense. The Mexico, began after stories of rich cities to Navajo adopted horses and sheep from the north fired imaginations in New Spain. the Spanish and became herders; under The stories came from Alvar Núñez Cabeza pressure as settlers continued to move th de Vaca, who was shipwrecked off the into their area in the 18 century, they coast of Texas in 1528 and spent eight raided Spanish and Pueblo villages alike, years wandering as he tried to make his creating a period of conflict toward the way back to Mexico. In 1539, Fray Marcos end of the century. de Niza and his slave, Estevan, were the first to come north from the capital in In 1846, the United States government Mexico City. made several unsuccessful attempts to stop the raids. In 1863, Gen. James S. When the expedition approached what is Carleton implemented a “scorched earth” now southern Arizona, Fray Marcos policy to defeat the Navajo, and in 1864 received reports from the advance they were incarcerated in east-central scouting party led by Estevan that Cibola, New Mexico at Bosque Redondo, near one of seven magnificent cities, lay ahead. Fort Sumner. In 1868 the Despite learning that Navajo signed a treaty with 6. The Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian in Santa Fe Estevan had been killed, Fray the U.S. government, which houses collections that Marcos rushed forward and allowed them to return to document Navajo art and encountered a settlement. their present homeland. culture and Southwestern Instead of Cibola, what he Native American jewelry, both actually found was the The Navajo’s way of life traditional and modern. The museum presents changing ancestral Zuni pueblo of increasingly centered on the exhibitions of traditional and Hawikuh. movement of their sheep contemporary Native American herds to grazing areas in arts. In 1540 Fray Marcos set out summer and in winter, again, this time with 29-year though they also farmed; they traded with old Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, who the Pueblos for food, exchanging meat was chosen by the viceroy of New Spain to and hides for corn and other produce. The follow up on Fray Marcos’ “discovery.” As Navajo are known for their weaving, were all such Spanish colonial enterprises which they traded far and wide from at of the time, this expedition was privately least the 18th century, and their jewelry, th financed. When the expedition arrived at which developed in the mid-19 century. the outskirts of the multi-storied, stone Their reservation in the Four Corners area, and adobe village of Hawikuh, the Spanish one of the largest in the United States, were met by Zuni warriors, intent on comprises land in New Mexico, Arizona, defending their homes. After a furious but and the edge of Utah. The reservation is uneven battle, mounted Spanish soldiers west of the Heritage Area. [sidebar 6] replenished their supplies from captured

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Zuni storerooms and continued on their Indians and the destruction of several two-year quest, which took them into and Pueblos. The best known of these is Kuaua beyond what today is the Northern Rio Pueblo, near the place where the Grande National Heritage Area. expedition spent the winter of 1540-1541, now Coronado State Monument near In the summer of 1541, Capt. Francisco de Bernalillo. Barrionuevo of the Coronado party traveled north along the west side of the SETTLEMENT OF NEW MEXICO BY JUAN Río Grande to the Tewa villages of Yuque- DE OÑATE IN 1598 Yunque, which they described as “two very beautiful pueblos which were on Spanish settlement into northern Mexico opposite sides of the river…In these two advanced slowly but steadily in the late pueblos were found abundant provisions 1500s. During the 1580s, several and beautiful glazed pottery of many expeditions entered present New Mexico, decorations and shapes.” These were the including one led by Fray Bernardo Beltrán pueblos that, 50 years later, the Spanish and Antonio de Espejo in 1582 that is said would settle and rename San Juan de Los for the first time to officially use the term, Caballeros and San Gabriel. la Nueva Mexico. Expedition reports alerted Spanish officials to the many Barrionuevo and his men proceeded potential Indian converts to Christianity farther north along the river until they and encouraged the subsequent conquest reached a large pueblo the Spanish called and colonization of this "new" Mexico. Valladolid, after an important city in Spain; this was Taos Pueblo. “The river flowed In 1595, the Spanish government awarded through the center of it,” Barrionuevo a contract to settle New Mexico to Juan noted, “and the river was spanned by de Oñate, whose father, Don Cristóbal, wooden bridges built with very large and earlier had helped Cortés conquer Mexico. heavy square pine timbers.” The Pueblo Oñate’s contract specified in great detail has changed little in the past five the number of settlers, livestock, and centuries. other provisions and equipment he was to provide. In return, he was given titles that The Coronado expedition explored deep gave him civil and military authority over into the North American continent, but the colony. He also was to be the primary discovered that the fabled cities of gold beneficiary of any riches that might be were only a myth. In the winter of 1542, discovered. the disheartened and bankrupt adventurers returned to Mexico. Not only After three years of preparation, an were they unsuccessful in their quest to enormous caravan of nearly 200 soldier- find the Seven Cities of Cibola, but the colonists, many with wives and families, expedition also failed miserably in its nine Franciscan priests, several hundred relations with the inhabitants of the Mexican Indian servants and allies, and region. The Spanish were heavy-handed in thousands of head of livestock left, in their demands for food and supplies, January of 1598, for northern Mexico. The leading to numerous conflicts with the expedition advanced slowly and, in April

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1598, paused near present-day Cuidad established along the Río Grande. Still, Juárez, where Oñate took formal nearly a century after the colony was possession of the province in the name of established, there were fewer than 3,000 King Philip of Spain. On July 11, an Spanish inhabitants in the entire province. advance party of the expedition arrived at The 1600s presented a series of challenges the Tewa village of Ohkay Owingeh, near to Spanish rule, most derived from the confluence of the Río Grande and the Spanish intolerance of Pueblo religious Río Chama in the Heritage Area. Renaming practices and a persistent abuse of Indian the village San Juan de Los Caballeros, labor. The Spanish clergy, charged by the here they established the first Spanish king to convert Indians to Christianity, capital and Christian church in New systematically destroyed Pueblo kivas and Mexico. Oñate’s chronicles suggest that suppressed dances and other ceremonial the Spanish expanded the ditches and practices important to the Pueblos. irrigation systems the Several Pueblo resistance natives of Ohkay 7. The ruins of San Gabriel de Yunque- uprisings proved Owingeh utilized for the Ouinge are a National Historic Landmark unsuccessful. The irrigation of their own marking the site of the first Spanish- situation reached a fields. built capital of New Mexico. The capital critical point in the 1670s was moved to Santa Fe in 1610. A when increased Apache After a few months, the replica of this church, constructed raids and drought Spanish relocated their entirely of adobe, serves as a visitor devastated crops and led settlement to the west center in the plaza of Española some six to the starvation deaths bank of the Río Grande at miles to the south of Ohkay Owingeh. of hundreds, if not the village of Yunque, 8. The Santa Fe Plaza, a National thousands, of Pueblo renamed San Gabriel. Historic Landmark, continues as the people. Here they built another social and economic center of the city, church, whose which was established in the winter of The crisis peaked in 1675, archeological remnants 1609-1610. Traders and travelers knew when 47 caciques, Pueblo were excavated in 1960 the Plaza as the terminus of the Santa spiritual leaders, were by Dr. Florence Ellis of the Fe Trail arrested and taken to University of New Santa Fe to face charges Mexico. [sidebar 7] The settlement served of practicing sorcery and plotting as the capital of New Mexico until the new rebellion. Four were executed; the others villa (royal town) of Santa Fe was were whipped, then released. Among established 20 miles to the south; the seat those released was Popay (also known as of government moved there in 1610. Popé), a Tewa from San Juan Pueblo. Santa Fe celebrated its 400th anniversary Popay spent five years following his as the capital of New México in 2010. release traveling among the pueblos and [sidebar 8] organizing an uprising. From a base of operations at Taos, Popay and his THE PUEBLO REVOLT OF 1680 confederates laid out a plan that depended upon the unprecedented During the next several decades, a thin cooperation and participation of all of string of Spanish settlements were New Mexico's Pueblos. At a prearranged

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signal, each Pueblo was to destroy its forced to retreat. As they again left, the mission church and kill the resident priest Spanish burned the Pueblo of Isleta and and neighboring Spanish settlers. Once took with them nearly 400 of its the outlying Spanish settlements were inhabitants, who were resettled at what is destroyed, the Pueblo forces were to today’s Ysleta del Sur near El Paso, Texas. converge on the isolated capital of Santa Fe. Runners were dispatched to all the By all appearances the revolt had Pueblos carrying cords tied with knots succeeded. During the revolt, an signifying the number of days remaining estimated 600 colonists and 21 Franciscan until the appointed day to rise in unison – priests were killed, and churches and the day the last knot was untied. Spanish settlements destroyed. Popay and the other Pueblo leaders began a The attacks began on the morning of systematic eradication of all signs of August 10, 1680, from the northern Tiwa Christianity. But, many other Spanish Pueblo of Taos to the Tewa villages near introductions, such as iron tools, sheep, Santa Fe. Spanish settlers able to escape cattle, and fruit trees, had by then become the initial onslaught made their way to the an integral part of Pueblo life. relative safety of Santa Fe's fortified seat of government – today’s Palace of the 9. The Palace of Governors, on the Plaza in Governors. [sidebar 9] Meanwhile, more downtown Santa Fe, was erected from 1610 to than a thousand additional survivors 1612 as the fortress of the royal presidio of managed to gather at Isleta Pueblo, 70 Santa Fe and is the oldest public building built by European settlers in the continental United miles south of Santa Fe. Within five days, States. It served as the residence of the thousands of Pueblo warriors had Spanish, Mexican, and American governors of converged on Santa Fe, but were unable New Mexico until 1907. Architecturally, the to dislodge the Spanish until they cut off structure combined Pueblo Indian and Spanish the water supply – an irrigation ditch methods of construction and design, producing a new type of building that was widely used running through the sprawling compound. throughout the Southwest. The Palace of Governors is a National Historic Landmark. After two days without water, Governor Antonio de Otermín led a column of at least a thousand refugees from the capital. They joined Lt. Governor Alonso THE RECONQUEST AND García and the refugees from Isleta Pueblo RESETTLEMENT OF NEW MEXICO and slowly retreated to El Paso del Norte, (1692-1821) the southernmost settlement in the province, near present-day Ciudad Juárez. In 1690, Diego de Vargas Zapata Luján There, approximately 2,000 Spanish Ponce de Leon was appointed governor of refugees spent the winter. New Mexico and assigned the task of re-

conquering the province. With a modest Wrongly assuming that the Pueblos would force of fewer than 200 soldiers and three welcome the Spanish back to aid against friars, De Vargas left El Paso del Norte in Apache raids, Otermín quickly made plans August of 1692. When the group arrived in for a reconquest, but his expedition was Santa Fe, they found the old Spanish IV-9

capital fortified and its inhabitants defiant. Most of the Pueblos continued to resist. Through a mix of diplomacy, soft words, In the summer of 1696, twenty-six and with threat of siege, De Vargas won Spaniards, including five missionaries, over the Indians, and unfurled the Spanish were killed during a general rebellion, banner over Santa Fe. He continued his often called the Second Pueblo Revolt. tour through the entire province. By year’s For the next several years, almost end, most of New Mexico's Pueblos were continual warfare disrupted life in New officially restored to the Spanish empire. Mexico. Many pueblos were abandoned, [sidebar 10] and some inhabitants fled to the mountains, seeking refuge among the 10. Don Diego De Vargas' reoccupation of Santa Hopi, Navajo, and Apache. As more Fe is commemorated every year in la Fiesta de Spanish families arrived in Santa Fe, Santa Fe, first held in 1712 by proclamation of missions were re-established, and Spanish Gov. Marquez de La Peñuela. During the fiesta, settlements grew. By century’s end, the arts and crafts and food booths fill the Plaza, and Reconquest was virtually complete. the music of Mexican mariachis plays throughout the city. The religious orientation of the An important part of the Reconquest was commemoration is observed in celebration of the Franciscan effort to re-establish Mass and other liturgical events including a Catholic missions. The friars’ labors candlelight procession to the Cross of the included new parish churches and chapels Martyrs, and veneration of the 29-inch, wood- in the dozens of communities that carved Marian statute, La Conquistadora, which developed throughout the province as was rescued from the burning parish church as New Mexico’s frontier expanded and the the Spanish fled Santa Fe during the Pueblo population grew. The “crown jewels” of Revolt of 1680. The festival includes a the Heritage Area’s churches were built reenactment of de Vargas's return to the city, during this period of expansion. El and is initiated with burning of Zozobra (“Old Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Man Gloom”), the 50-foot-tall marionette. Guadalupe in Santa Fe, La Iglesia de Santa Cruz de la Cañada in Santa Cruz, San Any jubilation, however, was short-lived. Francisco de Asís in Ranchos de Taos, El In 1693, de Vargas returned to begin the Santuario de Chimayó in Chimayó, and San re-colonization of New Mexico with 70 José de Gracia in Las Trampas remain in families, 18 Franciscan friars, a number of active use. [sidebar 11] soldiers, and Tlaxcalan (Mexican Indian) allies. But many Pueblo people had second thoughts since the previous year. The returning colonists found Santa Fe once again fortified. After two weeks of futile negotiations, de Vargas took Santa Fe by force in a fierce, two-day battle. He then summarily executed 70 Pueblo defenders and sentenced several hundred men, women, and children to 10 years of servitude. San José de Gracias - Las Trampas Church

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11. El Santuario de Chimayo, San Francisco In pueblos today, the Mass incorporates de Asís, and San Jose de Gracia are National elements of Pueblo language and Historic Landmarks. El Santuario De ceremonials into the Roman Catholic Chimayó was completed in 1816. The small liturgy. It is not unusual to attend a Mass adobe church is notable for its original decorations, including numerous superb during which readings are spoken in religious paintings. San Francisco de Asís Keres, hymns sung in Tewa, or an eagle Mission Church was constructed between dance performed as an offertory; in the 1772 and 1816. With its massive, white-stucco Cathedral Basilica of Santa Fe, Native adobe walls, it is a large and excellent lectors will read passages in Tewa on example of a Spanish Colonial church. San Jose De Gracia Church was erected between special occasions. 1760 and 1776. Well-preserved, its interior decorations include paintings on carved As a result of the suppression of Jewish wooden reredos and sidewalls, and under faith during the 1600s during the Spanish the balcony. Inquisition, many Jews became conversos

(converts) and many of the new waves of Today, the Catholic Church remains strong Hispanic settlers brought their Jewish in New Mexico. During decades of the 18th rituals and traditions, now kept alive in and 19th centuries when there were few hidden ways. Indeed, among many priests, the lay brotherhood, known as Hispanic families in New Mexico, Jewish penitentes, or The Pious Fraternity of Our ritual traditions are established in an Lord Jesus of Nazareth, helped to keep unknown cultural reference formed the faith alive. Penitente rituals were held centuries ago. in moradas, fraternity houses. La Morada de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, near Religious identity and attendance Taos, is representative of these houses. continues today among the various Built in a traditional adobe style and fully cultures. In Santa Fe there are two completed by 1834, the morada, David synagogues in addition to the numerous Fernandez writes, “was the center of Catholic parishes. Other religions also nearly all the Hermanos’ activities in the have a place in the Heritage Area. area for many decades.” [sidebar 12] Protestant missionaries came to New Mexico over the Santa Fe Trail to work among American Indians. A Presbyterian 12. La Morada de Nuestra Senora de church, the only one in the Territory of Guadalupe, east of Taos on U.S. 64, is New Mexico, was built in Santa Fe in 1867. listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Our Lady of Guadalupe Church in There is a mosque, Dar-al Islam, at Abiquiu Taos holds title to the morada. The and a Buddhist stupa in Santa Fe. Penitentes were a secret society that flourished in northern New Mexico. Los THE LAND-GRANT SYSTEM: Hermanos Penitentes are active in many EXPANSION OF SETTLEMENT FOLLOWING communities in the Heritage Area. THE RECONQUEST Although still a secret society, their fundamental principles are to provide Changed relationships between the assistance to their communities. Spanish and the Pueblos characterized the 1700s. Both realized they needed to IV-11

cooperate to defend themselves against necessary for subsistence. Under Spanish the many raiding tribes. The Spanish and Mexican law, the common lands could abolished abusive Indian labor practices not be sold away from the community. and instituted land grants, which included However, after the American occupation Indian groups and helped to ensure that of 1846 and the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Pueblos retained their land base. Hidalgo, U.S. law encouraged the sale of millions of acres of community land. Three principal types of land grants were made in New Mexico: to Pueblos, to 13. Acequias are gravity-flow, communal irrigation communities, and to private individuals as ditches that date to the Spanish entry into New rewards for service to the Crown. Dozens Mexico in 1598. By diverting water from rivers and of private land grants were distributed streams to irrigate agricultural fields and pastures, within the Heritage Area during the 1700s acequias shape the landscape, and community life and early 1800s, but the most prominent and regional identity. La Cienega Acequia on the type of grant was the community grant, property of El Rancho de las Golondrinas, 12 miles made to groups who agreed to establish a southeast of Santa Fe, is one of the best-preserved communal settlement and cultivate the acequia systems in New Mexico. Listed on the land. National Register of Historic Places, it dates to the era of Spanish colonial settlement. The acequia Community grants were a significant remains in operation along relatively unchanged factor in the expansion of the northern alignments and contains several traditional water Rio Grande region in the 18th and 19th control devices such as dams, checks, and flumes. centuries. Generally, each individual in El Rancho de las Golondrinas is a living history the group was allotted a plot of irrigable museum dedicated to the history, heritage and culture of 18th and 19th century New Mexico. land for cultivation. These allotments Original colonial buildings on the site date from the were narrow strips (“long lots”) abutting early 1700s. Also still in operation is the Acequia the community’s acequia madre, or Madre on the east side of Santa Fe. Community mother ditch, so that each lot had access members gather every year to clean the seven- to irrigation. [sidebar 13] This pattern of mile-long acequia, which for centuries watered fields and irrigation systems, which fields of vegetables, wheat and large orchards. defined the landscape of every land-grant Now, surrounded on both sides by houses and community within the Heritage Area, is business, it waters “fruit trees, gardens, flowers still visible today in the Los Ojos, Tierra and yards.” Amarilla, La Puente, and Los Brazos historic districts in northern Rio Arriba 14. The historic districts of Los Ojos, Tierra County. [sidebar 14] Amarilla, La Puente, and Los Brazos, known for their distinct blend of Victorian and traditional The remaining land not allotted to adobe architecture, are listed on the National individuals was reserved for the common Register of Historic Places as significant use and benefit of all the settlers. representations of early Hispanic settlement, as are the La Puente and Tierra Amarilla community Collectively, they could use this land to ditches. The Tierra Amarilla Land Grant, situated pasture and water livestock, gather along the Rio Chama, dates to1832, and permanent firewood, cut timber for building their settlement in the area took hold in the early 1860s. homes, hunt, and conduct activities

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IMPACT OF EUROPEAN MATERIAL Twenty-six years later the Mexican census CULTURE AND AGRICULTURE gave a snapshot of life in northern New Mexico. Describing the village of Santo Land grants expanded and consolidated Tomás Apostol de Abiquiú (now Abiquiú) the frontier, resulting in more growing and its surrounding inhabitants, the space for crops, providing grazing for census placed the population at 3,611 and livestock, firewood, timber for building mentioned that residents cultivated homes and corrals, as well as game for wheat, corn, legumes, chile, and onions, hunting. Sheep and goats provided meat and that hunters went northeast to hunt and wool that was spun and woven into buffalo and trade with Indians. Most cloth and blankets for personal use, sold important, however, was the wool for cash, or traded for goods. A few cattle industry. Residents joined the annual provided milk, meat, and hides. Most caravan of traders and herders, the strings communities also had ciboleros, men who of pack mules carrying trade items and traveled to the eastern plains every fall to herds of oxen and sheep, all going south hunt buffalo. Wagons loaded with jerked to Mexico City down El Camino Real, the and dried buffalo meat and thousands of royal road. The sheep ranchers from tanned buffalo hides helped many Abiquiu took great quantities of raw wool communities survive what were often to trade for mercantile goods. [sidebar15] severe and lean winters. Another report, dated 1840, from the area In 1803, Gov. Fernando de Chacón stretching from the Santa Clara Pueblo submitted one of the earliest reports on north up the Española Valley, gives some economic conditions in New Mexico, in detail of the extent of agriculture and the which he described agriculture, industry, impact of crops introduced by the arts, commerce, and economic conditions. Spanish. Barley, wheat, and garbanzo He pointed out that most of the region’s beans (abas), all introduced from Europe, population, which he estimated at almost were planted in March while native corn 36,000, lived along the bands of the Rio was planted in April. The harvests ran Grande. He reported that farmers planted from July through October. Wheat and wheat, corn, barley, and a variety of corn were the most abundant and vegetables, but tended to produce only important of these crops; others included what they needed for subsistence. In peas, lentils, garlic, onions, and melons, contrast, Chacón reported, the Pueblos (all European imports), as well as chile and developed “large fields which they punche, the native tobacco. Orchards of cultivate in common, taking into account apricots, peaches, apples, and plums also the needs of widows, orphans, the sick, were introduced from Europe. Men dug those employed elsewhere or absent; in ditches for irrigating the fields, planted, this manner and by saving the harvest harvested, worked with wool and wove from one year to the next, they never feel blankets, while women ground corn and the effects of hunger. In addition they wheat, made stockings and spun wool. apply themselves to the cultivation of The report states that the region did not orchards, planting fruit trees and vines.” have much in the manner of precious metals or minerals.

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15. Wool and the weaving arts continue to be Jicarilla Apache came from the north and an important aspect of the Heritage Area. At raided farms and herds of Pueblos and the Taos Wool Festival, held every October, settlers. From the east, raiders from the juried vendors display their wool fiber, yarns, Plains tribes, including the Comanche, had and artistic creations. Food vendors feature lamb delicacies and goat cheeses. Shearing, been raiding Pueblo fields long before the spinning, and dyeing demonstrations are part Spanish arrived. And increasingly, Navajo of the festivities, as are sheep, alpacas, goats, bands came from the west. and angora rabbits. In the spring of 1748, ongoing raiding The village of Los Ojos is home to Tierra Wools, which includes a showroom where visitors can prompted the settlers of Santa Rosa, Ojo watch weavers spin, dye yard and create works Caliente and Pueblo Quemado (present- of art. The enterprise, including a retail store day Córdova) to petition the government, carrying local wool, offers workshops in successfully, for permission to abandon spinning, hand dyeing, and hand weaving, as their homes and move back to more well as guest accommodations. populated communities along the lower Weaving galleries are numerous. Among the Río Chama and Río Grande. Two years most noted are Centinela Traditional Arts and later, at the command of Governor Tomás Ortega’s Weaving, both in Chimayó, and both Vélez Cachupín, a small squad of soldiers continuing traditional and authentic Río Grande escorted a handful of settlers back to Style (Chimayó style) weaving. The Española Valley Fiber Arts Center preserves and Santa Rosa to re-establish the settlement. promotes the rich textile heritage of northern To better defend villages from Indian New Mexico. The center teaches traditional attack, churches and houses were built techniques, hosts lectures, tours and around a plaza, but only the hardiest demonstrations, and makes materials available settlers stayed on. to local artists.

In the Taos region, settlement also was slow and late. Formal resettlement after the Reconquest began in 1715 with the Cristóbal de la Serna grant. Thirty years later, the 1744 report of Fray Juan Miguel de Menchero listed only 10 families of Españoles at the “ranchos de Taos.” Continued raiding, and in particular a Comanche raid in 1760, prompted many Spanish settlers to abandon their ranches and move into the relative protection of Velarde farming community the Pueblo of Taos.

Responses to raids varied. Official reports SPANISH AND PUEBLO RELATIONS WITH usually include information about what THE PLAINS TRIBES was taken, whether anyone was killed,

injured, or kidnapped, and whether a Raids from Indian tribes outside the area pursuit was organized and what it had a devastating effect on settlement accomplished. Pursuit usually was futile, during the Spanish period. The Ute and IV-14

but occasionally raiders were caught and THE MEXICAN PERIOD (1821-1846) livestock and captives recovered. In 1768, Gov. Fermín de Mendinueta reported that MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE AND OPENING a small garrison of presidio troops, along OF THE SANTA FE TRAIL with settlers and some allied Utes, repulsed an attack by 24 Comanches who When Mexico gained its independence raided Ojo Caliente in Taos County. After from Spain in 1821, it brought to a close the Comanches charged the plaza and more than two centuries of Spanish rule killed a settler, the group gave chase, and made New Mexico a part of the killed some Comanches and took two Mexican Republic. The change of prisoners. The following month, intent on government had little initial effect on New revenge, 500 Comanches led by Chief Mexico except in one important way – it Cuerno Verde (Green Horn) staged a failed terminated Spanish policies that restricted attack on Ojo Caliente. Cuerno Verde led contact and trade with foreigners. his people until 1779, when he was killed Instead, Mexican rule encouraged open and the Comanches decisively defeated by trade with the outside, especially with Spanish forces. Today, villagers in foreigners from the emerging United Heritage Area towns such as Alcalde States of America. Mexico’s independence commemorate this battle by mounting ushered in a new era of commerce, once horses and staging a play. In 1786, New again changing the course of New Mexico signed formal peace treaties with Mexico’s history. the Comanche and Ute. Beginning in 1821, the 1,200-mile-long By the 1790s, new communities moved Santa Fe Trail, from St. Louis to Santa Fe, into land grants at Cieneguilla and Río became an important international trade Grande del Rancho, and, in 1796, the Don route that fostered the exchange of Fernando de Taos land grant led to goods between the United States and establishment of what today is the town Mexico. Santa Fe developed into a of Taos. [sidebar 16] bustling trade center, with caravans continuing south to Chihuahua along El 16. Taos, named for Don Fernando de Taos, was Camino Real, or west to California along established between 1780 and 1800, its fortified the Old Spanish Trail. [sidebar 17] During plaza ringed by low adobe buildings. The town this period, fur traders – many of French- grew beyond its original defensive walls and Canadian descent, as reflected in local became an important center for trade on the surnames such as Robidoux, LeFevre, Santa Fe Trail. Taos continued to expand in the Ledoux, and Jeantet – came to New th mid- to late-19 century when artists settled in Mexico, as did merchants of various and around the plaza, spurring a cultural revival. nationalities. The young Mexican Today, aspects of each of Taos’ periods of government had its own concerns and history are evident in the Downtown Historic internal conflicts, however, and could not District, where Spanish Colonial Style residences allocate much attention or many stand side by side with Territorial, Mission resources to this frontier province. Revival, and Pueblo Revival style houses.

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17. The Santa Fe National Historic Trail is Mexican Constitution, which made New significant in a number of historical contexts. Mexico a department of the Republic. The From 1821 to 1846 it was an international trade Constitution replaced centuries-old route that fostered an exchange of goods – Spanish systems of community-level and cultures – among Hispanic, Indian, and governments with a departmental Junta, American people. With the end of the Mexican or advisory council. War in 1848, the trail played a critical role in the westward expansion of the United States and By the time of Pérez’s governorship, trade eventually developed into the first major along the Santa Fe Trail was well- transportation route between the eastern established and tariffs imposed on United States and the American Southwest. American merchants constituted the The National Park Service administers the trail revenue the Mexican government relied through a network of partners, including local on to support its military garrison, or governments, tribes, and private entities. presidio, in Santa Fe and also to finance The Old Spanish National Historic Trail was a operations of the government. Pérez also commercial trade route first used in 1829 by the was required to impose a direct tax. This Mexican trader Antonio Armijo, who carried tax was opposed by virtually all New blankets and serapes to trade in California for Mexicans, who had for centuries been horses and mules. Over the next 20 years, granted exemptions from direct taxes in Mexican and American traders continued to ply return for bearing the expense – in money variants of the route that Armijo pioneered, and lives – of defending the northern frequently trading with Indians along the way. frontier. Nor did the newer Americanos The Old Spanish Trail crosses six states – New have any fondness for paying taxes. Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and California – and is managed by the National The situation came to a boil in the summer Park Service and Bureau of Land Management. of 1837. New Mexico was besieged by tribal raiders, but the Mexican El Camino Real – meaning the Royal Road or government was in turmoil and unable to King’s Highway – led north from Mexico City. It help. New taxes were threatened, was the oldest highway to the north, having been extended by segments throughout the municipalities had been stripped of their 16th century. Administered today by the authority, and tensions with the National Park Service, El Camino Real de Tierra Americans were high. A “Revolutionary Adentro National Historic Trail extends from El Proclamation” was issued at Santa Cruz de Paso, Texas, through Santa Fe to Ohkay la Cañada near present-day Española. This Owingeh in Española. proclamation declared the citizens’ opposition to the plan to turn New Mexico into a department and made it clear that THE REVOLT OF 1837 IN NORTHERN NEW those who supported the plan were not MEXICO welcome in New Mexico. The “Revolt of 1837” had begun. In 1835, the Mexican government dispatched Albino Pérez to New Mexico to Governor Pérez and a small force left assume the governorship. In 1836, he was Santa Fe and marched to Santa Cruz. They officially required to institute the new encountered a large force of rebels just

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south of present-day Española. After a Mexico. short, fierce battle, his small force was overwhelmed, and Pérez and a few of his UNITED STATES TERRITORIAL men retreated to Santa Fe. But there was PERIOD (1846-1912) no longer any support or refuge at the capital, and they fled south toward the Rio At the time of the occupation, Mexico and Abajo. That night, the besieged governor the United States were at war, and New and at least eight of his supporters were Mexicans were still citizens of the overtaken at various points along the road Republic of Mexico. While the Americans south of Santa Fe and killed. Four months were busy organizing a new government later, the influential merchants and rich in the ancient capital of Santa Fe, quiet landowners of the Río Abajo, led by plans were being hatched to rid New Manuel Armijo, raised their own army in Mexico of its latest conquerors. opposition to the rebels; in January 1838 a squadron of dragoons from Mexico REVOLT OF 1847 arrived at Santa Fe and the short-lived Revolt of 1837 came to a bloody end. By the end of 1846, rumors of an impending uprising were serious enough THE U.S.–MEXICAN WAR AND to prompt Governor Bent to order the OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO arrest of several suspected "leaders and prime movers" of this covert opposition. A quarter-century of Mexican rule in New These actions, however, did not quell the Mexico ended in 1846. On May 13, 1846, mounting unrest and, on January 19, 1847, the United States Congress declared war Bent was killed in Taos, as were several on Mexico, and, three months later, Gen. other officials at other locations. [sidebar Stephen Watts Kearny and his Army of the 18] By the following day, more than a West marched along the Santa Fe Trail thousand insurrectionists were reported into New Mexico's undefended northern advancing toward Santa Fe, intent on frontier. Manuel Armijo, now governor, recapturing New Mexico from los declared his intention to confront the Americanos. American army at Apache Canyon, east of the capital, but fled. Kearny entered To challenge the New Mexico rebels, Santa Fe and took possession of New nearly 400 American troops and a Mexico on August 18 without firing a shot. company of volunteers led by Col. Sterling Price marched north from Santa Fe. In a On September 22, 1846, Kearny instituted series of battles at Santa Cruz and the Kearny Code, a mix of military and Embudo, they defeated the rebels. By civilian authority under which New Mexico February 1, the New Mexicans had was to be governed. Kearny appointed retreated to the Pueblo of Taos, where Taos merchant Charles Bent as the first they fortified their positions and braced civil governor of New Mexico and for more fighting. A fierce two-day battle Donaciano Vigil as territorial secretary. For ensued in which the Americans succeeded the next several months, while war raged in breaching the walls of the pueblo in central Mexico, all seemed quiet in New

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church. They routed the New Mexicans Mexico $15 million and assumed several and crushed the Revolt of 1847. million dollars of claims brought by U.S. citizens against Mexico. In exchange, A military court was convened at the Mexico ceded to the United States nearly village of Don Fernando, just south of the half of its territory – all of its holdings Taos Pueblo, to try several dozen men north of the Río Grande and west to captured following the battle at the California. On September 9, 1850, New pueblo and their leaders, Tomás Romero Mexico was recognized officially as a and Pablo Montoya. Romero was shot territory of the United States. and killed by a guard, leaving Montoya to stand alone at the trial. Pablo Montoya ESTABLISHMENT OF COUNTIES AND was hanged on the village plaza for his DISTRICT COURTS "rebellious conduct" against the United States, as were at least 15 other men. Kearny’s Code of 1846 organized “circuit,” Later that summer, six more men were or district courts, for seven loosely defined hanged at Santa Fe. A report of these final counties – including Rio Arriba, Santa Fe executions notes the sad tolling of all the and Taos counties -- based on the political church bells in Santa Fe in mourning as the subdivisions or partidas designated by the men were hanged. It was a harrowing end earlier Mexican government. The to another tragic period in New Mexico boundaries of Río Arriba and Taos history. In all, more than two dozen counties formed two long, adjacent strips, Hispanic and Indian men were hanged for running east-west and extending from the their resistance to the conquest of New border of Texas to California. The narrow Mexico by U.S. forces. boundaries were shortened substantially in 1863 when Arizona was created as a 18. Gov. Charles Bent was killed at his adobe separate territory. The 1880 legislature home at 117 Bent St. in Taos. The house, now created a north-south boundary that listed on the National Register of Historic ceded all of western Taos County to Río Places, is a museum open to the public. Arriba County.

THE CIVIL WAR IN NEW MEXICO TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO 1848 New Mexico played a small but significant On February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Peace, role in the Civil War. Early in the conflict, Friendship, Limits and Settlement, the Confederacy set its sights on the Santa commonly referred to as the Treaty of Fe Trail to gain access to the gold fields of Guadalupe Hidalgo (after the village in Colorado and the ports and gold fields of Mexico where the treaty was signed), California. In February 1862, Confederate brought a formal end to the war between forces from Texas marched up the Río Mexico and the United States. It not only Grande to take the towns of Albuquerque ended the war, but also changed the maps and Santa Fe and, most importantly, the of Mexico and the entire American military supply depot at Fort Union in Southwest. Under the principal provisions neighboring San Miguel County. They of the treaty, the United States paid then planned to move on to the gold fields

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of Colorado. Along the way, they battled the Denver and Rio Grande Railway Union troops, captured the towns of (D&RG), started to build railway lines into Socorro and Albuquerque and the New Mexico. The railroad made travel abandoned capital of Santa Fe; for more easy and brought increasing numbers of than two weeks the Confederate flag flew tourists to the northern Rio Grande, over the ancient Palace of the Governors. especially to visit archaeological sites and pueblos. Equally important, the railroads A pivotal battle, the “Gettysburg of the moved goods and freight cheaply for wool West,” at Glorieta Pass began on March and sheep, two important local products. 26, 1862. A Union force comprising Fort Union regulars, and volunteers from New The AT&SF Railway Mexico and Colorado, first confronted the On February 14, 1880, Santa Fe’s principal Confederate Army (Texas volunteers) at newspaper, The New Mexican, reported Apache Canyon, east of Santa Fe. After the arrival of the first Atchison, Topeka three days of fighting in the region, Union and Santa Fe locomotive in Santa Fe. Rail raiders destroyed the nearly unguarded service continued, more or less, for the Confederate supply train, forcing the next 100 years. In 1996, the AT&SF Texans to retreat, ending the Confederate merged with the Burlington Northern threat to the West. [sidebar 19] Railroad, now operating as the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway. Some of 19. The site of this Civil War battle, 10 miles the freight and passenger operations of southeast of Santa Fe, has been designed as the AT&SF were taken up in 1992 by the Glorieta Pass Battlefield National Historic Santa Fe Southern Railway. The old Landmark. The site is preserved as part of AT&SF depot near downtown Santa Fe, a Pecos National Historical Park, which also state register-listed building, took on includes Pecos Pueblo and Spanish mission additional life in 2006 when a commuter ruins, the ruts of the Santa Fe Trail, and the service, the “Rail Runner,” run by the Forked Lighting Ranch. National Park Service State of New Mexico, began operations rangers conduct van tour of locations relevant between Santa Fe and Belen, just south of to the Battle of Glorieta Pass, including Camp Albuquerque. Lewis, Kozlowski's stage stop, Apache Canyon, Canoncito and Pigeon's Ranch. The D&RG Railway

The Denver and Rio Grande built tracks ARRIVAL OF THE RAILROAD west from Walsenburg, Colorado. Its narrow-gauge tracks (36 inches wide as In the mid-1800s, two technologies – the opposed to the standard 56½ inches) telegraph and the railroad – brought were better suited to navigate the steep changes as broad as those resulting from slopes and squeeze through the narrow the Spanish introduction of new crops and canyons of Rocky Mountain ranges. The animals. Telegraphic communications D&RG ran its narrow-gauge line over La were established in Santa Fe on July 8, Veta Pass – at an elevation of 9,242 feet – 1868. Rail lines followed. By 1877, two and across the San Luis Valley to Antonito, competing companies, the Atchison, Colorado. Topeka and Santa Fe Railway (AT&SF) and

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Two D&RG routes diverged at Antonito north from Santa Fe, the train carried and created the principal railroads in passengers, mixed freight, and mail northern New Mexico. The “Chili Line,” through Española and past the farms and so-called after the native grown chile crop orchards of the northern Río Grande of the Española Valley and the colorful Valley. The Chili Line stopped at Embudo ristras (strings of chile pods) that draped Station, then continued on to Antonito, the homes of valley residents, went where connections could be made to between Antonito and Santa Fe. The destinations throughout the United other line, the D&RG West, now known as States. In Santa Fe, excursion trains were the Cumbres and Toltec, went southwest popular with tourists who rode to the over Cumbres Pass into the town of neighboring pueblos, especially on pueblo Chama, New Mexico, and then on to feast days. But most of all, the Chili Line Durango, Colorado. served as northern New Mexico’s link to southern Colorado and the important commercial and banking center of Denver.

The Chili Line operated daily for three decades, but lacking revenue, made its final run from Santa Fe to Antonito on the morning of September 1, 1941. Within a week, the company began scrapping the line. Today, traces of the track are visible along New Mexico 68 between Velarde and Pilar.

The Cumbres and Toltec (D&RG San Juan Extension) Simultaneously with construction of the Chili Line, the Denver and Rio Grande Railway began laying track westward, over Cumbres Pass (elevation 10,015 feet) to Durango, Colorado. Known as the San Juan Extension, the line reached Chama, New Mexico, in early 1881, then went Red Chile Ristras across the Continental Divide to Durango.

Within a few years, the mining and timber The Chili Line towns of Monero and Lumberton, as well On December 31, 1880, the Chili Line as Dulce, were well-established stations. arrived at the site where the new town of The San Juan Extension served Rio Arriba Española was established. To complete County for nearly a century, moving the trip to Santa Fe, train passengers people and two major products, timber boarded a stagecoach. In 1887, through and sheep. At one time, there were so the efforts of another railway company many sheep camps in the area that Chama (the Texas, Santa Fe & Northern), the rail line was extended to Santa Fe. On its way IV-20

shipped more wool and lambs than TIMBER OPERATIONS IN THE TIERRA anywhere else in the country. AMARILLA LAND GRANT 1880-1924

By the 1930s, competition from the The massive forests of northern New expanding operation of freight trucks and Mexico, particularly those in Rio Arriba passenger buses cut into the rail business. County, impressed travelers and The final run from Chama to Alamosa, entrepreneurs, alike. In 1832, forests Colorado, was made on January 31, 1951. covered almost the entire Tierra Amarilla From the late 1950s through the fall of Land Grant made by the Mexican 1966, special excursion trains ran from government to Manuel Martínez, his sons, Antonito over Cumbres Pass to Silverton, and several dozen settlers from the Colorado. [sidebar 20] Abiquiú region. Following the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, adjudication of the grant resulted in land sales to private interests. By 1880, attorney Thomas D. Catron, whose name often is associated with politicians and land speculators, held most of the vast land grant. By 1886, with the presence of the railroad making the timber easily accessible, Catron lost no time in exploiting the forests.

He drew in companies to expand timber operations and, by the early 1890s, at least a dozen mills were making inroads into Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad timber tracts west of Chama. Spur lines were built to the county seat at Tierra

Amarilla and south from Lumberton into 20. A dedicated group of railroad enthusiasts forests in the Gallinas Mountains. The and preservationists formed the D&RG Narrow company town of El Vado and its sawmill Gauge Railway Preservation Association, which began operations in 1904, and for several campaigned successfully to save part of the years timber was cut along rail lines and 1,000-mile narrow gauge network. In 1970, New Mexico and Colorado appropriated funds spurs beyond Dulce Lake. By the mid- to purchase rail lines, narrow gauge engines, 1920s, the stands of virgin timber on the and equipment. Today, the 64-mile Cumbres Jicarilla Apache Reservation had been and Toltec Scenic Railroad (C&TSRR) makes clear-cut, and a mill and the rail line shut daily runs, from late spring through late fall, down. Operations at El Vado also closed between Chama, New Mexico, and Antonito, as towns disappeared as quickly as the Colorado. It is New Mexico’s last remnant of forests. The region’s intensive logging the railroad that changed the history of the industry and the railroads associated with Heritage Area. it was short-lived.

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THE ADJUDICATION OF SPANISH AND rights of its former citizens, but it was MEXICAN LAND GRANTS rejected by the U.S. Senate out of misplaced concern that it also would In addition to Pueblo-owned lands, which confirm invalid property claims. In 1854, are based on land grants made to Pueblos Congress appointed a surveyor general for following the Reconquest of 1692, there New Mexico to investigate the validity of were at least 90 Spanish and Mexican claims to land grants made by the Spanish grants made within the Northern Rio and Mexican governments and to make Grande National Heritage Area between recommendations to Congress. If 1695 and the 1840s. Of these, fewer than Congress confirmed a claim, a survey was 10 still retain the formal status of ordered, and eventually, a patent, or title, community land grants. The city of Santa to the property was issued. Between 1854 Fe, for example, still functions within the and 1891, 180 land grant claims were municipal character of a community land investigated. Of these, 135 were grant, and the Pueblo of Abiquiú in Río transmitted to Congress, but only 46, plus Arriba County still retains ownership of 18 Pueblo grants, were confirmed. and manages a significant portion of its Congress created the Court of Private original common lands. In addition, a Land Claims, which reviewed an additional portion of the Sangre de Cristo grant in 282 claims, but approved only 82. The Taos County retains much of its original process has been widely criticized by acreage as a private land grant operating generations of Heritage Area residents as a livestock association. and is a source of contention to this day.

Most of the federal and state land within HOMESTEADING WITHIN THE NRGNHA this region, however, was assembled from community land grants whose claims were As the same time that community grant rejected by the U.S. surveyor general and lands were being redistributed, the the 1891 Court of Private Land Claims. Homestead Act of 1862 made public lands Community land grants also lost a available to settlers at low prices. Other significant portion of their land when their acts followed, expanding the availability community property was individualized, of public lands for homesteading. A study often through errors in adjudication or of land-use patterns in north-central New fraud. Individual heirs were separated Mexico found more than 9,000 from their portion of the grant lands by homestead applications in a region that various means. The 600,000-acre Tierra included Rio Arriba, Santa Fe, Taos, and Amarilla land grant is one of the best Sandoval counties. Approximately half of examples of the latter. the homesteads, totaling almost 1.2 million acres, were patented when the applicants The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo completed the required residency and established a process by which Mexican usage requirements. Slightly more than citizens residing in the ceded territories half of the patented entries were issued to could gain U.S. citizenship. Mexico Spanish-surnamed individuals. attempted to provide a section in the treaty that would protect the property

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Homesteading played a major role in the Homesteading illustrates several themes settlement of western Rio Arriba County. advanced by the Northern Rio Grande Lindrith and other small communities National Heritage Area: the challenges of were established in this region by large land and climate, the successful strategies numbers of homesteaders in the early 20th and continuing traditions of the original century. Many homesteaders moved on Pueblo farmers, and the persistence of the to seek better opportunities elsewhere, early settlers and their own traditional but those who endured benefitted from labor intensive methods. [sidebar 21] oil and gas fields discovered in the late 1940s and 1950s. Farmer/ranchers also 21. At Northern New Mexico College, ¡Sostenga! planted crops to attract elk and deer to The Center for Sustainable Food, Agriculture, their property, generating income from and Environment seeks to preserve and enhance private hunts. the natural heritage of northern New Mexico through hands-on learning and economic Homesteading also was important to the development. As a center for collaboration and settlement of southern Santa Fe County, research, !Sostenga! seeks to foster sustainable especially in the early 20th century, when living. The Northern Rio Grande’s living heritage is visible in places such as Chimayo, where chile settlers from Texas and Oklahoma came farmers still irrigate with communal ditches and to take up dry-land bean farming. Stanley, are renowned for their native green and red for example, was established along a chiles. “In autumn, Deborah Madison writes in railroad siding and prospered until Saveur magazine, “the scents of apples and of agriculture declined in the area. In Taos piñon smoke, from fires used to roast the chiles, County, the town of Carson developed in saturate the air.” Other traditional, favorite the midst of homesteads dating to around foods in New Mexico include Bizcochitos (sugar, 1910. Within two decades, however, the anise, and cinnamon cookies) and Pastelitos (fruit town was abandoned when drought in the pies cut into little rectangles). The Bizcochito is 1930s exacerbated the difficulties of dry- the “Official State Cookie of New Mexico.” land farming. Today, Carson exists on the map but consists mainly of a post office, which serves the livestock ranches that developed after the farmers left the area. MINING AND ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE HERITAGE AREA

Native Americans, Spanish colonial settlers, and Americans all have mined for various products in Rio Arriba, Santa Fe, and Taos counties. Pre-Columbian mining, though slight, focused on turquoise, obsidian, mica, and, especially, clay for pottery, for which the Pueblos are justly famous. Spanish Colonial settlers mined for lead, coal, silver, gold, copper, and Irrigated Field Santa Cruz iron. American miners, taking advantage

of rail transport and technology, have

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produced lead, silver, gold, turquoise, Santa Fe County copper, iron, garnets, mica, pumice, For over 1,500 years Native Americans perlite, humates, coal, and molybdenum. mined turquoise, the official state gem, in the Cerrillos hills in southern Santa Fe Rio Arriba County County. In the state-registered Los In the early 1870s, numerous strikes of Cerrillos Mining District, one can still see high-grade gold ores were made in the evidence of the mining operations from Bromide-Hopewell District, in the northern Spanish Colonial and American times. part of the county, including the town of Generally speaking, the Pueblos had had Good Hope, now known as Hopewell. free access to the ancient mines of this Other operations at mines with colorful valued resource even during Spanish names such as the Red Jacket, Dixie Colonial times. Indeed, the Pueblos had Queen, and Whale produced gold, copper, been forced to labor in other mines by the and silver ores, but were played out by Spanish at various underground workings 1920. There was a short-lived gold placer in the area. In the 20th century, however, operation at Rinconada near the Río attempts by residents of nearby pueblos Grande Gorge. to enter the American-controlled turquoise mines culminated in the 1911 Small-scale mining of high-quality mica arrest, prosecution, and imprisonment of used principally for window panes was four men from Cochiti Pueblo. done in the Petaca region south of Tres Piedras, mostly in the late 1800s. These Silver, gold, and coal have played an mines were near ancient Pueblo and important role in the development of Jicarilla Apache sources of micaceous southern Santa Fe County, which is pottery clay, used for centuries to produce divided into five mining districts: Cerrillos, pottery with a unique, glittery appearance Glorieta, La Bajada, Old Placers, and New that is still made and much-prized today. Placers. The Glorieta and La Bajada mining districts saw only small-scale mining, Recently, mining has been overshadowed although it had a short-lived resurgence by the large-scale development of oil and during the uranium craze of the 1950s. In gas fields in western Rio Arriba County, 1828, gold was discovered in the Ortiz mostly on Bureau of Land Management Mountains at Old Placers, where the Sierra land. Discovered in the 1920s, it was not del Oro mine was operated between the until the 1950s that the demand for 1820s and the 1940s. Larger discoveries petroleum products fundamentally took place at New Placers; the San Pedro changed the economy of the area from mines near Golden were highly productive farming and ranching to energy from the 1890s through the early 1900s. production. Oil field jobs pay local residents well and help sustain local Zinc, copper, and coal have been mined communities. Southern Santa Fe County for nearly two centuries in the Cerillos also has experienced the discovery of oil district. Coal has been mined in the region and gas reserves. since the 1830s to fuel small-scale ore smelters, and large-scale coal mining at Madrid, a National Historic District,

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supplied fuel for the railroads after 1880 until recently has been the largest private and for the state register-listed coke employer in the county. ovens at Waldo, which in turn fueled the Cerrillos ore smelters that operated STATEHOOD (1912 TO PRESENT) periodically until the 1950s. [sidebar 22] Many New Mexicans supported statehood 22. Madrid, Cerrillos and Golden all are on the almost as soon as the Treaty of Guadalupe Turquoise Trail National Scenic Byway. Madrid, Hidalgo ended the Mexican War. In 1850, which boomed in its heyday as it supplied coal the first state constitution was approved for the railroad, is today a distinctive artist's overwhelmingly by a vote of 8,371 to 39, community and home to the Old Coal Mine but this early statehood effort was Museum. In Cerrillos is the Turquoise Mining nullified by the federal government. The Museum and Mount Chalchihuitl Turquoise territory was not well-known in the nation, Mine, the largest known pre-Columbian and there was even opposition to its turquoise mine in North America. name, New Mexico. The alternatives

“Navajo” and “Lincoln” were suggested. Taos County A generation later, in 1866, New Mexico Pre-Columbian mining in Taos County held another statehood convention that centered on clay sources for micaceous accomplished nothing. Subsequent and other pottery still made at Picurís and efforts were rejected by voters in 1872 and Taos pueblos and sought after today by 1889. collectors. Placer mining for gold began in the 1860s and continued sporadically up By 1909, however, public sentiment to the 1890s in the vicinity of Red River, clearly had turned, and statehood was Twining, and Questa. The region is dotted proposed for both New Mexico and with numerous mining sites and Arizona. Congress authorized New indications of small-scale stamp mills. Mexico to prepare a state constitution, Additional placer mining took place at and that summer 100 elected delegates Copper Hill east of Embudo and northwest hammered out a document, which was of the Pueblo of Picurís from about 1900 approved by voters on January 21, 1911. A to 1925. Generally, mining in Taos County year later, at 1:35 p.m. on January 6, 1912, produced only low-yield ores not President William H. Taft signed the proclamation that made New Mexico the economical for production. th 47 state. After signing his name, Taft Beginning in the 1920s, mining in Taos reportedly turned to the New Mexico County centered on molybdenum mines delegation and declared, “Well, it is all near Questa. Molybdenum, because it over; I am glad to give you life.” Then he resists corrosion, is used to strengthen smiled and added, “I hope you will be steel, widely utilized in armor plating and healthy.” for filaments in light bulbs and other electrical circuitry. Molycorp (now owned by Chevron) began large scale open-pit operations at Questa in the 1960s and

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WORLD WAR I, THE GREAT DEPRESSION New Deal programs did little, however, to AND NEW DEAL solve long-term problems. The 1935 Tewa Basin Study surveyed economic conditions World War I had a significant impact on in a significant portion of the three-county the Heritage Area. The demand for wool Heritage Area. While most families had for military uniforms and blankets some land, the study emphasized that expanded the sheep industry, already an most possessed only a few acres, which important part of the local economy. proved barely adequate for subsistence More poignantly, the military engagement farming and often required heads of involved hundreds of young men from household to seek out-of-state wage cities, towns, villages, and pueblos within labor. Those who owned a few head of and outside the Heritage Area. Local livestock often encountered problems newspapers reported elaborate send-offs, finding sufficient grazing on public lands, crowds of well-wishers, patriotic resulting in severe overgrazing near speeches, brass bands, and American mountain communities and degradation flags, a clear demonstration that New of the already limited arable lands. Mexicans were anxious to prove the worthiness of their four-year-old state. In 23. The Community Center in Chama, the El the San José Catholic Church in Los Ojos, a Rito Public Library, and the National Park Service Region III Headquarters Building in plaque commemorates the names of the Santa Fe are among New Deal projects in the local men who served their country in Heritage Area. The National Park Service World War I and in whose honor the building, designated a National Historic parish installed magnificent altars. A small Landmark, is a masterpiece of Spanish-Pueblo gold star adorns the names of two young Revival architecture. It is the largest known adobe office building in the United States and men who did not make it home. contains an outstanding art collection, ranging from items done by members of During the Great Depression, the many Santa Fe's art colony in the 1930s to Pueblo residents in the Northern Rio Grande pottery and Navajo rugs. National Heritage Area with small land holdings and livestock managed a little New Deal programs helped only in the better than other people in the state and short term. Programs aimed at addressing nation. New Deal work programs such as the region’s economic problems were not the Works Progress Administration and started until 1937, well after the Civilian Conservation Corps provided wage Depression had set in. Then, programs opportunities for many people. These ended abruptly when the United States jobs programs improved infrastructure entered World War II in December 1941. such as bridges, culverts, water-control features, trails, and buildings in national WORLD WAR II AND LOS ALAMOS and state parks. Workers constructed numerous schools and other public World War II brought lasting change to buildings, artists drew murals in post northern New Mexico, especially the offices and courthouses, and writers and Española Valley. As it gained momentum, photographers also created. [sidebar 23] albeit in secret, the Manhattan Project

provided many new jobs to residents in IV-26

pueblos and villages surrounding the 24. The Spanish and Indian Markets are two of newly established community of Los the most popular cultural events within the Alamos. Even if most of the jobs were in Heritage Area, drawing visitors from all over the clerical and service positions, the wages world. Every year, artists showcase and sell their enabled many small farmers to retain and work before a jury of their peers. Spanish operate their marginal holdings and, in Market is held every July in Santa Fe. The market many cases, provided the capital to fills booths around the plaza and surrounding improve and enlarge their farms. After streets. Artwork includes pottery of all kinds, as World War II, expanded operations of the well as other traditional crafts such as Colcha nuclear laboratories created more jobs for embroidery, hand-loomed blankets and rugs, residents of the Heritage Area. Today, Los santos (paintings of saints and the holy family), Alamos National Laboratory (though and bultos (wood carvings of saints, figures, and outside the three-county area) is the scenes from the Scripture). The market also has largest employer in the Española Valley. a section for contemporary art and a strong program for youth. Indian Market is held every In the rest of the three-county region that August. Native American artists from all the Southwest tribes and pueblos, as well as from is the National Heritage Area, employment other areas, show their work and also enter it in and economic opportunities continue to a juried event. A wide variety of arts are shown, be spare. Growth in government including pottery, weavings, carvings, paintings, employment and tourism has benefited baskets, and kachinas. Contemporary entries many residents of the City of Santa Fe. include clothing designed by American Indians. Indeed the City is ranked nationally as one Also noteworthy is the annual Española Valley of the leading arts centers, and for a few Arts Festival in nearby Española. artists the arts have provided a path to economic self-sufficiency. For many in the A good place to sample foods grown in northern rural areas of the Heritage Area, income New Mexico is the Santa Fe Farmers' Market, levels and employment are low, and many considered one of the Top 10 Farmers' Markets in continue to struggle with day-to-day the country. Also popular is the Espanola living. Unfortunately, the hardest hit have Farmers’ Market and the annual Santa Fe Wine been the descendents of the Native and and Chile Fiesta. Hispanic settlers that have existed in this region and that have created its color. [sidebar 24] RISE OF THE LAND GRANT MOVEMENT AND TIERRA AMARILLA COURTHOUSE RAID OF 1967

As early as 1919, a group known as la mano negra, “the black hand,” was cutting fences and burning haystacks within the Tierra Amarilla land grant in protest of new landowners who were blocking access to traditional common grazing lands. In 1940, state police were

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dispatched to Tierra Amarilla. The threw the court injunction into a campfire investigating officer found strong public while television cameras rolled. After a sentiment in support of protest actions. year of armed occupation, a negotiated settlement was reached, and 200 acres of Sporadic outbreaks of fence cutting and the disputed property were deeded to haystack burning continued through the Flores along with a substantial settlement, 1950s. Publicly, land-grant groups aired acreage that since has been deeded back their grievances against the grazing to the local Tierra Amarilla land-grant policies of the U.S. Forest Service and organization. tried unsuccessfully to pressure state and federal governments to take action on Issues related to land grants continue. what they felt was the unjust adjudication Over the years, imprecise surveys and of their land. Some six generations after vague descriptions of property resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, several public lands being included in private land land grant groups organized as the transactions (and vice-versa), creating Federal Alliance of Land Grants (Alianza). clouded titles that often hurt individual In the early 1960s, the group came under landowners. In some cases, property on the leadership of Reies López Tijerina, which families had lived for generations who advocated force to regain lost lands. was found to lie partially or entirely within the new federal land. To help solve some On June 5, 1967, a small group of armed of these problems, “Color-of-Title Act” Alianza members arrived at the Río Arriba legislation was enacted in 1928 that County Courthouse at Tierra Amarilla allowed residents to acquire title to intent on making a citizen’s arrest of the federal land under certain conditions. In district attorney. He was not there, but the 1970s, the Bureau of Land Manage- Alianza took wounded officers hostage. ment (BLM) implemented the Río Grande Hundreds of law enforcement officers and Occupancy Resolution Program, which New Mexico National Guard troops began systematically to research land-title descended on northern New Mexico. The records to determine which tracts of raid, subsequent manhunt, capture, and federal land overlapped private land trials of Alianza members and their fiery claims. It has been a slow and tortuous leader focused national attention on the project. century-old issue of land grants in northern New Mexico and the passionate In 2004, a General Accounting Office sentiments that held that an injustice had (GAO) report found that the surveyor been done. generals assigned to New Mexico in the 19th century often lacked the legal skills A generation later, this issue again came and financial resources to properly review to the forefront. In 1988, Amador Flores grant claims. The report also stated that disputed an Arizona development the claims process was confusing and company’s ownership of property from burdensome to claimants. Still, the report the Tierra Amarilla land grant. When the concluded that the U.S. government did company sought to evict Flores from land “not violate any fiduciary duty” to non- he claimed belonged to his family, Flores Pueblo community grantees under

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provisions of the treaty. Land-grant heirs Many in the world will find the attractions and organizations dispute the GAO of the place that is the Heritage Area as findings and continue to claim that the compelling. Many will seek to experience U.S. government did not assess the the historical narrative, the continuing validity of their land grants in a fair and cultural presence from a time past, and equitable manner. the very special contribution that the people of this place can make to CONCLUSION connections with space and time.

Thousands of years of human habitation For those who are the descendents of the and interaction have left an indelible mark earliest settlers, be they the native on the Northern Rio Grande National peoples, the Spanish colonizers, or the Heritage Area, a place where older ways American immigrants, the struggle of life continue to hold meaning and value. continues to find linkages to the past, Farming and irrigation techniques first through reclaiming of lands, through used by indigenous people are applied resurgence of familial languages, or today for their ecological sustainability. through remembrance of traditions and And just as the interplay of land and water relationships to the places and people of governed the placement of Indian villages, this enchanted land. Spanish communities, and American military forts years ago, so they continue to determine the placement of housing subdivisions, and the roads and bridges of the modern world.

Now, the water to sustain growth comes from underground, and there is continuing concern that it will someday not be enough. Land itself has become scarce, as it is now a commodity to be acquired only at market rates. Younger generations Mountain Community seek economic relief by moving away, or give up and seek diversion in drugs and other activities. In many respects, the economic attachment to the land is lost to most in the population. But it remains in their hearts, if only as a fading memory.

The wave of change that may bring opportunity for relief from economic disparity is the technological revolution that has brought instant connection and communication, and ability to disseminate information on a global scale.

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