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Spanish Relations with the Apache Nations East of the Rio Grande

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Spanish Relations with the Apache Nations East of the Rio Grande SPANISH RELATIONS WITH THE APACHE NATIONS EAST OF THE RIO GRANDE Jeffrey D. Carlisle, B.S., M.A. Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS May 2001 APPROVED: Donald Chipman, Major Professor William Kamman, Committee Member Richard Lowe, Committee Member Marilyn Morris, Committee Member F. Todd Smith, Committee Member Andy Schoolmaster, Committee Member Richard Golden, Chair of the Department of History C. Neal Tate, Dean of the Robert B. Toulouse School of Graduate Studies Carlisle, Jeffrey D., Spanish Relations with the Apache Nations East of the Río Grande. Doctor of Philosophy (History), May 2001, 391 pp., bibliography, 206 titles. This dissertation is a study of the Eastern Apache nations and their struggle to survive with their culture intact against numerous enemies intent on destroying them. It is a synthesis of published secondary and primary materials, supported with archival materials, primarily from the Béxar Archives. The Apaches living on the plains have suffered from a lack of a good comprehensive study, even though they played an important role in hindering Spanish expansion in the American Southwest. When the Spanish first encountered the Apaches they were living peacefully on the plains, although they occasionally raided nearby tribes. When the Spanish began settling in the Southwest they changed the dynamics of the region by introducing horses. The Apaches quickly adopted the animals into their culture and used them to dominate their neighbors. Apache power declined in the eighteenth century when their Caddoan enemies acquired guns from the French, and the powerful Comanches gained access to horses and began invading northern Apache territory. Surrounded by enemies, the Apaches increasingly turned to the Spanish for aid and protection rather than trade. The Spanish-Apache peace was fraught with problems. The Spaniards tended to lump all Apaches into one group even though, in reality, each band operated independently. Thus, when one Apache band raided a Spanish outpost, the Spanish considered the peace broken. On the other hand, since Apaches considered each Spanish settlement a distinct "band" they saw nothing wrong in making peace at one Spanish location while continuing to raid another. Eventually the Spanish encouraged other Indians tribes to launch a campaign of unrelenting war against the Apaches. Despite devastating attacks from their enemies, the Apaches were able to survive. When the Mexican Revolution removed the Spanish from the area, the Apaches remained and still occupied portions of the plains as late as the 1870s. Despite the pressures brought to bear upon them the Apaches prevailed, retaining their freedoms longer than almost any other tribe. CHAPTER I THE APACHE PEOPLE The following description of Apache culture is by no means complete. Rather, it is an attempt to give more understanding to a people who have long been misunderstood. Compared to European culture or American culture, the Apache culture is vastly different. It is not necessarily better or worse, it is not more or less civilized, it is simply different. Therefore it is important to be aware of these differences when telling the history of these people. Many historians fall into the trap of trying to interpret a foreign culture by judging it by the standards of their own- -usually seeing the foreign culture as inferior and therefore despicable. Other historians take a self-loathing attitude, seeing their own culture as objectionable, while trying to make the foreign ethnic group the perfect interpretation of life. Both of these approaches fail to recognize the fact that there is no perfect society. Every society has its strengths and weaknesses, and each one has its successes and failures. This work is an attempt to give a fair interpretation to a people who have for the most part been not only feared and hated throughout most of their history but also admired for their resistance in the face of 1 overwhelming odds. If, by reading this chapter, the reader is given pause to reconsider his/her original opinion of the Apaches, then the writer has accomplished his task. The Apaches are perhaps the most recognizable tribe of Native American Indians. John R. Swanton suggests that this is because of (1) their warlike character; (2) their constant depredations along the Spanish, Mexican, and American frontiers; and (3) the difficulty of forcing them to give up their life style and accept reservation life.1 In any case their notoriety has attracted the attention of scholars and non-scholars alike. Multitudes of works have been written concerning the Apaches, but the vast majority focuses on the American period, especially the exploits of such great Apache leaders as Victorio, Cochise, and Geronimo. These works also concentrate on the western Apache at the expense of slighting those to the east. On the other hand, the eastern Apaches of the prairies and plains have been virtually ignored by comparison. This neglect is strange considering the importance of these natives on the history of the Southwest. The Apaches of the plains are one of the major reasons that the Spanish Empire, and later the Mexican Empire, did not extend farther than they did. Still later their alliance with the AngloAmericans moving into Texas proved to be invaluable in the Texan's struggle for independence and later statehood. It seems, 2 that despite their importance, only one book deals exclusively with the so-called plains Apaches, and it leaves much to be desired.2 The present work is an attempt to rectify that neglect. The term "plains Apaches" is perhaps a misnomer, for none of the Apaches lived a true plains Indian life style, with the possible exception of the Kiowa-Apaches. The Apaches are members of the Athapaskan linguistic group, which is one of the larger language groups with speakers residing from Alaska and Canada in the north to the southwestern United States and northern Mexico to the south. The Apaches, along with the Navajos, who are almost always considered a distinct tribe, make up the southern division of the Athapaskan family. The Apache proper consists of six divisions: the Western (San Carlos) Apaches, the Chiricahua Apaches, the Mescalero Apaches, the Jicarilla Apaches, the Lipan Apaches, and the Kiowa Apaches. Harry Hoijer divides the southern Athapaskans into eastern and western groups based upon linguistic differences. The western group consists of the Navajos and the San Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero, while the Eastern Group consists of the Jicarilla-Lipan and Kiowa Apache--with the Jicarillas and Lipans having more in common with each other than with the Kiowa Apaches.3 Most other 3 4 scholars have accepted this division on linguistic as well as cultural differences. This study will concentrate on the Apaches of the plains and its periphery. In this context, the term plains Apaches refers to those Indians who spent at least part of their annual migratory pattern on the plains. Therefore, the Lipans, Jicarillas, and Mescaleros will play major roles. The Kiowa Apaches will be excluded because of their remoteness from other Apache groups, as will the Western Apaches and the Chiricahuas, who had virtually no contact with the plains. During the height of their expansion the plains Apaches inhabited the plains regions including parts of eastern New Mexico and Colorado, western Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. In historic times the Lipan Apaches roamed the area from the upper Nueces and Medina Rivers to the upper Red and Colorado Rivers. By the last quarter of the eighteenth century, they had been forced south by their nemesis, the Comanches, and were ranging on both sides of the Rio Grande. At this time they had to be satisfied with marginal lands along the Great River and extended southward into Coahuila and Chihuahua, although portions of the tribe continued to camp in the vicinity of the Nueces and Guadalupe Rivers.4 The Jicarillas occupied the mountainous region of southern Colorado and northeast New Mexico. They ranged into 5 the plains of western Kansas and Oklahoma and into northwest Texas.5 They generally camped between modern Albuquerque, Chama, and Colorado Springs on the west to western Texas and Oklahoma in the east. According to their legends, the Creator gave them the lands bounded by their sacred Rivers: the Arkansas, the Canadian, the Rio Grande, and the Pecos.6 The Mescaleros operated in an area bounded by the Hondo River in the east, to Santa Fe in the north, to the Rio Grande in the west, and to Coahuila and Chihuahua in the south. Their favorite haunts were the Sacramento, Guadalupe, and San Andreas Mountain ranges. They also inhabited the Sierra Blanca and Davis Mountains. They, like all Apaches, were mountain people who were never completely comfortable on the plains. They usually wintered on the Rio Grande or further south and traveled out to the buffalo plains in the summer, sometimes as far as the Texas Panhandle.7 A major problem in dealing with the Apache Indians is the confusion of names given them. These Indians, of course, had no written language and so almost all information that concerns them was related by Europeans or Americans, who were more often than not their enemies. Even the name "Apache" was not their own. In fact, the French used the word to apply to the worst of robbers and assassins.8 The name "Apache" was first used by Juan de Oñate, colonizer of New Mexico, in 1598. Frederick Hodge suggests 6 that the term originated from "ápachu," the Zuñi word for "enemy."9 This is the most commonly accepted interpretation--perhaps for no other reason than that it seems to be most fitting, for throughout the historic period, the Apaches seemed to have been surrounded by enemies.
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