Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy

TC:TCP/AFG/4552

FINAL DRAFT

TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOR AFGHANISTAN

AFGHANISTAN AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY

THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF AFGHANISTAN

prepared by

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome

January 1997 AFGHANISTAN VERSITY

I NR II II I I II 111111 3 ACKU 00006806 3

TC:TCP/AFG/4552

FINAL DRAFT

TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOR AFGHANISTAN

AFGHANISTAN AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY

THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF AFGHANISTAN

prepared by

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome

January 1997 Printed at: PanGraphics (Pvt) Ltd. Islamabad. CONTENTS Page

FOREWORD 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2

1. INTRODUCTION 5 1.1 Background 5 1.2 Assistance to Agriculture 6 1.3 Strategy Development 6 1.4 Constraints 8 1.5 Assumptions 9 1.6 Timing 10 1.7 Strategy Framework 11 2. THE STRATEGY 12 2.1 National Goal 12 2.2 Agricultural Sector Goal 12 2.3 Strategic Priorities 12 2.4 Development Profiles 16 2.4.1 Creating Food Security 16 2.4.2 Increasing Economic and Social Development 21 2.4.3 Raising Skills and Employment 25 2.4.4 Developing Natural Resource Management 29 3. ISSUES 32 3.1 Role of Government 32 3.2 Resource Utilisation 34 3.3 Creating Capacity 35 3.4 Credit 36 3.6 Sustainability 37 4. IMPLEMENTATION 38 4.1 Accurate Data 38 4.2 Delivering Services 38 4.3 Input Supply 39 4.4 Research 39 4.5 Extension and Training 40 4.6 Monitoring and Evaluation 40 4.7 Project Outlines 41

ANNEX 1. PROJECT OUTLINES ,ANNEX 2. BIBLIOGRAPHY

SUBSECTOR REPORTS

1. Land Management Frank Berding 2. Farming Systems Bernhard Schelhas 3. Water Resources and Irrigation Walter Klemm 4. Livestock Production Olaf Thieme 5. Forestry and Agroforestry Steven Newman 6. Extension and Training M. Azam Khan LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Objectives, approaches, activities and target groups 14 Table 2. Time linkages for direct activities at various levels of input and support 15 Table 3. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 1.1Protect lives through food aid 16 Table 4. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 1.2 Re- establish agricultural output 17 Table 5.Project Concepts Immediate Objective 1.3 Raise agricultural productivity 18 Table 6. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.1 Increase saleable production 20 Table 7.Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.2 Improve technical and economic activity 22 Table 8.Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.3 Increase capital formation and investment 24 Table 9.Project Concepts Development Objective 3. Raising skills and .employment 26 Table 10. Project Concepts Development Objective 4. Natural Resource Management 30 Table 11 Table Summary of proposed projects 42

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1. Afghanistan by Administrative Regions Frontispiece

EXCHANGE RATE

May 1996 US$1.00 = Pak Rs 37 = Afs 12,000 (av rate, but variable) November 1996 US$1.00 = Pak Rs 42 = Afs 15,000 (av rate, but variable)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Land area 1 jerib = 0.2 ha Weights 1 seer = 7 kg

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACBAR Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief ADA Afghan Development Association ACLU Afghan Construction and Coordinating Unit AHPIM Animal Health and Production Improvement Module APIR Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation ARC Austrian Relief Committee ARIA Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan ARRP Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programme ASA Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan BVW Basic Veterinary Worker CBR Consultant Bureau for Reconstruction CIUP Construction and Irrigation Unit of Pamir CoAR Coordination of Afghan Relief CPO Country Project Officer DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees DAI Development Alternatives Inc. DDPP District Development Pilot Projects DRS District Development Shura ECRA Engineering Committee for the Rehabilitation of Afghanistan (under IRC) EDS Engineering Development Service FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN GAA German Agro- Action HAVA Helmand - Arghandab Valley Authority HLDC Herat Livestock Development Corporation IDP Internally Displaced Persons IP Implementing Partner IRC International Rescue Committee JCE Jihad Consulting Engineers MADERA Mission d'Aide au Développement des Economies Rurales MCI Mercy Corps International MoA Ministry of Agriculture MWP Ministry of Water and Power NAC Norwegian Afghanistan Committee NCA Nangarhar Canal Authority NGO Non -Governmental Organization NPPP National Professional Project Personnel ORSTOM Office de Recherches Scientifiqiues et Techniques Outre -Mer PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal QIP Quick Impact Project RAH Reconstruction Agency of Hindu Kush RA FA Reconstruction Authority for Afghanistan RSC Rehabilitation Steering Committee RVSA Regional Veterinary Service Association SCA Swedish Committee for Afghanistan SWABAC Southern and Western Afghanistan Baluchistan Association for Coordination SOGREAH Société Grenobloise d'Aménagement Hydro -agricole TCP Technical Cooperation Programme (FAO) UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNDCP United Nations Drug Control Programme UNIDATA United Nations Information Data Collection UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aid to Afghanistan UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services USAID United States Agency for International Development VA RA Voluntary Association for Rehabilitation of Afghanistan VFU Veterinary Field Unit WRC Welfare and Relief Committee for Afghanistan WFP World Food Programme ee 70se 71 150 ioo .e,ede,ro ee Foyzod 72 S SCALE (km) 24 111.1. es se Kabul O CAPITAL OF COUNTRYL E G E N D Galet r-- o PROVINCIALINT'LPROVINCE BOUNDARY CENTRE BOUNDARIES -- DISTRICT...... BOUNDARIES RIVERSALAQADARI Asada o J_lalob9. FOOD& AGRICULTUREOF THE UNITEDORGANIZATION NATIONS AFGHANISTAN, Promotion of Agricultural Retlabllltotionand Development Programmes TCP/AFG / 4552 ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONSApril 1996 AFGHANISTAN AGRICULTURE IN BRIEF

Some brief statistical data on Afghanistan are set out below.Varied sources and time periods have been used for the data.Care should be taken in making comparisons between periods.

1. Population

Estimated population 13.05 million (1979 Government census) 17.64 million (1990 Unidata population project estimate) 18 -20 million (1996 unofficial UN estimates) It is estimated that 70 -80 per cent of the total population are engaged in agriculture.

2. Land Use

Land area by form of land use (as at 1972) Area (ha) percent Area (ha) percent Irrigated land orchards 80,200 2.4 cereal cropsx 2 /year 451,400 13.7 x 1 /year 733,700 22.3 intermittently cropped 2,023,000 61.5 subtotal Irrigated land 100.0 3,288,300 5.12 Rainfed crop land (total area, only 20 -25 per cent cropped eachyear) 4,835,700 7.52 Forest area 1,987,000 3.09 Rangeland and other 54,128,500 84.26 Total land area 64,239,500 100.00

Source: FAO Land Use Statistics 1972

3. Production of Principal Crops

Crop Gov't Statistics 1976 Estimated 1996 Area Productivity Area Productivity `000 ha kg /ha `000 ha kg /ha Wheat 3404 1316 3600 1700 Barley 320 1200 310 1150 Maize 484 1612 485 1700 Rice 210 2071 215 2100 Cotton 112 1429 80 1450 Sugarcane 4 15 4.5 16 Sugarbeet 5 20 2 19 Fruit orchards including citrus 140 880 70 400 -450 Vegetables 92 7830 90 7900 Sources:1976 data. First Seven Year Economic and Social Development Plan 1976 -83 Ministry of Planning, Kabul, 1355 (March 1976) 1996 data. FAO Integrated Crop Programme estimates

4. Livestock Numbers

Livestock 1967 1981 1991 1995 Class Total Total Total Farmers Kuchis Total Cattle 3633 3750 4049 3495 198 3693 Sheep 21455 18900 18688) 15504 6508 22012

Goats 3187 2900 ) 5458 3472 8930 Horses 403 400 245 167 200 367 Donkeys 1328 1300 1131 872 147 1019 Camels 299 265 80 101 176 277 Source: Livestock Production Report (this volume), Table 1. FOREWORD

In April 1978, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) took control of the government in a violent coup and thereby set in train the events which led to a civil war that stillremains unresolved. The war reached a climax in April 1992 when the PDPA (Communist) government resigned, leaving an estimated one third of the population (6 million people) in refugee camps outside the country or internally displaced, agricultural production significantly reduced and the country in desperate need of food and other help.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) took the leadership role in coordinating international efforts to assist the Afghan people. In October 1993,it produced the Afghanistan Rehabilitation Strategy, which emphasised Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) to get the system functional again as soon as possible. With no time to lose, the emphasis was quite specifically short-term.The strategy was soundly planned and well implemented. Within three years, between two and three million refugees were re- established in their farms and villages and in some areas the agricultural sector is considered close to pre -war production levels. The success of the Rehabilitation Strategy has meant that priorities have changed. The emphasis is no longer on survival through short-term, quick impact activities. The strategic approach must now be based on the longer -term, aiming to raise productivity in a sustainable manner and in that way, to support a return to peace and stability in the countryside.

The FAO project Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan (TCP /AFG /4552) was the logical successor (in the agricultural sector) to the highly successful UNDP Afghanistan Rehabilitation Strategy. The aim of the project was to produce a strategy document which reflected the perceived need for assistance to the agricultural sector to shift from the quick impact, rehabilitation approach to a longer -term, more development oriented approach. Given the uncertainties of the future, the strategy is deliberately non -prescriptive.Rather,it sets out a series of objectives to develop food security, economic growth, skills development and employment in the agricultural sector and outlines optional pathways which could be followed to achieve those objectives. The project concepts presented should be seen as having a high degree of flexibility in the manner in which they could be implemented,either as stand -alone projects orin conjunction with other activities. Any agency intending to take up projects proposed in the strategy will need to carry out its own project analysis and preparation.

Project field work was carried out in two missions, from March to June and late August to late November 1996. The team consisted of Peter Sloane (Lead Consultant, Agricultural Strategy, Apl -May and Sept -Nov), Frank Berding (Land Management, Mar -May),Walter Klemm (Water Resources and Irrigation, March -May), Olaf Thieme (Livestock Production, Apl -Jun), Bernhard Schelhas (Farming Systems, Aug -Nov), Steven Newman (Forestry and Agroforestry, Oct -Nov) and M. Azam Khan (Extension and Training, Sep -Nov). The team was based in Islamabad and collectively made 24 missions into Afghanistan, visiting 21 of the 29 provinces.

The strategy document is presented in two forms, either as a stand -alone report, or together with the technical reports of each of the six team specialists. The strategy has as annexes, project profiles prepared by several of the team specialists in their technical areas, together with a bibliography which combines those from the individual team members reports and some material of more general interest on Afghanistan. The report in its entirety should be read as a draft document. While each of the individual reports has received a technical clearance, the report as a whole has been complied by the team leader and remains to be technically cleared by FAO.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Background

.01 In the 18 years since 1978, Afghanistan has been torn apart by civil war.From the beginning, United Nations has provided assistance to the victims of this war. Forthe first ten years this was from outside the country, in the international refugee camps. Since 1988 the emphasis has shifted to within- country action. The in- country assistance has two time frames. The first was the five years 1988 -92 when the effort went to providing humanitarian assistance and food aid to several millionrefugees displaced by the cross -fire of the war. The second was the four years 1993 -96when the emphasis has been on assisting the refugees back to their homes. As nearly80 per cent of Afghans are from rural areas, the greatestefforts have been directed at rehabilitating agriculture and restoring and stabilising the national food supply.

.02 By 1995, this rehabilitation and returnee programme had achieved majorresults. Over this three year period, between two and three million refugees had returned to their farms, food supply had increased and much of the farm land was backin production.Recognising that the underlying circumstances were changing, FAO as the responsible UN agency for agriculture, undertook the preparation of astrategic plan for the future rehabilitation and development of the Afghan agricultural sector.

Afghan Agriculture

.03 Afghanistan is dominated geographically by the Hindu Kush range, which bisects the land area from the north -east to the south -west and west.The high snow capped peaks form the reservoir which feeds the eight main river systems that providethe water for irrigation which is the prime source of agricultural productionin what is otherwise a harsh arid climate.

.04A key feature of Afghan agriculture is the wide disparity in productivecapacity between the various land types.Three quarters of the land supports only sparse extensive grazing in mountains or deserts, while the five per cent of land area,which is the irrigated valleys, produces 85 per cent of all agricultural output.In 1978, the last year of peace, the country was largely self- sufficient in foodand was a significant exporter of high quality fruit, silk, cotton and other products.

.05 The agricultural production system is both simple and robust. The basic production pattern has changed little in over 2000 years, yet the farmers have shown remarkable ability to adapt to sophisticated technology, such as high yielding crop varieties, inorganic fertilisers and agricultural and veterinary chemicals. The very simplicity of the system has been a major strength in the rapid re- establishment ofagricultural production where fighting has stopped.

.06 The irrigated production system is highly diversified.Although wheat is the staple food crop, significant quantities of rice, maize, barley, grams and pulses are produced together with large volumes of fruit and vegetables for domestic consumption orsale. Livestock are fully integrated into the system. Meat and other animal products are a significant part of the output.Historically, agricultural sector output has included processed items such as dried fruit, cotton and silk which have provided valuablelocal markets for farmers and contributed to foreign exchange earnings.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy -3

.07 The small productive land base and the high dependence on irrigation means that for long -term survival, it is necessary to maximise production per unit of land and water. This in turn, means that the technical emphasis must be on high productivity systems with high yielding varieties, use of inorganic fertiliser and a high degree of crop care. Italso means that great care must be taken to protect the resource base by sustainable land use and water management practices.

The Agricultural Strategy

.08 Afghanistan has no national government. Given that there is no general agreement on what the structure and reach of any central government might be, it could be some time before such a government is formed and sufficiently well resourced to set and implement meaningful policies that represent the wishes of the people.

.09 However, the production system at the farm and district level is sufficiently robust that an operating central government itis not essential for many of the activities in the agricultural sector to function. Accordingly, the emphasis in the strategy is, as far as possible, on relatively simple interventions at the local level. At this point they can be supported from the outside and contribute significantly to local output and capacity building.Over time, as national problems resolve themselves, the interventions can take on a more national character.

.10 The strategy is open- ended.It does not propose any fixed course of action. Rather, it outlines options for action, provides the logic for the actions identified and shows the time -based linkages between actions and outcomes which can then be used as a guide for planning interventions and assistance.

.11 As the humanitarian problems in Afghanistan are brought under control, assistance will increasingly require economic justification. The strategy makes some broad judgments about the economic viabilityof assistance to the agricultural sector. However, it does not attempt economic justification for its development or immediate objectives. Individual project proposals would need to be economically justified in the light of the circumstances at the time they were put forward for funding. While cost estimates are made, many projects could operate at a range of funding levels depending on the resources available and the linkages to other activities.

.12 The strategy has four development objectives for the agricultural sector. These are (i) to assist in creating national food security;(ii)to increase economic and social development;(iii)to raise the levels of skills and knowledge and thereby raise productivity and employment and (iv) to protect, on a long term basis, the scarce natural resources which underpin national agricultural output.

.13 The four development objectives break down into ten immediate objectives which more closely reflect the steps in the rehabilitation and development process.The order of the objectives do not imply a rigid approach, but they do give a logical sequence of activities within each technical area. There are inter -linkages between all the development objectives and assistance programmes may be best planned with elements from more than one objective.

.14 For the food security objective, the first priority is to re- establish agricultural output by getting farmers back to work on their own land. Once this is done, there are a wide range of options for raising and stabilising productivity through improved technology. These options flow over into the second development objective. Here the first priority

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy 4

is to raise farmers' involvement in the cash economy which in turn means getting markets functioning and diversifying farm production, especially to give income generating work to other household members.

15. Increased activityin the cash economy will create the need for greater capital accumulation and investment.At the same time, the performance of individuals in both the first two development objectives will be strengthened if their personalskills levels are raised through extension and trainingsupport,whichisthethird development objective.Finally, the long -term performance of the sector must be underpinnedbysoundresourcemanagementactivities,whichisthefinal development objective.

.16 The strategy presents the outline of assistance and project ideas under each objective in a time based framework over the short, (1 -2 years) medium (3 -5 years) and long- term (6 years plus).It identifies the likely target groups for assistance and the level at which the assistance could be applied.It also proposes a general level of activity which would be appropriate for each intervention over time.

.17 The strategy takes the broadest possible view of the agricultural sector.The target groups include not only farmers and farm families, but tradersand transporters who provide inputs and marketing services to farmers and the administrators andNGOs who provide the necessary back -up support and advisory services.

.18The strategy takes the view that increasing the overall food supply and creating saleable surpluses will provide the greatest potential access to food for all Afghans, including the poor and disadvantaged groups.Assistance to the poorest and most disadvantaged is considered to be a separate issue to agricultural development.

.19A number of issues in the delivery of assistance to agriculture are identified. The core issue in the civil war has been the form of government which is seen as appropriate by the majority of Afghans. The strategy takes the view that regional and local arethe levels which can most effectively relate to farmers' needs and that decision-making and operational authority should be delegated to this level.

.20 In the absence of government, creating capacity for service delivery must be focussed through the non -government organisations (NGOs).Many of these have already developed significant capacity, though this could be strengthened through positive collaboration by lead agencies and donors in specific capacity -building activities. Where investments are made in physical assets for technical capacity, there mustbe some long -term view as to how and to whom these could be handed over.

.21 Improving the quantity and quality of necessary inputs would be greatly assisted by improving access to credit for traders and farmers.Providing credit is fraught with many practical difficulties, but is feasible.Its is probably best done at local, rather than national level and linked to a system for the sale of outputs to recover the loans.

.22 The scarcity of accurate data is a major impediment to the planning and delivery of assistance to the agricultural sector. There is an urgent need for a national statistical survey which will serve as both a basis for future planning and as abaseline for the assessment of the range of current and proposed interventions.

.23 The shift from quick- impact activities to longer -term development must be supported by more emphasis on monitoring and evaluation.This should include initial baseline surveys, performance -based contracts and mid -term and post -projectreviews.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy 5

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Afghanistan is a land of extremes.Locked between the harsh and uncompromising mountain and desert areas are fertile and productive river valleys.Three quarters of the land supports only sparse extensive grazing in mountains or deserts, while the five per cent of land area which is the irrigated valley floors produces 85 per cent of all agricultural output.In 1978, the last year of peace, the country was largely self- sufficient in food and was a significant exporter of agricultural products.

Itis also a land of paradoxes.While the agricultural system has remained essentially unchanged for 2000 years, farmers who cannot read or write have taken up sophisticated technology such as high yielding crop varieties, the use of inorganic fertilisers and agricultural chemicals with ease.Until recent years, farmers with little more than donkey power were suppliers to world markets of high quality fruit, silk, cotton and other products.

For the past 18 years Afghanistan has been torn apart by war.In this period, up to one third of the population either fled the country or were internally displaced.This saw many farming areas depopulated and most of the national corps of trained professionals dispersed.

The movement of such large numbers of people demanded an international response. The immediate focus for the international community was providing emergency food and shelter. By 1992 there were six million Afghan refugees either inside or outside the country which made huge demands on relief agencies and the host countries.Faced with a problem of this scale, in 1993 the United Nations launched an emergency relief and rehabilitation programme within Afghanistan to enable and encourage people to go back to their homes.

A key element of this programme was to bring agricultural land back into production to provide food and employment for the returnees. This required significant effortsin removing land mines (demining) from access roads and agricultural land and restoring abandoned irrigationsystems to some degree offunctionality. Programmes were implemented to provide seed and planting material for farmers, to control crop pests and to re- establish some control over the spread of animal disease. The programmes were short- term, aimed at rapid results.

There is no doubt that the approach worked.Within two years there was a discernible impact on agriculture.Village communities were re- established and formerly abandoned land brought back into production. The results were sufficiently encouraging that by 1994, funds were provided for broad -based agricultural programmes in crop improvement and livestock health.Both programmes have made substantial progress in assisting farmers and local communities to meet long -term food needs by raising technical production standards. However, both these programmes are only funded on a short-term basis.

Afghanistan is not yet a stable country. However even while fighting continues,itis possible to consider that the emergency situation has largely passed and that it is time to take a longer -term view of many of the problems.The agricultural strategy provides a framework to identify actions for the short -term rehabilitation and long -term development needs of Afghan agriculture.The framework recognises the difficulties of delivering assistance to a divided country without a national government or enforceable resource management policies.The problems are many. However, the underlying strength is the robustness of the agricultural system and the undoubted skill and energy of Afghan farmers and their intuitively entrepreneurial approach to problem solving.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy -6

1.2 ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURE

Over the past 40 years various forms of international assistance have been provided to the Afghanistan agricultural and natural resource sectors. The common theme through most of the assistance was to increase agricultural production.Importantly,it was achieved by steadily increasing the role of government in planning and providing inputs, finance and extension services and direct investment in the agricultural and natural resource sectors.

From the 1950s to 1978, international efforts were directed at assisting government to upgrade agricultural technology and increase production through large -scale infrastructure development in previously under -developed or newly developed areas.It also sought to develop national action in forestry and resource management. Between 1979 and 1988, international assistance, from the then Soviet block, focussed on bringing undeveloped state controlled land into production, through large -scale development and state farms.

After 1988, UN agencies such as FAO returned to provide assistance. The emphasis then was on institutional strengthening and national capacity building in areas such assmall - scale irrigation projects and the development and management of forestry and fisheries. Emphasis in agriculture was on improving the technical base with better quality crop seed, the availability of fertiliser and chemicals and the control of plague pests.

However, as the intensity of the civil war escalated after 1989, the refugee problem overwhelmed all other activities.Until 1992, most international efforts were directed at emergency relief and food aid.By 1993, when the crisis situation was seen to be coming under control,it was possible to shift the focus of emergency efforts towards getting agriculture working again.This led to the UN Strategic Action Plan for Afghanistan, including a framework of key rehabilitation activities in the agricultural sector.

1.3 STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT

The circumstances in which the Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy (AAS) has been prepared are radically different from those before 1992. There is now no national governmentand only limited government activities in some regional centres. The past ten years have also seen a marked change in donors' perceptions of appropriate forms of assistance.Large - scale development schemes and support to state intervention in the agricultural sector are no longer seen as sound approaches to increasing agricultural production.

The circumstances in 1996 are also very different to those of 1992. At that time there were between 5 and 6 million Afghan refugees outside the country, or internally displaced.By 1996, more than half of these have returned to their homes and farms and resumed a stable productive life.This has created another Afghan paradox. While the country is still embroiledina protracted and sometimes viciouscivilwar, the greater part of the countryside is at peace. To the outside observer, Afghanistan is a violent and disrupted place. Yet from the inside, despite sporadic local fighting, the major part of its farm Iànd is in use and rural families are largely engaged in the peaceful business of producing a living.

Stabilising agriculture will have a profound effect on stabilising the peace. The refugees who have returned to their farms are looking to the future. They are in no mood to listen to those who would force such devastating experiences on them again. The Afghan farmers have gone home to rebuild their shattered country and lives for themselves and their families.The AAS is directed at those from outside Afghanistan who recognise this fact and are who willing to provide direct and practical assistance to the agricultural sector.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy -7

The AAS has been developed in consultation with many people.The Strategy team members visited all the major centres in Afghanistan and 21 of the 29 provinces.In the course of their work they met with, and listened to the views of, a wide range of farmers, traders, administrators and others providing assistance to the agricultural sector. They have met with the various UN agencies working in Afghanistan and listened to the views of representatives of donor countries. Towards the end of the preparation period a two -day workshop was held with 56 participants from Afghanistan and from NGOs and UN and other agencies working in the Afghan agricultural sector. A range of policy issues were debated and many of the ideas put forward have been taken up in the strategy document.

The overall theme is to meet the urgent need to markedly increase the productivity of the agricultural sector. This calls for better technology, improved management methods across the board and the identification and development of strategic internal and external markets. The starting point for the strategy is not government.It is the farmers and traders, either as individuals, families or communities, who are the operating arms of the agricultural system. The strength of this situation is that interventions go directly to those who can turn them into output.The weakness is that once activities go beyond the local or regional level, they become harder to coordinate or sustain.In addition, vital broad -scale issues such as resource management remain largely incapable of resolution in the absence of a competent and adequately resourced national government.

This direct approach assumes that there will be skilled and competent professionals who can deliver the assistance.In the short- to medium -term many of these will come from the international community, but in the long -term they must come from within the country. Many experienced professionals have left and will not return. Many young people have lost their learning years in refugee camps and must now try to catch up.While direct assistance to rebuilding the productive base of agriculture is the starting point for the strategy, it must also tackle the rebuilding of the professional skills and knowledge to underpin the future.

The agricultural strategy is open- ended.It does not seek to propose any fixed course of action. Rather, it outlines options for action, provides the logic for the actions identified and shows the time -based linkages between actions and outcomes which can then be used as a guide for planning interventions.

Until the present time, assistance to Afghanistan has been substantially on humanitarian, rather than economic grounds. However, as the humanitarian problems are brought under control, interventions will increasingly require economic justification.The strategy makes some broad judgments about the economic viability of assistance to the agricultural sector. However,it does not attempt economic justification for its development or immediate objectives.Individual project proposals would need to be economically justified in the light of the circumstances at the time they were put forward for funding. No funding levels are proposed for a number of project concepts, as many projects could operate at a range of levels depending on the resources available and the extent to which they were linked to other activities.

There are a wide range of options for policies and actions for the rehabilitation and development of Afghan agriculture, most of which are open to differing interpretations and opinions. There will be few `right' or `wrong' answers.Priorities will change over time as circumstances change and this process will continue. Accordingly, at this stage the attempt is made to keep open the widest range of options.There is rarely only one way of achieving a particular outcome. Different options might be the `best' option in different parts of the country at any one time, or at different stages of rehabilitation and development.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 8

Particular options may require parallel actions within agriculture or other sectors toachieve the desired outcome.In this event, some outcomes may be unattainable becausethe actions in the agriculture sector are not supported elsewhere, or they may bestrengthened by coordination between several agencies or cross -sectoral activities.Time linkages are also important.While the quick -fix approach has had the most immediate impact,the strategic approach must identify long -term problems, when and howremedial action must be started and for how long it should be maintained to ensure the sustainability ofthe result.

In the long -run, actions to promote rehabilitation or development must be able tocontinue in the absence of external help.While some form of subsidy or other technical assistance may be an integral part of the initial stages of a particular programme,all programmes must lead away from aid dependence to independence and self -reliance.

1.4CONSTRAINTS

There are a number of significant practical difficulties in planning, or providingassistance for the rehabilitation and development of Afghan agriculture. The concepts andproposals put forward in the AAS have been prepared on the basis that they mustoperate within the following constraints:

The current information base for Afghanistan is out of date and misleading. Thelast official survey was in 1978. More recent agricultural data was gatheredbetween 1989 and 1993.Between two and three million refugees have returned since thelast survey and nobody knows with any degree of accuracyhow much is being produced, where, by whom, where it is sold or what resources are used.

Afghan agriculture is built on a narrow resource base. There are a maximumof 3.5 million ha of irrigated land and up to 4 million ha of rainfed land, of whichonly 1 million ha can be used in any one year.Productivity must be at a high level for this small base to support upwards of 18 to 20 million people. The base must also beprotected from degradation and misuse if future production is to be sustained.

Long distances and rugged terrain make delivering any form of services tothe rural community a major task. Agricultural communities are widely scattered andthe limited national road network and communication system connects only the principalcentres. Developing broad contact with the farming community and providing supportnetworks will require considerable resources of manpower and transport, even if efforts areonly limited to the more accessible areas.Many of those who are poorest and would benefit most from assistance, are in remote locations and are difficult to service.

The 17 years of war have disrupted virtually all communities with a substantial lossof human, personal and community capital and infrastructure.Farmers who are willing and aware of improved technology lack the capital and labour resources toimplement strategies to raise productivity.Landmines have left some scarce resources of farm land unusable, fertiliser production is 20 per cent of pre -war levels and agricultural product processing has ceased. Another significant loss has been the large numbers of educated people, including many experienced agricultural professionals.

Formal decision making structures to set policy directions are at best weak, butmostly non -existent.In terms of external assistance, this problem is compounded by thefact that there is no agreed concept of what might be the division of powers in anyfuture government structure between the centre (Kabul) and outlying rural areasand towns, or the mutual rights and obligations between the people and anygovernment.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 9

The lack of government structure and internal security, means that the climate for developing internal or external markets is currently poor.This uncertainly is a major barrier to domestic and external investment in any sector of the economy.For agriculture, this has resulted in uneven availability, in either quantity or quality terms, of technical inputs such as fertilisers, chemicals and veterinary medicines. Restoring civil order and a legal code must be a prerequisite to creating reliable markets for increased output, which will in turn create appropriate conditions for investment and lead to greater employment opportunities.

Despite these constraints, much can be done. The simplicity and robustness of the Afghan agricultural system means that much can be achieved in raising productivity and economic activity at the local and district level. The lack of national decision making structures and the tension between policy concepts of local and national responsibility can be by- passed in the short to medium term, by concentrating activities and support at local and regional level. Some of the rival administrations are establishing their credentials with the community by improving civil order. Markets are working and inputs are available, albeit unevenly.

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS

Any plan for the future must make some assumptions as to what that future will look like. The assumptions are presented as being country-wide, though as is the case now, they may well vary in their accuracy and applicability in different parts of the country over the medium to longer term.In this time frame it is assumed that:

Most Afghans will take a positive approach to helping themselves to recover and dealing with the worst effects of poverty and disruption, thereby contributing to the resolution of conflict.

The problems associated with the return and resettlement of refugees and internally displaced persons will be significantly resolved within the medium -term, with a corresponding reduction in external effort directed specifically at refugee issues.

Access tomost of Afghanistan,both urban andrural,withrelativelystable communities, will continue to be available.

Within the medium -term, internal access between regions of Afghanistan will improve with a corresponding improvement in the operation of markets for agricultural products and inputs.

Within the medium -term, some form of regional,if not national, administration will emerge to provide a basic operating framework for the implementation of community - wide policies for natural resource (land, water and forests) management.

Within the medium -term, the delivery of technical services and assistance to farmers and rural communities will continue to be met by NGOs. With external assistance and programme support these NGOs will become increasingly specialised and expert in selected fields.

Within the medium -term, United Nations programmes will move from being managed from regional centres in Afghanistan as they are at present, to wholly internal delivery.

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1.6 TIMING

The strategy has two time phases and five operational periods. While it looks to the future, a number of the elements of the strategy are already in place and working. Toshow the fit to this continuum of events the strategy starts at the beginning of the major external assistance to Afghanistan and follows through from the past, to the proposals for the future.

Phase I- Crisis

The crisis phase is the period after the 1988 Russian withdrawal, up to and including, 1996.

Emergency: 1988 to 1992

This period covers the struggle between the Najibullah government and the militias reaching a climax with the resignation of the government and the attacks on Kabul in April1992. The instability created a major flow of refugees to camps both outside and inside Afghanistan. The principal external assistance went into feeding people and providing basic health, education and social welfare activities in the camps. Over the period the emphasis moved from coping with disruption to encouraging and assisting the return of refugees.

Rehabilitation: 1993 -1996

The second period coincides roughly with the time of the Rabbani government when the major effort was in assisting refugees to return to their homes and farms. The thrust of the programme was outlinedinthe October 1993 UNDP ActionPlanfor Immediate Rehabilitation, which remains the basis for ongoing activities, including in the agricultural sector.

Phase II - Rehabilitation and Development

Short -term: Years 1 -2

The short -term is the period in which the existing rehabilitation efforts continue, bringing back as many of the remaining refugees as will come and further strengthening the performance of those already returned.It is also a preparation period for important later activities.

2.2 Medium -term: Years 3 -5

This period will see efforts concentrate on assisting individuals and communities to stabilise themselves both economically and socially. Activities will involve raising applied technology and skills, developing markets for increased output and assisting in the creation of personal and social capital.These activities will need longer -term time frames than have been possible in earlier phases.

2.3 Long -term: year 6 onwards

Barring a major political or military upheaval, within five years it should be possible to contemplate much of Afghanistan being stable, with self- sustaining agricultural communities producing significant saleable surpluses and trading regularly with the outside world. However, rebuilding a skilled and educated workforce, securing investment of Afghan - controlled capital in the agriculture sector and recreating the social and administrative basis for the country are matters for the long -term.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy 1.7 STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

The strategy provides broad outlines for the rehabilitation and development of the Afghan agricultural sector.it provides a guide to where individual interventions or projects are needed and the technical annexes contain a number of project concepts or ideas.The strategy is presented within the following framework.

Goal: To assist Afghanistan to become a self -reliant nation.

Development Objectives There are four development level objectives representing the broad areas of action to achieve the strategic goal of national self -reliance.These are: to contribute to creating food security; increasing economic development; raising skills and knowledge and creating employment; and protecting natural resources.

Immediate Objectives Each development objective has immediate objectives representing a group of interventions (projects) to bring about the intended results.They include raising agricultural productivity, increasing saleable output, improving technical and economic activity, increasing capital formation and investment, raising skill levels, increasing employment and managing natural resources.

Intervention level: The intervention level indicates the level at which any particular project activity will take place. This may be at farm or household level, or village, town, district, regional or national level.

Technical approach: Indicates the overall technical thrust of a particular group of activities. This may be by increasing resources used, or by intensifying agriculture, creating markets, increasing investment or employment or developing and implementing policies.

Target Group: This indicates the principal groups to whom the assistance would be directed. The proposals are indicative only.

Six levels of activity are proposed which may occur over one or more time frames.

Commence: Programmes and projects are identified and prepared. Activities to achieve objectives and outputs commence.

High input: Programmes and projects continue at a high level of input and support.

Increased input: Input and support are increased above the 'high' level to further strengthen performance and achievement of objectives.

Maintaining: Sufficient input is continued to maintain the achievement of the originally intended productive performance /capacity levels.

Reducing: Project interventions and /or support being cut back or phased out.

Phasing out: Project interventions reduced to low or monitoring level.

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2. THE STRATEGY

2.1 NATIONAL GOAL

The AAS takes a long -term, open ended view of national goals.While there are many short- to medium -term targets which must be addressed, a clear, explicit long -term goal for the future is seen as appropriate to set the tone of the Strategy. The goal set for the AAS is:

To assist Afghanistan to become a self -reliant nation.

Such a goal can apply across all sectors. By setting a general goal it is possible to have specific agricultural sector objectives and actions which can be in harmony with ambitions and aspirations across the wide range of national activities which will be necessary to achieve agricultural development.

2.2AGRICULTURAL SECTOR GOAL

Afghanistan has a harsh and uncompromising climate and is dependent on a relatively small proportion of its land area for survival of the population.The emphasis therefore, throughout the agricultural sector must be on utilising and protecting for the long -term, those scarce natural resources which form the productive base.Short-term development must always be balanced against the long -term survivalof the productive base for agriculture. The proposed goal for the strategic development of the agricultural sector is:

To develop sustainable agricultural production systems based on the sound long -term utilisation and management of natural resources, which will meet the food security needs of all Afghan households and create income and employment for all those associated with the agricultural sector.

The strategy views the agricultural sector inits widest context.The farmers and their families are the backbone of production. However, it is the merchants and transporters who link farm production to the towns and cities and balance food production with food needs. They also provide the inputs vital to maintaining higher levels of agricultural productivity and maintain and develop exports of agricultural products.

For the strategy, the agricultural sector also includes the administrators and resource managers who provide the links between village, district or regional activities andthe broader national community.This may be the local mirab or a government administrator applying national policies at a provincial or regional level.Currently, the competent administrators, with authority to implement resource management policies are effectively absent.Some administrative roles are performed by international agencies or NGOs. However, in setting goals, it has to be assumed that some form of stable administration will emerge to provide a national perspective to the proposed actions.

2.3 STRATEGIC PRIORITIES

The United Nations has been the leader in taking action and coordinating external efforts to assist Afghanistan.It produced the first consolidated strategic approaches in the 1993 Action Plan for Afghanistan. These were brought up to date in the 1996 -97 Operational Strategy.In September 1996 the UN outlined the objectives and strategies which are being pursued under the UNDP 1997 -98 Afghanistan programme generally and in each of the programme components. These are summarised on the next page:

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A. Poverty Alleviation

A.1 Improve access tosocial and economic assets and services on a technically, financially, institutionally and environmentally sustainable basis; A.2Enhance community capacity for self -reliant development; and A.3Ensure that, in the above efforts and strategies, the concerns of the poorest and most disadvantaged are addressed.

B. Good Governance

B.1 Strengthen community participation and ownership of development programmes; B.2Build capacities of non -government organisations and the private sector to support community development initiatives; B.3Strengthen community development support capacity of the public sector at the local level; and B.4Advocate for UN Charters and UN Development Agenda.

C. Coordination of External Assistance

C.1 Strengthen programme coordination (within the UN system and within the NGO community), through the provision of susbstantive and logistical services in support of coordination; C.2Enhance joint programming of the UN System and gradually extend this effort to other development partners and stakeholders; C.3Develop afull -fledgedStrategic Framework which can be considered byall development partners as the platform for common action and which identifies clear and mutually supportive roles for relief, humanitarian, rehabilitation and development assistance programmes.

The AAS is based on these concepts in four broad development themes, each of which includes one or more conceptual objective which can be broken down to project level activities. The programmes and actions are not mutually exclusive or stand -alone elements, but should be seen as a comprehensive, though far from complete, inventory of options to be implemented according to local and regional needs and available resources.Effective implementation will involve considerable interaction between development themes and programmes, objectives and actions.

Development Objective UN Priorities Immediate Objective Food security A.1, A.3 Protect lives through food aid A.1-3, B.1-2, 4 Re- establish agricultural output A.1-3, B.1-2, 4 Increase agricultural output

Economic and A.1-2, B.1-3 Increase saleable production social development A.1-3, B.1-3 Improve technical and economic activity A.1-2, B.1-3 Increase capital formation and investment

Skills and employment A.1-3, B.2-4 Raise employment capability of rural people through increased skills and knowledge

Natural resources A.1, B.1 Develop and implement natural resource use and management policies

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The objectives, levels of activity, technical approaches and target groups aresummarised in Table 1 with the time frames in Table 2 opposite. Linkages between objectivesand project level activities are described briefly on pages 12 to 18 and summarised in Tables3 to 7.

Table 1. Objectives, approaches, activities and target groups Objectives Intervention Technical Interventions and Activities Target Group Level Approach Objective 1. Food security Immediate Objective 1.1 Refugees Deliver food to external camps Refugees Protect lives through food aid Community Deliver food to in- country camps and locally Returnees and Vulnerable Food for work to establish returnees Re- establishing farmers

Immediate Objective 1.2 Farms Extensify: Return refugee farmers to their land Farmers and their Re- establish agricultural output and Bring more Restore delivery of irrigation water families being householdsresources Provide inputs to farmers (seed, fertiliser, etc) re- established into use Increase animal numbers and livestock quality Farmers, Nomads Restore animal health services Farmers, Nomads Recover mine infested land Farmers, Nomads Bring grazing land back into use Farmers, Nomads

Immediate Objective 1.3 Farms and Intensify: Raise crop technology and husbandry levels _Farmers and families Raise agricultural productivity householdsMake Encourage local availability of inputs Traders and Farmers villages, existing Make more efficient use of irrigation water Farmers /Mirabs towns and resources Improve animal health, husbandry and nutrition Farmers and families regions more Improve labour use efficiency Farmers and families productive Mechanise production Farmers and mechanics Increase crop /livestock integration Farmers and families Improved grazing land utilisation /management Farmers, Nomads Increase agroforestry activity and production Farmers, timber traders Objective 2. Economic development Immediate Objective 2.1 Farms and Restore Improve horticultural technology and production Farmers and families Increase saleable production householdsand Raise standards of fruit and vegetable products Farmers and families villages, develop Increase animal productivity and output Farmers /Nomads/Women towns and saleable Diversify incomes through other products Farmers, Rural women regions production Create sufficient output for local processing Farmers, Rural women

Immediate Objective 2.2 Farms, Markets Open roads and internal access Farmers and traders Improve technical and economic villages, are Promote traders to stock quality inputs Traders activity towns and improved Develop accessible credit sources Traders, businessmen regions and Link traders and producers of exports Farmers and traders created Develop quality standards Govt, farmers, traders Improve farmers access to market information Farmers and traders Increase export trade Farmers and traders

Immediate Objective 2.3 Farms, Savings Improve ability to finance own input purchase Farmers and traders Increase capital formation and villages, increased Increased ownership of machinery Farmers and traders investment towns and and capital Develop local investment in processing Farmers and traders regions invested Develop regional investment in processing Traders, businessmen Objective 3. Raising Skills and Employment Immediate Objective 3.1 Farms, Employment Higher farm production creates on -farm work Farm youth Increase farm level employment villages, increased by More output creates marketing /processing jobs Farm women and youth Immediate Objective 3.2 towns and higher output!More activity creates specialised service jobs Farm women and youth Increase non -farm employment regions investment Regional /local skills training institutions revived Educational professionals Immediate Objective 3.3 and skilled Raise professional training /practice standards Agric /educ professionals Increase skills and training manpower

Objective 4. Natural Resource Management Immediate Objective 4.1 Farms, Sustainable Community forestry developed Village communities Natural resource use and villages, natural Improve water management by valley Local /Village communities management policies developed towns, resource use Improve water management by river basin Government and implemented for water, regions andsystems Develop water rights and allocation system Government forests and rangeland national Develop and implement forest policy Government

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Table 2. Time linkages for direct activities at various levels of input and support Interventions and Activities Crisis Phase Rehab'n and Development Phase EmergencyRehabilit'n Short Medium Long Immediate Objective 1.1 Protect lives through food aid - Deliver food to external camps Peak High Reducing Phase out - Deliver food to in- country camps and locally Peak High Reducing Phase out - Food for work to establish returnees Peak High Reducing Phase out Immediate Objective 1.2 Re- establish agricultural output - Return refugee farmers to their land Peak Reducing Reducing Phase out - Restore delivery of irrigation water Peak High Maintain Maintain - Provide inputs to farmers (seed, fertiliser, etc) Peak High Maintain Maintain - Increase animal numbers, livestock quality and animal productivity Peak Maintain Maintain Maintain - Restore animal health services Commence High Increase Maintain - Recover mine infested land Peak High Reducing Reducing - Bring grazing land back into use Commence High Maintain Immediate Objective 1.3 Raise agricultural productivity - Raise crop technology and husbandry levels Commence High High Maintain - Encourage local availability of inputs CommenceCommence High Maintain - Make more efficient use of irrigation water Commence High Increase - Improve animal health, husbandry and nutrition Create High Increase Maintain - Improve labour use efficiency Commence High Maintain - Mechanise production Commence High Maintain - Increase crop /livestock integration Commence High Increase - Improved grazing land utilisation /management Commence High Increase - Increase agroforestry activity and production Commence High Maintain Immediate Objective 2.1 Increase saleable production - Improve horticultural technology and production Commence High Increase Maintain - Raise standards of presentation of fruit and vegetable products Create High Increase Maintain - Increase animal productivity and output Commence High Increase Maintain - Diversify incomes through other products Commence High Increase - Create sufficient output for local processing Commence High Immed Obj. 2.2 Improve technical and economic activity - Open roads and internal access Commence High Increase - Promote traders to stock quality inputs Commence High Increase - Develop accessible credit sources Commence High Increase - Link traders and producers of exports Commence High - Develop quality standards supported by laboratory services Commence High - Improve farmers access to market information Commence High Increase - increase export trade Commence High Immed Obj. 2.3 Increase capital formation and investment - Improve ability to finance own input purchase Commence' High Increase - Increased ownership of machinery Commence, High Increase - Develop local investment in processing Commence High Increase - Develop regional investment in processing -'Commence Nigh Immediate Objective 3.1 and 3.2 Increase employment - Higher farm production creates on -farm work Commence High Increase - More output creates marketing /processing jobs Commence High Increase - More activity creates specialised service jobs Commence High Increase Immediate Objective 3.3 Increase skills training - Regional /local skills training institutions revived Commence High Increase - Raise professional training /practice standards Commence High Immediate Objective 4.1 Natural resource use policies - Community forestry developed Commence High Increase - Improve water management by valley Commence High - Improve water management by river basin Commence High - Develop water rights and allocation system Commence High - Develop and implement forest policy Commence High

Key to description of activities in time frames: Commence: Develop programmes and commence activities to achieve objectives High input: Continue programmes at high level of input and support Increased input: Increase input and support above the 'high' level to further strengthen achievement of objectives Maintaining: Sufficient input to maintain achievement of original intended productive performance /capacity levels Reducing: Project interventions /support being cut back or phased out Phasing out: Project interventions reduced to low or monitoring level

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2.4DEVELOPMENT PROFILES

2.4.1Creating Food Security

The development objective to create food security coversthree broad areas of activity. The first two, handling the refugee crisis (Immediate objective1.1) and re- establishing returnees in productive agriculture (Immediate Objective 1.2)have been the main thrust to date. The circumstances are now ready for a drive to raise thelevel of agricultural productivity (Immediate Objective 1.3).This will have significant flow -on effects tostabilising the national food supply, which in turn will assist in stabilisingthe political situation.

Immediate Objective 1.1 Protect lives through food aid UNDP linkages: A.1, A.3. Intervention level: Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)and vulnerable groups, returnee farmers Approach: Direct delivery and food -for -work to createproductive capacity

These interventions have been actively pursued in externalrefugee camps since 1979 and in- country since 1988 and particularly since 1991.It is expected that the general need for direct food aid will reduce over the short- to medium -term as morepeople return.It may continue longer for farming communities in hardship areassuch as Bamyan, Ghor and Badakhshan. Itis important not to confuse providing assistanceto alleviate poverty in these hardship areas which have inherently lowproductivity,with the national -scale activities for agricultural rehabilitation and development inthe better favoured areas.

For the agricultural strategy, the key continuing roleof food assistance isits capacity to positively support farm level rehabilitation and developmentactivities.Until now, this has been assisting to re- establish returnees.An additional positive role is availablethrough linkages between food -for -work assistance and projectsbuilding productive capacity. Examples include the current food- for -seed and food -for -nurseryestablishment associated with the FAO Integrated Crop and Food ImprovementProgramme.In the short run, such assistance will have a significant rolein selected areas and specific projects,but is expected to phase out in the medium term.

Table 3. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 1.1 Protectlives through food aid Time Period Linkages No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target Group 1.1 Immediate Objective 1.1 Protect lives through food aid 1.1.1Deliver food to- external and in- country camps Crisis .1Organise and deliver food supplies to refugees Refugees Crisis to .2Provide health, social and educational services to refugees in camps short -term 1.1.2Food for work to establish returnees Rehab to 1.2.1 .1Organise and provide sustenance support for returning farmersReturnees and and families vulnerable medium -term Rehab to 1.2.1 .2Provide food -for -work opportunities to assist in rehabilitation ofReturnees and local infrastructure vulnerable medium -term

Immediate Objective 1.2 Re- establish agricultural output UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.1, B.2 Intervention level: Farms and households resources Approach: Extensify the agricultural system by bringing more into use

Activities re- establishing agricultural production havebeen the focus of attention since 1993. They will continue to be important well into themedium -term as more pressure is put

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 17 - on those left in refugee camps to return home. Once refugees have returned, the important matters are giving them tools, seed and fertiliser, rebuilding irrigation water delivery systems and clearing mine -infested land.In many areas, NGOs and UN agencies have been active inrebuilding irrigation works and some rural demining has been done inthe more populated areas. However, there is still much to do and these interventions will continue for some years, though reducing as those returnees who intend to come back are resettled.

Table 4. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 1.2 Re- establish agricultural output No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target Group Time Period Linkages 1.2 Immediate Objective 1.2 Re- establish agricultural output 1.2.1Return refugee farmers to their land .1Provide food assistance during re- establishment period Returnee Rehab to 1.3.1 farmers medium -term .2Provide tools and equipment to enable farming activity to Returnee Rehab to 1.3.2 commence farmers medium -term 1.2.2Restore delivery of irrigation water .1Organise local labour to clean and restore silted irrigation Returnee Rehab to 1.3.3 canals and offtake structures farmers medium -term .2Organise rehabilitation of local irrigation structures based on Returnee Rehab to 1.3.3 locally identified needs farmers medium -term 1.2.3Provide inputs to farmers (seed, fertiliser, etc) .1Identify and select from external sources high yield disease Implementing Rehab to 1.3.1 -2 resistant crop varieties agency short -term .2Organise importation of seed and fertiliser and distribute to Implementing Rehab to returnee farmers agency short -term .3Establish system of multiplying mother seed through ex -stateCompetent Rehab to 1.3.1 farms and selected farmers farmers medium -term .4Identify, support and train merchants to supply good quality Merchants andShort- to 2.2.2 inputs for crop production traders medium -term 2.3.1 1.2.4Increase animal numbers and quality .1Assist farmers to acquire basic animal herds Returnee Rehab to 1.3.4 farmers medium -term .2Identify and distribute good quality sires for improved breedingFarmers and Rehab to long-1.3.4 nomads term 1.2.5Restore animal health services 1.3.4 .1Consolidate management of Veterinary Field Units (VFUs) Trained Rehab to veterinarians medium -term .2Develop staff training for increased veterinary services Paravets and Rehab to 3.3 BVWs medium -term .3Develop supply of veterinary vaccines and medicines through Implementing Rehab to 2.2.2 +5 international and local sources agency medium -term 2.3.1 .4Deliver district level veterinary services to farmers and nomadsFarmers and Rehab to long-2.1.3 nomads term 1.2.6Recover mine infested land .1Identify and map farm areas infested with mines Returnee Rehab to long-1.3.7, farmers term 4.3.3 .2Implement prioritised programme of mine clearance in rural Returnee Rehab to long-1.3.7, areas farmers term 4.3.3 1.2.7Bring grazing land back into use .1Investigate and analyse traditional pastoral system and its Farmers and Short to long- 1.3.7, impact on pastures nomads term All 4.3 .2Implement measures to mediate grazing impact and maximiseFarmers and Short to long- 1.3.7, sustainable pasture use nomads term All 4.3

Many of the ongoing activities from the crisis and rehabilitation phase will transform as their emergency character reduces. The rehabilitation of irrigation systems will turn into regular maintenance work.The restoration of animal health services is well advanced and is transforming into a fee -for -service activity.Encouraging these transitions, from externally supported assistance to national capacity to perform the work, will be an important part of ongoing support to the agriculture sector. A number of activities proposed under various other elements of the strategy are aimed at supporting these transformations.

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Table 5. Project Concepts, Immediate Objective 1.3 Raise agriculturalproductivity No Project Concepts by Immedi-:;Objective Activity level Target Group Time Period Linkages 1.3 Immediate Objective 1.3 Raise agricultural output 1.3.1Raise crop technology and husbandry levels 2.1.2, 3.1, .1Identify and select on an in- country basis high yield disease Implementing Short- to resistant crop varieties agency medium -term 3.3 .2Develop self- sustaining system for multiplication of selected Competent Short- to seed at agency /farmer level farmers medium -term .3Develop locally -based system to clean, store, sell and Competent Short- to 2.2 distribute seed farmers medium -term 1.3.2Encourage local availability of inputs .1Identify, support and train merchants to supply good quality Competent Short- to 2.1.2, inputs for crop production traders medium -term 3.1.6 -8 .2Develop international trade arrangements for supply of inputsImp'. agency/Medium- to 2.2.2 -4, Government long -term 2.2.7 1.3.3Make more efficient use of irrigation water 3.1 .1Develop community concepts of water -use efficiency and trainMirabtJ Short- to mirabs communities medium -term 4.2.1 -2 .2Support mirabs with extension activity Farmers Short- to 4.2.1 -2 medium -term .3Commence effective irrigation planning at individual system Imp' agency/ Medium- to 4.2.3 -6 level on regional basis Government long -term 1.3.4Improve animal health, husbandry and nutrition .1Widen network of VFUs on fee -for -service basis Farmers and Short- to 2.1.3 nomads medium -term 2Identify, support and train vets /merchants to supply good Farmers and Short- to 2.2.2 quality inputs for livestock health nomads medium -term .3Improve animal nutrition through selected fodder crops, Farmers and Short- to 1.3.1 fodder trees and supplements nomads medium -term .4Widen network of extension workers through BVW training Farmers and Short to 3.3 and linkage to other projects nomads medium -term .5Develop high quality feed sources from agricultural processingFarmers and Medium- to 3.1.9 byproducts (oilcake etc) nomads long -term 2.2.6, All 3 1.3.5Improve labour use efficiency 1.3.1 .1Raise productivity per unit effort through use of better quality Competent Short- to inputs (seed, fertiliser etc) farmers medium -term .2Raise manpower efficiency through better management Competent Short- to 4.2.1 -2 practices (water, time, etc) farmers medium -term .3Raise individual skill levels through extension and training Competent Short- to All 3. farmers medium -term 2.3.1 -2 1.3.5Mechanise production 2.3.1 -2 .1Assist farmers to individually or collectively raise capital for Competent Short- to investment in mechanisation farmers medium -term .2Provide opportunities for training in care and maintenance ofCompetent Short- to 3.2.1 -3 farm machinery farmers medium -term 1.3.6Increase crop /livestock integration 2.1.1 -3 +5 1.3.1 .1Identify high yielding varieties of crops with improved fodder Competent Short- to residue characteristics farmers medium -term .2Develop animal /fish /plant systems to maximise by- Competent Short- to 2.1.4.1 product/inter- product use farmers medium -term 1.3.7Improved grazing land utilisation /management All 4.3 4.3.1 -3 .1Investigate effect on pastures of prolonged non -grazing ImplementingMedium -term periods resulting from mines agency .2Develop options for grazing management within the traditionalFarmers and Medium -term 4.3.1 -3 pastoral system nomads 1.3.8Increase agroforestry activity and production 2.1.4 -5 2.1.4 .1Develop improved poplar production for local timber and Competent Short- to fuelwood supplies farmers medium -term .2Develop horticulture -based agroforestry system for fruit, nuts Competent Short- to 2.1.1 and timber farmers medium -term 2.1.4 .3Develop wide -spread fodder tree production for grazing land Farmers and Medium- to 4.3 improvement nomads long -term

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Immediate Objective 1.3 Raise agricultural productivity UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.1, B.2, Intervention level: Farms and households, villages, towns and regions Approach: Intensify the agricultural system by making existing resources more productive

The activitiesinImmediate Objective1.3willbe thedrivingforceforagricultural development throughout the short to medium term. They are aimed at raising and stabilising the productivity of the traditional agricultural system by combining well -developed \technical approaches (improved seed, use of fertiliser, improved animal health) with some newer ideas (improved efficiency in on -farm water and labour use, better animal nutrition, better management). These approaches recognise that the situation has changed since 1979.They seek to avoid the highly subsidised and top -down approach to agricultural productivity development that characterised the efforts of former governments.

Many of these activities have already started, as they are the natural progression from the rehabilitation activities in Immediate Objective 1.2. By raising productivity per unit of scarce resource (land, water, labour), these activities will stabilise the food situation and at the same time release resources which can then be used to produce a range of other outputs. These could provide a more diverse diet for the farm household and also generate cash incomes and gainful activity for under -employed family members.

To gain the greatest benefit in terms of increased production, these activities should be directed at established and competent farmers, rather than returnees or the poor. They are aimed at making productive farmers better at what they do.Getting people who grow nothing to produce something, is more the role of the activities in Objective 1.2.Due to constraints to the supply of inputs and technical support,itis likely that the activities in Objective 1.3 will be most effective in the more populated and accessible areas for some time to come.

By raising productivity, these activities are the primary steps to creating alternatives to poppy production.At low levels of productivity there is no prospect that normal farming activities could compete economically with poppy.At higher productivity levels, incomes earned from an improved mix of crops with higher yields and better quality are comparable to those earned from poppy.

The activities in this objective involve new ideas and new technologies which will need more direct support through extension and training than has been the case to date. At the same time, there are strong linkages between these activities and many of those in Development Objectives 2 and 3, at both a technical level and in delivery and support services.

These linkages provide real opportunities to gain efficiencies of implementation and delivery through interactions across a range of technical or geographic areas, either within one project or between separate projects,.Projects which are currently attempting to upgrade technical skills are now having to resolve how they can deliver face -to -face interaction with farmers on a sufficient scale to make some impact.

The NGOs who perform much of the field -level implementation, are evolving an extension delivery capacity.There are opportunities for project coordination in the training and utilisation of extension workers and in monitoring and evaluation. With their wide range of activities, the NGOs are well placed to integrate extension work across a range of parallel projects. There is scope to experiment with joint action between projects, or implementers and one lead agency for training extension workers and the delivery of extension services.

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Table 6. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.1 Increase saleableproduction No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target Group Time Period Linkages 2.1 Immediate Objective 2.1 Increase saleable production 2.1.1Improve horticultural technology and production 1.3.1 .1Introduce at farm level improved varieties of commercial fruitCompetent Rehab to and nut species farmers medium -term3.1 2.2.5 -7 .2Develop awareness of yield potential and commercial Competent Rehab to approaches by farmers to fruit production farmers medium -term3.1.8 .3Raise standards of orchard management and husbandry Competent Rehab to 2.1.2 practices farmers medium -term3.1.8 1.3.1 .4Introduce at farm level improved varieties of commercial Competent Rehab to vegetable varieties farmers medium -term3.1 2.2.5 -7 .5Develop awareness of yield potential and commercial Competent Rehab to approaches by farmers to vegetable production farmers medium -term3.1.8 .6Use Farmers Field Schools for extension and practical trainingCompetent Short- to 3.1.6 in fruit and vegetable production farmers medium -term 2.1.2Raise standards of acceptable presentation of fruit and vegetable products 2.2.5 -7 .1Develop awareness of market needs and requirements for quality control 3.1.8 3.1.6 +8 .3Develop awareness of impact of pest loads on productivity ofCompetent Short- to fruit and vegetable crops farmers medium -term .2Improve pest control and IPM techniques Competent Short- to 3.1.6 +8 farmers medium -term 3.1.6 +8 .5Improve farmers knowledge of pesticides, their use and Competent Short - to misuse farmers medium -term 2.2.2 +5 .6Improve farmers understanding of the importance of quality inCompetent Short- to pesticides farmers medium -term 2.1.3Increase animal productivity and output Medium - to 3.3.1 -2 1Develop regional and local Veterinary Laboratory network to Farmers and underpin other high technology activities Nomads long -term 3.3.1 -2 .2Raise livestock quality by use of Al and alternative breeding Farmers andMedium- to systems Nomads long -term 3.3.1 -2 .3Identify scale and extent of breeding disease problem and Farmers andMedium- to implement control measures Nomads long -term .4Raise quality of animal feed intake through use of processingFarmers andMedium- to 3.1.9 byproducts Nomads long -term 3.1.3 +9 .5Develop knowledge of feeding and husbandry of intensively Farmers andRehab to reared animals and poultry family medium -term 2.1.4Develop tree -based production activities 2.2.1 .1Develop walnut and mulberry production system for nuts, Farmers andShort- to dried fruit, silkworms and timber family medium -term3.1.3 .2Develop fast growing poplar systems and train in making Farmers andShort- to 2.1.1 saleable products family medium -term3.1.7, 3.2.3 4.1 .3Develop joint forest management activities to commercialiseCommunity Short- to forestry management medium -term 2.1.5Diversify incomes through other products 3.1 .1Develop marketing approaches for intensively produced fruit,Family Short - to vegetable and animal products members medium -term .2Develop marketing and presentation approaches for Family Short- to 3.1 intensively produced chickens, sugar, honey and silkworms members medium -term 2.1.6Create sufficient output for local processing 2.3.3, 3.1 .1Develop knowledge of preservation, packaging and marketingFamily Medium- to of intensively produced products members long -term .2Assist in the development of community based activity in Family Medium- to 2.3.3, 3.1 processing and sale of intensive products members long -term

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2.4.2Increasing Economic and Social Development

Stabilising the economic base of the agricultural sector will help to bring social stability. Communities which have a steady income stream and an investment base in perennial activities,are more likelytoinvestinsocialcapital such as schools andclinics. Development Objective 2 aims to provide economic incentives for farm -level productivity increases by raising the overall level of economic activity within the agricultural sector. The perspective for Immediate Objective 2.1 is outwards from the farm.For Objective 2.2, it is the traders and merchants who service agriculture. Objective 2.3 is aimed at raising sector economic performance by increasing saving, capital formation and investment. There are strong interactions between the potential outcomes of Objective 1.3 (raising agricultural productivity) and the increased economic activity promoted under Development Objective 2.

Immediate Objective 2.1 Increase saleable production UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, B.3 Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns and regions Approach: Restore and develop saleable production

Greater economic activity will create the opportunity for farmers and their families to move out of subsistence production and into the cash economy. They will be able to achieve this transition through producing a wider range of products and raising both the quantity and quality of the outputs. The additional output will also improve the quality of the family diet.

The emphasis in the objective is on high value crops and intensive livestock production that can generate significant volume and value of output on relatively small areas of land.Fruit and vegetables can be produced for home consumption or sale.Sugar for gur where it is possible to produce, is readily saleable. Chickens and intensively reared animals on either a household or commercial scale, can generate additional household food or income. Honey and raw silk are two items which can be inserted profitably into other production systems. Honey can be linked with fruit trees and silkworms with mulberries and fish ponds.

In the first instance, the additional production may well simply augment the household diet. However, once production reaches saleable quantities, there is scope for either individual households to commence selling or processing, or surpluses from a number of farms or households to be amalgamated for local sale or transported to distant markets. They also provide the opportunity for local processing (drying, salting, preserving) at either household or village level for home consumption or sale.

Other optionsfordiversification come from the prospect of developingtree -based businesses. These include a wide range of fruit and nut species, for fresh and dried fruit production, silkworm production and timber. Producing improved rapid -growing poplar species for construction timber, small poles, tool handles and box wood are another commercial opportunity. At a community level there are prospects for joint forest management contracts to gain timber rights in exchange for forest management activities.

Producing a wider rangeof outputs and undertakinglocalprocessingwillcreate employment opportunities.These may be for women, or youths, ex- combatants or the disabled, who may be underemployed on a small farm. Creating this production on either a household or commercial scale will require learning new techniques and adopting higher technical standards.This will require significant inputs in extension, training and support services, both for men and for women.As in Immediate Objective 1.3, extension and training to support these activities provides opportunities for efficienciesinmulti -level delivery of inputs across a number of activities, especially where they involve women.

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Immediate Objective 2.2 Improve technical and economic activity UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.1, B.2, B.3, Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns, regions and national Approach: Markets are improved and created

These activities are an integral part of the efforts to raise agricultural output and increase saleable production. They are directed at creating a viable service sector for agriculture, which will enable the farmers to obtain the inputs they need and to sell the increased volume of better quality products which should flow from effectsof the technical interventions. Table 7. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.2 Improve technical and economic activity No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target GroupTime Period Linkages 2.2.1Open roads and internal access 2.2.2Promote traders to stock quality inputs .1Identify, support and train merchants on input requirements Traders Short- to 3.2, 3.3 and the importance of product quality medium -term .2Develop trade arrangements to ensure regular supply of Agencies/ 'Medium- to 2.2.4 -5, inputs of suitable quality Traders /NGOslong -term 2.3.1 2.2.3Develop accessible credit sources .1Train farmers in credit discipline Farmers and Short- to 3.1.10 Traders medium -term .2Establish input supply rolling funds to support purchase and Agencies/ Short- to 2.3.1 sale of reliable quality inputs NGOs /Farmersmedium -term .3Establish group credit schemes at village and district level Farmers and Short- to 2.3.1 Leaders medium -term 2.2.4Link traders and producers of exports .1Identify traders able and willing to provide marketing servicesTraders Short- to 2.1.2 at district and major town level medium -term .2Identify consumer attitudes and preferences in domestic and Traders and Short- to 2.1.2 export markets Farmers medium -term .3Provide training for traders and farmers in benefits of gradingTraders and Short to 2.1.2 and packing for sale farmers medium -term 2.2.5Develop quality standards .1Develop clear and easily understood standards for agriculturalAgencies/ Short- to 2.1.2 inputs and products Gov't /NGOs medium -term .2Train farmers and traders in purpose and benefits of quality Farmers and Short- to 2.1.2 standards Traders medium -term3.1.8 2.2.6Improve farmers access to market information .1Develop systems to gather and disseminate accurate quantityAgencies/ Short- to 2.1.2, 3.1.8 and prices data in key markets Gov't /NGOs medium -term3.3 .2Develop systems for distributing key market data at sub- Farmers and Short to 2.1.2, 3.1.8 district level Traders medium -term 2.2.7Increase export trade .1On a regional /provincial basis identify and support traders Traders Short- to 2.3.2, 2.3.4 capable of handling export trade medium -term3.2, 3.3 2Identify quality standards for key potential markets and Traders and Short- to 2.2.5 transmit information to farm level Farmers medium -term .3Train farmers and traders in quality standards, packaging andTraders and Short- to 3.1.8 presentation to export standard Farmers medium -term3.3

Some, but not all of the proposed activities, will be achievable under the circumstances of lack of government and a functioning system of civil order. The starting point for developing economic activity will be freedom of travel unhindered to any part of the country.This is important in ensuring access to markets and the willingness to undertake the investments necessary to support the development of input supply and marketing services.

A number of these activities should be directly linked to other technically -related activities. Encouraging traders to stock good quality fertiliser or chemicals is an essential link in the process of farmers taking -up the use of high quality seed or IPM techniques.

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This is already happening. So also are linkages of traders with projects to produce saleable surpluses, which has been done in the apricot drying project.Investigating and developing markets could be extended to a range of products such as almonds, grapes (raisins), walnuts, °karakul skins, cashmere and a range of other products where the most valuable markets are at a distance from producers, or which require some form of primary processing before sale.Afghan output of a number of these products previously had a strong reputation in export markets, however much of this has been lost over the past 17 years.

Timing is important for these activities to have the necessary impact.Existing projects are already generating significant additional production for which markets will be needed in the medium- to longer -term. Between 1995 and 1997, the horticultural component of FAO crop programme will have assisted in the establishment of more than 150 commercial plant nurseries. By the year 2001 these nurseries will have produced at least 7.5 million selected fruit trees. On a conservative estimate of 30 kg /tree, at full bearing these trees would yield 225,000 tonnes of fruit and nuts, additional to current production.Developing markets for this amount of fruit should go hand -in -hand with the growth of output.

A number of the actions or interventions proposed under this objective will be difficult to implement, even in the medium- to long -term. Developing accessible and reasonable credit sources for farmers is critically important to increasing the use of high technology inputs. But it is a risky business to provide credit in a country without a functioning legal system and with potential or actual civil disorder. The experience of the Agricultural Bank prior to 1979 suggests that the unfamiliarity with credit discipline in the country is another limitation. One prospect is to build -up rolling funds starting from the sale of inputs funded from international sources. This is already being done with veterinary medicines. Another may be to look at group credit schemes based on a number of farmers or even a village, where collateral and repayment responsibility are shared.

Similarly raising farmer's knowledge and awareness of markets and prices will be difficult to implement.The low literacy rates and the widely dispersed farming population make it difficult to spread information promptly and accurately.Product standards for both inputs and export products must also be developed to assist farmers to prepare and package goods in a way which enables them to access high value markets. This too will be difficult in the absence of any authority to set and maintain such standards.

Immediate Objective 2.3 Increase capital formation and investment UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, B.3 Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns and regions Approach: Savings increased and capital invested

Increasing the capital base at the household, community and national levels will be an important element in creating stability.It will mean more choice of action for those who manage farms or businesses and is a prerequisite to creating non -farm employment. Projects aimed at lifting technology levels and improving cash flow for the individual household or community, should always consider how these activities could contribute to increased savings and capital growth.

Its simplest form will be building -up working capital at the household and small business level.For the farmer, an increase in his cash savings will underpin his willingness to buy the quality seed and fertiliser necessary to achieve high productivity levels.It will increase his ability to afford tractor hire, or to buy a tractor and farm implements which will raise the efficiency of his own labour and allow him to get farm tasks done in a more timely manner.

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Beyond basic food production, additional funds would allow the family toinvest in other productive resources.Some beehives or an incubator and fertile eggs would havethe potential to add to the family food supply and generate cash income.Purchasing a set of tools may allow a son to develop skills and income as a mechanic, or somebasic equipment could allow women to preserve fruit and vegetables for thefamily or for sale.

Creating off -farm employment will require more than just family savings.It will need action at village or community level and up to regional level.It may be done by an entrepreneurial individual, or through some form of group approach.Whichever is the operating mode, there are a number of implications for how such developmentscould be stimulated and assisted. There arealsoa number of flow -on consequencesinownership and management to be taken into account. The options includecreating investment from bottom -up, with community backing, or from top -down with the ideasand funds from government or donor. Increasing the number of tractors, or building asmall fruit -processing factory may have more hope of sustainability if at least some of thecapital comes from within the beneficiary community.

Investments might include hygienic slaughterhouses for the larger towns,locally based tanneries to replace the export and re -import of skins and hides,wool processing, milk processing for local sale and local wood milling and processing inassociation with poplar tree agroforestry development. Production of biogas may also be auseful energy source for local processing, though the feasibility would need further technicalinvestigation.

Table 8. Project Concepts Immediate Objective 2.3 Increase capitalformation and investment No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target Group Time Period Linkages 2.3.1Improve ability to finance own input purchase 2.1, 3.1 .1Assist families to develop cash earning activities to increaseFarm families Short- to income and savings medium -term 2.2.3 .2Provide basic training on household cash management forFarm families Short- to both men and women medium -term3.1.11 .3Develop group credit schemes and provide managementVillage groupsShort- to 2.2.3 training for groups medium -term3.1.11 .4Establish input supply rolling funds to support purchase andAgencies /NGOsShort- to 2.2.3 sale of reliable quality inputs /Farmers medium -term 2.3.2Increased ownership of machinery 2.2.3 .1Assist the development of machinery pools for joint ownershipVillage groupsShort- to of tractors and specialised equipment medium -term3.2.2 -3 .2Facilitate individuals to establish machinery hire services Competent Short- to 2.3.2 farmers medium -term3.2 .3Encourage traders willing to import machinery and equipmentTraders Short- to 2.3.2 medium -term3.2 2.3.3Develop local investment in processing 2.3.1 .1Link locally -based schemes for small -scale investmentinVillage groups Short- to processing to development of extra output medium -term3.1.4 -5 3.1.7 -11 .2Develop larger -scale poultry production near towns and citiesCompetent Short- to farmers medium -term .3Develop locally -based livestock feed manufacture utilisingTrained Short- to 3.1.9 processing byproducts entrepreneurs medium -term .4Developfee -for -servicelaboratoriesin seed -testingandTrained Short- to 2.2.5 manufacture of vaccines entrepreneurs medium -term .5Provide basic management training for individuals and groupsVillage /district Short- to 3.1.11 involved in business management groups medium -term 2.3.4Develop regional investment in processing 2.2.3 .1Undertake feasibility studies for re- establishment of existing,Experienced Medium- to but non -functioning processing works businessmen long -term 2.2.7 .2Seek out joint venture partners to assist in re- establishment ofExperienced Medium- to 2.2.3 processing capacity businessmen long -term 2.2.7

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There are a number of former regionally -based processing activities which may be capable of rehabilitation and which would certainly generate significant employment. These include the fruit processing factory at Qandahar, the sugar beet farms and mill in Baghlan, the large olive grove and oil mill in Nangarhar and the cotton industry in Kunduz and Takhar. In some instancesit may be arguable that the initial investments were not economically justifiable.However, by treating the existing assets as sunk capital, they may well be economic at the marginal cost of refurbishment. They will provide a stimulus for regionally - based increase in agricultural production, especially in cotton and sugar beet and provide valuable byproducts in oil cake and sugar beet pulp to the livestock industry.

Smaller -scale investments are considered to be feasible in the medium -term.Larger -scale investments are likely to be restricted to the medium to long -term as they will require greater stability and civil order to ensure long -term certainty of return.

2.4.3Raising Skills and Employment

The objective of these interventions is to develop greater sustainable productivity and more employment in the agricultural sector by raising the skills and knowledge of the workforce. The problems are addressed at four levels:(i) raising the skills and knowledge of those working on the farms;(ii) developing skills training for people who provide services to agriculture; (iii) upgrading the skills and knowledge of those who have been trained but whose knowledge may be out of date or whose performance could be raised; and (iv) re- establishing a functional training capacity for the agricultural sector.

Immediate Objective 3.1 Raise the productivity and employment capacity of the farm workforce through increased skills and knowledge UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.2, B.3, B.4 Intervention level: Farm households, villages, towns and regions Approach: Farm employment increased by higher output and investment

The production interventions in development objectives 1 and 2 are directed at improving the food security and economic well -being of farm families by raising the standards of applied technology at farm level.To do this successfully requires those working on the farms to understand how the technical production processes work and why particular actions should be taken. As the objective is to raise both the quantity and quality of output, the understanding must go beyond just the production process and include concepts of quality and what steps are available to a producer to improve the market value of his output.

There are three groups at whom farm level training to raise understanding can be directed. These are the farmers, the young men and boys and the women and girls.Typically, an extension service would do this work and would concentrate on the farmer only.The current circumstances in Afghanistan, where there is no national extension service and few resources available for the task, provide the opportunity for some different approaches.

At the level of the farmer, the limited extension and training resources can be augmented by using the farmers themselves in the training process. The Farmers Field School concept uses leading farmers, after some instruction, as leaders by example and informal trainers of friends and neighbours. It is already being used as a training technique for integrated pest management and can readily be extended across a range of other technical areas. As the primary school system isstillrelatively functional, training could start with school age children.School teachers can be given basic instruction in agriculture and the children involved in learning -by -doing in the school, raising chickens, growing seedlings, tree planting, or other basic agricultural activities.School facilities can be used for adult education out of school hours.

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Table 9. Project Concepts Development Objective 3. Raising skills and employment No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target GroupTime Period Linkages 3.1 Immediate Objective 3.1 Raise productivity and employment capacity of the farm workforce .1Train trainers (school teachers) for provide basic informationSchool Short- to 3.3 on agriculture at primary school level teachers medium -term .2Develop and provide primary level instruction in basic farm School Short- to 1.3, 2.1 activities children medium -term .3Train women trainers to provide basic within -household Women Short- to 1.3, 2.1 information on agriculture trainers medium -term .4Develop and provide within -home instruction in production Women and Short - to 1.3, 2.1 activities, vegetables, animal care, poultry, honey girls medium -term .5Develop and provide within -household instruction in food Women and Short - to 1.3, 2.1 preparation, preservation and storage girls medium -term .6Develop farmers technical knowledge and skills through Farmers Short- to 1.3, 2.1 Farmers Field Schools medium -term .7Develop and provide instruction in home handicrafts to turn Farm familiesShort- to 1.3, 2.1, increased output into marketing and processing jobs medium -term 2.2, 3.1 .8Develop and provide training in fruit packing, including Farm familiesShort- to 2.1.1 -2 emphasis on quality standards for high quality markets medium -term .9Develop and provide training in the preparation of animal Farm familiesShort- to 2.1.3 feeds on commercial basis medium -term .10Develop and provide training in cash and farm business Farmers and Short- to 2.1.5, management for farmers and households families medium -term2.2.3 .11Develop and provide training in credit management and Farmers and Short- to 2.2.3, discipline for farmers and households families medium -term 2.3.1

3.2 Immediate Objective 3.2 Raise opportunities for off -farm

work through skills development and training , .1Develop linkages between agricultural technical projects andAgencies and Short- to 1.3, 2.1, training for support service jobs NGOs medium -term 2.2, 2.3 .2Develop training capacity for trades skills, mechanics, Agencies and Short- medium3.3 metalworking, woodworking and masonry NGOs term .3Develop and offer training courses in trades skills, mechanics,Young men Short- to 2.3.2, metal and woodworking, masonry medium -term 2.3.3 .4Develop and offer training in basic bookkeeping and businessYoung men Short- to 2.2, 2.3 records medium -term .5Develop and offer management training at various levels for Farmers /localShort- to 2.2, 2.3 individuals and communities leaders medium -term

3.3 Immediate Objective 3.3 Increase professional level performance, capacity and training .1Provide upgrade and refresher short- course training for Professionals/Short- to 1.3, All 2, professionals and paraprofessionals Paraprofs medium -termAll 3, All 4 .2Establish shorter paraprofessional training courses with Agencies and Short- to 1.3, All 2, ongoing upgrade training NGOs medium -term All 3, All 4 .3Conduct needs assessment for professional and Agencies and Medium- to All Object - paraprofessional employment and training NGOs long -term ives 4Needs assessment and rationalisation of university courses Agencies and Medium- to All Object - including out -source opportunities NGOs long -term ives .5Evaluate existing agricultural training institutions and developAgencies and Medium- to All Object - programme for reinstatement NGOs long -term ives .6Raise professional training /practice standards Professionals/Medium- to All Object - Paraprofs long -term ives

Women and girls should be given training in the hygienic handling and storage of food, food preservation, producing dairy products, growing vegetables, raising chickens, keepingbees and silkworms.They can learn skills which they can apply to increasing family income. These might include packing fruit and presenting items like honey in an attractive manner for sale or preparing silk and spinning and weaving, especially with cashmere. These domestic production efforts would need to be supported by external assistance in the supply of credit and the development of markets, especially beyond the district level.

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Immediate Objective 3.2 Raise the opportunities for off -farm work by increasing the productivity and employment capacityoftheagricultural servicesectorworkforcethroughincreasedskillsand knowledge UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.2, B.3, B.4 Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns and regions Approach: Develop suitable training modes, train trainers and restore training facilities

Small farm size often leads to under -employment in farm families.Where there are few work opportunities at the farm level, the aim should be to use the additional output generated by higher levels of productivity to generate employment in agricultural services.

One way to create employment is to assist in developing practical and specialised skills. Young men who can develop skillsinblacksmithing, metalworking, carpentry,basic mechanics or tanning and leather working, should be able to find regular specialised employment in larger villages or on a district basis.Already young women have been trained as Basic Veterinary Workers (BVWs) and are able to earn additional income providing veterinary services at village level.Increased demand for seed, fertiliser and agricultural chemicals will create scope for additional work in stocking and selling these goods.Inevitably the trader will need to know more about these inputs and how they are used, in order to stock the right items at the right time.

Projects which seek to raise farm output by technical interventions should consider the linkages to using increased skills of persons other than the farmer.Sons could train as professional drivers or mechanics to operate and care for a tractor or mechanical thresher Wives and daughters or disabled family members, could make fruit boxes in the home, or could learn to prepare dried fruit or to pickle and bottle vegetables.High school graduates could learn basic bookkeeping and assist expanding businesses to keep records.

Inall of these activities, formal or informal training will be important in developing the personal skills necessary for employment. A young person with no formal training or skills has few opportunities to earn a living, or to cope with the ever increasing demands of a technology driven world.In looking at the current situation in Afghanistan, the issues are what training to offer and how to deliver it.

The emphasis in all of these activities is on practical skills.Given the almost non -existent training resources, the direction should be on getting people started with a first foot on the employment ladder, rather than taking them through long training courses. Short bursts of training at local level would be one way to start.If training episodes are short, then the trainees should have the opportunity to continue with periodic updates or expansion of their knowledge. An essential element of training- for -work programmes should be that they not be allowed to operate in isolation from the work opportunity. As far as possible, they should be linked to other activities which will generate the jobs for which the training is appropriate.

Training opportunities in business management are needed at every level.This could be from the exceedingly basic management of household finances, to longer -term planning for those building an orchard business, or cash flow planning, credit and risk management for traders engaged in supplying inputs to farmers.It should include assisting small -scale entrepreneurs with planning cash flows and finance to establish a business, especially for value adding to agricultural products. Management education could include assistance to community groups to set up and manage a service or marketing cooperative, or the establishment of a community management committee for an irrigation scheme.

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Immediate Objective 3.3 Develop national professional and paraprofessionalcapacity for the agriculture sector and the capacity toprovide skills training and professional education in agriculture UNDP linkages: A.1, A.2, A.3, B.2, B.3, B.4 Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns and regions Approach: Develop suitable training modes, train trainers andrestore training facilities

Many experienced professionals have left the country andwillnot return. As a consequence there are not enough professionals inthe agricultural sector to provide all the services needed. Many of those currently involved in agriculturethrough NGOs have come from backgrounds other than agriculture. When the opportunitypresents, many can be expected to go back to their original discipline which will reducethe number of professionals in the agricultural sector from even its present low levels.

Education and training will be crucial to rebuilding technicalcapacity. However,itis necessary to recognise the reality that it will take along time to reinstate the former training institutions and to produce a steady output of well trained people.What is needed is an imaginative approach to short -term and interim solutions, whilethe long -term rebuilding of the institutional training base is reinstated.

The need is to get some form of professional and paraprofessionalcapacity in place and functioning.Because of the war and the lack of resources to carry onprofessional work, many have low morale and self- esteem. Updatingtheir professional skills will be important in improving motivation.Many of those who have been trained have been cutoff from outside ideas for years. A starting place for them will be someform of short -term refresher training to bridge the gap between existing and required knowledge,which may be either in- or out -of- country.International professional associations may be a source ofassistance in developing in- country professional associations and sponsoringrefresher training.

Emphasis should be on the practical aspects of training ratherthan theoretical and directed at getting professionals or paraprofessionals back into theworkforce. Training could include assistance to establish private practice (doctors, vets,engineers) where government work was lacking. The ranks of professionals could beaugmented more quickly by offering the chance for paraprofessionals to upgrade their knowledge.For instance, paravets could be trained as veterinarians, rather than taking five years totrain high school graduates.

Increasing the ranks of paraprofessionals could start with short- coursetraining for high school graduates rather than setting out on a three year course.Short -term courses should offer the chance of repeat and upgrade training over a period oftime, so as trainees gather on- the -job experience they could raise their capacityto perform.

In the short- to medium term, much can be achieved bysimple and relatively informal training through NGOs or other service providers.However, in the medium- to long term, the emphasis must be on reinstating national capacity to designand conduct effective skills development.Creating training programmes should start with a needsassessment for professional and paraprofessional employment and be built -up fromidentified needs in the potential trainee groups in the catchment of each institution.

A number of training facilities still exist in regional areas, but most arein severely run -down condition.There are universities or higher education institutionsstill operating in Kabul, Mazar- i- Sharif and Jalalabad, however their capacity and standardshave severely declined. Agricultural schools are available in various regions but the qualityvaries widely. Evaluation of these schools is required, with emphasis on the restoration ofquality in training.

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2.4.4Developing Natural Resource Management

Development Objective 4Develop and implement natural resource use and management policies for water, woodlands, forests and rangeland UNDP linkages A.1, B.1 Intervention level: Farms, villages, towns, regions and national Approach: Sustainable natural resource use systems

The key natural resource areas which require management are water, woodlands, forests and rangelands. As an almost universal rule, the management of such public resources requires an authority (government) which can act decisively on behalf of the public interest. This may not be possible on a national scale in Afghanistan for some time.There are however, some actions which can be taken on key public resource issues, even in the absence of an internationally recognised national government.In the main these would be built around community involvement in local management of resources, especially water, forest and rangeland management and a greater level of community responsibility for allocation and management of resource -use rights.

Immediate Objective 4.1 Improve the management of forest resources

The estimates of the TCP forestry specialist are that the often quoted figure for the area of natural forest of 1.88 million ha is not correct and that the actual area in 1996 is likely to be closer to 368,000 ha.In the eastern provinces with long -term forest resources, the cedar forests have been unsustainably logged by elites for rapid cash return, while the oak forests of the east and the pistachio forests of the north and west have been destroyed by the poor for fuelwood.It is estimated that at the current rate of exploitation, all natural forests could disappear within five years.

However, it is possible to consider that this rapid rate of devastation could be constrained within the short- to medium -term through action in joint forest management, mediated and managed by NGOs with external funding assistance.

This would involve establishing joint forest management projects with local communities, especially in the areas of high commercial forest potential such as Kunar, Paktia, Logar and Nangarhar, or pistachio forests in areas such as Badghis, Baghlan and Badakhshan. The emphasis would be on linking commercial benefits to communities inreturn for the communities taking joint responsibility for the management of forest areas in a manner which would contribute to the maintenance of soils and biodiversity and clean water flows. Already some NGOs have experience in such projects, but this work would be greatly enhanced through more specific international support.

In a number of areas the militias have been disarmed and there is a returning sense of stability.It may be possible to use these emerging conditions to encourage elements of the former militias to act as forest protection units, working as rangers and game wardens under the control of district or provincial level government.Such activities could be coordinated through the preparation of a National Forest Programme (NFP) with an accurate statistical base and an associated policy and strategic framework.Producing an NFP would require a specific preparatory project.

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Table 10. Project Concepts Development Objective 4. Natural Resource Management No Project Concepts by Immediate Objective Activity level Target-Group Time Period Linkages 4.1Immediate Objective 4.1 Improve the management of forest resources .1Prepare and establish Joint Forest Management projects withLocal Short- to 2.1.4, communities in commercial forest areas communities medium -term 3.1, 3.3 .2Undertake training for selected staff members of NGOs in NGOs/ Short -to 3.3 Joint Forest Management activities communities medium -term .3Identify and train former militia members to work as forest Communities Short- to 2.1.4, rangers and game wardens medium -term3.1, 3.3 .4Prepare National Forest Programme including the collection Agencies and Short- to Preparatory of accurate statistical information NGOs medium -term Project .5Undertake training for government staff at regional and Agencies, GovtMedium -term 3.3 provincial level in forest management activities and NGOs

4.2Immediate Objective 4.2 Improve the management of water resources Improve water management by valley .1Develop water rights and allocation system and provide Agencies and Short- to community -level training in the operation of the system NGOs medium -term .2Develop and provide community level training in better in -fieldCommunities Short- to water management practices medium -term .3Develop whole valley water management plans, at least at Agencies/ Medium -term regional level and discuss with communities communities .4Develop and implement inter -community consultation Agencies/ Medium -term mechanisms for water allocation along rivers communities Improve water management by river basin .5Develop river basin water management plans, at regional levelAgencies/ Medium- to and discuss with communities communities long -term .6Develop and implement inter -community consultation Agencies/ Medium- to mechanisms for water allocation between rivers communities long -term

4.3Immediate Objective 4.3 Improve rangeland management .1Develop and implement activities to limit the destruction of Nomad Short- to remnant vegetation in selected rangeland areas communities medium -term .2Develop and implement activities to restore and sustain the Local Medium -term condition of wetlands in selected rangeland areas communities .3Identify mined areas which are causing limitation of ability to Mine clearanceShort- to use rangelands and prioritise clearance activities teams /Nomadsmedium -term .4Identify and train former militia members to work as range Local Short- to managers and game wardens communities medium -term .5Develop and implement community consultation mechanismsNomad Medium- to with kuchi groups on rangeland management issues communities long -term

Immediate Objective 4.2 Improve the management of water resources

As off -riverirrigation schemes arereinstated,therewillneed tobe more orderly management of water between and within schemes along individual river systems, for each scheme to reach its potential.

The approaches involved are at two levels.In the short- to medium -term the task can be tackled at the local, district and provincial level. Water rights and allocation systems within one irrigation system, or between adjoining systems, would be developed in consultation with the communities involved.This would be accompanied by training in the underlying principles of allocation mechanisms and the operation of the agreed system. The mechanisms for inter -district coordination and dispute resolution could be tested initially in the District Development Project Plans (DDPP) currently being sponsored by UNDP.

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In the medium- to longer -term, water -use planning and allocation would be extended to the river basin level.As a prelude to government being able to take on this role,it would be appropriate for an international technical agency such as FAO to move up from- planning individual schemes, to whole valley and river basin water management planning. As the watersheds form important internal boundaries within Afghanistan, much of this broader- scale planning could be done on a regional basis.

Immediate Objective 4.3 Improve the management of rangeland resources

The issuesinrangeland management include mitigating the destruction of remnant vegetation in areas of over -use, the re- establishment of areas of native vegetation and the establishment, where appropriate, of fodder trees.Also included are the maintenance or restoration of wetlands and wildlife refuge areas and the training of range managers and game wardens. This work will need to be implemented in conjunction with local settled and nomadic communities.

The presence of land mines on rangeland areas has created the problem that while some is virtually unused, other areas are correspondingly over -used.This has led to considerable loss of the limited natural timber and shrub resources, especially in the semi -arid lands of the south and south -west.Limiting the destruction of the remnant vegetation is a vital issue, together with approaches to stabilise or restore the condition of wetlands and other areas of biodiversity.

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3. ISSUES

There are a number of significant policy issues which mustinfluence the extent and rate of rehabilitation or development of the agricultural sector.In the absence of government, the choice of options to deal with this policy vacuum islargely left to the individual agencies, whether UN or bilateral donor. There are a range of inter -agencyforums sponsored by the UN and others such as the Agency Coordinating Bodyfor Afghan Relief (ACBAR) which play some coordinating role.However, there are no formal mechanisms forarriving at a single policy position for the whole country and for allagencies.

A number of the most important topics are discussedbelow. Some of the concepts put forward are based on discussions at the AgriculturalStrategy Development Workshop held in Peshawar by the study team and attended by 56participants, including many Afghan nationals, from a range of UN agencies, NGOs andother interested parties. However, the conclusions and recommendations remain the responsibilityof the study team.

3.1 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

The struggle of the mujahideen against the invadingSoviet army has masked a more profound struggle in Afghanistan.This has been a struggle of ideas overwhat should constitute the State of Afghanistan and how it should begoverned.It has been a conflict of ideas about what should be the respective roles of thecentre and the outlying rural areas and towns and the rights and obligations of the peopleand the government to each other.

Since the first formation of a national government in1881, there has always been a tension between the central government and the people,especially those far from the centre of government. Afghanistan was, and in many parts stillis, a tribal society.Within a single national system, tribe and state represent two opposingmodes of organisation. The tribe sees ties of kinship and descent as the mostimportant basis for identity, political allegiance and behaviour. The state however, insists on loyaltyof all persons to a central authority, whatever their relationship to one another.The tribe is within the individual, the stateis external.While a state claims authority over societywithin a territory, a tribe claims authority over a group of people bound by kinship.

The early Emirs created a State by ruling throughlocal leaders.The individual owed allegiance to the local khan and only through him to theEmir. The individual belonged to the state through the tribe.In this form, the actions of a national governmentcould be seen in local terms. After the succession of Nadir Shahin 1929, successive governments set out to build a modern state. The process becameincreasingly dependent on technology and an educated elite to operate it.The consequence was that leadership moved awayfrom local khans to the technocrats and government movedfrom being local to being central. Between 1933 and 1972, the focus of the nationalgovernment moved away from a tribal society. By the time of the Daoud presidency, theperception was of a nation state which required loyalty direct from the people to the State.

The April 1978 revolution saw these changes reachtheir ultimate end.The PDPA government was based on the belief that the Stateembodied the people and could act in their name, without consultation. This was so totallyopposite to the personal /tribal view of the State, that the traditional element in societyrefused to accept a national government which claimed the right to take away their local andpersonal view of themselves. From this clash of perceptions came the local uprisings againstthe PDPA which led to them seeking help from the Soviet Union.This in turn generated the mujahideen militiasand ultimately the civil war which has devastated the country.Resolving the dispute between the centre and the periphery is one the necessary steps on theroad to peace in Afghanistan.

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The issue of devolution of power must be addressed when considering the structure of any future government.It will be particularly important to find the balance between national, regional and local levels of decision making and service delivery. The strategy is based on the view that regional and local are the levels which can most effectively relate to farmers' needs and that decision making and operational authority should be delegated to this level.

Identifying what services and functions are needed by the agricultural sector is clouded by the experience of the past.From the early 1960s onwards, governments played an increasingly interventionist role in agriculture.Farmers were assisted to take up new technology with fertiliser, farm machinery and credit provided at subsidised rates.The government operated state farms and provided machinery hire and irrigation maintenance services at less than cost.It also ran a large, but generally ineffective, extension service.

There are currently two opposing views as to what should be the future role of government in the agricultural sector.One is that the liberation of the government from its former interventions in the agricultural sector is a positive development and ensures efficiency and cost -effectiveness in the long -term. This view holds that the state should intervene as little as possible. The other view is that it was necessary for government to assist farmers to adopt new technology.Now they have lost everything because of the war, the need is more, not less.It is argued that the state should be strengthened, so that it can regain more or less its previous interventionist role and support functions.

The strategy approach isthatitisneither necessary nor appropriate for any future government to return to significant interventioninagricultural production. The former interventions were not particularly successful, nor were they sustainable,especially financially.For the future, state farm land can be leased or sold, provided care is taken to understand the local history of the land and any tribal associations it might have. Services such as maintenance of irrigation canals should be provided on a commercial basis.If there are sound reasons why some communities cannot afford the full cost, then these services should be subsidised in an open and transparent manner.Hiding such subsidies in unrealistically low charges only leads to services becoming increasingly ineffective.

If farmers are to have a regular supply of high technology inputs, then it must be profitable for traders to supply them. The role for government should be to facilitate the private sector providing inputs and services, not to compete with private traders.Government should ensure that the roads are open and safe, so that inputs can be delivered when they are needed and outputs sold profitably.Much more important than providing inputs,is for government to establish some degree of monitoring and control of the quality of imported vaccines,fertilisers and agriculturalchemicals. Government couldalsoenterinto international agreements to ensure that imported supplies of inputs are available and are not held up by border controls.

At the moment, many government employees are hostile to aid agencies and NGOs, as they see funds diverted away from government towards NGOs, or agencies doing their own implementation. There is a need to help existing government staff to understand the ways in which government could operate to strengthen the performance of the agricultural sector, rather than to control it. One important step in this educational process is to implement joint activities with existing government bodies. Some agencies, including the FAO Integrated Livestock project have already successfully established such joint projects.

Activities where government intervention would be appropriate are in making agricultural policy, the control and management of public goods such as water, forest and rangeland, facilitating exports and ensuring free trade access across borders.Also important are

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 34 - setting and monitoring quality standards, especially for agriculturalinputs, ea, seed testing and ensuring that fertilisers are true to label, and the gatheringand monitoring of agricultural statistics.Former governments attempted to undertake agriculturalresearch. Given the desperate deficit of trained manpower and financial resources,it would seem appropriate for the foreseeable future,for governments to concentrate theirlimited resources on adaptive research and the development ofpractical skills and training.

3.2 RESOURCE UTILISATION

The food supply and much of the national economic activity arecreated from a small resource base. The limit is said to be some 3.5million ha of irrigated land and maybe 4 million ha of rainfed land, of which only 1 million is used in any one yearfrom rotational and fallow constraints. With a population of 18 to 20 million, of whom 80 percent are involved in the agricultural sector, sustainable utilisation of land becomes ofcritical importance.

The war has impacted on two underlying issues which could affectthe use of agricultural land. In 1974 and again in1978, the Daoud and PDPA governments successively attempted land reform. The PDPA reforms were one of the contributing causesto the civil unrest after 1978.In both cases, the intention was to break -up large holdings todistribute to landless rural families. With the disappearance of government,there is scope for dispute as to which set of land ownership laws, pre -1974, post1974 or post -1978, are now valid and who owns at least some of the land. The land reforms alsoplaced restrictions on the intensive subdivision of small parcels of land among inheriting familymembers to maintain some degree of productive efficiency. The rapidpopulation growth which has accompanied the war may in future lead to pressure for excessive land subdivision.

In Afghanistan, the small area of agricultural land is viable becauseof irrigation.In most areas it is irrigation water, not land which is thelimiting resource. These limitations are the driving force behind the push for greater intensification of production.Increased output per unit of land and water resources can be achieved by the useof better quality seed of improved crop varieties, the availability of better quality fertiliser andinsecticides and the use of inputs at the appropriate time and use -rate.Intensification can also be achieved by improving the management of irrigation water to raise the reliabilityof production on land which is currently only partially or opportunistically irrigated.

Considerable emphasis is put by farmers on the unreliability ofirrigation water flows because of the temporary nature of diversion structures. However,the implied solution of building large -scale permanent structures may never be feasiblebecause of the potential damage from the high seasonal water flows.The alternative solution is to place more emphasis on what is done with the water once it is diverted.Current water use practices are often wasteful and little or no consideration isgiven by upstream users to the needs of downstream users within the same system.Ultimately water must be managed to better effect if agriculture is to survive and prosper. A start can be madeat the local level by raising awareness of the benefits to be gained from more efficient water usepractice.

One of the strongest elements of civil administration in Afghansociety is the role of the mirab, or water bailiff.This role seems to have survived the war virtually unscathedin all areas.The mirab is elected by the irrigators within a particular system.His authority is acknowledged and he allocates the water between the various farmsin the system. The training of mirabs, extension workers and farmers in groups would be auseful start to the process of improving within -system water management.However for that to be effective, there would need to be better community cohesion to implementimproved management of irrigation systems.That is, the whole community must recognise the needfor, and the benefits from, improved water management.

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Afghanistan is severely deficient in timber resources for construction, fuel and packaging for horticulture.During the war years unsustainable harvesting has occurred in oak forests by the poor for firewood and in cedar forests by elites for cash. Estimates of total forest area have been revised downwards from- 2 per cent of national land area under actual and degraded forest to less than 0.5 per cent of closed canopy forest and thisis rapidly declining. Sustainable management of the remaining resource is now an urgent matter.

3.3 CREATING CAPACITY

Professional technical capacity is at a low ebb in Afghanistan.Education and training will be crucial to capacity building, however the education sector has been severely affected by the war. Many senior professionars have left the country and will not return.While there was some training by NGOs during the war period, the cross -border education system of the war years was wholly unsustainable. At the community level, there are now indications of a willingness to be involved in basic education and in some instances, to pay for education as a private good.

There are not enough professional people in agriculture to provide all the services needed. Many of those currently involved in the agricultural sector have come from backgrounds other than agriculture. When the opportunity presents, they will go back to their original discipline which will reduce the corps of professionals in the agricultural sector.

Among the current problems of the education sector in Afghanistan are the considerable decline in the standard or quality of education.The educational institutions have been politicised. Elementary and secondary school education have declined markedly, so university entrants are of poor standard. The current graduates from university can hardly perform at the level of a high school graduate.Updating professional skills and improving self -esteem will be important in enhancing the motivation among the professional groups.

One starting point for rehabilitating professional and technical training capacity should be existing in- country institutions.The lack of transport and ethnic problems emphasise the need to concentrate on regional, rather than central institutions. These are still operating in Kabul, Mazar- i- Sharif and Jalalabad, however their capacity and standards continue to fall. They need help for their staff to regain contact with the outside world and tolift their technical standards.Agricultural schools are available in several regions, but the quality varies widely.Evaluation of these schools is required and reasons for variations in quality assessed. Emphasis should be on practical training in usable skills rather than theory.

Professionals will need intensive training to bridge the gap between existing and required knowledge.This could be short-term training outside the country, or assistance for in- country training. The international community, UN and other donors should provide in- country and outside training. NGOs could be utilised for in- country training with donor funds to strengthen the regional agricultural institutions and schools. A start must be made to build a corps of paraprofessionals or technicians through short-term training, which could be based on high school graduates.Curriculum should be designed so the graduates could become self -employed rather than just look for public sector employment. For example, this could be in running private nurseries, vegetable farms, or seed companies. Training needs to include business orientation, not just technical content.

Ways should be explored to develop and use professional associations to raise standards of professional competence and practice.The Regional Veterinary Service Associations (RVSA) are a good example of a mechanism which is enhancing professional capacity and

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 36 - responsibility.These are regionally -based voluntary organisations for veterinarians which aim to purchase medicines and other veterinary inputs on behalf of members.

Training the professional personnel required to rehabilitate and develop Afghan agriculture will be difficult and should be started as early as possible. An in -depth manpower studyof the existing capacity and quality in Afghanistan and the region, particularly Pakistan(at least those working in aid programs funded by international and bilateral agencies)would be a good start. Such a study should, beside technical qualifications, analyse the management qualities and innovative capabilities of the staff.The study should make recommendations on how to improve management qualifications and propose a suitable training program.

While thefirstpriorityincreating technical capacity must be on developing skilled manpower, the matter of technical infrastructure must not beoverlooked. Some projects (seed production, veterinary medicines) are selling internationally funded inputs tofarmers and using the sale proceeds to invest in additional capacity to support their programmes. The proceeds from the sale of quality declared seed are being used to fund thebuilding of seed stores, seed testing laboratories and to strategically locate seed cleaners aroundthe country. The sale proceeds of some veterinary medicines go into a rolling fund tomaintain stocks of medicines for veterinary clinics through the RVSAs.

Looking to the future, it is likely that there will be difficulties in transferring these assetsfrom international ownership to local ownership. The strategy takes the view that as ageneral rule, working assets such as tractors or seed cleaners will be more effectivelyused and better maintained in private hands, rather than with `public' ownership ormanagement. Apart from management by an international agency, assets which are purchasedwith donor funds could be leased to individual and then used on a fee for service basis.The most difficult matter is transferring the ownership of buildings on Government land, say a veterinary clinic which is being privatised.It may be possible to use long -term leases or some such arrangement to guarantee some security to the user.

3.4CREDIT

In a society which has lost most of its personal savings and assets, developing accessto credit is an important element to assisting growth.In particular, access to short-term credit is a key to assisting farmers take up high -cost inputs such as quality seed andfertiliser. Former governments recognised this. Access to seasonal credit was provided throughthe Afghanistan Fertiliser Company and the Agricultural Bank to assist farmers withsuch purchases. The system was cumbersome, with over 80 per cent of loans from the Agricultural Bank being less than US$200. These myriad of small loans were administered through the national extension service.Overall loan service history was not good with a general unfamiliarity with credit discipline being cited as a major cause.

In the absence of government and an enforceable legal code, resolving the credit issuewill need flexible and imaginative approaches. One prospect may be to operate throughNGOs at the district or provincial level.Such a body would start with credit pool funds provided through an agency or donor. These funds would be used to acquire suitable qualityseed and fertiliser which would be sold to farmers at publicly recognised prices andfinanced by the farmer taking out a loan from the fund. These loans could either be to individuals or groups (a village, or an extended family).When the crop is harvested, the NGO would purchase saleable output from the farmers and offset the value of the loan againstthese purchases. The purchased grain could then be shipped to a market such as Kabul and converted into cash, so that the cycle could be repeated.

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In this manner, the lender would have control over the quality of the inputs purchased and over the prompt repayment of the loan.Input purchase and the sale and delivery of the outputs could be done through selected local traders, thus encouraging capacity building. The important feature would be to keep it local so that administration and supervision was relatively simple and defaulters easily identified and managed. The NGO would be paid an administrative fee, perhaps with some bonus element representing the quality of the portfolio management and the percentage of debt recovery.From the outset the cost of credit would be put at a sufficient level to ensure thatalladministrative costs were recovered.Over time it may be possible to provide discounts for borrowers with a good credit history.

3.6 SUSTAINABILITY

One of the underlying concerns inall these issues, lack of government, poor resource utilisation, weak capacity and lack of credit, is whether these significant uncertainties are sufficient to render any gains made inrehabilitation and development interventions unsustainable.

The strategy takes the view that, subject to a strict proviso, they do not render potential interventions ineffective. The proviso being, that at all times interventions must be planned recognising that these limiting issues exist.For sustainability it is necessary at all times to ensure that the beneficiaries of any interventions are not left dependent on any of these weak or non -existent bases for their ongoing performance.

A succession of former governments boosted the use of improved seed and fertiliser through providing them at subsidised cost.They also provided services such as farm machinery and canal cleaning at subsidised rates, all of which were paid for by using money from one or another foreign source. After the foreign funds ran out, government maintained its range of services to the community by debauching the currency.Eventually everything collapsed and the community, including the farmers, were left with nothing.

The strategy is based on the view that on a long -term basis, inputs and services must be provided at real cost and that the market prices of farm outputs should properly reflect the cost of production. Subsidies must ultimately be paid for by someone.It is recognised that there may be particular circumstances in which farmers cannot afford the full cost of inputs. Agencies or donors who see fit to provide subsidised inputs should consider some form of transitional programmes over a period to cover the withdrawal of subsidies. Where there are particular reasons why farmers cannot pay the full cost, such as for returnees, then the subsidies should be open and transparent, so that all, including the farmer, can see the relationship between the cost being paid by the farmer and the real cost.

Apart from the corrosive effect of subsidies on the economics of production, the other element of international assistance whichispotentially affecting the sustainability of agriculture is food assistance. The evidence is clear that many areas of Afghanistan are now able to produce sufficient food for their own needs. Some evidence suggests that on a globalbasis,totalfood production now approximatestototalfood needs. Itis acknowledged that lack of freedom of transport means that the surplus areas are not directly linked to the areas of shortage, creating internal pockets of need. With the crisis phase past and the rehabilitation phase having made significant gains in re- establishing the population and reviving agriculture, it is now time to take a fresh look at who needs food aid and how such aid can be best directed for the long -term benefit of needy individuals and the country as a whole.

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4. IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 ACCURATE DATA

Probably the most serious forward planning issues for Afghan agriculture is the lack of meaningful data.Existing data is unreliable and often contradictory.Nobody knows with any degree of accuracy how many farmers there are, how much land they use, how much of what they produce, what inputs they use, or what marketable surpluses exist.The last official survey was 1978. Currently the most significant source of information is a series of reports of the Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan, which are based on data gathered through field surveys, the most recent of which was 1993. Much of-what they- report concerns the impact of the war on the agricultural sector. Since their last field survey, between 2 and 3 million refugees have returned and the agricultural situation has significantly improved.

There are two urgent needs. One is data which realistically represent the current situation across all elements of the Afghan agricultural sector so that sensible forward plans canbe made. The other is an accurate baseline survey from which to assess the cost - effectiveness of current and future interventions.In terms of activities to date, the baseline has been taken as empty fields and bombed out viltages.Clearly the UN -led rehabilitation assistance has achieved significant gains from this position. Little land now appears unused and rebuilding is proceeding apace. Already more quality declared seed is being used than was the case before 1979.Livestock numbers may well be back to pre -war levels and veterinary and extension support services to agriculture are covering significant areas. Proposals are made for a national agricultural survey as a matter of some urgency.

4.2 DELIVERING SERVICES

Services are currently delivered in the agricultural sector either directly by international agencies or by NGOs acting on behalf of the agencies or other donors.In agriculture and most other sectors, because of the emergency nature of the initial interventions, there were no baseline studies.The needs were obvious and urgent; agencies and NGOs provided services as and where they were thought to be needed. This led to considerable technical and geographic overlap.These overlaps are gradually being resolved, however many interventions continue without serious consideration of the impacts which are being created, or the fact that needs are changing. A greater degree of discipline amongagencies and donors to coordinate activities and services in the agriculture sector would be a significant advance. De- mining provides a good example of coordinated activity.Even though there are four implementing agencies, survey and planning activities are coordinatedand centralised.Some formal and informal coordination capacity exists through UNDP and bodies such as ACBAR, but no formal attempt appears to have been made to rationalise the delivery of services.

Some stand -alone service capacity for the agricultural sector has already been created. However, to date donors appear to have been unwilling to support institutional capacity building activities.In the agriculture sector the most needed services are availability of improved technical inputs (including seed, fertiliser, agricultural chemicals and veterinary medicines and services), quality control of inputs, extension services to raise farmers awareness and knowledge and short and long -term training capacity. Some advances are being made in developing the supply of inputs through the private sector; however there is much to be done in developing extension and training capacity.This is a prime area for coordinated activity between agencies, donors and NGOs.

One problem with using NGOs as service providers is the wide variation in their capability and capacity. Competitive bidding by NGOs to provide services may be one way of raising

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 39 - standards and increasing cost -effectiveness for lead agencies.This would certainly be feasible for infrastructure works such as irrigation, roads and water supplies, though it may be more difficult to apply to services such as training or extension. For competitive bidding, NGOs could be categorised according to staff levels and professional experience and a register of pre -qualified bidders (NGOs) established.

The prospect of more formal contracting -raises the problems that many agencies are currently locked into writing short-term contracts with implementing partners (IPs). To build up a strong and well trained staff, NGOs need greater long -term certainty of work. They consider that 1 -3 years contracts would better enable them to create the necessary capacity than the 6 month contracts which are currently the norm.Again thereis scope for coordinated activity between lead agencies, donors and NGOs to arrive at a workable result.

4.3 INPUT SUPPLY

In the absence of any government capacity, the communication of appropriate technology is being led by the international agencies and largely implemented by NGOs. Attempts are being made to have the supply of inputs taken up by the emerging private sector by identifying individual traders and encouraging them to develop a reliable supply base.At the same time, efforts are being made by the international agencies and NGOs to train these traders in the implications of variable quality on the effectiveness of inputs. Another possible approach would be to organise the supply of inputs through establishing farmers cooperatives to supply inputs, like the Indian cooperatives in Punjab.

The potential for more regular and reliable input supplies is directly linked to the possibility of credit to finance such purchases. The credit is needed by both traders and farmers. However, providing such credit is fraught with major practical difficulties.Imported fertiliser varies widely in price from time to time, depending on fluctuations in the value of the Afghani. Loans to farmers would be mostly in very small amounts, giving major problems in managing a loan portfolio.There is a general unfamiliarity with credit discipline and no functioning legal system to back up the lender's position.Notwithstanding these problems, itis possible to devise ways in which credit could be provided and managed.It would probably be best done at the local level, rather than national and linked to a system for the sale of outputs, to provide a chance of recovering short-term input loans at harvest.

4.4 RESEARCH

Agricultural research is typically the responsibility of government.This is not possible in Afghanistan, yet development cannot go on entirely unguidedina technical sense. Currently FAO as the lead UN agency in agriculture, conducts a range of selection and adaptive trial work for its crop improvement programme. Other trial work is carried out in connection with the crop protection and nursery improvement activities.This work is an essential part of maintaining the calibre of the various technical programmes. In the ongoing absence of a government with sufficient funds and capacity to conduct such research work, itis important that the international agencies should build -in funding and resources to ensure this basic research function continues.

In the event of a return to government -managed activity, the emphasis for the foreseeable future should be on adaptive, rather than fundamental research.Research programmes should be approached on the basis of maximising the awareness of appropriate work done elsewhere in the world and adapting the results for use in Afghanistan.

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4.5 EXTENSION AND TRAINING

With the emphasis in agriculture moving beyond re-establishing production, to raising the levels of applied technology, the need for extension capacityis increasing significantly.In the absence of a government extension service,various NGOs have developed the capacity to undertake extension activities. While thissituation is meeting a need, it has the problem that what is being delivered is uneven in calibreand location.

It must be expected that at least well into the medium-term,it will be the NGOs which provide the bulk of any extension activity.This situation points to the fact that there isreal scope for coordinated activity betweenlead agencies, donors and NGOs toformally develop joint activities in capacity building and front-line delivery of extension services. Proposals have been made for the inclusion of a formalextension element in the FAO Integrated Crop Project, but this will be more directed at capacitybuilding than delivery.

Making joint agency- donor -NGO activity work will require somechanges in approach.It will mean longer -term contracts for theNGOs so they can invest in the necessary manpower and in training their personnel. The NGOs will alsorequire transport and communications to back -up their field extension activities. In return for these more structuredfinancial commitments from agencies and donors, NGOs will need tosubmit themselves to more rigorous monitoring and evaluation, to ensure that they arefulfilling their obligations in the quality and quantity of service delivery. This may meanperformance related contracts, as well as the more typical oversight or monitoring ofactivities.

4.6MONITORING AND EVALUATION

To date, re- establishing families in empty villages andbring idle land into production has created visually obvious results for the effort and moneyspent. However, as the interventions become more diverse and technology dependent,ascertaining the results and benefits will become much more difficult.Increasingly projects will need to budget more resources and make more effort to establishbaselines and monitor outcomes more closely.

The need for accurate data across the agriculturalsector has been emphasised in the context of better planning of assistance. However,it will also be of increasing importance as a benchmark or baseline againstwhich to monitor the progress of individualprojects.In many districts, all the available land is nowback in production. The measure of successwill be the extent to which productivity per unit of land orirrigation water can be raised in an economically and technically sustainable manner. Yetmaking these assessments will not be possible unless the starting point is accurately known,which is not presently the case.

It is not uncommon to hear criticism of the performanceof some NGOs. At the same time however, it is not common to see examples of properlyplanned and structured performance monitoring of NGOs by lead agencies or donors.If the transition from a short-term, quick -fix approach to a longer -term development approach is tobe effective,itwill need to be accompanied by a more structured approach to monitoringthe performance of field -level implementation. Initial baseline surveys, performance -basedcontracts and mid -term and post project reviews, should all become astandard part of project implementation in the lead agency -donor -NGO partnership. Much of the initial surveyand progress review work could, indeed should, be a collaborative effort betweenthe various parties with the aim of improving the desired outcome, which is the delivery ofservices to the farming community.

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4.7 PROJECT OUTLINES

The AAS provides a time -based framework within which the rehabilitation and development of the Afghan agricultural sector can be implemented in an orderly and rational manner. Four development objectives have been identified to meet the overall strategy goal to make Afghanistan a self -reliant nation. These objectives are: (i) to assist in creating national food security; (ii) increasing economic and social development; (iii) raising the levels of skills and knowledge and thereby raise productivity and employment and (iv) protecting, on a long term basis, the scarce natural resources which underpin national agricultural output.

Since 1993 FAO has implemented on behalf of UNDP, the Integrated Livestock Project (AFG /93/002) and the Integrated Crop and Food Production Project (AFG /94/002).The structure of these projects reflects the 1993 UNDP Rehabilitation Strategy, where activities were grouped in technical areas.Their core activities have respectively been developing the on- ground delivery of animal health services and increasing livestock production and activities to increase food crop and horticultural production.

Proposals for the extension of these two umbrella projects have been circulated separately. They focus the ongoing activities on AAS Development Objectives 1 and 2.That is, the stabilisationof food production (Immediate Objective1.2),raisingthestandardof technology (Immediate Objective1.3) and increasing saleable production (Immediate Objective 2.1).The proposed activities include continuing assistance to improve animal health and production and increasing and stabilising commercial crop and horticultural production. All are indicated in Tables 4 -6 for Immediate Objectives 1.2, 1.3 and 2.1.

However, not all the activitiesin Tables 4 to 6 are taken up in the proposals for the extension of the umbrella projects.Accordingly, Annex 1 outlines 21 projects which fit in and around these major projects and which take up most of the gaps remaining in the project concepts proposed under Development Objectives 1 and 2.The projects are grouped as Agriculture and Farming Systems, Irrigation and Forestry and Agroforestry.

The Agriculture and Farming Systems projects cover essential data collection activities, together with preparatory and feasibility studies.Most important are the urgently needed gathering of current agricultural statistics, together with parallel work on the vulnerability and nutrition of the rural population.These are essential to the proper management of any ongoing assistance to the Afghan agricultural sector and are now seriously needed.

Also included in this group are two sets of studies which will prepare the way for various projects outlined in the Strategy.The first group are preliminary studies covering the establishment of a permanent agricultural statistical unit, possible programmes for rural women, an inventory of surviving processing facilities and prospects for increasing rainfed cereal production. A second set of feasibility studies are proposed, all of which would lead to strengthening activities under Development Objective 2.The ten proposed projects in this group are shown separately. However, there would be significant opportunities for cost savings and greater implementationefficiencyifthey were groupedintoasingle Coordinated Agricultural Development Preparatory Project.

The irrigation projects are directed at underpinning the food supply by improving the performance of irrigation systems. These are presented in stages and at several levels of financial commitment. All are directed at improving efficiency and productivity and all would have immediate linkages to the technical performance of the main umbrella projects. While there is limited specific mention of irrigation activities in the tables of Project Concepts, they are an integral part of all the proposed high technology food, fodder and horticultural crop activities under Development Objectives 1 and 2.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 42 -

The last group of projects relate to forestry and agroforestry and are designed to implement the tree -related activities proposed in Development Objectives 2 and 4. They are presented individually, but could equally well be grouped into a single forestry- related project, or be variously attached to appropriate parts of the existing crop and livestock projects. To reflect these mix/match options, most of the project proposals share common objectives and performance criteria.

The various project proposals are summarised in Table 11.

Table 11 Table Summary of proposed projects Proposed Project TimeframePeriod Cost yearsUS$'000 1.0 Agricultural Development Preparatory Projects 1.1 Agricultural Information 1.1.1 National Agricultural Survey Urgent 1.75 460 1.1.2 National Vulnerability and Nutrition Study Urgent 1.75 185 subtotal 645 1.2 Preparatory Studies 1.2.1Establishing an Agricultural Statistics Unit Short-term 2.00 450 1.2.2 Inventory of Agricultural Processing Facilities Short-term 0.25 45 1.2.3 Programmes for Rural Women Short-term 0.50 60 1.2.4 Development of Rainfed Cropping Short-term 0.50 65 subtotal 620 1.3 Feasibility Studies 1.3.1Rural Credit and Input Supply Short-term 0.50 65 1.3.2 Potato Development Programme Short -med 0.50 35 1.3.3 Agricultural and Horticultural Product Marketing and ProcessingShort-med 1.00 250 1.3.4 Marketing and Processing of Livestock Products Short-med 0.50 65 subtotal 415 Total Agriculture Development Preparatory Projects 1680

2.0 Irrigation Projects 2.1 Training 2.2.1 Training of Mirabs and Communities Short-term 2 850 2.2.1 Training of Farmers Groups Short-term 2 850 2.2.1 Training of Engineers and Technicians Short-term 2 1270 subtotal Training 2970 2.2 Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes 2.2.1 Maintenance of Traditional Irrigation Schemes Short-med 3 2850 2.2.1 Maintenance of Modern Irrigation Schemes Short-med 3 3895 subtotal Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes 6745 2.3 Rehabilitation of Irrigation Schemes 2.3.1 Small -scale Irrigation Schemes Short-med 3 1995 2.3.2 Medium -scale Irrigation Schemes Short-med 3 2495 2.3.3 Large -scale Irrigation Schemes Med -long 3 3810 subtotal Rehabilitation of Irrigation Schemes 8300 Total Irrigation Projects 18015

3.0 Forestry and Agroforestry Projects 3.1 Improvement in walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas Short-term 5 1890 3.2 Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and N2 fixing trees Short -term 5 1890 3.3 Poplar properties and processing Short -med 3 980 3.4 Afforestation in non -irrigated lands including rangelands Med -long 5 1890 3.5 Joint Forest Management Short-med 5 1890 3.6 National Forest Programme Short-med 1 500 Total Forestry Projects 9040

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy ANNEX 1.

PROJECT OUTLINES

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS 2

2.1 Agricultural Information 2 2.1.1 National Agricultural Survey 2 2.1.2 National Vulnerability and Nutrition Study 3 2.2 Preparatory Studies 4 2.2.1 Establishing an Agricultural Statistics Unit 4 2.2.2 Inventory of Agricultural Processing Facilities 5 2.2.3 Programmes for Rural Women 6 2.2.4 Development of Rainfed Cropping 7 2 3 Agricultural Development Feasibility Studies 8 2.3.1 Rural Credit and Input Supply 8 2.3.2 Potato Development Programme 9 2.3.3 Agricultural and Horticultural Product Marketing and Processing 10 2.3.4. Marketing and Processing of Livestock Products 12 3. IRRIGATION PROJECTS 13 3.1 Summary 13 3.2 Training 14 3.2.1 Training of Mirabs and Communities 14 3.2.2 Training of Farmer Groups 15 3.2.3 Training of Engineers and Technicians 16 3.3 Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes 17 3.4. Rehabilitation of Irrigation Schemes 18 4. FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY 19 4.1 Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas 19 4.2 Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees 20 4.3 Poplar properties and processing 21 4.4 Afforestation in non -irrigated lands including rangelands 22 4.5 Joint Forest Management 23 4.6 National Forest Programme 24

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1. INTRODUCTION

A series project outlines are presented in the fields of agriculture and farming systems, water resources and irrigation and forestry and agroforestry.All these proposals relate to activities under Development Objectives 1, 2 and 4 of the Agricultural Strategy. A larger group of short- to medium -term projects in the fields of livestock, crop production and horticulture related to these Development Objectives have been put forward under the extension of the current FAO Integrated Crop and Food Production and Livestock Projects.

The proposals under the heading of Agriculture -and Farming Systems are in three groups. The first two Zook to resolve the urgent problem of lack of accurate current data for planning purposes in the fields of agriculture and human nutrition. The data gathering is broadened to include an inventory of surviving processing facilities as a prelude to assessing the feasibility of their rehabilitation.Other preliminary studies include the development of programmes to assist rural women to develop self -reliance and the capacity to contribute to economic activity and an assessment of the technical issues involved in improving the productivity of rainfed crop production, as a significant potential source of surplus grain.

The feasibility studies would investigate the flow -on consequences of existing technical activities. These would include the provision of infrastructure and support mechanisms for the farm sector, such as input supply and credit, while another study would investigate improving potato production, which is a staple food crop in the higher altitude areas. Most importantly for the long -term, they would investigate how to develop commercially viable markets for the steadily increasing levels of crop and livestock output now being generated.

All the proposals have been presented as independent projects. However, most are interlinked and the coordination would be improved and efficiencies in the use of resources gained,if they were implemented under a single umbrella project. A Coordinated Preparatory Project for Agricultural Development in Afghanistan would have a duration of about two years and a combined cost of US$1.7 million.Such a project would contribute significantly to more accurate targeting and better project implementation across the whole spectrum of assistance to the agricultural sector.

The proposed irrigation projects relate to the short- to medium -term, that is,1 -3 years and out to 5 years. They are directed at low cost interventions and capacity building with the objective to rehabilitate crucial hydraulic structures to solve key problems of individual schemes and overcome bottlenecks of otherwise functioning schemes. The main components of are training, maintenance, and construction activities.In the medium- to longer -term the objective would be tosystematicallyrehabilitateindividualirrigation schemes in order to maximise water use through increase of the overall system efficiency. This would ultimately lead to the systematic rehabilitation of large irrigation schemes in an integrated manner, that is at watershed level, in order to optimise the sustainable use of water resources in priority watersheds as well as to safeguard national assets.

The proposed forestry and agroforestry projects are technically oriented. They are directed at issues which have mostly received little or no attention, yet which have the potential to significantly impact on the lives and economic well -being of individuals, communities and the nation. The projects look variously at improving the production of mulberry and walnut trees, developing commercial and semi -commercial poplar production and processing, and the afforestation of non -irrigated areas. Two projects seek to improve the knowledge of forest resources including the development of management plans for the remaining national forest resources and to implement forest management jointly with local communities.

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2. AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS

2.1 AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION

2.1.1National Agricultural Survey

One of the basic requirements for the design of national development programmeswill be reliable agricultural data.Therefore a comprehensive national agricultural survey will be required.The statistical data would have to meet international standards andshould be under the responsibility of the respective specialised UN agency (FAO), at the sametime involving local and regional capacities, such as the survey units of ACBAR or otherNGOs.

Objective: To provide accurate data for analysis and planning purposes onthe structure and numbers of the rural population, agricultural land management and utilisation, the non -land resources available to and used in agriculture, the productivity of the various farming systems and theoperation of agricultural markets.

Justification: The population and production data which is currently used for analysisand planning is out -of -date and in many instances, probably misleading. The two surveys on which greatest reliance is placed date from1991 and 1993. Both pre -date the major international rehabilitationefforts which have resulted from the 1993 UNDP Action Plan.The TCP team found that Afghan farmers have made significant gains in agricultural productionsince 1993, but itis not possible to quantify these gains with any degree of reliability on more than a localised scale. Given the size of the international commitment to Afghanistan, more effective targeting of assistance through better problem definition would more than justify the cost of a survey.

Duration: 1.75 years

Cost: US$ 460,000

Outputs: Comprehensive, reliable and detailed (provincial and district level)data on the agricultural sector in Afghanistan.Methodology and standards for the collection and publishing of agricultural statistics introduced.

Activities: Establish office and plan the survey (3 months); select and trainstaff (3 -5 months); conduct pilot data collection and analyse results (2months), conduct full -scale data collection (3 months), analyse results (6 -8months), publish findings (3 months). Involve local NGO's experienced in data collection and analysis.

Location: National (all provinces of Afghanistan).

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Agricultural Statistician (international) 9 person months (p /m) Agricultural Economist/Farming Systems Specialist (international)9 p/m Agronomist/Farming Systems Specialist (national) 12 p/m Data Processing Specialist (international) 4 p/m Local contracts with NGOs for data collection and data processing Transport and communication, publications

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2.1.2National Vulnerability and Nutrition Study

Rural poverty is apparent in Afghanistan. There have always been pockets of poverty in provinces such as Badakhshan, Bamyan and Ghor.These areas have extreme food deficiencies and which require special food security and other social programmes. However the overall food security picture seems not to be as desolate as it looked a few years ago. Carrying out a National Agricultural Survey would provide an opportunity to conduct a parallel study into the nutrition and hardship levels of the rural population and its subgroups.

Objective: To provide accurate data for analysis and planning purposes on the nutritional status of the rural population and to locate, identify and quantify those groups which are financially and /or nutritionally at risk and to develop strategies for mitigating their hardships.

Justification: Substantial poverty and hardship exist alongside the improving food production situation. The problem for the effective targeting of international assistance is that there is no up -to -date or accurate definition of who are the groups most seriously affected, how many are involved in the vulnerable groups and where they are.There are also problems arising from the reluctance of refugees to return to areas which were historically known as hardship locations. The major emphasis of assistance efforts to the agricultural sector since 1993 have been concentrated on increasing and stabilising the food supply at the household and villagelevel. The observation of the TCP team that food supply was no longer a threat in many areas, suggests that this emphasis should be widened to improve distribution and marketing to better balance food production and needs. These efforts could be assisted by the increasing stability and improving civil administration in many areas.

Duration: 1.75 years

Cost: US$ 185,000

Outputs: Comprehensive, reliable and detailed (provincial and district level) data identifying financially and nutritionally vulnerable groups and quantified proposals for meeting the needs of these groups.

Activities: Establish office and plan the survey (2 months); select and train staff (2 -4 months); conduct pilot data collection and analyse results (2 months), conduct full -scale data collection (3 months), analyse results (4 -6 months), publish findings (3 months).The Survey would be undertaken within the organisational framework of the Agricultural Survey.

Location: National

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Nutrition Specialist (international) 4 p/m Rural Sociologist/Farming Systems Specialist (international) 3 p/m Data Processing Specialist 2 p/m Local contracts with NGOs for data collection and data processing Transport and communication, publications

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2.2PREPARATORY STUDIES

2.2.1Establishing an Agricultural Statistics Unit

The conduct of a National Agricultural Survey provides the opportunitytolay the foundations for an organisation with suitably trained staff to continue the collectionof accurate data on a regular basis.It also provides the opportunity to identify a financing mechanism to sustain such an organisation.

Objective: To establish a sustainable organisational structure for the regular collection and dissemination of reliable agricultural statistical data and initiatedata collection.

Justification: The 18 years of civil war have left Afghanistan with a massive rehabilitation and reconstruction problem. For many years into the future therewill be a constant jobofIdentifyingpriorities and cost effectivesolutions as circumstances change. A key starting point for such work must be accurate and up -to -date statistics, which would be provided by such a unit.Some effortstocollect agricultural data have been made inthe past by international and NGOs. The experience gained will need to be taken into consideration.

Duration: 2 years

Cost: US$ 450,000

Outputs: An organisational structure or body (non -governmental and governmental) which can provide reliable and timely annual statistics on the structureand numbers of theruralpopulation,agriculturalland management and utilisation, the non -land resources available to and used in agriculture,the productivity of the various farming systems and the operation of agricultural markets.

Activities: Identify and establish a national network of data collection points which can collect, analyse and publish agricultural statistical data on aregular and structured basis.Identify and establish a financing mechanism to sustain such a network.

Location: National

Assumptions:The political and civil situation remains stable on a medium to long -term basis.

Inputs: International technical assistance for establishment and back -up, training, computing equipment, communications equipment and vehicles: Agricultural Statistician (international) 15 p/m Rural Sociologist/Farming Systems Specialist (international) 6 p/m Data Processing Specialist 3 p/m Local contracts with NGOs for data collection and data processing Transport and communication Publications

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2.2.2Inventory of Agricultural Processing Facilities

Objective: To review the operational status of the various existing agricultural product processing plants and draw up terms of reference for feasibility studies for the reinstatement of each plant.

Justification: Between 1973 and 1988 a number of facilities were built,by former governments to process a range of agricultural products in the principal production regions, notably cotton, fruit, sugar and olives.Production has ceased in all of these facilities and their operational status varies between almost usable to- having been stripped of all equipment.

Duration: 3 months

Cost: US$ 45,000

Outputs: An inventory of the equipment and operational status of the various existing agricultural product processing plants and terms of reference for feasibility studies for the reinstatement of each plant.

Activities: Visit each agricultural processing facility, prepare an inventory of plant and equipment, assess the degree to which the facility could be rehabilitated and prepare terms of reference for consultants to undertake a feasibility study for such rehabilitation.

Location: Qandahar (processed fruit), Baghlan (sugar beet), Takhar and Kunduz (cotton) and Nangarhar (olives)andotherplants where considered appropriate.

Assumptions:The political and civil situation remains stable on a medium to long -term basis to justify investment in large -scale processing.

Inputs: International specialists in the installation and operation of food processing plant and equipment and food industry economics: Socio /Economist (international) 1 p/m Food Processing Engineer (international) 2 p/m Local Expertise (Agriculture, Engineering) 2 p/m Transport

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2.2.3Programmes for Rural Women

Little is reported on the role of women in agriculture at present.Women and children participate in the farm work and in animal husbandry, the type of activity varies byregion. Women have little involvement in farm field work, except harvesting. They areinvolved in the processing of animal products and the production of handicrafts, but otherwisehave limited opportunities for economic activity.At the same time, the death, or permanent disablement of large numbers of men, have reduced the available farm labour force.

The Strategy proposes a number of activities aimed at raising the knowledge andskills of women to help them make a greater contribution to farm productivityand the economic well- being of households. FAO has started some training programmes for women invegetable production, basic animal health care and in poultry production.However, programmes for women face major implementation difficulties.The question of basic human rights for women in Afghanistan is one of the most crucial aspects for anylong term development programme.

Objective: To collect comprehensive information on the present role of rural women prepare a medium- and long -term programme for rural women.

Justification: War and migration have reduced the male population, leaving thefemale portion of the population as probably much more than fifty percent. Women constitute more that half of the potential rural labour force. Without involving women actively in the development process the success of any long -term programme will be questionable.

Duration: 6 months

Cost: US$ 50,000

Outputs: Report on the role of rural women in different sub -sectors and provincesof Afghanistan and prepare a project document for a medium and long -term development programme for rural women in different sub -sectors.

Activities: Undertake field visits and rapid appraisals of the situation of rural womenin representative areas of Afghanistan. Analyse findings and develop programme proposals. Present proposals to a Workshop anddiscuss with potential donors and implementing agencies.Prepare a project proposal. The study will be undertaken in close connection with the existing women's components of the Integrated Crop and Livestock Projects of FAO.

Location: National (selected zones with representative farming systems)

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: International and national female experts on rural women: Rural Sociologist (female, international) 3 p/m National Expert on Women (female) 2 p/m Workshop Transport and communication

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2.2.4Development of Rainfed Cropping

Objective: To undertake a feasibility study for the development of rainfed cropping areas in the North and prepare an outline of the technical issues involved in improving the productivity of rainfed crop production, as a potential source of surplus grain.

Justification: Rainfed cereal production is only a small part of the total production and could be considered as a lower priority than irrigated production in an agricultural strategy.However, the fact that most of this production is concentrated in the north, provides an opportunity to concentrate efforts of a strategy for the use of improved seeds for rainfed wheat and barley, mechanised farm power and improved agricultural techniques (increasing moisture and fertility in soils).

Duration: 6 months

Cost: US$ 65,000

Outputs: Feasibility study and draft project document.

Activities: Undertake field visits to the rainfed cropping areas.Undertake a rapid appraisal.Analyse findings and formulate a programme. Organise a workshop and present findings. The feasibility study will be undertaken in close collaboration with the existing Integrated Crop and Livestock Projects of FAO.

Location: Northern provinces with rainfed potentials.

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Dryland Agronomist (international) 2 p/m Agricultural Economist/Farming Systems Specialist (international) 2 p/m National Expert (Dryland Agronomist) 2 p/m Workshop, transport, communication.

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2.3 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT FEASIBILITY STUDIES

2.3.1 Rural Credit and Input Supply

During the Rapid Appraisal carried out by the TCP team in Sept/Oct 1996, farmers stated the need for fertiliser as one of their top problems, followed by a lack of improved seeds and plant protection measures.Some proposals have already been put forward in the supply of improved seeds and plant protection under the extension of the current FAO Integrated Crop and Food Production Project.However fertiliser supply and a supporting credit programmes have not yet been proposed. According to the farmers, the main issues regarding fertiliser were: there is no fertiliser available on the local market; there is only urea (white fertiliser) available but no DAP (grey fertiliser). fertiliser is available but it is not good (fake fertiliser from Pakistan is common); and farmers cannot afford fertiliser.

Objective: To undertake a feasibility and implementation study for the establishment of a fertiliser supply scheme with a rural credit support scheme attached.

Justification: One of the key issuesofagriculturalrecovery and developmentin Afghanistan is the availability and accessibility of agricultural inputs. Itis obvious that agricultural development will have to be linked with the use of fertiliser and rural credits.Fertiliser had been provided for a brief period as an emergency aid, however a sustainable fertiliser and respectivecredit programme has not yet been proposed. One of the reason was thealleged linkage between fertiliser use and poppy production.

Duration: 6 months

Cost: US$ 65,000

Outputs: Feasibility report and a draft project document.

Activities: Undertake a rapid appraisal on the potential and constraints for fertiliser use. Analyse and evaluate the possibility of a rural credit schemelinked to the purchase of agricultural inputs,in particular fertiliser.Analyse and evaluate the alleged linkage between afertiliser scheme and poppy production.Organise a workshop and present findings.Formulate a draft project document. The study will take into consideration previous Afghan experience with fertiliser and credit schemes. In the same context an assessment of the situation at the fertiliser plant in Mazar- i- Sharif will be undertaken. The feasibility study will work in close collaboration with the existing Integrated Crop Project of FAO.

Location: National

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Agronomist/Fertiliser Specialist (international) 2 p/m Rural Credit Specialist (international) 2 p/m National Resource Person 2 p/m Workshop, Transport and Communication

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2.3.2Potato Development Programme

Potatoes are consumed in large quantities in Afghanistan and produced mainly in the higher altitude farming systems.About 30 per cent of all farmers interviewed in 1991 grew potatoes.The high number of farmers growing potatoes in most of the farming systems reviewed has been confirmed during the Rapid Appraisal.Maydan Shar is a centre for potato production and is the main supplier of potatoes to Kabul. Also in Qara Bagh a large number (70 -80 per cent) of farmers reported growing potatoes. Yields vary significantly.In 1991 yields of 22.7 tonnes /ha were reported from Maydan Shar and 10.5 tonnes /ha from Qara Bagh. During the Rapid Appraisal in 1996 average yields of only 9.2 tonnes /ha were reported.

The reason why potato yields are failing can be found in poor crop rotations resulting in the reduction of soil fertility, while at the same time fertiliser is not applied. The second reason is that growing potatoes repeatedly on the same land results in the build -up of disease.In short, the consequence of continuous potato monoculture is the building up of soil -born diseases and reduction in soil fertility and structure.

Objective: To design a programme to bring about a sustainable increase inthe productivity and performance of potato production in Afghanistan.

Justification: The introduction of improved varieties and appropriate cultural practices may produce yields up to 30 tonnes /ha. There is probably a great potential for developing this crop in Maydan Shar and similar areas.

Duration: 6 months

Cost: US$ 35,000

Outputs: Feasibility study and project document.

Activities Undertake a rapid appraisal in the major potato growing areas.Identify potential and constraints. Analyse and evaluateresults. Design a programme.Organise a workshop and discuss findings.The feasibility study will be undertaken in close collaboration with the existing Integrated Crop Project of FAO.

Location: Selected major potato growing areas, such as Maydan Shar, Qara Bagh, etc.

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Potato Specialist (international) 2 p/m Local Resource Person 2 p/m Workshop, Transport and Communication

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2.3.3Agricultural and Horticultural Product Marketing and Processing

Horticultural crops can be found to a varying degree in almost all foodproducing areas of Afghanistan. Some typical examples are found in Arghandab (pomegranates,apricots and vines), Nejrab (vines), Maydan Shar (apples) and Qara Bagh (vines).Almonds are an important horticultural cash crop.Important areas of almond production can be foundin Qalat district (Zabul) and in Baghlan province.

Fruits and vines growing in seven districts in 1991 Farming Fruit trees in production Vines in production System per cent of Av. no. per cent of Av. no. farmers of trees farmers of vines Shulgara 8 36 2 50 Nejrab 79 13 49 26 Mehterlam 0 0 0 0 Maydan Shar 73 155 0 0 Qara Bagh 11 38 28 681 Nad Ali 22 70 22 242 Arghandab 87 402 high (no data)high (no data)

Drying of grapes (raisins) and apricots are important economicactivities in the horticultural areas. Drying of fruits for export markets as well asprocessing of fresh fruit (juices, canned fruit, jams and marmalade) have great potential to underpinhorticulture development in Afghanistan. This economic potential could be made effective at anumber of levels.This could be at the farm household level, the local community level, or on aregional industry level, at different levels of investment.It appears that at present, the farm household level is the best starting point. A number of modern processing facilities,like the Fruit Processing Factory in Qandahar are currently out of operation.Specific feasibility studies on food processing, handling and marketing will be required prior toreviving such industries. (see Project 2.2.2)

Cotton, opium poppy, sugarcane and linseed are the mainindustrial crops. Cotton is produced on a large acreage in Nad Ali.It is also produced in Shulgara (Balkh), Baghlan and Kunduz.It appears that processing cotton inside the country hastotally stopped. A feasibility study is necessary to understand the present constraints.

Sugarcane is produced by a small percentage of farmers on smallplots in Mehterlam and generally in the low lying warmer areas around Jalalabad.Irrigated sugar beet was produced on a large scale in Baghlan province in the 1970sand 1980s. However, production has ceased due to the war. The sugar factory still existsand its machinery has been preserved by the previous staff.At present, all the considerable volume of sugar consumed in Afghanistan is imported. A technical and economicalfeasibility study is be required to obtain more data about the potential for, andconstraints to, sugar production from sugar beet in the province.

Large irrigated olive groves were established on a state farmin Nangarhar ( Jalalabad). Around 10,000 hectares with approximately 5,000,000 olive trees areat present lying idle and neglected. The big olive factory in Jalalabad can produce olive conserves aswell as olive oil.It is in good condition and well maintained by the formerstaff.It appears that the main problem is the question of ownership of the previous statefarm. A feasibility study is necessary to analyse the technical and economicalprospects of the olive groves.It would also have to look into the problem of land ownership and theprivatisation of the plantation and the olive factory.

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Objective: To assist in the recovery and development of agricultural and horticultural product marketing and processing. To prepare appropriate feasibility and implementation studies under the TOR prepared under project 2.2.2.

Justification: Horticulture has great potential in the process of achieving national self- reliance.Fruit, dried fruit and nuts as well as olives and olive oil, sugar and cotton are high value crops and have good markets.The strong linkage between production, processing, packing, transport and marketing provides opportunitiesfordiversificationandtogenerateincomeand new employment. Itisanticipated thatinthe medium and long -term the horticulture sector will play an important role for the social and economic development in areas with horticulture -based farming systems.

A horticulturedevelopment programme should be based onprivate entrepreneurship and a minimum involvement of state structures.Its short and medium termobjective wouldbe,torehabilitateand develop horticulture based farming systems to pre -war levels and beyond.

An inventory of surviving processing facilities will serve as a prelude to undertaking the respective feasibility studies.Based on the inventory and the TOR's elaborated the job discretion for the various feasibility studies can be finalised.

Duration: 12 months

Cost: US$ 250,000

Outputs: At least five feasibility and implementation studies including draft project proposals in following fields: - Processing, packing and marketing of horticultural crops - Rehabilitation of fruit processing factory in Qandahar - Sugar beet cultivation and processing in Baghlan - Olive production and processing in Nangarhar - Cotton and cotton processing in Takhar and Kunduz

Activities: Finalise Task Description on the basisof findingsof theinventory. Undertake field visits to the respective sites.Undertake rapid appraisals. Analyse and evaluate data.Organise workshop and discuss findings. Prepare draft project document.

Location: Five to eight selected sites.

Assumptions:The political and civilsituation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: International Consultants in Food Processing, Engineering, Marketing and Packing. 12 p/m National Consultants in the same fields. 12 p/m 6 Workshops (different regions and industries) Transport and Communication

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2.3.4. Marketing and Processing of Livestock Products

Livestock are well integrated into the farming systems. They are keptfor the production of meat, milk and milk products, wool, hides and fat.Poultry is raised, but production is limited to providing eggs and meat for the family only.Yoghurt, white cheese, dried buttermilk (qurut) are important products providing income to the farm.Milk and milk products are not sold, but form a valuable part of the farm family diet. Some typicallivestock products are:

Farm System Products Market /Home consumption Shulgara Karakul pelts, wool, gee, sheep qurut. Products are marketed Nejrab White cheese, wool and skins from sheep and Products are marketed, mainly in goats. Kabul. Mehterlam Wool, hides, fat, milk products, Gonapal cheese,Products are marketed dried mutton. Maydan Shar Cheese, cream, yoghurt, butter, qurut, dough. Only for home consumption Qara Bagh Skins, wool, gee, qurut, Chaka cheese; skins of Products are marketed. Skins sheep, goats, wolves, foxes and wild cats, and furs are also exported to handicrafts from wool: rugs, carpets, jackets, etc.Pakistan Nad Ali gee, wool, qurut, furs and skins Products are marketed Arghandab Livestock products Only home consumption

Objective: To identify present potentials and constraints of the most importantlivestock products and develop project proposals for the processing andmarketing of livestock products.

Justification: The diverse range of livestock products provide additional incomeand make a contribution to the stability of the farming systems.Some of the products like, hides and skins, used to be an important export commodityThe whole subsector has a potential for development and income generation.It also provides some good opportunities for gender oriented projects.

Cost: US$ 65,000

Duration: 6 months

Outputs: Feasibility study on potentials and constraints of processing andmarketing of livestock products.Draft pilot project proposals for the development of the most relevant livestock products.

Activities: Undertake a rapid appraisal of constraints and potentials of processingand marketing in selected representative zones.The project will intensively collaborate with the existing Livestock project.Activities will also be coordinated with the Rural Women's Programme. Undertake aworkshop to present and discuss findings relevant agencies.

Location: National (selected zones with representative farming systems)

Assumptions:The political and civil situation remains stable,particularly through the period of data collection.

Inputs: Livestock Specialist/ Milk and milk products (international) 2 p/m Specialist for the processing and marketing of wool, hides and skins2 p/m National expertise 2 p/m Workshop, transport and communication

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3. IRRIGATION PROJECTS

3.1 SUMMARY

One of the most important immediate objectives established in the Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy (AAS) is`to increase agricultural output', and more specifically, 'to make more efficient use of irrigation wafer' (Objective 1.3.3) through:

the development of community concepts of water use efficiency and the training of mirabs (farmers /communities /mirabs), the support of mirabs with extension activities (mirabs), and the commencement of effective irrigation planning at individual system level on a regional basis (implementing agency /government).

Furthermore, short- and medium -term objectives with regard to the rehabilitation and maintenance of irrigation schemes have been identified in Section 5.2.2 of the Water Resources and Irrigation Report as follows:

the rehabilitation of crucial hydraulic structures in order to solve key problems and overcome bottle -necks of otherwise functioning irrigation systems, and the systematic rehabilitation of individual irrigation schemes in order to maximise water use through increasing overall system efficiency.

The activities required to meet these objectives have been summarised in Chap. 5.2.2 under (i), a short -term programme (1997 -1999) called `Low Cost Interventions and Capacity Building', and(ii),a medium -term programme (1997 -2001) called`IndividualIrrigation Scheme Rehabilitation', both programmes recommended to be part of a `National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme'. The project outlines summarised below are outlined in more detail on the following pages. They are an integral part of the AAS and the recommended strategy in the irrigation sub -sector.

Table 1. Summary of Irrigation Projects Project Project Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot.Cost Category Target years % of year months US$'000 US$'000 Training Mirabs and 2 0.33 10 600 850 Communities Farmer 2 0.33 10 600 850 Groups Engineers & 2 0.33 18 900 1,270 Technicians Maintenance Traditional 3 0.5 15 2,400 2,850 Irri.Schemes `Modern' 3 0.5 18 3,400 3,895 Irri.Schemes Rehabilitation Small -Scale 3 0.5 18 1,500 1,995 Irri.Schemes Med. -Scale 3 0.5 18 2,000 2,495 Irri.Schemes Large -Scale 3 1.0 24 3,000 3,810 Irri.Schemes

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3.2 TRAINING

(US$ 1.5 million per year = US$ 3.0 million)

3.2.1 Training of Mirabs and Communities

Project Project Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot.Cost Category Target years % of year months US$'000 US$'000 Training Mirabs aid 2 0.33 10 600 850 Communities Farmer 2 0.33 10 600 850 Groups Engineers & 2 0.33 18 900 1,270 Technicians

Cost: US$ 850,000

Duration: 2 years

Objective: Develop community concepts of water use efficiency and support mirabs with extension activities.

Justification:The mirabs (waterbailiffs)incooperationwithvakils(lawyers)have guaranteed for centuries that irrigation water is distributed efficiently and that irrigation schemes are maintained regularly. This cooperation having been thebasisforcommunalactivitieswithregardtoirrigationsystem management has been interrupted by the war and is only gradually being re- established at present, however under difficult conditions, as the war has brought about changers in the original water distribution network.

Outputs: Mirabs have re- established their authority within the village communities, and both, the mirabs and the communities manage their traditionalirrigation systems efficiently.

Activities: On -site training sessions with mirabs, vakils and representatives from the communities.

Locations: Firstly, selected irrigation schemes which do not require major rehabilitation works, and secondly, schemes which are under rehabilitation, both situated all over the country.

Assumptions: Communities have identified capable mirabs, agree on a suitable concept of water use, and accept the extension activities proposed.

Inputs: One Senior technical Adviser (STA) part -time (equivalent to one third of full time) supported by short -term consultants (10 months) and sub -contracted NGOs to conduct field -level training.

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3.2.2Training of Farmer Groups

Project Project Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot.Cost Category Target years % of year months US$'000 US$'000 Training Mirabs and 2 0.33 10 600 850 Communities

Farmer 2 ' 0.33 10 600 850 Groups Engineers & 2 0.33 18 900 1,270 Technicians

Cost: US$ 850,000

Duration: 2 years

Objective: Improve on -farm water management in as well as maintenance and operation of irrigation schemes.

Justification:Farmers in general, and resettled farmers as well as internally displaced farmers in particular, have not sufficient means to cope with the changes having taken place on their irrigated fields during the last 10 years. Their is a whole range of measures to be applied to on -farm water distribution once the farmers are aware of them and re- organise themselves on the basis of their traditional system operation rules.

Outputs: Farmers make efficient use of irrigation water and maintain their irrigation system under the traditional Mirab /Vakil system.

Activities: On -site training sessions with farmers and Mirabs.

Locations: Firstly, selected irrigation schemes which do not require major rehabilitation works; secondly, irrigation schemes where the Mirab /Vakil system is already re- established; and thirdly, irrigation systems where other projects provide assistance in crop production.

Assumptions: Farmers agree on a suitable concept of water use and accept the necessary changes proposed.

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3.2.3Training of Engineers and Technicians

Project Project- Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot. Cost Category Target years % of year months US$'000 US 'QU0 Training Mirabs and 2 0.33 10 600 850 Communities Farmer 2 0.33 10 600 850 - Groups Engineers & 2 0 33 18 900 1,270 Technicians

Cost: US$ 1,270,000

Duration: 2 years

Objective: To provide local expertise for the proper design, rehabilitation, reconstruction, operation and maintenance of irrigation systems.

Justification:Afghan professionals and technicians have had no possibility to upgrade their knowledge during the last 8 years as all former training institutions in the country were closed down. This has resulted in a lack of professionalism in all major subjects of the irrigation sub -sector.

Outputs: A substantial number of engineers and technicians from government institutions, NGOs and the private sector are capable of participating in the National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme.

Activities: Identification and assessment of professionals and technicians as well as of suitableuniversityinstitutes andagriculturalschools;development of curricula; training courses; training -on -the job, and integration of trained professionals and technicians in on -going or planned irrigation rehabilitation projects.

Locations: UniversitiesinKabul, Mazar -i- Sharif and Jalalabad, andinagricultural schools as identified; possibly also in Peshawar.

Assumptions: Adequate offices at universities and agricultural schools are available and can be equipped for the conduction of training courses.

Inputs: One Senior technical Adviser (STA) part-time (equivalent to one third of full time) supported by short-term consultants (10 months) and sub -contracted NGOs to conduct field -level training.

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3.3 MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

US$ 2.25 million per year = US$ 6.75 million

Project Project Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot.Cost Category Target years % of year months US$'000 US$'000 Maintenance Traditional 3 05.... 15 2,400 2,850 Irrí.Schernes 'Modern' 3 0.5 18 3,400 3,895 ' inni Schemes

Cost: US$ 2,850,000 (traditional schemes) and US$ 3,895,000 (modern schemes)

Duration: 3 years

Objective: To increase overall system efficiency of traditional irrigation schemes and protect irrigable land against floods.

Justification:Traditional as well as "modern" irrigation schemes are suffering from lack of maintenance due to the long absence of the farmers during the war. Physical changes of irrigation infrastructure (sedimentation of intakes, destructions by floods, change of river course) cannot be coped with by the traditional (labour only) annual maintenance works. Particularly in traditional irrigation schemes supplied by temporary intakes, machinery is required to maintain the water supply to the system. In modern irrigation schemes supplied by permanent intakes in most cases damaged by floods, the permanent intakes have to be relocated and replaced by temporary intakes requiring the same maintenance measures as it is the case in traditional systems.

Outputs: Maintenance units are established, guarantee a reliableirrigation water supply and protect the irrigation schemes against further destruction by floods.

Activities: Identificationofirrigation schemes tobe maintained, assessment and purchase of required machinery, training of operation staff, supervision of maintenance, and evaluation of performance of the maintenance units to be established as private enterprises run by individuals or NGOs.

Locations: Selected irrigation schemes situatedall over the country which can be monitored closely (and supplied with spare parts) from the five regional centres.

Assumptions:The Mirab /Vakil system is established and farmers have participated - or are participating - in on -farm water management training.

Inputs: One STA half -time supported by short-term consultants (15 months for traditional schemes and 18 months for modern schemes, respectively) and sub -contracted NGOs to implement field maintenance and construction works. Bulldozers, trucks and tools according to the size of the irrigation system to be maintained.

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3.4.REHABILITATION OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

US$ 2.77 million per year = US$ 8.3 million

Project Project Duration STA Consult. Sub -Contr. Tot.Cost Category Target years % of year months [1,000US$][1,000US$] Rehabilitation Small -Scale 3 0,5 18 1,500 1,995 Irre Schemes Med. -Scale 3 0 5 18 2,000 2,495 Irrí Schemes Large -Scale 3 1.0 24 3,000 3,810 lrri.Schemes .

Cost: US$ 1,995,000 (small -scale irrigation schemes) US$ 2,495,000 (medium -scale irrigation schemes) US$ 3,810,000 (large -scale irrigation schemes)

Duration: 3 years

Objective: To reconstruct crucial hydraulic structures in traditional irrigation schemes in order tosolve key problems and overcome bottle -necksinotherwise functioning irrigation systems, and to systematically rehabilitate individual traditional irrigation schemes in order to maximise water use through increase of the overall system efficiency.

Justification:Many irrigation system components are out of order and do not allow the farmers to make full use of the resources they dispose of.

Outputs: Irrigation schemes vital for the supply of large settlements with staple food are rehabilitated and managed well.

Activities: Identification of irrigation schemes, irrigation system analysis and natural resources analyses in the corresponding watershed, assessmentof required rehabilitation works, implementation of construction works, and system performance evaluation after rehabilitation.

Locations: Selected irrigation schemes situatedallover the country which supply regional rural centres or urban centres with agricultural produces.

Assumptions: The Mirab /Vakil system is established and farmers have participated - or are participating - in on -farm water management training.

Inputs: One STA half -time supported by short -term consultants (15 months for small - and medium scale schemes); one STA full -time supported by short -term consultants (18 months) for large -scale schemes)and sub -contracted NGOs to implement field maintenance and construction works. Bulldozers, trucks and tools according to the rehabilitation works required.

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4. FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY

4.1 IMPROVEMENT OF WALNUT AND MULBERRY IN IRRIGATED AREAS

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Objective: To increase the profitability of Afghan tree based businesses in a manner cognisant of the needs of social equity and economic development, in a way that contributes to the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity.

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems. 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family. 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion, food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: Food security and profitability of silvoarable silvopastoral and home garden systems involving walnut and mulberry improved. Mulberry is probably the most popular tree in Afghanistan.Walnut is commonly found in upland areas.Both trees have been identified as having high potential for improvement. Walnut precocity and yield can be improved by the importation or local development of grafted trees. Mulberry could be improved by selection and the use of dwarfing rootstocks.Both trees produced valuable dried produce of high cash and food value. The yield of agroforestry can be significantly improved by optimising spatial arrangement form and phenology of trees.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Improved varieties of walnut that fruit within 3 years 2. Improved named varieties of mulberry eg Shahtoot on dwarfing rootstock for ease of harvesting. 3. Profitability of 500 nurseries improved by the sale of improved trees. 4. Profitability of 50 farms improved by optimized agroforestry.

Location and Activities: 1. Collection and propagation at nucleus nurseries 2. Establishment of private nurseries with associated training 3. Farm economic and biodiversity baseline survey 4. Investigation of wood an fodder byproducts 5. Research on optimum agroforestry configurations 6. Market study for walnuts and mulberries as fresh and processed goods 7. Study on suitability of black mulberry leaves for silkworm rearing 8, Study on Morus species and varieties found in Afghanistan with taxonomic key

Assumptions: Market continues for walnut and mulberry Farmers and nurseries accept improved varieties

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

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4.2 AGROFORESTRY IN IRRIGATED AREAS WITH POPLAR AND NITROGENFIXING TREES

Cost: $1.89m Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion,food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: Food security and profitability of silvoarable silvopastoral and home gardensystems involving poplar and nitrogen fixing trees improved. Poplar is the mostvaluable fast growing multipurpose tree in Afghanistan.Nigra is an important construction timber whereas deltoides is valuable for small poles and for fruit boxes.Deltoides could eventually be used for match production. The inclusion of fast growingnitrogen fixing trees such as Robinia, Gleditsia, Leucaena and Gliricidia in the correctagroclimatic zone could provide valuable products for sale or farm useand material for improving the organic matter and N content of soils.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Improved varieties (first 3 years growth rate) of poplar characterizedand propagated 2. Species site interactions for N fixing trees identified 3. Paulownia compared as a poplar substitute on nucleus nurseries 4. Profitability of 500 nurseries improved by the sale of improved trees 5. 50 windbreaks established and benefits measured 6. Profitability of 50 farms improved by optimized agroforestry.

Location and Activities: 1. Collection and propagation of key material at nucleus nurseries 2. Establishment of private nurseries with associated training 3. Farm economic and biodiversity survey and intervention 4. Investigation of fodder and soil enrichment byproducts 5. Research on optimum agroforestry configurations 6. Assessment of the practicality and efficacy of soil improvement by the use oftrees compared to herbaceous methods. 7. Study on the potential for agroforestry on government schemes egNADA/HVIS 8. Study on agroforestry potential for river island development

Assumptions: 1. N fixing trees produce saleable products 2. Boundary and dehra land sufficient to feed the arable crop with Nrequirements as alley cropping not thought to be feasible on field sizes less than 0.5 ha. Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

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4.3POPLAR PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING

Cost: $0.98m

Duration: 3 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Project Purpose and Justification: Profitability and number of construction, tool handle and fruit box industries increased The current use and conversion of poplar is very inefficient.The wrong species varieties sizes of feedstock are used. The conversion is poor eg fruit boxes should be made from peeled not sawn timber.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Timber quality of all key clones and species identified 2. Optimum spacing pruning and thinning regimes outlined 3. 50 small scale cottage industries developed with emphasis on the employment of women 4. New products developed 5. Use of waste materials identified 6. Updated version of Tandon (1984) poplar manual produced and used in training courses

Location and Activities: 1. Kabul Jelalabad and Khost 2. Timber technology trials 3. Industry survey

Assumptions: 1. Poplar packing materials more efficient than cardboard 2. Local grown poplar cheaper than imports from Peshawar

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with woodworker and NGO subcontracts.

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4.4AFFORESTATION IN NON -IRRIGATED LANDS INCLUDING RANGELANDS

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase in capital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: Sustainable paddock and fodder bank systems established over an area of 1000 ha established.Work in China and India has shown the potential for silvopastoral systems on arid lands. Over 70 per cent of Afghanistan is covered by range and non irrigated arable land.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Fodder from arid land trees characterized 2. Establishment techniques perfected 3. Tree protection materials and techniques perfected 4. Local communities involved in joint ventures

Location and Activities: 1. Trials of saltbush and Sea buckthorn 2. Inexpensive tree protection trials 3. Individual tree microcatchment and mulch technology evaluated

Assumptions: 1. Livestock can be controlled 2. Water is adequate for establishment

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

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4.5 JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: 20 community forests sustainably managed under joint forest management contracts linked to sound management plans.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Evidence of regeneration in selected pistachio and cedar forests 2. Income form timber and non timber forest products 3. Small village scale forest linked industries eg sawmill crafts honey etc 4. Updated sawmilling and forestry management review for Kunar produced based upon reports of Roetzer (1977) 5. Maps and management plans 6. Trained forest agents and villagers

Location and Activities: 1. Selected cedar forests in East involving Nuristan and non Nuristan communities under management eg Kunar Paktia Logar and Nangarhar 2. Selected Pistachio forest (eg. Badghis in the west and Baghlan and Badakhshan in the east) under management.

Assumptions: 1. Empowerment of local people politically possible 2. Local people identify with the benefit of sustainable forest management 3. Forest still remain at start of project

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

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4.6NATIONAL FOREST PROGRAMME

Cost: $0.5m

Duration: 1 year

Objective: To enable the Govt to increase the profitability of Afghan tree based businessesina manner cognisant of the needs of social equity and economic development, in a way that contributes to the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity.

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: The current status and future management/ use of the tree resources of Afghanistan characterized. No significantly resourced systematic attempt on this has been made since 1986 sector review by Tandon (1986).

Outputs and indicators: The output is a plan produced after one year with associated policy and strategies augmented by currentstatistics. The approach /team should recognise thecentral importance of agroforestryinAfghanistan as a productive resource and buffer to unsustainable use of semi natural forest.Tandon (1986) should serve as the baseline document. The plan should comply with the FAO NFP guidelines and contain sections on: 1. Introduction 2. Afghanistan and its Forest Resource including range and biodiversity 3. Agroforestry current status and future potential 4. Forest Policy; implementation strategy and law 5. Government Forest Administration and Institutions including manpower requirements 6. Forest Establishment Management and Protection including grant and fiscal structures 7. Forest and agroforestry product utilisation and Industry 8. Trade and Marketing timber and non timber tree products: Internal and export 9. Employment Forestry and agroforestry 10. Education and Training within the public and private sector forestry and agroforestry 11. Research and Extension forestry and agroforestry and international cooperation research (especially Europe China Pakistan and India) 12. International Cooperation. Programme and project identification 13. Current performance and future role of communities private sector and NGOs 14. General Conclusions

Location and Activities: Centered in Kabul with visits to all provinces.

Assumptions: Stable government and peace.

Inputs:6 person international team supported by relevant national counterparts.Office and transport support.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy ANNEX 2.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Afghanistan, General 1

3. Land Use and Management 2

4. Agricultural Production and Farming Systems 5

5. Water Resources and Irrigation 7 6. Livestock Production 10 7. Forestry, Agroforestry and Natural Resources 14 8. Extension and Training 15 9. Strategic and Policy Issues 15

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Set out below is a composite bibliography of the material used by the TCP team in the preparation of the agricultural strategy and the sector reports.It draws together the items listed in the bibliographies of the specialist reports as well as some additional items.It is intended to be of use to those who have a general interest in Afghan affairs as well as those who have specific technical interests in the agricultural and forestry sectors.

The documents were located from a variety of sources both inside and outside Afghanistan. Most of the documents are technical reports produced under the auspices of FAO or other UN agencies. Very few are generally available, though most would be obtainable through the orginating agency.Most of the earlier FAO documents are only located in FAO HQ library in Rome, while some others are in the FAO office in Kabul.

The documents are listed by topic, broadly inline with the six specialist reports, but including some additional subgroups. As a general rule documents are listed only once, even though they may be of interest or use in several technical areas.

2. AFGHANISTAN, GENERAL

Afghanaid 1995 Rapid Rural Appraisal in Badakhshan Province, Peshawar- Pakistan, 9/1995.

Asia Society (The) 1978 Ethnic processes and Intergroup Relations in Contemporary Afghanistan. The Afghanistan Council of the Asia Society, Occasional Paper No. 15, NewYork.

Cordovez, D, Harrison S 1995 Out of Afghanistan, Oxford University Express, New York 1995.

Dupree, Louis 1980 Afghanistan. First Indian Edition, Rama Publishers, New Delhi 1980.

Olesen, Asta 1995 Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Curzon Press, Surrey UK, 1995

Rubin, Barnett R. 1995 The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Yale University Press, 1995

UNDP /UNOCHA 1991 Afghanistan: Population Estimates by Province, District and Subdistrict, A Graphic Presentation. UNIDATA, Kabul, April 1991.

UNHCR 1989 Background Reports, Kunar, Nangarhar, Paktia and Paktika Provinces, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, September 1989.

UNHCR 1989 Background Reports, Zabul, Logar and Laghman Provinces, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 1989.

UNHCR 1990 Background Report, Wardak Province and Ghazni Province, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, April 1990.

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UN I DATA 1990 Afghanistan Districts and Codes, by Province, Edition1.1, UNIDATA Mapping Service, Peshawar- Pakistan, July1990.

UNIDATA 1991aPopulation Estimates by Province, District and Sub District: a Graphic Presentation, Peshawar -Pakistan,April 1991.

UNIDATA 1991bAfghanistan, Wardak Province - a Socio- Economic Profile. Islamabad January 1991.

UNI DATA 1991cAfghanistan, Bamyan Province - a Socio- Economic Profile. Islamabad February 1991.

UNIDATA 1991dAfghanistan, Samagan Province - a Socio- Economic Profile. Islamabad March 1991.

3. LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT

Afghanistan Government 1976 Helmand River Basin. Soil and Water Survey Study Report. Government of Afghanistan in collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development, Kabul, 1976.

Afghanistan Government 1982 Regime of Precipitation in Afghanistan (inDari), Department ofMeteorology,Ministryof Transport and Tourism, Kabul,1981.

Afghanistan Government 1978 Afghan Agriculture in Figures. Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Planning, Kabul, Dec 1978

Afghanistan Government 1992 The National Report of the Government of the Republic of Afghanistan for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED). Ministry of Planning, Kabul, 1992.

Afghanistan Government 1992 Wheat production and field experimentationin Afghanistan, Extracts of AAEC Moqur Conference (October 1991) as a "Textbook for Extension Workers" Afghan Agriculture Experimental Centre (AAEC), November 1992.

Cossee, O. 1991 Agriculture and Natural Resource Survey Lower Pech Valley. Draft 2, MADERA /Care International. October 1991.

Cressey, G.B. 1960 Crossroads - Land and life in Southwest Asia (Chapter17: Afghanistan). The Lippincott Geography Series.

DANA 1995 DANA Magazine. First Edition, Development Associationfor Northern Afghanistan, Mazar -i- Sharif, 1995.

Dev Alternatives Inc 1993 AfghanistanLand CoverandLand Use Report. DevelopmentAlternatives, Inc. and EarthSatellite Corporation, USA, March 1993.

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Development and Resource Corporation 1971 Kunduz -Khanabad Irrigation Feasibility Study. Appendix 1: Soil and land classification. (D &R), New York/Sacramento /Tehran, 1971.

FAO 1965 Survey of land and water resourcesof Afghanistan (FAO /SF:9 /AF6). Volume I- General Report and VolumeIV - Soil surveys and landclassification. Rome, 1965.

FAO 1971 Soil fertility and fertilizer use.Report to the Government of Afghanistan, based on the work of P.M. Tamboli.

FAO 1972 Afghanistan Landcover Statistics.

FAO 1978 Report on a Joint FAO /Netherlands Mission to the Republic of Afghanistan, in preparation of a project for Yield Increase through Development of the Use of Fertilizers and Related Inputs. FAO Fertilizer Programme.

FAO 1990 Climate Tablesof 19 Provinces(includingAltitude, Longitude, Latitude), Climwat, FAO, Rome,1990.

FAO 1995 Semi -Annual Report January - June 1995, Afghanistan. August 1995

FAO 1995 Project Performance Evaluation Report (1995). Integrated Crop and Food Production (AFG /94/002). Islamabad, 16 February 1996

FAO 1995 Project Performance EvaluationReport (1995).Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme for Afghanistan. (AFG /93/004). Islamabad, December 1995

Formoli, T.A, Afzal Rashid, M and Du Bruille, J P. 1994 An Overview and Assessment of Afghanistan's Environment. A ScientificPublicationof Afghanistan Horizon, Sacramento, California, in cooperation with Afghan Development Association (ADA), Peshawar, Pakistan. September 1994.

General International Engineering Company Inc. 1959Reporton SoilandWater Resources of Southwest Afghanistan. Volume I. September 1959.

Griffiths, J.C. 1981 Afghanistan. Key to a continent. André DeutschLtd, London.

Ismael, Mohammad 1993 Afghan Forestry, Engineer, Mohammad Ismael, Manager Afghan Social Forestry Project, in "The destrucion of the forests and wooden architecture of Eastern Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan: Nuristan to Baltistan ". Asian Study Group (Afghanistan Circle), Islamabad, October 1993.

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MADERA 1994 Effet de lataille des bulbes et de leur profondeur de plantation- sur la germination et lafloraison du safran (Crocus sativus L.) dans l'est de l'Afghanistan.E.Nizami, S.Siddiqi, O. Cossée, O.Laborde- Debat, Activity Report 1994.

MADERA 1995 Activity Report 1994.

Mercy Corps Int'nl 1995 Agriculture project for Southwest Afghanistan. Final Report, 1990 -1994. Mercy Corps International, Quetta, Pakistam.

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council 1986. MaizeProduction Manual. Islamabad, Pakistan.

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Wheat Production Manual. Islamabad, Pakistan.

Patterson, M.T. 1995 A socioeconomic assessment of Faryab province. Field Crop Protection in Northern Afghanistan. AFG /92/009. FAO. February 1995.

Pias, J. 1976 Formations superficielles et sols d'Afghanistan. Travaux et documents de l'ORSTOM no 55. ORSTOM -CNRS, Paris, 1976.

Pickett, L. and Gul, A. 1966 An AgronomicSurveyinSixEasternprovincesof Afghanistan. Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, 1966.

Scott, R.B. 1971 The North Shamalan. A survey of land and people, Helmand Valley. USAID.

SOGREAH 1966 Kunduz -Khanabad Irrigation Study, Final report. SOGREAH, Grenoble, France. 1966.

MAPS

FAO /UNESCO 1979 Carte Mondiale des Sols. Volume VII: Asie du Sud. Rome, Italy.

FAO 1990 Soil Map of the World -Revised Legend. World Soil Resources Report 60. Rome, Italy.

OSC 1984 National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, OrganizationForSurveying&Cartography,Warsaw Poland, 1984.

SCA 1991 Index and Supplement to Map of Afghanistan. Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, Stockholm and Peshawar 1991.

Nelles Verlag Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:1,500,000, , Muenchen.

UNIDATA /Mapping Service, Afghanistan, Districts and Codes, by Province; Administrative Divisions Map ofAfghanistan, scale approximately 1;4000000.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 5

4. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND FARMING SYSTEMS

ASARP 1977 Marketing, Distribution and Use of Fertiliser in Afghanistan. Agricultural Requisites Scheme for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok.

Cossins, Noel 1994 A Review of Livestock Production Systems of Afghanistan. FAO Rome 1994.

FAO 1972 The Improvement and Development of Marketing of Table Grapes and Raisins in Afghanistan, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.

FAO 1995a Terminal Report, Seed production and Training, Phase Il (AFG /86/010)and Seed Improvement Programmeof Northern and Western Afghanistan (AFG /93/001). FAO Rome 1995.

FAO 1995b TerminalReport,FieldCropProtectioninNorthern Afghanistan (AFG /92/009). FAO Rome 1995.

FAO 1995cTerminal Report: Support to Veterinary Clinics Afghanistan (AFG /90/006). Rome 1995.

FAO 1996bReport of Mid -Term Evaluation Mission (draft) AFG /93/004 and AFG /94/002. Islamabad April 1996.

Papademetriou, M K.1994 Fruit Tree OrchardRe- Establishment /Rehabilitation - Afghanistan. Evaluation Mission Report. Rome 1994. (CIP /ISL).

Smith, Leighton. 1993 Rehabilitation of Viticulture in Kandahar Province (Draft). UNO /AFG /103- 104 /UNA. (CIP /ISL).

Stevens, Ira M. 1965 Economics of Agricultural Production in Helmand Valley, Denver -Colorado, October 1965.

Suttie, J M. 1995a AFG /94/002 IntegratedCropandFood Production Programme and related projects.Technical Backstopping Mission Report, FAO, Rome November 1995.

Suttie, J M. 1995b AFG /94/002, AFG /94/003 and AFG /94/004.Notes on a Visit to the Afghanistan Crop Production Programme and Allied Projects. FAO, Rome April 1995.

Suttie, J M. 1996 AFG /94/002, AFG /94/003 and AFG /94/004. Agricultural Rehabilitation in Afghanistan.Report of a TSS -2 Funded Technical Support Mission. FAO, Rome March 1996.

Singh, V P. 1995 Seed Processing Consultancy Mission Report. AFG /94/002, Mazar -i- Sharif, Dec. 1995

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 6

Swedish Committee 1988 The Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan. 18 reports for Afghanistan 1988.05 Report 1 First Report 1989.04 Report 2 Farm Power 1989.08 Report 3 Crops and yields 1990.02 Report 4 Fertiliser 1990.05 Report 5 Seeds 1990.08 Report 6 1988/89 General Survey 1990.08 Report 7 Northern Afghanistan Crop Protection 1989 1990.09 Report 8 Northern Afghanistan Insect Damage 1990.10 Report 9 Northern Afghanistan Food Deficit 1990.11 Report 10 Livestock 1991.03 Report 11 Regional Farming Problems 1990.11 Report 12 1990 General Survey 1992.06 Report 13 Repatriation and Rehab Survey Parts I -V 1992.06 Report 14 1991 Survey 1993.07 Report 15 Farming Systems in Afghanistan Vols I -VIII 1993.11 Report 16 Repatriation and Rehabilitation of Afghan Refugees Parts I -IV. 1993.12 Report 17 Agriculture Survey of Afghanistan 1992 -93 1994.07 Report 18 Reference Manual, Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan,

Tamboli P M. 1971 Soil Fertility and Fertiliser Use, Report to the Governmentof Afghanistan. FAO, Rome, 1971.

Thorp, Terry. 1995 ImprovedFodderProduction. Consultants Report, TCP /PAK/4452 FAO Rome, April 1995.

UNDCP 1995 Afghanistan Opium Poppy Survey 1995. Regional Office for Southwest Asia, UN Drug Control Programme, Islamabad, Sept 1995. (PC).

UNDCP 1995 Report of the Agricultural and Alternative Cropping Expert, Islamabad- Pakistan, 5- 7/1995. (check Berding).

Wybenga J M et al 1978 Increase through Development of the Use of Fertilisersand related Inputs.Report and Project Document.Report on Joint FAO /Netherlands Government Mission toAfghanistan, FAO, Rome Jan 1978.

Zmarlicki, C. 1996 Report on the present situation of Apiculture in Afghanistan. Prepared for AFG /94/002. Islamabad May 1996.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 7

5. WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

Afghanistan Government 1966 Surface WaterResourcesInvestigationPlan Afghanistan: Precipitation(Monthly & Annual),Monthly Mean Temperature, Ministry of Water and Power Kabul - Afghanistan, 1966.

Afghanistan Government 1975 Seven Years Plan,IrrigationProjects in1975, Ministry of Water and Power, Kabul, 1975.

Afghanistan Government 1976 Helmand River Basin Soil and Water Survey Study Report, Part I Government of Afghanistan in collaboration with US Agency for International Development. Kabul 1976

Afghanistan Government 1977 Konar River Basin Development,Master Plan Studies, Annex I- XIIII, Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Water and Power, Electrowatt Engineering Services LTD. Zürich, Switzerland, Nov. 1977.

Afghanistan Government Kama Irrigation and Power Project, Final Reports, Part I + Il, Ministry of Water and Power, Kabul

Afghanistan Government 1982 Water of Rivers and use of them in Irrigation (in Dari) Ministry of Water And Power, Kabul, 1982.

Anderson, Ian M. 1992 Kandahar Project Document, FAO, Peshawar -Pakistan, October 1992.

Anderson, Ian M. 1990 -94 Reports on1st,2nd,3rd,4th,5th,6th,7th and 8th, Technical Assistance Mission, Agrisystems (Overseas) Ltd., Aylesbury, Bucks, England, from 1990 to 1994.

Anderson, Ian M. 1993 FinalDraft Design Manual:Rehabilitationof Informal Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan, Agrisystems (Overseas) Ltd., Aylesbury, Bucks, England, 11/1993. (IP /PSH)

Anderson, Ian M. 1994 Summary Project Progress Report Irrigation Component 1989 -1994, FAO, Peshawar, Pakistan, June 1994.

Anderson, Ian M. 1995 Kama Intake and Irrigation Project, Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan, DanishCommitteeforAid to Afghan Refugees, Peshawar -Pakistan, March 1995. (IP /PSH).

Anderson, Ian M. 1996 Report on Eleventh Technical Mission, Programme for the RehabiltationofAfghanistanAgriculture,Agrisystems (Overseas) Ltd., Aylesbury, Bucks, England, April 1996. (IP /PSH).

Benz John S. 1962 AnOverallReviewoftheHelmandValley, Kabul - Afghanistan, November, 1962.

Chow, Lee 1963 Development of Irrigation Projects in Afghanistan, FAO, Report No. 1736, Rome, 1963. (FAO /AGLW).

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 8

DACAAR 1995 Emergency Water Supply Project in Sarshahi Camp of Nangarhar Province for displaced people of Kabul city, Water Supply Section, Peshawar -Pakistan 9/1995.

Dev Alternatives Inc 1993 Helmand -Arghandab Valley Irrigation System.A Change Assessment 1973 -1990. Development Alternatives Inc and Earth Satellite Corporation, supported by USAID, February 1993.

Edworthy, K J. 1988 Groundwater Resources and Monitoring. Irrigation and Water Management, Kabul Area AFG /86/006.Kabul, June 1988.

FAO 1993 Project Document: Rehabilitationof Agricultureand Irrigation Infrastructure in Nangarhar, Laghman, Kunar and Paktya Provinces, Phase II.FAO, Rome July 1993.

FAO /UNDP 1970 Survey of Irrigation Possibilities in the Hari Rud and Upper KabulRiverBasins in Afghanistan, Final Report, FAO /SF80 /AFG10, Rome, 1970. (FAO /AGLW)

FAO /UNDP 1965 Survey of Land and Water Resources in Afghanistan, General Report andVol. I -VI, Rome, 1965. (FAO /AGLW).

GRSP 1996 Summary of agricultural and irrigation data for Jaghori and Malistan Districts, Ghazni Province.Ghazni Rural Support Programme, April 1996.

HAVA OverallReviewoftheHelmand Arghandab Valley Development, Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority

Herat Irrigation Dept. ,1996 List of irrigation and hydro- technical structures of Herat Provincewhich needtoberehabilitated /constructed, Irrigation Department of Herat Province. Herat, 1996.

Horning H. M. 1969 The Planning, Execution and Reconstruction of irrigation ProjectsofAfghanistan, UNDP -FAO, Rome, 1969. (FAO /AGLW).

Jones, James R. 1971 Program of Ground Water Resources Invetsigations for the Helmand - Arghandab Valley Authority, Afghanistan. US Geological Survey, Lashkar Gah, Dec 1971. (CIP /ISL)

Mirza, M S. 1994 Irrigation Consultant Report. Evaluation Mission of the FAO /UNDP Afghanistan Agricultural Programme. Rome July 1994

Naimi M. Q. 1994 IrrigationDevelopmentinHariRudValley(Herat), Reconnaissance Report, FAO, Peshawar, Pakistan, June 1994.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 9

Radojicic S, & Arsalan S 1979 Khulm Regional Water Supply Scheme, PreparatoryStudyReportonGroundwaterSources. Afghanistan MinistryofPublic Health assisted by WHO /UNICEF, Kabul 1979. (FAO /KBL)

Riddell, P J. 1992 RehabilitationofIrrigatedAgricultureinAfghanistan's Arghandab and Helmand Valleys. Project Identification Mission Report. Agrisystems Overseas Ltd,Aylesbury Bucks. UK. March 1992.

Sammel. Edward A. 1971 Ground Water Reconnaissance in the Arghandab River Basinnear Kandahar,Afghanistan,December1971. (FAO /AGLW).

Sayed Sharif Shobair 1995 Monitoring Report of Irrigation projects in nangahar, Kunar NadLaghman Provinces, FAO Peshawar -Pakistan, 12/1995. (IP /PSH).

Sayed Sharif Shobair 1996 Assessment Survey of Zurmat District of Paktia Province, FAO Peshawar -Pakistan, 1/1996. (IP /PSH).

SCA 1995 Guidelines for Rural Drinking Water Supply Projects in Afghanistan, Revised for 1996, Swedish Committee for Afghanistan:Peshawar -Pakistan, Dec.1995.

UNDP 1970 Ground Water Investigations in Afghanistan, Conclusion and Recommendations, New York, 1970. (FAO /AGLW).

UNHCR 1995 MemorandumofAgreement, ProjectDocumentfor Infrastructure Rehabilitation of Zahir -Shahi Canal

Rehabilitation, Phase 1, Kandahar, February, 1995 and document for, Derweshan Main Canal Protection Work at Mian Pushta: Canal Protection Dike, Kandahar, 1/1995.

USAID 1976 Central Helmand Drainage (PhaseII)US Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C. November 1976

Westfall Arthur O. 1969 Surface Water Investigations in Afghanistan, Summery of Activities from 1952 to 1969, Washington, D. C. March 1969. ((FAO /AGLW).

Wahab N & Ghiasi, F. 1979 Legal Availability of Water for Khulm and Balkh -Aqcha Regional Water Schemes.Ministry of Power and Water, Kabul Sept 1979. (FAO /KBL).

Zadick, Gholam. 1996 HydrogeologicalConditionof Afghanistan,withsome material translated by M H Rahimi, NPPP Agronomy, Mazar, 1996.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 10

6. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Anjum, M.S. 1995 Survey Report on Wool Marketing inPakistan, Report prepared for the Sheep & Wool Project, PAK/88 /032

Balikçi, A. 1990 Tenure and Transhumance: Stratification and Pastoralism among Lakenkhel.in: Galaty, J.G.; Johnson, D.L.(eds.) The world of pastoralism, Herding systems in comparative perspective, Belhaven Press, London, UK, 310 -322

Balland, D. 1988aNomadic pastoralists and sedentary hosts in the Central and Western Hindukush mountains, Afghanistan.in: Allan, N.J.R.; Knapp, G.W.; Stadel, C.(eds.) Human Impact on Mountains, Rowman & Littlefield, Totowa, N.J., 265 -276

Balland, D. 1988bLedéclincontemporaindunomadismpastoralen Afghanistan. in:Grötzbach(ed.)Neue Beiträge zur Afghanistanforschung Bd. 6

Balland, D; Benoist, A. 1982 Nomades et semi- nomades Baluç d'Afghanistan. Revue Géographique de l'Est 22 (1 -2), 117 -144

Balland, D; Kieffer, C.M 1979 Nomadismeet sécheresse en Afghanistan: l'exemple des nomades Pastun du Dast -e -N wor. in: Pastoral Production and Society, Cambridge, Paris, 75 -90

Barfield, T.J. 1981 TheCentral Asían Arabsof Afghanistan - Pastoral nomadism in transition, University of Texas Press, Austin

Barker, T.J; Rahmani 1994 Village survey - Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Ghazni - Jaghatu district

Barker, T.J; Halimi 1995 Village survey II - Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Herat - Zinda Jan district

Barus, V., Amin, A., Blazek, K., Moravec, F. 1976 Nematodes parasitizing domestic ruminants in Afghanistan.Folia Parasitologica, 23:3, 207- 216

Bouy, M; Dasniere, J.1994 Typologies des villages et pratiques d'élevage dans le Badakhshan (nord -est de l'Afghanistan). RevueElev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. 47 (2), 245 -256

Casimir, M; Winter, R.P; Glatzer, B. 1980 Nomadism and remotesensing:animal husbandry and the sagebrush community in a nomad winter area in western Afghanistan, Journal of AridEnvironments 3, 231 -254

Centlivres, P.; Centlivres -Demont M. 1977 Chemins d'Eté Chemin d'Hiver entre Darwaz et Qataghan, Afghanistan Journal 4(4), 155 -163

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 11

Cerny, V., Daniel, M., Amin, A., Olejnicek, J.1977 To the Knowledge of ticks of domestic animals in Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica. 24:1, 81 -84

Cossins, N. 1994 A review of the livestock production systems of Afghanistan, Report prepared for the Animal Health and Production Division of FAO, Rome, 62 p.

Davis,Diana,K.;KarimullahQuraishi; Sherman,D.;Sollod,A.;Stem,C. (1995) Ethnoveterinary medicine in Afghanistan: An overview of indigenous animal health care among Pashtun Koochi nomads. Journal of Arid Environments 31,483 -500

Demirüren, A.S. 1958 Report to the Government of Afghanistan on sheep and wool improvement, Appendix Il: A sample sheep and wool survey of Afghanistan, FAO Report No 853, FAO Rome

Denizot, F.; Haider, H.; de Planhol, X. 1977 Peuplement et mise valeur de la vallée de Golak (Afghanistan central) Revue Géographique de l'Est 17 (1 -2), 53 -71

Edelberg, L.; Jones, S.1979 Nuristan, Akademische Druck -und Verlagsanstalt Graz, Austria

Emal, M.J. 1982 Performanceevaluationofcrossbreddairycattlein Afghanistan, M.A. Thesis (cited after Cossins, 1994)

Engashev, V.G. 1986 Helminthologicalsituation in northern provinces of Afghanistan. Byulleten' Vsesoyuznogo Instituta Gel'mintologii. K.I. Skryabina. No. 44, 17 -21

Ferdinand, K. 1969 Nomadism in Afghanistan-With an appendix on milk products. in: Földes, L. (ed.)Viehwirtschaftund Hirtenkultur, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary

Filippova, N.A. 1983 Redescription of Dermacentor raskemensis Pomerantzev,1946(lxodidae) - representativeofthe mountain fauna of the southern regions of the USSR and neighbouring territories. Parazitologiya, 17:4, 283 -292

Glatzer, B. 1977 Nomaden von Gharjistan, Beiträge zur Südasienforschung, Bd 22, Wiesbaden, Germany

Glatzer, B. Casimir , M.J. 1983 Herds and Households among Pashtun pastoral nomads: Limits of growth, Ethnology 22(4), 307 -325

Grötzbach, E. 1990 Afghanistan,Wissenschaftliche Länderkunde Bd. 37, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, Germany

Hakemi, M.Z. 1988 Sheep husbandry in Afghanistan.Proceedings, VI World Conference on Animal production. 655. Finnish Animal Breeding Associations, Helsinki, Finland

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 12

Halimi, M. 1995 Village survey - Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Paktia - Jaji Maidan district

Kakar, M.T. 1985 Animal health status - Afghanistan. 14th Conference of the O.I.E. Regional Commission for Asia, the Far East and Oceania, Colombo, 29 July - 1 August 1985. 115 -120. Paris, France. Office International des Epizooties

Keshtiar, G.A.; First, K.J.; Thompson, R.C. 1969 A dairy survey of thirteen provinces in Afghanistan, Technical- Bulletin No 13, Kabul University, Fac of Agric., 31 p. (cited after Grötzbach, 1990)

Kirsch, R., Miller, W.M. 1982 Worm load and anthelmintictreatmentof sheepin Afghanistan. World Animal Review. No.44, 19 -23

Kotrla, B., Blazek, K. Amin, A.1976 Trematodes of domestic ruminants of Afghanistan and their role in pathology.Folia Parasitologica, 23:3, 217- 220

Kyozojed, V.,Blazek, K., Amin, A. 1976 Incidence of toxoplasmosis in domestic animals in Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica. 23;3, 273 -275

Leyland, T. 1994 Planning a community animal health care programme in Afghanistan. RRA Notes 20, 47 -51

Martins, C.; Peters, K.J. 1992 Alternative use of Karakul sheep for pelt and lamb production in Botswana. I. Reproduction and growth performance, Small Ruminant Research 9, 1 -10

McArthur, I. D; Sarwar Sayad and Maqsood Nawin. 1979. Rangeland livestock production in western Afghanistan, Journal of Arid Environments 2, 163- 179

McArthur, I. D. 1980 Pre -lambing supplementation of Gadic ewes in western Afghanistan. J. Agric. Sci. 95(1), 39 -45

Michaud, R.; Michaud, S. 1978 Caravans to Tartary, Thames and Hudson, London

Millar, P. 1986 The performance of cashmere goats, Animal Breeding Abstracts 54(3), 181 -199

Minar, J., Olejnicek, J., Amin, A. 1977 On someOestridae,Hypodermatidaeand Hippoboscidae (Diptera) from Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica, 24:1, 92 -93

Nicollet, S. 1972 L'élevage dans la province Afghane de Caboul, Thèse, Ecole Nationale Véterinaire d'alfort, 120 p. (cited after Grötzbach, 1990)

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 13

Papkov, S.L. 1975 Genezis pukha sherstnogo pokrova korennykh porod ovets. (Undercoat in the fleece of indigenous breeds of sheep) Trudy. Vsesoyuznyi Sel'skokhozyaistvennyi Institut Zaochnogo Obrazovaniya. No.96, 75 -80, 86

Rako, A., Cizek, J. 1980 ldejni program razvoja ovcarstva u provinciji Kandahar (Afghanistan). (Improvement programmeforsheep breedingintheKandahar provinceofAfghanistan). Stocarstvo. 34:9 -10, 383 -388

Shahrani, M.N.M. 1979 The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan,Universityof Washington Press, Seattle and London

Stevens, I.M. 1965 Kochilivestockoperationsin the Helmandvalley, Afghanistan,in:Steven,I.M.;Tarzi,K.;Economics of agricultural production in Helmand Valley, Report of the Helmand Valley Development Project, 81 -88

Tavakolian, B. 1984 Women and socioeconomic change among Sheikhanzai nomads of western Afghanistan, Middle East Journal 38(3), 433 -453

Thieme, O. 1993 Reproductiveand growthperformanceoflocaland European x local crosses in Central Anatolian villages, Thesis University of Göttingen, Germany

Valiev, U.V. 1975 Metody soderzhaniya karakul'skikh ovets v Afghanistane. (Karakul sheep breeding in Afghanistan). Ovtsevodstvo. No.10, 35 -37

Valiev, U.V. 1975 Selektsiyaserykhkarakul'skikhovetsv Afghanistane. (Breeding grey karakul sheep in Afghanistan). Problemy

genetiki I selektsii v karakulevodstve.Materialy pervogo vsesoyuznogo simpoziuma po genetike karakul'skikh ovets. 75 -78. Alma -Ata, USSR

Villinger, O. 1992 Pelzgewinnung in heißen Trockengebieten -Persianer - Lammfelle vom Karakulschaf,Entwicklung +Ländlicher Raum 5/92, 19 -22

Volk, O.H. 1972 Grundlagen und Empfehlungen für eine Perspektivplanung zum Regionalen Entwicklungsvorhaben Paktia /Afghanistan. Bd.6: Viehweiden und ihre Ökologie, PTP (Planungsteam Paktia)

Yalçin, B.C. 1979 The sheep breeds of Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey, Rome, Italy; FAO, 115 p.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 14

7. FORESTRY, AGROFORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Afghanaid 1995 SocialForestryProject 1995 -96, Project Proposal, Peshawar- Pakistan, 1995.

Anon 1985 Wood processing industry in Kabul, FAO Asia PacificForest Industries Development Group Mission report KualaLumpur 7 pages

Arnault J M 1996 Six monthlyprogress report, 1 /4/96- 30/9/96, FAO Afghanistan

Austrian Relief Cttee1994 Social Forestry Poplar RejuvenationProject. Project Proposal, Austrian Relief Committee, Peshawar, April1994.

Bostanoglu, L. 1977 Kunar forestry development demonstration, FAO 36 pages

FAO 1992 Strengthening on the Forestry Dept. Afghanistan PhaseII, Terminal Report

Hassanyar, Amir S. 1995 Revegetation of Hairatan Winter Rangeland inNorthern Afghanistan. inProceedingsof UNESCO workshop, Silvopastoral systems and arid and semi -arid areas. pp.1 -5 CAZRI, Jodphur, India, December 1995

Hassanyar, Amir S. 1977 RestorationofAridand semi -arid Ecosystems in Afghanistan. Department ofForestryand Natural Resources, Kabul University, in Environmental Conservation Vol 4, No 4. 1977.

Khaurin H H 1990 TechnicalPaperonForestPolicyinAfghanistan, FAO /UNDP report Kabul 24 pages Unpublished.

Khaurin H H 1996 Survey and identification of fodder trees andbushes in Afghanistan, AFG /93/004 programme sub project report FTBS /96/01 Unpublished, FAO June 1996 40 pages.

Larsson, John Y. 1978 Status of Alpine Rangelands in Central Afghanistanwith special referencetothe Ajar ValleyWildlifeReserve. Department of Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture, Kabul, 1978.

LeClercq Paul J. 1992 End of Assignment Report, Project UNO /FAO /102 +103 /UNA, Peshawar -Pakistan, 11/1992

May S 1979 Poplars in Afghanistan, Unasylva 31(124) 29 -32

Roetzer G 1977 Kunar Forest and sawmilling development, FAOproject reports (3 in total)

Tandon J C 1984 A manualforplantingpoplarinAfghanistan, FAO AFG /82/003 48 pages

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 15

Tandon J C 1988 Forest and forestry in Afghanistan A sector review, FAO A FG/86/01 1

Tolay U 1986 Consultancy on experimental silviculture, FAO AFG/86/011 64 pages

Pakistan Institute of Forestry 1996 Annual Progress Report 1994 -95, Peshawar 199 pages.

UNDP 1991 Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase Il, Kabul 1996

UNDP 1986 Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase Ill, Kabul 1991

UNDP 1986 Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase Il. UNDP Kabul 1996. (FAO /AFG)

UNDP 1991 Draft Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase Ill. UNDP Kabul 1991. (FAO /AFG)

8. EXTENSION AND TRAINING

FAO 1986 Agricultural Cooperative Training, Afghanistan. Terminal Report, AFG /81/002, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.

Kidd, David W. 1996 Training Guidelines forAFG /94/002 NPPPs. Project Report, FAO, Rome, April 1996.

Kidd, David W. 1996 Training of AFG /94/002 NPPPs. Consultants Report, FAO, Rome, March 1996.

9. STRATEGIC AND POLICY ISSUES

ACBAR 1995aDatabase of NGO Activities,Volume I to VolumeIV, Peshawar- Pakistan,1993 to 1995.

ACBAR 1995b NGO Programs in Wardak, Peshawar Pakistan, Sept 1995

ACBAR 1996 Directory of Humanitarian Agencies Working for Afghans. Agency Body for Coordinating Afghan Relief,University Town Peshawar, April 1996.

Afghanistan Government 1995 Letter from Mohd. Is -haq Suffizadu, President of Forest and Range Dept,Ministryof Agriculture,Kabul requesting FAO assistancetorevivethesupportto Strengthening Forest Protection project.

CARE 1996 Six Month Report (July-December 1995),Peshawar, Pakistan, March, 1996.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 16

DACAAR 1995 Annual Report 1994.Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees. Peshawar 1995

DACAAR 1996 Annual Report 1995.Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees. Peshawar 1995

FAO 1996aTerminalReport: CoordinationofUNAgricultural Rehabilitation Programmes in Afghanistan, AFG/94/003. Rome, 1996.

FAO 1996bReport of Mid -Term Evaluation Mission (draft) AFG/93/004 and AFG /94/002. Islamabad April 1996.

FAO 1996cProject Performance Evaluation Report: IntegratedCrop and Food Production in Afghanistan (AFG/94/002) FAO, Islamabad, Feb. 1996.

FAO 1995aTerminal Report: Agricultural Regabilitation in Southernand Eastern Afghanistan AFG /92/008.Three volumes.VolI, Project Findings and Recommendations, Vol II, Supplementary Annexes and Appendices, Vol Ili, individual Supplementary Project Reports. Rome 1995.

FAO 1995eOfficeMemorandum, TCP /AFG /4552(A):Promotionof Agricultural Rehabilitation and DevelopmentProgrammes, Rome, October 1995.

FAO 1977 Draft Report of the Preparation Mission toAfghanistan on the Agricultural and Rural Development Project.Vols I and Ill, FAO /World Bank Cooperative Programme,Rome.

Khan, Ismail 1994 Request letter from Ismail Khan (former Governorof South West Zone of Afghanistan) forIrrigation Assistancein Nimroz Province, February 1994.

MADERA 1993 Annual Report 1992, Peshawar -Pakistan, 1993.

MADERA 1994 Objectifs de l'Action de MADERA, Peshawar-Pakistan, November 1994.

MADERA 1995 Activity Report 1994. Peshawar, Pakistan, June1995.

Mercy Corps Int'nl 1995 Agriculture Project for Southwest Afghanistan, FinalReport 1990 -1994. Mercy Corps International, Quetta,Pakistan.

UNDP 1995 BriefingofDonors onAfghanistan: Longer -Term RehabilitationAssistanceand its relationship with Humanitarian Programmes. New York, September1995.

UNDP 1994 Project Document: Integrated Crop and FoodProduction in Afghanistan. UNDP, AFG/94/002/C/01/12, December1993.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 17

UNDP 1993 Project Document: Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan.UNDP, AFG/93/004/D/01/12, December 1993.

UNDP 1993 Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation of Afghanistan, VolumelI(national) and Volume IV (regional) Context, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1993.

UNDP 1993 AfghanistanRehabilitationStrategy,'ActionPlanfor Immediate Rehabilitation' Vol 1.Executive Summary, Vol. IV, Agriculture and Irrigation. UNDP, Kabul, October 1993.

UNDP 1994 Programme of the Government of Afghanistan,Project Document, AFG/94/001/A/01/31, Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programme,Islamabad,Pakistan, August 1994.

UNDP 1994 Afghanistan Brief for the Secretary General. Resident CoordinatorofOperationalActivitiesfprdevelopment activities in Afghanistan. Islamabad, September 1994

UNDP 1995 Afghanistan Rehabilitation Steering Committees, Volume IV Summary Conclusions andActivitiesfrom10/1995to 3/1996, Islamabad- Pakistan, November 1995.

UNDP 1995 BriefingofDonors onAfghanistan: Longer -Term RehabilitationAssistanceand its re/ationaship with Humanitarian Programmes. UNDP, Stockholm, June 1995.

UNDP undated ApproachestoPartnershipinAfghanistan. UNDP, Islamabad.

UNDP /FAO 1994 Evaluationof Four AgriculturalProjects(AFG /86/010, AFG /93/001, AFG /92/008 and AFG /92/009) Report of the Evaluation Mission, Rome, July 1994.

UNHCR 1996 Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) Status Report for Mazar- Sharif, Herat, JalalabadandKandahar, Programme Operation in Afghanistan, 1996.

UNITED NATIONS 1995 Appeal for Emergency Humanitarian and Rehabilitation Assistance to Afghanistan, 8/1995 to 10/1996, Volume I, October 1995.

UNIDATA 1992 Afghanistan, Balkh Province, A Socio Economic Profile, Islamabad March 1992.

UNIDATA 1991cAfghanistan, Bamyan Province - a Socio- Economic Profile. Islamabad February 1991.

UNIDATA 1991dAfghanistan, Samagan Province - a Socio- Economic Profile. Islamabad March 1991.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Annex 2. Page 18

UNIDATA 1991eAfghanistan, Ghazni Province, A Socio Economic Profile, Islamabad February 1992.

UNOCHA 1993 Afghanistan Operation Salam Report for 1992.Islamabad June 1993.

UNOPS 1995 AfghanistanRuralRehabilitationProgramme (ARRP) Methodology. Islamabad April 1995.

WFP 1995 Linking Relief and Development, Annual Report 1994, Rome, 1995.

WFP 1995 Briefing on the 1995 Relief and Rehabilitation Programme for Afghanistan, Islamabad Pakistan, November, 1995.

WFP 1995 Assistance to Refugees, Displaced Persons, and other VulnerableGroups,SituationReportNo.3,Islamabad, Pakistan, October 1995.

World Bank 1977 Appraisal of a Third Agricultural Credit Project Afghanistan. Report No 1490 -AF. Washington May 1977 (FAO /KBL)

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy TCP/AFG/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

LAND MANAGEMENT

Frank R Berding

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Islamabad

May 1996 CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY 1

1. INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 Background and Objectives 3 1.2 Methodology and Scope of the Report 3 2. LAND RESOURCES 4 2.1 Review of available documents 4 2.2 Geographic Zones 9 2.2.1Zone 1. Wakhan Corridor and the Pamir Knot (1.7%) 9 2.2.2Zone 2. Badakhshan (6.4 %) 10 2.2.3Zone 3. Central Mountains (19 %) 11 2.2.4Zone 4. Eastern Mountains (7.9 %) 12 2.2.5Zone 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills (10 %) 15 2.2.6Zone 6. Northern Mountains and Foothills (14.2 %) 16 2.2.7Zone 7. Turkestan Plains (8.6 %) 18 2.2.8Zone 8.Herat -Farah Lowlands (11.9 %) 20 2.2.9Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin (7.5 %) 21 2.2.10 Zone 10. Western Stony Deserts (5.7 %) 23 2.2.11 Zone 11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts (6.9 %) 24 2.2.12 Conclusions 25 2.3 Soil Cover 29 2.3.1Soil surveys 29 2.3.2Soil Types 31 2.3.3Conclusion 32 2.4 Soil Fertility 34 2.4.1 Review of pre -war research 34 2.4.2Fertilizer recommendations 37 2.4.3Economics of fertilizer use 37 2.4.4Fertilizer consumption 39 2.4.5Conclusions 40 3. LAND USE 42 3.1 Irrigated Agriculture 42 3.1.1 Importance 42 3.1.2Problems 42 3.1.3Conclusions and options 48 3.2 Rainfed Agriculture 50 3.2.1 Importance 50 3.2.2Problems 50 3.2.3Conclusions and options 53 3.3 Extensive Grazing 54 3.3.1 Importance 54 3.3.2Livestock 54 3.3.3Rangeland 55 3.3.4Problems 56 3.3.5Conclusions and options 58 3.4 Forestry 60 3.4.1 Importance 60 3.4.2Forestry related activities 63 3.4.3Problems 64 3.4.4Conclusions and options 64 3.5 Nature Conservation 66 3.5.1 Importance 66 3.5.2Nature conservation efforts 66 3.5.3Conclusions and options 68 3.6 Land Tenure 69 3.6.1 Irrigated and rainfed land use 69 3.6.2Forestry 72 3.6.3Rangeland 73 3.6.4Conclusions and options 73 4. RECOMMENDATIONS 75

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY 77

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Landcover Statistics by province (FAO, 1972) 26 Table 2. Landcover /Land use Statistics by province (DAI /Earthsat, 1993) 27 Table 3. Landcover Statistics by Geographic Zone 28 Table 4.Soil Map of the World, associations of Afghanistan 33 Table 5.Fertilizer recommendations (MoA, Kabul) 38 Table 6. Pre -war national livestock herd estimates 54 Table 7.Forest resources of Afghanistan by Province 60 Table 8. Farm size distribution 69 Table 9. Land tenure forms by province 70 ABBREVIATIONS

ACBAR Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief ADA Afghan Development Association APIR Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation ARC Austrian Relief Committee ARIA Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan ASA Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan CoAR Coordination of Afghan Relief CPO Country Project Officer DAI Development Alternatives Inc. FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N. GAA German Agro- Action HAVA Helmand - Arghandab Valley Authority MADERA Mission d'Aide au Développement des Economies Rurales MCI Mercy Corps International MoA Ministry of Agriculture MWP Ministry of Water and Power NGO Non -Governmental Organization NPPP National Professional Project Personnel ORSTOM Office de Recherches Scientifiqiues et Techniques Outre -Mer SCA Swedish Committee for Afghanistan SOGREAH Société Grenobloise d'Aménagement Hydro -agricole TCP Technical Cooperation Programme (FAO) UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNOCHA U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aid to Afghanistan UNOPS U.N. Office for Project Services USAID United States Agency for International Development VARA Voluntary Association for Rehabilitation of Afghanistan VFU Veterinary Field Unit SUMMARY

The present report is the result of a land management consultancy, carried out between17 March and 17 May 1996,in the framework of TCP /AFG/4552 Project "Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes for Afghanistan ".

On the basisoffieldvisitstofivedifferent regionsinAfghanistan, meetings and discussions, and the study of available documentation, the following main conclusions have been drawn:

CONCLUSIONS

.01 On -going rehabilitation efforts are mainly concentrated on irrigation schemes and are indispensable for achieving a reasonable degree of food security at the present stage. However, because very littleis being done at the upper watershed levels, where clearcutting of forests (Eastern Mountains zone, including Paktia province) is rapidly removing the protective cover of mountain slopes, or where cultivation of steep slopes for rainfed cropping, without any effective measures of soil conservation, is on the increase(NorthernMountains andFoothillszone),thepresentorientationof rehabilitation efforts looks like putting the cart before the horse.

.02 The fuel crisis in Afghanistan and the breakdown of control mechanisms and social forms of restraint are probably the main causes behind the disappearance of most pistachio -almond forestsin the Central Mountains and Northern Mountains and Foothills zones and behind the alarming depletion of woody shrub vegetation from the already degraded natural vegetation cover of the mountainous zones and from the extensive semi /arid to arid plains surrounding the mountainous zones. Restoration of once forested lands and of the protective vegetation cover of the semi /arid plains, in order to reduce the desertification and erosion (wind and water) to tolerable levels, will require massive efforts which are beyond the capacity of local communities.

.03 The rainfed crop production sector in Afghanistan is of an opportunistic and extensive nature but is usually critical in whether there will be a food surplus or deficit, especially in the northern provinces. While it is true that there is much scope for improvement of irrigated crop production, this appears to be the case even more in the rainfed areas where almost no research has been carried out.Soil erosion, mainly in the form of sheet and rill erosion and mainly occurring in the period December -May, is a serious problem in the sense thatitfurther depletes what isleft of topsoilfertility and increases the risk of flash floods and subsequent damage to downstream irrigation systems. At present the former soil conservation programmes seem to be forgotten and effective conservation measures are notoriously absent.

.04 The knowledge of agroecological conditions in general, of soils away from the irrigation schemes and the vegetation /range cover appear to be very limited.A number of geographical zones have been proposed in this report for general planning purposes. but several of these zones need to be subdivided from the agroecological point of view. A very useful agricultural survey has been carried out in recent years (Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, 1989 -93) but up to date knowledge of farming systems and land tenure would need to be based on more than the 7 districts covered so far.

.05 Much of the pre -war documentation (including records, research reports, maps etc relevant to land management) has been lost due to looting of ministries and research

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -2

institutions during the recent war years. However a significantamount is believed to be still available, either with foreign institutions andlibraries and some institutions in Afghanistan (e.g.HAVA in Lashkar Gah, Helmand province) or withindividuals in Afghanistan and outside the country. Precious informationand working experience is still present in the memories of many individualswho used to work for research institutions, development projects and ministerial departmentsand who are waiting for the country to return to some form of "normality" in orderto make these memories productive again. The education system in Afghanistan has been at avirtual standstill for much of the war years and is at present still very far fromwhere it should be. This by now 18 year gap of education is possibly the greatestchallenge facing the country in the coming years.

RECOMMENDATIONS

.01 Subject to conditions of peace and stability permitting, theprincipal recommendation is to establish a comprehensive land use planning programme,to be placed in the broader framwework of UNCED's Agenda 21.The primary aim of this programme would be to create a combined bottom -up and top -down institutionalstructure which should facilitate the development of a sustainable and environmentallysound use of Afghanistan's land resources.The programme could comprise a preparatory and rebuilding phase, focussing on databases, various surveys, training/education, the establishment of regional or provincialland use planning groups, and a legal framework for an environmentalpolicy,followed by an implementation phase focussing on the involvement of land user /stakeholder groups in thepreparation of land use plans.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -3

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In 1993, under UNDP funding, an Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation in Afghanistan was designed. The Plan confirms the need to continue the work started in 1988 -1989. The programme was launched to deal with an emergency (refugee problem) and is now merging into one one of development. The Strategy had a two -year time frame.

Support by TCP /AFG/2551 Support to Agriculture Rehabilitation Strategy and Programmes played a crucial, catalytic role in the design of the successful Agriculture Rehabilitation Strategy. A major output was the agricultural and irrigation component of the Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation (APIR), which still guides implementation strategy.Objectives which could not be achieved within a two year time frame were not included in the Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation. The rehabilitation focus required quick delivery of basic products (irrigation,planting material, animal health services) at the community level through participatory methods.The linkage of these methods to a delivery network of inputs, knowledge and skills could not be seriously addressed.

As Afghan agriculture moves from an emergency phase to rehabilitation and development, a framework of strategies and methodologies needs to be designed for sustainable production based on addressing priority problems, household food security, income and employment generation to reduce poverty, and sound management and use of natural resources. The project TCP /AFG/4552 was designed for this purpose.Its main objective is to provide an up -dated strategy framework and methodologies for natural renewable resource management, increased productivity in agriculture and forestry, the delivery of inputs and services to farmers and for strengtheningagricultural development and implementation capacity to support the preparation of an Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programme.

The land management consultant is a member of a multi -disciplinary team, including an agriculturist -team leader and consultants in the fields of livestock, irrigation and water management, on -farm and peri -urban forestry, extension and training and farming systems. The present land management consultant's report is to review the current status of land management aspects and to contribute to the strategy paper for the agricultural sector.

1.2 METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT

During the 2 months assignment the reporter made five visits totalling 3 weeks in all, to 12 out of 30 provinces in Afghanistan. Almost 5 weeks was spent in Pakistan (Islamabad and Peshawar), participating in meetings and collecting data and documents, and 1 week for overseas travel, briefing and debriefing in FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy (see Annex 4). On the basis of these visits and activities, the land management report is presented below. The report focuses on land resources and land management aspects covering the major land uses (irrigated and rainfed agriculture, extensive grazing and forestry).Information on nature conservation and land tenure aspects, based on available literature, is also included. The reporter has tried to avoid duplication with reporting by other team members. Certain land resources have received less attention in this report as might perhaps be expected. For instance water resources and climatic characteristics of the various geographic zones are not or only summarily described in this report to avoid duplication with the irrigation and water management consultant's report.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -4

2. LAND RESOURCES

2.1 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE DOCUMENTS

Numerous attempts have been made to divide Afghanistan into(natural) regions or zones. These attempts differ widely according to the criteria used.A number of references are quoted below.

Humlum (1959), quoted by Dupree (1973/1980) divided Afghanistaninto ten natural provinces: East, South, Central, West, Northwest, North Nuristan,Badakhshan, Wakhan and Monsoonal Afghanistan.

Cressey (1960) distinguishes seven geographic regions, none of themwith precise limits: Badakhshan, Hazarajat, Bactria, Afghan Khurasan, Helmand Valley, Seistanand Eastern Afghanistan.

Ministry of Planning (1978) divides Afghanistan into seven agricultural zones: Eastern: Kabul, Parwan, Logar, Nangarhar and Laghman provinces South -eastern: Ghazni and Paktia provinces Southern: Qandahar, Zabul, Helmand and Nimroz provinces Western: Herat, Farah and Badghis provinces Northwestern: Faryab and Jawzjan provinces Northern: Balkh, Samangan, Baghlan, Kunduz, Takhar and Badakhshan provinces Central: Ghor, Oruzgan and Bamyan provinces (Source quoted: Prospects for the Development of Grape Production and Marketing in Afghanistan. November 1974).

Dupree (1973/1980) proposes eleven geographic zones: the Wakhan Corridor and the Pamir Knot, Badakhshan, Central Mountains, Eastern Mountains, Southern Mountains and Foothills,Northern Mountains and Foothills, Turkestan Plains,Herat -Farah Lowlands, Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin, Western Stony Deserts and Southwestern Sandy Deserts. Dupree's eleven zones are often significantly different from Humlum's ten natural provinces in order to emphasize "lines of human contact and communication in reference to zones of accessibility and relative inaccessibility ".

FAO (Report on the Agro- ecological zones project, Vol. 2: Results for Southwest Asia, Rome, 1978) presents a generalized climatic inventory (major climates and lengths of growing period zones) at a subcontinental level and a generalized agroclimatic suitability assessment for rainfed wheat production.With the exception of part of the Northeastern provinces of Takhar and Badakhshan the lands of Afghanistan are classified as unsuitable (growing period of less than 90 days) for rainfed wheat production. Itis however recognized that,in the region, cultivation is attempted in areas with very low annual precipitation corresponding to growing periods of 40 to 70 days. Reports indicate that, with a preceding two or more years of fallow for moisture accumulation, cultivation of wheat is attempted even under rainfall conditions below 200 mm per annum.Such lands are considered as "not suitable" in the FAO study, but are reported as arable land in country returns of the extent of land under crops and fallows of the region. A modified assessment of land suitable for cultivation, incorporating areas with a growing period of 40 days or more, includes part of Northern Afghanistan where wheat or other cereals (e.g.barley) can be cultivated but with very low yields.

The National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (Geokart, Poland, 1984) does not propose a map of geographic zones or regions but publishes a series of maps

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report 5 whicharedirectlyorindirectlyrelatedtosuchregions:Geology,1:3.000.000; Geomorphology, 1:6.000.000, 12 units; Natural Landscapes, 1:6.000.000, 10 units based on physiographic features and vegetation; Hypsometry, 1:3.000.000; Climatic Regions, 1:9.000.000, 11units; Natural Vegetation, 1:6.000.000, 20 units; Soils, 1:6.000.000, 12 units (Great Soil Groups) and Land Use, 1:6.000.000, 7 units.

The UNDP Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation (APIR, October 1993) groups the twenty nine existing provinces into eight "Rehabilitation Regions" and uses these regions to present a regional overview based on available data and directfieldobservations concerning the main agricultural production activities. Data on farming problems, as perceived by farmers, is taken from the Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan (SCA, 1989- 1991).

The eight Regions are:

1. North East (Kunduz, Takhar, Badakhshan, Baghlan) 2. North (Balkh, Samangan, Jaozjan, Faryab) 3. West (Herat, Barah, Badghis) 4. East Central (Ghor, Bamyan) 5. Central (Kabul, Parwan, Kapisa, Wardak, Logar) 6. East (Nangarhar. Laghman, Konar) 7. South (Paktia, Paktika, Ghazni, Khost) 8. South West (Kandahar, Helmand, Zabul, Nimroz, Uruzgan) NoteIt would be logical to call "East Central" "Central" and vice versa.

The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan /SCA (Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan /ASA, 1989 -1991) presents the ASA information on a provincial or sometimes a zonal basis.

The provinces are divided into 6 groups:

1. North east (Baghlan, Takhar, Kunduz, Badakhshan) 2. North (Faryab, Balkh, Samangan, Jawzjan) 3. South east (Paktia, Nangarhar, Laghman, Konar) 4. East central (Bamyan, Parwan, Logar, Wardak, Kapisa, Ghazni, Zabul) 5. South west (Paktika, Helmand, Qandahar, Oruzgan) 6. North west (Herat, Ghor, Badghis, Farah) Note:It is not clear why Kabul and Nimroz provinces are not included. It is not clear why Paktika, which is a southeastern province has been included in South west group

N. Cossins (1994) uses a modification of the divisions presented by Dupree (1973/1980) to describe the country in terms of ten production zones whose common ecological and economic factors result in livestock production systems with similar sets of problems and potential.

Based on the above the following procedure has been adopted:

The land resources of Afghanistan are briefly described on the basis of Dupree's eleven geographic zones, withadditionalinformation from other references and fromfield observations.In order to facilitate the correlation with agricultural statistics, e.g. SCA -ASA, which are available on a provincial basis, the boundaries of the geographic regions proposed by Dupree have been made to coincide to the extent possible with provincial or district boundaries.Only where district boundaries would not coincide at all with natural boundaries, such as watershed divides, have districts been subdivided (see Map 1 page 8).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -6

The following eleven geographic zones are described:

1. Wakhan 2. Badakhshan 3. Central Mountains 4. Eastern Mountains 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills 6. Northern Mountains and Foothills 7. Turkestan Plains 8. Herat -Farah Lowlands 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin 10. Western Stony Deserts 11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts

The first six zones ( Wakhan, Badakhshan, Central Mountains, Eastern Mountains, Northern Mountains and Foothills, Southern Mountains and Foothills) relate to the Hindu Kush mountain system, young rugged ranges with sharp peaks, deep valleys, and many almost impenetrable barriers.

The remaining five zones (Turkestan Plains, Herat -Farah Lowlands, Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin, Western Stony Deserts, Southwestern Sandy Deserts) embrace the deserts and plains which surround the mountains to the north, west, south and southeast.

References used for the description of the geographic zones:

Location /area: UNIDATA /Mapping Service, Afghanistan, Districts and Codes, by Province; Administrative Divisions Map of Afghanistan, scale approximately 1;4000000; FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics; Dupree, 1973. Altitudes: Atlas of Afghanistan, Warsaw 1984, Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:1500000, Nelles Verlag, Muenchen. Climate: Atlas of Afghanistan, Warsaw 1984; Dupree, 1973; FAO 1980( ?) Geology: Atlas of Afghanistan, Warsaw 1984; Dupree, 1973; Field observations. Landforms /soils: IEC.1959; FAO, 1965; Electrowatt/Norconsult, 1977; USAID, 1976; J. Pias, 1976; FAO, 1990 (Revised Legend); Atlas of Afghanistan, Warsaw 1984; Field observations. Landcover /landuse: FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics; Dupree, 1973; UNDCP, 1995; USAID, 1976; IEC, 1959; Afghanaid, 1995. Electrowatt/Norconsult, 1977; Field observations. Constraints /opportunities: UNDP, 1993; USAID, 1976; IEC, 1959; Cossins, 1994; Field observations. General remarks: Dupree, 1973; Government of Afghanistan /UNDP, 1991.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report Administrative Divisions of AFGHANISTAN Sources Admini7jrntlyr grouQiMS and cods_ Provisional Gazetteer of Afghanistan. KP Afghan Demographic Studies. Central Statistics Office Kabul. February. 1975 C INA (with update for Poktika). Baal STS:

Minor Civil Divisions Mop. I.I ,000.000 scale.. Ashraf et al., Government of Afghanistan. Afghan Demographic Studies. Ministry ofPlanning. Kabul.1973. Note: LEGEND This map has been copied from the above sources and does not haveofficial approval. 0.5trict (W'-;') r'nd' --- Loy N,Iur.aL Bnundory tn;ernotiona. `.voiuswali Beundnry -r'rovince B-,nlnr/ - -4na14or 9oondory

Kilometers

0 2040 5080

CHOR

KONAR: __ t.ACHMAN

Map 1. Afghanistan by Agroecological Zones

Zone 1. Wakhan Corridor Zone 2. Badakhshan Zone 3. Central Mountains Zone4. Eastern Mountains Zone 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills Zone 6. Northern Mountains and Foothills Zone 7. Turkestan Plains Zone 8. Herat -Farah Lowlands PAK rTIKA Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin S: S.w.n... Zone 10. Western Stony Deserts Zone 11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts 9

2.2 GEOGRAPHIC ZONES

2.2.1 Zone 1. Wakhan Corridor and the Pamir Knot (1.7 %)

Location /area: Wakhan district of Badakhshan province, in the extreme northeast, separating Pakistan from Tajikistan.

Area ( approx.): 11100 km2

Altitudes: Range: from about 1800 m (Panj River) to 7485 m (Nowshak Mountain, highest point of Afghanistan).

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: 100 -200 mm in the northeast to 600 -800 mm in the western part above 5000 m.

Number of dry months: from 5 at altitudes below 3000 m approx.to 2 months at altitudes above 5000 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 9 -12 at altitudes above 5000 m to 5 -6 at less than 3000 m approximately. Perpetual snow covers all Pamir above 5000m.

Geology: Igneous rocks of different ages and Palaeozoic phyllites, sandstones, siltstones, quartzites and conglomerates; Quaternary deposits in valley bottoms.

Landforms /soils: Two relatively wide valleys exist in Wakhan: one at Ishkashim (two miles across, three miles long); another at Qala Panja (less than one mile in all directions. Many glaciers occur at the higher elevations and blue -green glacial lakes are present.The soils are expected to be similar to those in the higher areas of Badakhshan.

Landcover /landuse:(cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO Landcover Statistics irrigated agriculture occupied about 4770 ha (0.4% of the total area) in 1972; no rainfed agriculture is reported.

Animal husbandry is the main occupation;it provides a relatively dependable income. Families raise and keep sheep, goats, cows, donkeys, some horses and yaks (household needs and sale)

Constraints /opportunities: Agriculture is limited by climate, soil quality and available land.Natural conditions favour animal husbandry more than agriculture; there is scope to increase animal husbandry.

General remarks: The Anglo- Russian Boundary Commission of 1895 -1896 politically forced this zone on Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, so that at no point would British India and Tsarist Russia touch.

The Pamir -Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in the western Wakhan Corridor.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 10 -

2.2.2 Zone 2. Badakhshan (6.4 %)

Location /area: Northeast Afganistan, from the entrance of the Wakhan toKotal -i- Anjumaninthe southwest, with the Panj river (Amu Darya) to the east and north. Comprises Badakhshan province (except Wakhan district) and eastern and southern districts of Takhar province (Chahab, Darqad, Farkhar, Kalafgan, Rustaq, Warsaj and Yangi Qala districts). Area (approx.): 41 200 km2

Altitudes: Range: from about 400 m (Panj /Amu Darya River) to 6843 m (Tirgaran Mountain) in the south.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from 300 -400 mm below 1000 m (northwest), to 800- 1000+ mm above 4000 m.

Number of dry months: from 6 in the northwest to 2 months at altitudes above 4500 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 9 -10 at altitudes above 5000 m to 0 at less than 500 m.

Geology: Mainly metamorphic and plutonic rocks.

Landforms /soils: Steep mountain slopes are covered with rockfall and talus.In the river valleys up to three series of stream -laid gravel terraces occur, often cut several times by recurrent spring melt- water floods. Several of the open valleys surrounded by mountains and watered by springs, appear to have been glacial lakes during the Late Pleistocene.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics total agricultural area occupied about 792,625 ha in 1972 (19.2% of Badakhshan zone) comprising 5,960 ha (0.8 %) orchards, 7,270 ha (9.1%) irrigated and 714,400 ha (90.1%) rainfed land.

Agriculture is the main occupation and includes grain and fruit production; all crops are used locally; some export of dried walnuts and mulberries. Opium (summer harvest) production (2,970 ha in 1994/95, estimate by UNDCP), mostly in Faizabad (2,344 ha) and Jurm (555 ha) districts, generally irrigated except in some areas of Khash valley in Jurm and Keshem districts.

Constraints /opportunities: In higher elevation districts agriculture cannot provide food for the whole year and people depend on animal husbandry to make up for the shortfall.

General remarks: Several significant lakes exist in Badakhshan. Thousands of nomads gather at the largest, Lake Shewa, in the summer and return to the Turkestan Plains (near Chahar Darra, west of Kunduz) or the Eastern Mountains( Laghman) in the winter.Most Laghman nomads however go to the Central Mountains in summer.

Lapis lazuli, a semi -precious azur -blue mineral, has been mined in the Jurm valley since antiquity.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report 2.2.3 Zone 3. Central Mountains (19 %)

Location /area: The Central Mountains (mainly the Central and Western Hazarajat) encompass the entire provincesof Oruzgan and Baghlan,almostentirely Ghor (except northern1/3of Chaghcharan district) and Bamyan (except Kahamard, Sayghan and norther half of Yakawlang districts) provinces, the eastern parts of Herat (Karokh, Pashtun Zarghoon, Obey and Chest -e Sharif districts) and Farah (Farsi and Purchaman districts) provinces, the northern tips of Helmand (Baghran and northern 2/5 of Naw Zad districts), Qandahar (Nesh, Khakraiz and Shawali Kot districts) and Zabul (Day Chupan, Mizan and Arghandab districts) provinces, the northwestern half of Ghazni (Nawar, Malestan and Jaghuri districts), the western half of Wardak (Behsud, Gardan Diwal, Day Mirdad and Chak -e Wardak districts) province and the southern portions of Kunduz (Aliabad and southern 1/5 of Khanabad districts) and Takhar (Eshkamesh and southern 2/3 of Chal districts) provinces. Area (approximately): 122 400 km2

Altitudes: Range: from about 1000 m in the major river valleys close to the border with surrounding geographic zones to 5135 m (Shah Foladi Mountain) southwest of Bamyan.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: 150 -200 mm in the major river valleys close to the boundaries with the southern and southwestern geographic zones and at Bamiyan to 500- 600 mm in the western and northern mountain ranges.

Number of dry months: from 9 in the major river valleys close to the boundaries with the southern and southwestern geographic zones to 2 months at altitudes above 4000 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 7 -8 at altitudes above 3000 m to 0 in the major river valleys close to the surrounding geographic zones, below approximately 1500 m.

Geology: Mainly limestone (plus sandstones, siltstones and other sedimentary rocks) of Permo- Triassic age in the eastern and southern portions and of Carboniferous age in the western portion.Gneisses and schists of Precambrian age occur in the upper Helmand basin. Igneous and volcanic rocks of different ages are also present.

Landforms /soils: West of Shibar Pass, the Koh -i -Baba mountains, backbone of Afghanistan and a rugged, barren elevated tableland, contain sources of two of the country's more important river systems: the Helmand -Arghandab and Hari Rud.Slopes on the north are gentler than those to the south.Bare exposed limestone bedrock, extrusive and intrusive rocks and shallow coarse textured Eutric Leptosols are dominant. At high altitudes Rendzic Leptosols on Cretaceous Marls and Mollic Gleysols around and below springs may be encountered and above 3200 -3500 m Eutri -Gelic Regosols (permafrost) may occur.Eutric Leptosols, Eutric Regosols, Calcaric Cambisols and Haplic or Petric Calcisols occupy the lower steep slopes, screes and outwash fans whereas Eutri -Calcaric Fluvisols are found on lower fans and terraces in the narrow floodplains.Rivers are choked with boulders and gravels laid down during winter and moved along with great rapidity by spring snow melt.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3)

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 12 -

According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statisticstotalagricultural area occupied around 1,418,200 ha (11.6% of zone) comprising 11,120 ha (0.8%) orchards, 558,546 ha (39.4 %) irrigated land and 848,530 ha (59.8 %) rainfed land

Opium poppy cultivation (irrigated) occupied around30000 ha (UNDCP estimate) in 1995 (Oruzgan, Helmand, and Qandahar provinces)

The few wide valleys are usually inhabited and cultivated (thealtitudinal limit for agriculture is reported to be around 3200 m by J.Pias, 1976) or, at higher altitudes, used as summer grazing lands for livestock.These high altitude summer pasture lands are usuallycalled yilaq.

Constraints /opportunities: The more isolated parts have reputedly been always marginalfor settled agricultural systems. where a "hungry season" prior to the annual harvestis a normal occurrence (the same is true for Badakhshan province). The keyhigher summer grazing areas (yilaq) were traditionally used by the Pushtun Ghilzai and other nomadic groups. Theirmovements were blocked during the war and there are some indications (Cossins, 1994)that resident Hazara farmers have resumed land and taken over the grazing areasthat had been part of the Ghilzai pastoral production system. Upland sedentary farmers will nothowever be able to maintain large flock numbers during the winter and, lacking access tolower country, the system is likely to be far less productive than transhumant pastoralism.

General remarks: The Bande Amir National Park and the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve aresituated in the Central Mountains region in Mayan province. The Dashte NawarWaterfowl Sanctuary is situated in western Ghazni province.

2.2.4 Zone 4. Eastern Mountains (7.9 %)

Location /area: The Eastern Mountains comprise the provinces of Kabul, Kapisa, Konar,Laqhman, Loqar, Nangarhar and Parwan and the larger (eastern) part of Wardak (Chak -eWardak, Day Mirdad, Jalrez, Kowt -e Ashrow /Maydan Shar, Nerkh and Seyyedabad districts)province.

Area (approximately): 50 800 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 400 m in the Kabul valley at the Pakistan border to6435 m in the northeast ( Konar province) at the border with Badakhshan.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from 150 -250 mm below approximately1500 m in Kabul River valley (Jalalabad to Pakistan border) and in Logar River valley, to 800-1000+ mm in the northern parts above 3000 -4000 m.

Number of dry months: from 8 -9 at altitudes below 800 m approximately (lower Kabul River valley /Jalalabad basin) to 2 months at altitudes above 5000 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 9 -10 at altitudes above 5000 m to 0 at less than 1500 m approximately (lower Panjsher and KabulRiver valleys).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 13 -

Snow usually begins to fall in October, blocking most mountain passes for at least part of the winter. The permanent snow line varies between 3000 and 4600 m above sea level. The winter snow line creeps down to about 1800 m. Snow fields and permanent glaciers occur above 4300 m.

Geology: The Eastern Mountains (as well as the others in Afghanistan) were probably uplifted during the Middle Tertiary, folding and distorting the original sedimentary marine deposits.At times. the uplifted mountainous areas were subjected to intensive glacial and fluvial erosion during the Pleistocene.In addition, repeated tectonic stress during the mountain building movements created great fault systems. Most valleys (such as Ghorband, Kabul, Panjsher and Logar) are marked by fault lines.Frequent earthquakes, about fifty quakes of varying intensity per year,stilloccur. The Eastern Mountains mainly consist of Permian to Cretacean limestones, shales, sandstones and other sedimentary rocks, Precambrian metamorphic rocks (e.g. gneiss, quartzites) and igneous rocks of different ages. The lower lying basin areas mainly consist of Tertiary and Quaternary conglomerates, pebbles, sand - and siltstones and loess.

Landforms /soils: The description below is based upon Electrowatt and Norconsult, November 1977: Konar River Basin Development, but may also apply to Alishing and Alingar valleys, and perhaps to parts of the upper valleys of the Panjsher, Ghorband, Kabul and Logar rivers.

Steeply dissected mountainous terrain on crystalline metamorphic rocks predominate in the Lower Konar.Foothills form the transition between the lower valleys and the surrounding mountain ranges.The river valleys are occupied by discontinuous level alluvial terraces, narrow in the upper valleys and widening to 1 and up to 5 -10 km in the lower valleys, and the active floodplain. Upper and lower terraces are recognizable of which the upper terrace is the most extensive.Lateral valleys extend into the mountainous terrain and comprise broad outwash fans which protrude into the terraces. Smaller fans and screes also occur.

Mountainous areas are dominated by rock outcrops and Eutric Leptosols.Footslopes and outwash fans comprise stony textured Eutric Regosols and Calcaric Cambisols and Haplic or Petri -Haplic Calcisols while deep, medium textured to fine silty Eutric Fluvisols occur on the lower fans. The low terrace is characterized by Calcaric Fluvisols and Calcaric Gleysols whereas Eutric Cambisols occur on the high terrace.Salinity hazard is present in some terrace soils situated in depressions (waterlogging) in the lower valley (Gleyic Solonchaks, Salic Fluvisols).Field observations suggest that the valleys joining the Kabul Basin are much more affected by loamy or clayey loamy aeolian deposits (loess) than the valleys joining the Jalalabad Basin. The soil types however are basically similar to those found in the previously described Jalalabad Basin valleys.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics total agricultural land occupied about 615,900 ha (12.1% of the zone) comprising 12,780 ha (2.1%) orchards, 452,070 ha (73.4 %) irrigated and 151,060 ha (12.1 %) rainfed land.

Intensive irrigation takes place on the higher terraces of the river valley plains including the lateral valleys.The more freely drained areas of the lower terrace are cultivated under irrigation, the lower areas (occasionally inundated) are used for pasture.Some rainfed agriculture on the lower outwash fans and locally on high terraces; extensive grazing on the main fans, the active floodplains and the foothills.

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Opium poppy cultivation (irrigated) occupied approximately 15000 to16000 ha (UNDCP estimate) in Nangarhar province and some 150 ha in Konar provincein 1995.

Konar province used to be the most heavily forested area (togetherwith Paktia province in the Southern Mountains and Foothills region) in Afghanistan.Much of these forests has however disappeared since 1979. The Panjsher Valley had largeforests until they were destroyed by man, who cut down and burned trees to smelt silver, copperand other ores during the heyday of the early Islamic period before the thirteenth centuryMongol invasions. Man remained but the forests never returned.

Modern vegetation patterns in the Eastern Mountains consist mainly of thin grassesand stunted bushes.

Constraints /opportunities: The agroecological variety of this zone, together with a relatively highpopulation and the presence of major centres such as Kabul,Jalalabad and Charikar,offer excellent opportunities for the production and marketing of horticultural crops (fruit, vegetables), foodcrops (potatoes, wheat) and cashcrops (e.g. sugarcane). Irrigated agricultureis potentially very productive, especially in the lower lying valleys, where two (or even three) crops may be grown annually.

Production isstill constrained because many parts of the irrigation systems have been damaged during the war years. Although urgently needed rehabilitation work is ongoing, the viability of the irrigation systems is threatened by the continuing clearcutting of forestsin the upper watersheds.A reforestation programme of the catchment areas is urgently needed: apart from the downstream benefits of such a programme, job opportunities would be created and timber production would be secured for the coming generations.

General remarks: The Eastern Mountains region may have to be be subdivided from the agroecological point of view: the Jalalabad basin including the lower Alishing, Alingar and Kunar River valleys has a distinctly longer irrigated cropping period (e.g. planting irrigated wheat in November and harvesting in May /June followed by mung bean planted in July and harvested in October) than the higher Kabul basin including the lower Logar, Ghorband and Panjsher River valleys (e.g.planting irrigated wheat in September and harvesting in July will not be followed by mung bean before March of the following year and harvesting in August). In the former two crops per year appear to be possible under irrigated conditions and the higher temperatures allow for instance sugar cane to be grown (Jalalabad: average annual temperature 21.5 °C. average annual rainfall 171 mm).In the latter one crop per year appears to be the rule (Kabul: average annual temperature 11.7 °C, average annual rainfall 303 mm). The agroecological limit lies probably between 1000 -1500 m.

The Kole Hashmat Khan Waterfowl Sanctuary is situated in Kabul province, southeast of Kabul city.

The Panjsher Valley serves as a major north -south route used by nomads summering in Badakhshan and wintering in the Laghman -Jalalabad area.

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2.2.5 Zone 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills (10 %)

Location /area: The Southern Mountains and Foothills comprise the provinces ofPaktia and Paktika, the southeastern part of Ghazni province (Khvajeh'Omri, Zaneh Khan, Jaghatu,Ghazni, Deh Yak, Qarah Bagh, Andar, Moqor, Ab Band,Giru,Gilan and Nawan districts),the southeastern part of Zabul province (Shah Juy, Qualat, Jaldak,Shenkay, Atghar and Shamalza'i districts), the northeastern part of Qandahar province (Arghistanand Maruf districts and the northern half of Spin Boldak district) and Jaghatudistrict of Wardak province.

Area (approximately): 64 400 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 1000 m in the river valleys at the Pakistan borderand the lower Tarnak Rod and Arghistan Rivers to 4050 m at the northern borderwith the Eastern Mountains region.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from 100 -200 mm in the southwest andthe Lora Rod, Ghazni Rod and Sardih Rod River valleys below 2000 m approximately to 400-800 mm in the northeastern part between 1000 and 3000 m (monsoonal influence in easternPaktia and Paktika provinces) and 800 -1000+ mm in the northeast above 3000 m.

Number of dry months: from 8 -9 in the southwest below 2000 m to 4 -6months in the northeastern part between 1000 and 3000 m and 3 months at altitudes above 3000 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0°C: from 5 -6 at altitudes above 3000 m to 0 at less than 2000 m.

Geology: Most of the region consists of Tertiary (Paleogene) and Quaternary sediments(siltstones, sandstones, conglomerates, limestones, marls, gypsum, clays) and volcanic rocks

Landforms /soils: J.Pias (1976) has described some soils in Paktia province: on the western (drier)side of the mountain range Haplic or Petri -Haplic Calcisols can be found on colluvial loesswhereas at similar altitudes (2500m) on the eastern side of the mountain range (wetterdue to some monsoonal influence) Calcic Luvisols occur whereas Calcaric Cambisols are present at somewhat lower altitudes.In the Khost -Bakh Basin Haplic Calcisols, similar to those of the Jalalabad Basin, are found on the extensive outwash fans.

For a short description of soils of the southwestern parts of the region, see zones 3 and9.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics total agricultural land occupied around 756430 ha (11.7% of the zone) comprising 4,280 ha (0.6 %) orchards, 522,470 ha (69,1%) irrigated and 229,680 ha (30.3 %) rainfed land.Irrigated opium poppy cultivation occupied around 100 to 150 ha (UNDCP estimate) in 1995 (eastern Qandahar province).

On the western side of the mountain range (Paktia province) coniferous (pine) forestsbegin at altitudes of 2600 -2700 m whereas on the eastern side these forests are presentdown to about 2500 m, followed by deciduous Quercus baloot forests which disappearat about 1600 m.

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Constraints /opportunities: Constraints and opportunities for Paktia province appera to besimilar to those described for the Eastern Mountains zone. Unfortunately it has not beenpossible to visit the area during the consultancy period and too little information has thereforebeen available to expand on the constraints and possible opportunities for the rest of the zone.

General remarks: For agroecological reasons the eastern 2/3 of Paktia province mayperhaps better be included in the Eastern Mountains zone instead of the SouthernMountains and Foothills zone.

The Ab- i- Estada Waterfowl Sanctuary is situated in eastern Ghazniprovince.

2.2.6 Zone 6. Northern Mountains and Foothills (14.2 %)

Location /area: The Northern Mountains and Foothills comprise Baghlan provinceand part of Kunduz (Aliabad district and southern 1/5 of Khanabad district), Samangan (DaraeSouf, Roye Doab, Samangan and Hazrat -e Soltan districts and southern 1/6 of Kholmdistrict), Bamyan (Kahamard and Sayghan districts and northern half of Yakawlang district), Balkh(Chemtal, Shulgareh, Char kent and Keshendeh districts),Jawzjant(Sar -i -Pol, Sang Charak, Kuhestanat and Balkhab districts), Faryab (Qeysar, Kohestan, Belcheraghand Darzab districts and southern 3/5 of Pashtun Kowt district), and Badghis (Jawandand Qades districts, southern 1/3 of Koshk -i- Kohneh, southern 1/4 of Qal'eh -ye Nau,southeastern 1/3 of Morghab and southern 2/3 of Ghowrmach districts).

Area (approximately): 91 100 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 500 m on the border with the Turkestan Plainsregion to 5125 m on the border with the Eastern Mountains region(Baghlan -Parwan border).

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from 200 -300 mm below 500 m (lower partsof major river valleys /border with Turkestan Plains region), to 600 -800 mm above 2500-3000 m.

Number of dry months: from 6 below approximately 2000 m to 4 months at altitudesabove 2500 -3000 m.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 7 -8 at altitudes above approximately 3500 m to 0 at less than approximately 1000 m.

Geology: MainlyTertiarylimestones /marls /siltstones /conglomerateswithsubstantialQuaternary loesscover on northern fringes and in valleys.

The boundaries of Jawzjan and Balkh provinces have recently been revised and an additional province has been created (Sar -e Pol).

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Landforms /soils: Low, bare limestone, shale and sandstone mountains withrounded summits dominate. Soils are usually thin and stony, except on lower, recent flood plainswith silt, clay and loess deposits.

A broad zone of mountain plateaux and foothills north of theHindu Kush watershed stretches from the 70 °E meridian west to the 62 °E, close to the Iranianborder.

The Band -i- Turkestan Range rises south of Maimana to heights of 3350 mand runs almost due east -west for about 200 km. The northern slopes drop abruptly ontothe Turkestan Plains.In the foothills a loessy -sand called chol covers the bare rock.

South of the Band -i- Turkestan Mounrains lies the Murghab River valley, arolling limestone region parallel to the mountains, and never more than 9 to 13 km wide.

To the east the Paropamisus (plus Koh -i- Changar and Firozkoh) Mountains cutoff Afghan Turkestan from the high valleys of the Central Mountains, and are the northernextremity of the main watershed complex.The region, characterized by deep valleys and rounded summits, consists mainly of barren scarps of metamorphic rock with peaks up to 3500 m.

East of the Firozkoh lie the Kunduz, Andarab and Surkh Ab valleys, which vary from narrow gorges to broad flat- bottomed valleys.

Field (visual) observations in Baghlan, Samangan, Faryab and northern Herat provinces confirm a very strong influence of loamy and clayloam aeolian (loess) deposits on thesoils of the foothills region.Colluvial processes often lead to a mixture of loess and underlying Neogene sediments (pebbles, conglomerates, sandstones etc).J.Pias (1976) summarily describes a few soils on a toposequence between the Sabzak pass and Qal'eh -yeNau in Badghis province and the foothills south of Koshk in Herat province which may serve to characterize some of the major soils in the western part of the region. Between 2400and 1800 m Haplic Calcisols and Calcaric Cambisols are found on loess. At loweraltitudes the loess may have been eroded, exposing the underlying Tertiary rocks. At about 1050 m a "sierozem" ( "gray desert soil" overlying calcareous layer), situated on a high terrace,is found. In the alluvial valley at Qal'eh-ye Now Eutric Fluvisols occur.

South of Koshk extensive and hilly loess areas, associated with Tertiary conglomerates, occur where Haplic Calcisols seem to dominate.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statisticstotalagriculturalland occupied around 2,577,820 ha (28.3% of the zone) comprising 7,636 ha (0.3 %) orchards, 301,390 ha (11.7 %) irrigated land and 2,268,800 ha (88 %) rainfed land.

Constraints /opportunities: The main opportunities of the zone liein the improvement of rainfed agriculture.The extensive aeolian, loesslike, deposits, which has given rise to a deep soil cover with good water retention properties, and the relatively reasonable rainfall provide inprinciple a satisfactory basis for wintercrops and, more opportunistically, for springcrops.At present agronomic practices are at a mere subsistence, (very) low input, level while soil and water conservation practices are virtually non -existent. The opportunities are to be sought in the introduction of better, research -based, agronomic practices, such as improved (early) varieties,fertilizerapplicationtogether with good organic matter management and integrated disease /pest management.

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Given the predominantly hillyto mountainous terrain,soil conservation measures are essential, not only to prevent the loss of relatively fertile topsoil but also toprevent or reduce the incidence of flashfloods which damage villages and irrigationschemes in the Turkestan Plains.Soil conservation measures, which provide benefits to the farmers (fruit, fuelwood, foddercrops, spices and medicinal plants produced on contourbunds forinstance) and which contribute to better crop yields through improved soilfertility and water management, will have to be developed together with the farmer communitiesand in response to needs expressed by the farmers. The steeperslopes, e.g. >30 -40 per cent, may subsequently be protected against erosion either byreverting to (controlled) pastures or mixed pistachio /almond plantations or a combinationof both.

General remarks: Coal deposits occur in southern Samangan province around Shabashak.

2.2.7 Zone 7. Turkestan Plains (8.6 %)

Location /area: The Turkestan Plains region comprises the western part of Takhar province (Khvajeh Ghar, Taloqan and Bangi districts and the northern 1/3 of Chal district), the major part of Kunduz province (except Aliabad and the southern 1/5 of Khanabad districts), the northern partof Samangan (Kaldar and the northern 5/6 of Kholmdistricts),Balkh (Shur Teppah, Dowlatabad, Char Buldaq,Balkh, Mazar -i- Sharif, Naher Shah and Dehdadi districts), Jawz¡an (Khamyabi, Qarqin, Mordian, Mangah Jek, Sheberghan, Khanaqa, Aqchahand Feyzabad districts), Faryab (Khan -e Char Bagh, Qorghan, Qaramqol, Dowlatabad, Shirin Tagab Almara and the northern 2/5 of Pashtun Kowt districts), Badghis (the northern 1/3 of Ghowrmach, the northwestern 2/3 of Morghab, the northern 3/4 of Qal'eh -ye Nau and the northern 2/3 of Koshk -i- Kohneh districts) and Herat (the northern 3/4 of Koshk and the northern 3/5 of Golran districts). Area (approximately): 55 100km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 200 m at the border with Turkmenistan (Amu Darya River) to approximately 1000 m at the border with the Northern Mountains and Foothills region.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from 100 -200 mm in the northern sandy desert area bordering the Amu Darya River, to approximately 350 mm at the border with the Northern Mountains and Foothills region and 400 -500 mm at the border with Badakhshan region.

Number of dry months: from 8 in the northern sandy desert area to 5 months at the border with the Northern Mountains and Foothills and Badakhshan regions.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 0 in most of the region to 1 -2 months at the border with the neighbouring regions.

Much variability in temperature occurs in winter (December- February). A series of warm days (15 to 21°C) gives way to a three- to four week period of freezing weather.

Spring (March -May) exhibits great climatic variability.March and April temperatures often drop to freezing, and maximum readings for two consecutive days in May may vary as much as 28 °C. Snow, sleet and cold rain fall, but the snow seldom sticks.Throughout the spring, average temperatures increase gradually.Daytime temperatures sometimes exceed 26 °C in March, 32 °C in April, 37 °C in May.

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Diurnal summer (June- September, the least variable of seasons) temperatures still fluctuate greatly.Day temperatures often reach 40 °C, with nights much colder.However, by the middle of September, nighttime freezing temperatures commonly occur.

Autumn (October- November), like spring, exhibits variable temperatures, and a shift from hot to freezing weather can strike abruptly.

Rain falls sporadically in autumn and winter, but most falls in spring as thundershowers, increasing the danger of floods.Disastrous floods sometimes result as snow melts in the mountains south of the plains during April and May. The average annual precipitation in the Turkestan Plains seldom reaches 250 mm however.

Geology: Almost exclusively Quaternary conglomerates, sand and loess and Tertiary (Neogene) conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and marls at the border with the Northern Mountains and Foothills region.

Landforms /soils: The Northern Mountains and Foothills give abruptly way to stony plains about 370 m above sealevel where the elevation drops less than 305 m in 80 km. Scattered dunes sometimes occur in pebbly deserts and conversely. Sand drifts and dunes begin near Ankhvoy less than 32 km from the Amu Darya. To the east the sand pinches out about 3.2 km from the border. The long, shifting dunes reach heights of 9 m. Almost level, the floodplain of the Amu Darya varies from 3 to 16 km in width. Marshy alluvial terraces, 3 to 6 m high, often separate the floodplain from the desert. North of Tashkurgan and southwest of Andkhoy sit expanses of salt flats which become wet marshes in winter, but dry, crusty zones in summer.

A description of the soils of the Kunduz area (J.Pias, 1976) may serve to characterize the major soils of much of the Turkestan Plains. The " dasht" areas, which are situated between the irrigated plains, consist of sandy aeolian deposits: Haplic and Calcaric Arenosols, Eutric and Calcaric Regosols and Haplic Calcisols.Haplic and Calcic Gypsisols appear on the footslopes close to the mountain ranges.The river valley plains comprise, in the higher positions, Eutric Fluvisols and, in the lower positions, Eutric and Histi -Eutric Gleysols, all on loamy and clayloam alluvial material.In the lowest positions saline soils such as Gleyic Solonetz and Solonchaks or saline intergrades to Gleysols may locally occur.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statisticstotalagriculturalland occupied around 1,431,184 ha (26% of the zone) comprising 16,340 ha (1.1 %) orchards, 657,660 ha (46 %) irrigated and 757,190 ha (52.9 %) rainfed land.

The " dasht" areas are used for winter and spring pasture and sometimes for rainfed agriculture. The alluvialareas are intensively or semi -intensively used for irrigated agriculture. Hydromorphic soils(Eutric Gleysols) are used for paddy rice when the watertable is close to the surface.

Constraints /opportunities: Low rainfall, ranging from 150 -250 mm in most of the zone, is probably the major constraint. Rainfall mainly occurs in the period December -April and therefore the semi -arid steppes ( "dasht ") are suitable winter grazing areas for nomadic groups and sedentary farmers. Opportunistic, if not careless, attempts to cultivate the "dasht" areas for rainfed cropping are increasingly observed and not only reduce the available winter pasture but also greatly increase the risk of wind erosion and desertification.

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Several rivers debouch into the TurkestanPlains and supply water to as manyirrigation schemes. The rivers in the western 2/3 ofthe zone are mainly rainfed and thereforethe water supply is only sufficient for one crop per year.Irrigation efficiency is low at present which means that parts of the irrigation schemesdo not receive enough water each year. Opportunities may therefore be found in improvingirrigation efficiency (e.g.drip irrigation in orchards and vineyards) and perhaps in theconstruction of reservoirs if suitable locations can be found in the Northern Mountainsand Foothills zone.

General remarks: From the agroecological point of view the TurkestanPlains may have to be subdivided in order to separate a southern strip, bordering theNorthern Mountains and Foothills region, where rainfed agriculture appears to be possible undercertain conditions, from the drier rest of the Turkestan Plains where rainfed agriculturewould be too risky and might lead to increased desertification of the marginal "dasht" areas.Field (visual) observations suggest for example that such a line could be drawn in thewestern zone near Dowlatabad. Another agroecological subdivision might bebased on the increasing rainfall trend from west to east.

Crude oil and natural gas fields occur in Jawzjanand Faryab provinces. Rational exploitation and use of natural gas and coal may make a verysignificant contribution to solving (part of) the fuel crisis and to a developmentoriented fertilizer policy.

2.2.8 Zone 8. Herat -Farah Lowlands (11.9 %)

Location /area: The Herat -Farah Lowlands comprise most of Herat (exceptthe eastern Karokh, Pashtun Zarghoon, Obey and Chesht -e Sharif districts, the northern3/5 of Golran and the northern 3/4 of Koshk districts) and Farah (except Farsi andPurchaman districts) provinces.

Area (approximately): 76 500 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 470 m at the southwestern borderwith Iran to 2000 -2500 m bordering the Central Mountains region.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from less than 100 mmin the southwest to 300 -400 mm bordering the Central Mountainsregion (at altitudes above 2000 mm) and the Turkestan Plains region.

Number of dry months: from 11in the southwest to 6 months bordering the Central Mountains and Turkestan Plains regions.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below0 °C: from 0 in most of the region at less than 1500 m to 1 -3 bordering the CentralMountains and Turkestan Plains regions.

Winter (December- February) finds freezing temperatures commonat night. Warm spells do occur however, and temperatures above 21°C have been reported for December- January, and 26 °C in February. Spring (March -May), more variablethan winter, has some freezing temperatures in March, but the average gradually increases toabout 21 °C in May.Day temperatures in the hot, dry summer (June- September)sometimes reach 45 °C.A June midnight temperature of 45 °C has been recorded at Farah.In September, a noticeable

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Repon -21 - decrease in temperature occurs, and nights become chilly and even cold, although the days remain relatively warm. Transitional autumn (October- November) has decreasingly warmer days and increasingly colder nights, especially in the Herat area.

Both snow and rain fall in the Herat area during winter, but snow melts and seldom remains on the ground for long. Although less rain falls in the spring, rivers swollen with melt -water often cause floods as early as February and climax in April.Summer thunderstorms and flash rains occur but autumn is mostly rainless.

Geology: The low hills near Herat are crystalline rocks and undifferentiated metamorphics of the Upper Palaeozoic. with Mesozoic limestones and shales north of the Hari Rud. Mesozoic limestones and shales, Tertiary sandstones, clastics, and basic to intermediate volcanic intrusions and extrusions and Quaternary deposits (conglomerates, pebbles, sand) abound in the south. Desert basins of sandy clay covered with loose gravels and pebbles surround the hills.Near the lrano-Afghan boundary exist a number of salt- and mudflats, more extensive than those of the Turkestan Plains.

Landforms /soils: Actually an extension of the Khurasan Region of the Iranian Plateau, the Herat -Farah complex consists mainly of mountain ranges and low hills, sporadically rugged but generally rounded, separated by broad, flat valleys.

For a short description of major landforms and soils, see region 9.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statisticstotalagricultural area occupied around 371,200 ha (4.8% of the zone), comprising 2,290 ha (0.6 %) orchards, 368,780 ha (99.3 %) irrigated and virtually no (< 0.1%) rainfed land.The region is intensely cultivated where water is available: i.e. the Herat Rod, Farah Rod and Harut Rod river valleys.

Constraints /opportunities: Like in most zones with semi -arid plains surrounding the mountainous zones, low and erratic rainfallis the main agricultural constraint in the herat -Farah Lowlands whereas opportunities arise from the rivers and alluvial terraces in the form of irrigated agriculture. The semi -arid plains or "dasht" are used as winter /spring grazing areas by nomadic groups and sedentary communities. Although no rainfed agriculture has been reported on these plains, the natural vegetation is steadily being depleted of its small shrubs by fuelwood collectors. The practice of uprooting shrubs has been obeserved several times during field visits in April 1996.

2.2.9 Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin (7.5 %)

Location /area: The Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin region comprises part of Qandahar (southern 5/6 of Ghowrak, northern 1/5 of Maywand, northern 1/4 of Panjvaj districts and the districts of Arghandab, Qandahar, Daman and Dand), Helmand (Kajaki, Musa Qala Sarbon Qala, Nahre Sara /Gereshk, Nawae -Barakzae and Deh Shu districts, the southern 2/5 of Naw Zad, the southeastern1/3of Washir, the eastern1/2of Nad- e'Ali,the northern1/2of Bust/Lashkar Gah, the northwestern 1/40 of Garmser and the southeastern 1/2 of Khan Neshin districts) and Nimruz (southern 3/4 of Char Borjak district) provinces.

Area (approximately): 48 400 km2

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 22 -

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 470 m at the level of theSistan Basin to 2000 -2500 m bordering the Central Mountains region.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from less than 100 mmin most of the region (below approximately 1000 m) to 200 -300 mm bordering the CentralMountains region.

Number of dry months: from 12 in the southwest to 9months bordering the Central Mountains region.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to orbelow 0 °C: from 0 in most of the region to 1 -2 bordering the Central Mountains region.

The "windof 120 days" (bad -i- sad -o- bist -roz),isa seasonalnatural phenomenon. Beginning in July, the winds gradually increase and blow through September.

Other strong, cold winds push out of the high pressure areassouth of Central Asia and the Turkestan Plains in autumn. winter and spring, but seldom with theforce of the former.

Another phenomenon of the lowlands of Afghanistan, both north and south,is the khakbad ( "dust wind "), or small whirlwind of sand. At times, tens of theseminiature tornados can be seen swaying across desert and semi- desert areas.

Geology: Almost the entire region consists of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits(conglomerates, pebbles, sand, sandstones, siltstones, clays, marls and salts).Quaternary aeolian sands occur in the south.

Landforms /soils: The region may be broadly divided into Desert Upland Area, Desert Plains or"dasht" Area, River Valleys and the Sistan Basin. The same subdivision and descriptionof major soils below may grosso modo be applied to Regions 8, 10 and 11 and to the southernpart of Region 5.

In the Desert Uplands rockoutcrops, Eutric Leptosols and Eutric Regosols dominate.In the Desert Plains (long outwash slopes and fans) mainly thin, reddish to gray desertsoils over outwash gravels, highly impregnated with lime, are found; gypsum beds occur only afew inches below the surface: Calcaric Cambisols (yermic phase), Haplic and Petric Calcisols, Haplic and Petric Gypsisols and Calcaric Arenosols are found.In depressions intergrades to hydromorphic and saline soils occur.

Inthe River Valleys (valleyfilland terraces) the soils are frequently underlain by conglomerate or gravel.Deep siltloams and fine sandy loams (along the Helmand River extensive areas of sand and sandy loams occur) dominate: Eutric Fluvisols.Irrigation with silt -laden water has, through the centuries, built thick layers of silt and fine sands over the original soils.The drainability varies from place to place.The more recent terraces and benches along the variousriversare important areas forirrigatedagriculture. In depressions or in areas where drainage is impeded and a high watertable occurs, salinity problems often appear: Calcic or Sali- Calcic Gleysols, Sali- Eutric Fluvisols and Gleyic Solonchaks. Further downstream the drainage and salinity problem gradually increases.

The Sistan Basin,a zone of intermittent lakes,fresh water and brackish marshes interspersed between stony and sandy deserts, forms part of the great inland Helmand

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 23 - drainage basin.Level fertile plains, the ancient beds of extinct lakes, surround the modern lakes: loamy to clayey lacustrinedeposits with Sali- Eutric Fluvisols, Gleyíc Solonchaks /Takyric phase.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to 1972 FAO Landcover Statistics totalagricultural land occupied around 410,620 ha (8.5% of the zone) comprising 22,165 ha (5.4 %) orchards, 388,160 ha (94.5 %) irrigated and some 300 ha (0.1%) rainfed land. Opium poppy cultivation (irrigated) occupied between 26,000 and 27,000 ha (UNDCP estimate) in 1995 (Qandahar and Helmand provinces).

For a description of the main vegetation characterics see region 10.

Constraints /opportunities: Irrigated agricultureisconstrained by problematic substratum drainability(salinization hazard).Apparently suitable soils are often underlain at 1.5 to 3 m with very slowly permeable compacted clay and gravels or layers of "caliche" or conglomerate.Drainage and leaching as well as the use of salt -tolerant crops and raised beds represent opportunities to deal with the salinity problem.

Wind erosion is locally an important hazard where dunes are in movement on the windward side or irrigation and drainage structures. This is reported to be a serious problem in parts of Helmand province (Lower Marja, Lower Shamalan and central Darweshan irrigation schemes) and of Nimroz province (Chakhansur district).

Low soil fertility (low available phosphate and lack of nitrogen seriously affect crop yields) is another problem. Soils in southwestern Afghanistan are low in organic matter as most crop residues and manures are burnt for fuel and few farmers plough under green manure. As a consequence. a fallow period of 2 to 5 years is a common practice on muchof the land.

Spring floods often cover wide areas, and the uncontrolled Helmand flushes downstream from the mountains.But the huge dams at Kajakai on the Helmand and Dahla on the Arghandab have helped gain moderate control since the mid- 1950s.The lateral valleys with their outwash fans create seasonal problems when the irrigation system cannot cope with the flash flood waters ( "washes "), especially during the period December to May.

2.2.10Zone 10. Western Stony Deserts (5.7 %)

Location /area: The Western Stony Deserts region comprise most part of Nimroz (Khosh Rod, Asle Chakhansur, Kang Zaranj and the northern 1/4 of Char Borjak districts) and the western part of Helmand (middle 1/5 of Naw Zad, western 2/3 of Washir, western 1/2 of Nad -e'Ali and western 1/2 of Khan Neshin districts).

Area (approximately): 36 900 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 470 m in the southwest to 1500 m bordering the Central Mountains region in the northeast.

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from less than 100 mm in most of the region (below approximately 1000 m) to 200 -300 mm bordering the Central Mountains region.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 24 -

Number of dry months: from 12 in the southwest to 9 months bordering the Central Mountains region.

Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: from 0 in most of the region to 1 -2 bordering the Central Mountains region.

Great diurnal changes of temperature occur, and water sometimes freezes at night in summer in spite of noon maxima of 45 °C or higher.

Geology: Most of the region consists of Quaternary deposits (conglomerates, pebbles, sand, salt) withTriassic /Jurassicsandstones,siltstones,marls,conglomerates,volcanicrocks, limestones, dolomites and shales in the north bordering the Central Mountains region.

Landforms /soils: For a description of the major landforms and soils see region 9.In addition Dupree, 1973 reports that scattered lenses of volcanic ash a few inches thick alternate with volcanic lavas in the region. Spring flash floods cut deep depressions in the sandy clay and silt underlying the heavily cemented blackish wind -polished basaltic pebbles. Seasonal overflow from the Helmand creates shallow ponds throughout the fringes of the desert.

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics total agricultural land occupied around 77,020 ha (2.1% of the zone) comprising 140 ha (0.2 %) orchards and 76,880 ha (99.8 %) irrigated land; no rainfed land was recorded.

Mainly uninhabited and relatively unexplored, the Dasht -iKash, Dasht -iMargo, and adjacent areas are hot, waterless, barren, varnished -pebble- strewn deserts, which (like the Southwestern Sandy Deserts) seldom rise over 900 m above sea level, usually ranging between 300 and 900 m.

Limited flora and fauna can survive in either the Sistan basin, Western Stony Deserts or Southwestern Sandy Deserts. Desert plants are xerophytic and adapt to extremes of aridity and salinity.Only thorny, deep- rooted plants exist perennially. The commonest and most widespread is camel grass or thorn, a member of the pea family, which is greenish -gray in color.Camel grass exudes a combustible sap which hardens on contact with the air and can be used as an emergency food.

Constraints /opportunities: The main constraints appear to be very low rainfall and lack of irrigation water. Agricultural landuse is probably limited to opportunistic winter /spring grazing of sheep and goats.

General remarks: The Hamoon -e Helmand consists of a number of lagoons /lakes where many species of birds rest during their migratory pathways.

2.2.11Zone 11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts (6.9 %)

Location /area: The Southwestern Sandy Deserts region comprises most of Qandahar (Shegah, Reg and Shorabak districts and the southern 4/5 of Maywand and southern 3/4 of Panjvaj districts) and the southeastern part of Helmand (southern 1/2 of Bust and 39/40 of Garmser districts).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 25 -

Area (approximately): 44 500 km2

Altitudes: Range: from approximately 600 m to 2000 m on the southern and eastern borders with Pakistan

Climate: Range of mean annual precipitation: from less than 100 mm in the western half to 100 -200 mm in the eastern half.Number of dry months: from 11 in the central part to 9 in the northeastern and southern parts.Number of months with mean temperatures equal to or below 0 °C: 0 in all of the region.

Geology: Most of the region consists of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits (conglomerates, pebbles, sandstones, siltstones, clays, marls, salt, gypsum) largely covered by Quaternary aeolian sands.

Landforms /soils: The region mainly consists of what is called "Registan ", the "Land of Sand ", an area of shifting sand dunes (Haplic Arenosols) with an underlying pebble -conglomerate floor.The moving dunes reach heights of between 15 and 30 m. However, some fixed dunes exist in centralRegistan. Levelareas between the dunes,called pat menace travelers. Treacherous sandy clay mush when wet, pat becomes a hard -topped pan when dry, but remains mushy underneath. For a short description of other major soil types, see region 9 "Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin ".

Landcover /landuse: (cf Tables 1, 2 and 3) According to 1972 FAO Landcover Statistics total agricultural area occupied around 58,190 ha (1.3% of the zone) comprising 52,560 ha (90.3 %) irrigated land (Reg and Shorawak districts; no orchards were recorded) and 5,630 ha (9.7 %) rainfed land (Shorawak district). For a description of the main vegetation characteristics see region 10 "Western Stony Deserts ".

Constraints /opportunities: Like for zone 10, the main constraints appear to be very low rainfall and lack of irrigation water. Agricultural landuse is probably limited to opportunistic winter /spring grazing of sheep and goats.

2.2.12Conclusions

None of the above classifications or groupings (except FAO, 1978) or groupings correspond to genuine agroecological zones which should be based on climate and soil units.FAO's agroecological zones for Afghanistan have been established at the sub -continental level and are not detailed enough for the purpose of this report. Even when considering climatic criteria only, Dupree's eleven geographic zones or Humlum's ten natural provinces would have to be refined in order to take into account different elevation intervals and rainfall trends within regions which have a direct impact on the length of and temperatures during the growing season and hence on the cropping intensity and the choice of crops that can be grown.

For the purpose of a physiographic characterization of Afghanistan's natural zones Dupree's geographic zones may be taken as a basis, bearingin mind the eventual subdivision into elevation intervals and rainfall trend regions.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 26 - Province Orchards % 2 crops Irrigated% Production 1 crop Table 1. Landcover Statistics by province% (FAO, 1972 Inter- % Total Flat* % Rainfed ProductionSloping % Total % agriculture Total Unclassified ha Total ha BadghisBadakhshan 41101336 845 1.11.87.7 per yr43218 70764157 36.515.1 7.7 per yr3998712804 9640 33.727.317.8 mittent 339282619836062 28.655.866.8 118469 4692353969 291947782924109 11.313.7 4.9 465655228951489756 88.786.395.1 258145567585489764 14.826.411.2 376614614508543733 153168038332351362950 214618843769681739564 FarahBaBalkhBaghlan m yan 59605880 698 66 5.60.30.12.4 444782518987 120 8.50.23.41.9 21721302063666819780 20.529.812.715.2 203075191062 4630769468 6585.269.878.9 4 241861238426106136 66273 37493579181157510374 56.9 8.87.63.3 600045139802302807 28432 43.191.292.496.7 657963313181151377 65925 25.331.3 8.61.1 304351217650555042764099 551432313405301551192681048 5818674210462917688421236090 GhazniHeratHelmandGhorFaryab ** 1762 950831 0.70.90.4 16029 1319 0 6.40.00.6 500353100759727 20.029.026.5 182465163768 74953 72.970.172.6 250291225645106910 164264 79002 3608 59.891.615.2 440912 14982 2428 40.284.8 8.4 519914179246 6036 13.2 0.18.3 256327626824404891 596159933024351750290 4246587621792639292592155181 KonarKapisaKabulJawzjan 219647276518 18 0.14.94.83.7 25755215801008411568 40.657.421.8 5.7 333001269719138 9782 28.333.734.310.9 139635 39097 41377069 24.839.679.6 9.2 175375 284374478598704 227672408013596 3445 68.567.888.7 7.9 281248 624928891634 92.131.532.211.3 305328 2565619845 5079 11.5 0.95.81.9 480703124360 4828249864 2176490 493083318250970101 26571931018383442610542947 LaghmanKunduzLogar 1439 294494109 0.40.21.31.2 106009 6528416110 3135 57.972.958.6 7.5 350213404621265 6423 23.124.130.650.6 1047517051 50924022 40.618.3 2.89.4 111244145346 4194527734 47028 56137383 284 75.294.747.0 7.6 90094 26141852 320 24.853.092.4 5.3 9747749642 7465 604 11.012.0 0.11.0 242823118709 9158728338 634614358330673524567849 753323449917701862810672 PaktiaOruzganNimrozNangarhar 3974 624496153 0.70.53.00.2 20176 71461669 0 20.1 5.30.01.8 530814873413416 924 52.936.314.2 0.9 26527964887844674405 83.326.455.498.9 100280134259 9415597565 268891386813856 0.0 94.980.016.3 0.0 71083 6732 7470.0 20.083.7 0.05.1 336218493914615 0.0 0.83.53.00.0 219198108770133901 97565 263292340428631808347818090 285212141404281917117 951991 SaQandaharParwanPaktika m angan 24032 228825791774 3.23.57.12.9 2449030506 60403635 42.639.3 8.21.1 22878297022566421812 31.940.335.0 7.6 283525 158733524214089 22.247.984.222.6 336856 715457356362165 91597220935368212431 100.0 59.319.7 6.0 372262343431 8521 6 80.394.040.7 0.0 4638593655242095253688 37.821.0 1.03.5 535404439087390544 83117 13055414556494 692881513543 494703812282851744628596660 TotalAverageZabulWardakTakhar excl. excl. Herat Herat 80219 276640402026 4.22.22.4 451399 15565 4608 0 13.7 5.00.0 733699 2530025140 9101 22.327.1 9.4 2022963 697578357060934 61.586.465.7 3288280 113389 9671192708 919712 2847237262 76.097.3 3916000 11771 777 24.0 2.7 4835712 2924949033 5.01.7 8123992 125960141741 51868951 1630739846007 59992941 1756699 987748 %Total Heratof countrylcincl. /lu Herattype excl excl Herat 2.5 13.7 22.3 61.5 100.0(5.5) 19.0 81.0 100.0 (8) 13.5 86.5 64239530 100.0 Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy TheFlat rainfedtotal area land for includes Herat province rainfed island, obtained occasionally from landcover irrigated /landuse in spring data and publishedassumed byfla DAI /Earthsat, 1993; FAO 1972 data for Herat are not available Land Management Report Province Irrigated % 1 Rainfed Table 2. Landcover /Land use Statistics by province (DAI /Earthsat,% 1.9 Total agric. % Rangeland % Forest /shrub %1993 Barren /misc. Total(ha) Total km2 BalkhBaghlanBadghisBadakhshan 1939141089305146443293 15.7 6.32.4 340912188355503346 84709 27.610.823.3 534826297285554810128002 43.325.717.1 2.9 20048881566182559138973020 45.255.972.545.8 288594247186 37131 0 16.6 5.61.7 0 1996791 142026180555 714 173945421588374376867 215901739043770 GhazniFaryabFarahBa m yan 210098147614226903 58937 9.73.93.3 7 571600 11117 20091890 27.10.03 0.50.1 221215719214228793 60946 34.110.3 3.93.4 1850697138413855528001504225 65.694.5 85 98079 66911854 214 0.004 0.09 5.5 105480 92206 5068 2110274587401317687301235990 21100587401769012360 HeratHelmandGhor 242794231219120739 10.8 5.73.73.1 139055 16290 6705 11.1 3.30.30.2 381849247509127444 3.2 49 378212244517483791517 89.171.296.585.9 15429 6457 0 0.16 0.40.3 0 1550711 6718776420 3599 4246587624996839290172155023 42470625003929021550 JawzjanKonarKapisaKabul 285928 202774964757115 18.812.9 29 295863 34671061 304 0.07 0.30.2 581791 237445070857419 21.9 2.39.2 13 2043908 280907332769159665 27.628.975.276.9 454816194017 32553 1908 44.735.10.07 7.4 258863147524 2936719842 10183302656974 551914442583 1018026570 55204430 NangarharLogarLaghmanKunduz 1000101520303710626838 13.3 8.23.8 104400 2666 0 12.9 0.6 0 100010256430 3977226838 31.613.3 8.83.8 470304357485287998538284 62.479.566.4 41 156455254528 45898 0 20.810.236.3 0 132454 15900 6730 449885701818810614 450070208110 PaktikaPaktiaOruzganNimroz 12608610124011375444255 10.6 6.61.1 4 00 0.1 0 101240113754 44255 10.6 1.1 4 26498743152306504220 92.975.4 53 339225 8997 0 35.6 0.3 0 984624 7926726527 7029 28518924181185 951714753296 2852041810 95207530 SaQandahar Parwanm angan 271431 4715949715 2.75.58.3 284982 66110 2792 38 16.30.01 1.3 332141337541128878 49753 6.88.36.7 19 229173912529741694819316181 46.371.888.4 53 181617 71594 0 30.4 3.7 0 2316157 159399 4907021727 494543717445141917018596621 174404945019170 5970 TotalZabulWardakTakhar 3358894 801477938580866 4.66.6 8 3080183 402744 48640 1128 32.8 2.70.1 6439077 128787483610 80513 39.4 7.38.2 46693681 1621667 767757550349 92.377.744.8 2615666 135037 37386 0 13.7 03 8642590 156975 60404338 6439101417564941228320 987645 643910 1756012280 9880 Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 28 -

Table 3. Landcover Statistics by Geographic Zone ZoneRegion Orchards Irrigated Rainfed Total agr.Unclassif. Total(ha)Total(km2)

1 Wakhan 8 4762 0 4770 1105404 1110174 11100 2 Badakhshan 5957 72272 714398 7926273331450 4124077 41200 3 Central Mtns (-.H) 10322 479346 848532133820010113825 11452025 114500 3 Central Mtns ( +H) 12236085 122400 4 Eastern Mtns 12783 452072 151057 6159124465968 5081880 50800 5 South Mtns F'hills 4283 522471 229676 7564305682849 6439279 64400 6 North Mtns Fh( -H) 7636 301391 22587962567823 6461874 9029697 90300 6 North Mtns Fh( +H) 9106399 91100 7 Turk Plains (-H) 16238 647757 627189 1291184 3599046 4890230 48900 7 Turk Plains ( +H) 5508955 55100 8 Herat -Farah Ll(-H) 689 210375 134 211198 4675350 4886548 48900 8 Herat -Farah LI( +H) 7653648 76500 9 Helmand-Sistan 22165 388160 297 4106224430495 4841117 48400 10West Stony Desert 139 76881 0 770203610155 3687175 36900 11 SW Sandy Desert 0 52562 5630 581924392537 4450729 44500 Total (-Herat) 8022032080494835709 812397851868953 59992931 599900 Total ( +Herat) 64239518 642400

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 29 - 2.3 SOIL COVER

2.3.1 Soil surveys

Soil studies in Afghanistan have mainly been carried out in the framework of irrigation schemes. This may explain why soilsurveys and landcapability (mapping) have traditionally been the responsibility of the Ministry of Power and Water while the Ministry of Agriculture was responsible for the agronomic aspects of soils such assoilfertility experiments and assessment.

No soil survey index map was said to be available at either Ministry of Power and Water or Ministry of Agriculture (Visit to Kabul, April 1996). From available soil studies (FAO /Rome, FAO /Peshawar) the following information on soil survey activities has been compiled:

1. Report on Soil and Water Resources of Southwest Afghanistan.Royal Government of Afghanistan /International Engineering Company, Inc. California. September 1959.

Volume I- General Volume II- Project Areas

A large proportion of the potentially irrigable lands in southwest Afghanistan have been examined. Total gross surveyed area was about 1,720,250 acres (695,500 ha), of which reconnaissance and drainability surveys have covered 678,135 acres (274,170 ha), semi- detailed surveys 464,335 acres (187,730 ha) and detailed surveys 577,786 acres (233,600 ha). The following areas were surveyed (semi -detailed and detailed surveys):

Central Arghandab: 53,450 ha North Arghandab: 27,360 ha Bakwa: 105,650 ha Boghra: 10,100 ha Chakansur: 224,120 ha Darweshan: 29,880 ha Garmsel: 62,600 ha West Kajakai: 5,150 ha Marja: 20,170 ha Seraj: 43,520 ha Shamalan: 26,680 ha Tarnak: 44,740 ha

2. Report on survey of land andwater resources ofAfghanistan. FAO, 1965 (FAO /SF:9 /AF6).

Volume I General Report Volume II Section I: Geology Section II: Topography Volume Ill Hydrology Volume IV Soil surveys and land classification Volume V Water control, irrigation and power potential Volume VI Irrigation development Hari Rud and Kabul Basins

The soil surveys described in Volume IV, were undertaken especially from the point of view of further irrigation development and relate to the river valleys of three distinct regions in Afghanistan:

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 30 - a) the tributaries of the Kabul River (Ghorband, Panjsher, Shakar -da,Logar) and part of the Kabul River itself. b) the valleys of the Ghazni, Nahar and Lora Rivers, in the provincesof Ghazni and Paktia, which flow into the internal drainage basin of LakeAb-i-lstada, together with the Jilga which is a tributary of the Ghazni, and the small internaldrainage area of the Wazi Khwa. c) the valleys of the Farah and Adraskand Rivers, which flow intothe Helmand depression of Sistan and the Hari Rud.

Soil, land use and land classification maps were producedfor Ghorband, Panjsher and Shakar -da Valleys (scale 1:100,000; 98,000 ha), part of LogarValley (scale 1:100,000; 36,000 ha). Kabul Valley (scale 1:100,000; 104,300 ha), Ghazniand Jilga Valley (scale 1:200,000; 390,000 ha inGhazni province), Upper and Middle Nahar Valley (scale 1:200,000; 123,400 ha in Ghazni province), Ab- i- Istada -Dilya area and LoraValley (scale 1:200,000; 310,000 ha in Ghazni province), Waza Khwa area (scale 1:200,000;54,900 ha in Ghazni province), Farah Valley (scale 1:116,000, 50,000 haincluding Juwain area /scale 1:54,000 and Qal'eh Kah area /scale 1:100,000), Adraskand (Shindand)Basin (scale 1:200,000; 155,000 ha in Farah province), Lower hari Rud Valley (Ghurian area,scale 1:200,000; 159,800 ha in Farah province) and Upper hari Rud Valley (scale1:200,000; 250,800 ha in Farah province).

3.Formations superficielles et sols d'Afghanistan.J.Pias, ORSTOM, 1976. Travaux et Documents de l'ORSTOM no 55, ORSTOM -CNRS, Paris. Reconnaissance studies were carried out by J.Pias (ORSTOM) in several regions of Afghanistan: A soil map, scale 1:100,000, covering the Logar Valley and part of the Kabul Basin. An exploratory soil map ( "esquisse pédologique "),scale 1:150,000, covering the confluence zone of the Khanabad and Kunduz Rivers (Kunduz province), about 60,000 ha. A description of the major soils of part of the Central Mountains zone in Bamyan province. A description of the major soils occurring in the Qandahar region and the Regestan- Sistan -Margo Depression. A description of (some of) the major soils occurring in the Jalalabad Basin, Nuristan (Konar province) and Paktia province. - A description of some of the major soils occurring in the western Northern Mountains and Foothills zone (Qal'eh -ye Now region, Badghis province).

4. Helmand River Basin. Soil and Water Survey Study Report. Prepared by the Government of Afghanistan and the United States Agency for International Development, 1976. The report includes a (very general) Schematic Soil Classification map, scale approximately 1:2,900,000, covering the Helmand River Basin (approximate area: 117,550km2). Data from earlier soil studies, carried out by Morrison -Knudsen Afghanistan (1953 -58) and available at the Helmand -Arghandab Valley Authority in Lashar Gah (Helmand province), were used. Among the available data were a number of soil maps and landcapability maps (scales ranging from 1:8,000 to 1:20,000) concerning the following irrigation projects: Seraj, Shamalan, Darweshan, Nad -e Ali, Garmsell, North Arghandab, Central Arghandab and Tarnak. The available soil studies cover a total area of approximately 3,031km2.

5. Konar River Basin Development Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd, Zurich, Switzerland, in association with Norconsult AS. Oslo, Norway, Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Water and Power, 1977.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -31 -

Master Plan Report:

Annex 1: Soils and land classification Annex 2: Agriculture and irrigation Annex 3: Hydrology Annex 4: Geology Annex 5: Hydro -electric and power market studies Annex 6: Infrastructure Annex 7: Forestry Annex 8: Industry Annex 9: Socio- economy Annex 10: Ecology Annex 11:Institutional requirements Annex 12: Photographs Annex 13: Replies to comments on the draft report

Four maps, scale 1:50,000, were produced for the Lower Konar valley (approximately 40,000 ha): - Landform and soils - Land under cultivation Land suitability - Land suitable for expansion

6. Kunduz- Khanabad Irrigation Study, Final report. SOGREAH, Grenoble, France, 1966 This report was not available and the short description below originates fromthe study mentioned under 7).

The reconnaissance soil survey of the Kunduz -Khanabad area and areas in the vicinity are reported by SOGREAH in the 1966 study, Volume II, Chapter IV and Volume Ill, Appendix to Chapter IV.On the soils map at scale 1:250,000 three soil groups are distinguished: Alluvialsoils(3 mapping units,differentiated according to texture and gravelliness), Hydromorphic soils (1 mapping unit) and Sierozem soils (1 mapping unit, on colluvial and loess -like materials).

7. Kunduz -Khanabad Irrigation Feasibility Study. Development and Resource Corporation (D &R), New York/Sacramento /Tehran, 1971.: Appendix 1: Soil and land classification. The soil survey of the Kunduz -Khanabad area is part of the Irrigation Feasibility Study which D &R has undertaken on behalf of FAO. The soils of an area comprised between the Kunduz and Khanabad rivers and covering about 23.000 ha, were mapped at a scale 1:10,000. Twenty five maps (combined soils and landclassificationlegend) were produced. A total of 26 map units were recognized (21 soil units, at the series and phase level, and 5 miscellaneous land types).

8. ILACO (The Netherlands) has conducted soil surveys in the Baghlan and Kunduz areas in the 1970s for irrigation potential assessment (personal communication by Mr P.Van Blom). The report has not been available for consultation.

2.3.2 Soil Types

For an overview of the major soils of Afghanistan, included in the Soil Map of the World (FAO /UNESCO, 1979; Revised Legend /FAO, 1990) see Table 4.The soils described in the various soil studies, reviewed above, have been tentatively correlated with the Revised Legend (FAO, 1990), see Geographic Zones chapter of this report.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 32 - 2.3.3 Conclusion

Various detailed reconnaissance, semi -detailed and detailed soil surveys (scales ranging from 1:250,000 to 1:8,000) have been conducted in Afghanistan between the early 1950s and 1978, covering approximately 5% of the country. Most of these surveys were oriented towards irrigation development and knowledge of Afghan soilsis therefore practically limited to the alluvial valleys and their peripheries.

A soil map at national scale is included in the FAO /UNESCO Soil Map of the World ata scale of 1:5,000,000.It seems that a national soil map has also been prepared by the USSR Government but this map has not been available.

While reasonably detailed, though possibly outdated, soil maps are availableas a basis for planning and management for some of the major irrigation schemes (e.g. Helmand Valley, Kunduz- Khanabad Area), most other irrigation schemes either lack sucha basis or are covered by maps at too small a scale for planning purposes.Furthermore very littleis known about the distribution, properties and management requirements of uplandsoils, notably in the rainfed agriculture areas of the northern provinces.With a view on the steadily increasing importance of rainfedagriculture and therisks associated with cultivating the mostly steep hillsides, the lack of reliable soil and land suitabilitymaps represents a serious constraint torational land use planning and the promotion of sustainable use of the rainfed areas.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report Symbol Legend (1979) Revised Legend (1990) Table 4. Soil Map of the World, associations of Afghanistan Associated soils - 33 - Revised Legend Inclusions Revised Legend Area (ha) I-Bh-U BhI - Humic Cambisols- Lithosols idemLeptosols 123000 I-Rc-Yk RcIU - -Rankers Calcaric- RegosolsLithosols idemLeptosolsMollic Leptosols 3930000 I-X YkI - Calcic Yermosols- Lithosols LeptosolsHaplic Calcisols 17290000 JcI-Y JcYXI - -YermosolsXerosols Calcaric- FluvisolsLithosols idemCalcisols/GypsisolsLeptosols Qc - Cambic Arenosols idem G - Gleysols idem 2403000 453000 QcJc QcJc -- CalcaricCambic FluvisolsArenosols idem -YkRc - Calcic - Calcaric Yermosols Regosols idemHaplic Calcisols ZYkZgZo - -Solonchaks GleyicCalcicOrthic SolonchaksYermosols idemHaplic CalcisolsSolonchaks 7374000 139000 YhXkXh YhXkXh - Haplic XerosolsCalcisolsYermosols Haplic Calcisols/Gypsisols XkRcE - -Calcic -Rendzinas Calcaric Xerosols Regosols idemHaplicRendzic Calcisols/Gypsisols Leptosols Zo - Orthic Solonchaks Haplic Solonchaks 4664000 954000566000 YkI - Calcic Yermosols Haplic Calcisols Yk Yk - Calcic Yermosols Haplic Calcisols Rc - Calcaric- RegosolsLithosols idemLeptosols JcRc I -- CalcaricCalcaric- FluvisolsRegosolsLithosols idemLeptosols 67660005763000 Yk Yk - Calcic Yermosols Haplic Calcisols ZoRc - OrthicCalcaric Solonchaks Regosols Haplicidem Solonchaks ZoI - Orthic Solonchaks- Lithosols LeptosolsHaplic Solonchaks 236000 ZoYt Yt - Takyric Yermosols Calcisols/Gypsisols (takyric phase) YkSoZg- - CalcicGleyicOrthic YermosolsSolonetzSolonchaks Haplicidem CalcisolsSolonetz JcZo -- CalcaricOrthic Solonchaks Fluvisols idemHaplic Solonchaks 2733000 191000 6000 Total Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report 53591000 - 34 -

2.4 SOIL FERTILITY

2.4.1 Review of pre -war research

FAO, 1971 (Tamboli)

FAO (1971) reviews pre -1970 work on agronomic fertilizer experiments (wheat, corn and sugarbeet). The following results are of particular interest:

Hauser (1951), on the basis of a soil fertility investigation programme, concludes that: a) nitrogen is the limiting factor in most Afghan soils. b) application of phosphorus will not help if soils are low in nitrogen. c) application of phosphorus on soils rich in nitrogen is beneficial. d) potassium is not a limiting factor. e) soils having more than 5 ppm of water soluble phosphorus will not respond to application of phosphorus. f) one or two heavy applications of local manure did not correct deficiency of phosporus.

A number of other authors, quoted by FAO (1971), have conducted trials on wheat and corn between 1960 and 1968.Results vary from place to place and are generally not very consistent, probably due to differences in climate, soils, crop husbandry, fertilizers etc. A few examples are given below:

Wheat: 34 N and 34 P205 kg /ha: 149 %2 increase, Kabul province 46 N, 42 P205 and 42 KCI kg /ha: 76% increase, location unknown. 90 N and 45 P205 kg /ha: highest wheat yield of almost 6 t/ha, Jalalabad Research Station. 85 N and 85 P205 kg /ha:32% increase in Jalalabad and 40% increase in Baghlan. Evidence of P- fixation problem was reported in the Baghlan area (Samin and Nielsen). 85 N and 165P2O5 kg /ha: 10% increase, Kabul area

Under the Accelerated Wheat Programme the Government and USAID conducted uniform wheat fertilizer trials in 1968 and 1969 at the Research Stations of Kabul, Bolan, Jalalabad, Herat, Qandahar, Baghlan, Kunduz, Mazar, Logar and Ghazni for three years. The optimum yield /maximum profit of 113 seer /jerib or 3955 kg /ha was obtained at the 133 -100 N -P205 kg /ha level (control: 60 s/j or 2100 kg /ha). These trials appear to confirm Hauser's points, e.g.b) and c) above.

Yield levels for wheat in experimental stations appear to vary between 2 and 3 t/ha on control plots and between 4 and 6 t/ha on fertilized plots.

Corn: 52 N and 47 P205 kg /ha: 32% increase /local variety and 23% increase /improved variety, Helmand Valley. 104 N and 104 P205 kg /ha: 42% increase, Darulaman F. 108 N and 110 P205 kg /ha: 26% increase, Kabul prov. 205 N and 180 P205 kg /ha: 77% increase, Darulaman F. 207 N and 207 P205 kg /ha: 23% increase, Aliabad Farm

2 This figure seems high; perhaps an increase of 49% was meant (fertilized plot yielded 149% against control plot 100 %), unless the control plot yield was very low.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 35 -

Yield levels for maize vary between 1 and 5 t/ha on control plots and between 2 and 8 t/ha on fertilized plots.

Sugarbeet: Hauser (FAO, 1971) demonstrated in the early 50s that the "Juia" planting method (furrows) gives poor yield as compared to flat soil planting. The advantages of the latter method being high yield, less work, quicker and effective weeding, better germination etc.Hauser therefore recommended that all sugarbeet fields be levelled in terraces and planting beet on sloping fields should be discouraged.Results of his experimental work was 40.7 t/ha whereas the average yield on the farmers' fields was 7.5 t/ha. The average sugar content on the experimental plots was 18.4% as compared to 15.5% on farmers' fields.

Tamboli (FAO, 1971) conducted about 743 fertilizer trials on different crops (wheat, corn, sugarbeet and rice) and in different areas of Afghanistan, between 1967 and 1970.Soil samples from each of the experimental plots were collected before the application of chemical fertilizers and analyzed.The sources of N, P2O5 and K2O were urea (46 %), superphosphate (18 %) and potassium sulphate (60 %) respectively.

The results, based on the "Economics of Fertilizer Application" tables, are given below.

(Note: value -cost ratios (VCR) are calculated as follows: value = amount of kg crop /ha obtained with fertilizer x price of one kg of crop minus amount of kg crop /ha of control plot x price of one kg of crop; cost = cost of fertilizer applied /ha; ratio is value divided by cost).

Rainfed wheat: application of 15 -15 (N -P2O5) kg /ha in the Kabul, Maidan, Ghazni and Paktia areas gave generally the highest VCRs (ranging from 4.7 to 5.6; yields from 610 to 793 kg /ha) in 1967/68. However in Parwan the highest VCR (6.6) was obtained with 0 -15 kg /ha (yield of 556 kg /ha).In 1968/69 application of 30 -30 kg /ha gave the highest VCR (7.6) in Kabul province (yield of 1907 kg /ha) and 15 -15 kg /ha the highest VCR (14.1) in Logar province (yield of 1769 kg /ha).

(Note: the last results are based on Table 7B (FAO, 1971), the heading of which mentions "irrigated conditions" but which is assumed by the author of this report to be erroneous and to rather reflect the 1968/69 "dryland wheat" results).

Irrigated wheat:in1968/69 applications of 75 -75 kg /hain Laghman and Nangarhar provinces gave the highest VCRs (2.4 -2.5) whereas in Kabul, Kapisa, Parwan, Logar and Maidan provinces applications of 150 -150 kg /ha gave the highest VCRs (3.0 to 4.0; yields ranging from 4180 to 5420 kg /ha). In1969/70, on account ofrelativelydry and unfavourable weather conditions, only applications of 75 -75 kg /ha gave the highest VCRs anywhere (range from 1.8 to 3.7; yields ranging from 1320 to 2235 kg /ha).

Corn: in 1968/69 and in 1969/70 applications of respectively 80 -80 and 75 -75 kg /ha in Logar and Paktia provinces gave the highest VCRs, ranging from 5.4 to 6.1 (yields of 5645 to 6172 kg /ha).

Rice: an application of 30 -30 kg /ha in Laghman province gave a VCR of 5.6 (yield of 5034 kg /ha).

Sugarbeet: the results of 1967/68 show that an application of 60 -60 kg /ha is the economical dose (VCR of 7.6; yield of 51,536 kg /ha). Most of the soils are low to medium in available nitrogen and phosphorus, and medium to high in potassium.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 36 -

FAO /Netherlands Mission, 1977

A joint FAO /Netherlands Mission, fielded in 1977, reviewed the situation prevailing in the mid -seventies and presented some of its findings as follows:

Wheat: In 1976/77 the irrigated wheat area (1.3 million ha) produced about 60% of the total production with an average yield of about 1.5 - 1.8 t/ha. About 12% of the irrigated wheat area were fertilized. The average yield increase obtained in 1976 demonstrations was2.6 t/ha with an application of 103 kg N and 50 kg P2O5 per ha.It is estimated that an average yield increase of 2 000 kg /ha may be obtained applying a correct dose of fertilizers. Due to a number of constraintsitis estimated that under famers' conditions an average yield increase of 50 % (about 900 kg /ha) is a more realistic expectation.

Rice: In 1976/77 rice was cultivated on 210 000 ha. The production amounted to 448 000 tons of paddy or an average of 2.1 t/ha.The use of fertilizers and high yielding varieties (HYV) should make it possible to increase yields by 2 t/ha.

Barley: In 1976/77 barley was cultivated on 310 000 ha (mainly as a feed crop).The production amounted to 410 000 tons or an average of 1.3 t/ha. Low average yield is due to the inclusion of some rainfed production.Although littleis known about the effect of fertilizer on barley it is very likely that with fertilizer use much larger yields than 1.3 t/ha will be obtained.

Maize:In 1976/77 maize was grown on 482 000 ha (staple food and forage). The production was about 700 000 tons or an average of 1.6 t/ha. An average yield increase of 1.4 t/ha has been obtained with local varieties and fertilizer whereas with HYV and fertilizer yields as high as 6 -7 t/ha may be obtained.It is estimated that under farmers' conditions an increase of 50% of the average yield or 0.8 t/ha are possible with fertilizer and local varieties.

Cotton: In 1976/77 cotton was grown on 128 000 ha producing 159 000 tons or an average yield of 1.2 t/ha.Using improved techniques and inputs yields up to 4.5 t/ha have been obtained by some farmers in the Kunduz region. Cotton is the second ranking export crop after fresh fruit and dried fruits and nuts.It is the major cash crop and foreign exchange earner (61.4 US$ in1976/77). A yield increase (application of fertilizers and proper cultivation methods) of 50% should be possible and would increase the farmers' income substantially.

Sugarbeet: In 1976/77 about 3 000 farmers were involved in the cultivation of sugarbeet (sugar factory in Kunduz), producing about 91 000 tons on 5 000 ha or an average yield of about 18 t/ha.It has been demonstrated on farmers' fields that by applying efficient agronomic practices, including the use of fertilizer, yields of 40 - 50 t/ha may be obtained.

Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, 1990

SCA (1990) reports the following pre -war research results:

In1976/77 there was a series of countrywide fertilisertrials and closely supervised demonstrations on farmers' fields in which the application rate of 80 kg N and 55 kg P2O5 per ha was universally recommended. Responses varied widely according to soil type and other factors. The yield increase varied from 34% to 108 %, or from 8 kg to 24 kg of wheat per kg of nutrient and averaged 2585 kg /ha.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 37 -

Fertiliser trials were also reported on local varieties of maize and average yield increases of 1.4 t/ha or 40 seers /jerib were obtained, equal to 5.3 kg per kg of fertiliser nutrient.

2.4.2 Fertilizer recommendations

According to SCA (1990) the national fertiliser recommendations for irrigated wheat were 80 kgs (or units) of elemental N and 55 kgs (or units) of phosphate per hectare. This roughly equates to 35 kgs of urea per jerib and half a 50 kg bag of DAP. Nitrogen application can be slightly higher than this where irrigated wheat follows a depleting crop such as maize, rice or cotton.Higher rates of nitrogen on existing varieties, or following fallow or a leguminous fodder crop are likely to lead to lodging (collapse of wheat stem) and yield loss.

However, discussions held with the Ministry of Agriculture in Kabul (April 1996) made clear that the Soils and Soil Chemistry Department of the Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan (ARIA) now supports fertilizer recommendations that take into account the diversity of soils and climatic conditions of the various agroecological zones of Afghanistan. According to ARIA fertilizer advice was routinely provided to State Farms and individual farmers on the basis of a soil sample analysis (because of the generally high pH and frequent occurrence of CaCO3, available P was said to be determined by the Olsen method).

Ministry run soil /plant/water analysis laboratories were operational in Kabul, Jalalabad and Mazar- i- Sharif. Additional laboratories were planned in Kunduz and Herat (Helmand - Arghandab Valley Authority operatedits own laboratory).At present none of these laboratories are believed to be operational, either due to destruction and looting during the war or due to the departure of professional staff.For practical purposes the Ministry has compiled fertilizer recommendations per province (or group of provinces) for a number of important crops. These recommendations are shown in Table 5 in the next page which was provided by the Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan (Kabul) in April 1996.

2.4.3 Economics of fertilizer use

Value:Cost Ratio (VCR) calculations by SCA (1990) for urea and DAP (based on 1988/89 prices) show that: a) In the specific case of urea 1 kg of N would produce 6 kg of additional wheat (fertilizer efficiency in Afghanistan is estimated to be 6). The corresponding VCR would be 4.4. (for details of calculations see SCA, 1990) b) The same calculations done with DAP show that 1 kg of plant nutrients, N and P2O5 together (DAP contains 18% N and 46% P2O5 = a total nutrient content of 64 %), the estimated fertilizer efficiency being 6 as well, would produce a VCR of 2.15. c) Urea being produced locally from cheap domestic natural gas and DAP having to be imported and transported over long distances, the price difference, reflecting the actual cost situation, can be considerable (the 1988/89 urea price was less than half the DAP price).If this price difference persists at farmgate level, farmers may be tempted to neglect DAP applications and thus introduce a yield limiting factor because of unbalanced fertilizer in favour of N. d) The conclusion is that, in the medium and short term future, price support for DAP may be justified. The obvious practical solution is a cross -support system to decrease the farmgate price of DAP using an increase in the farmgate price of urea. This has

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Repon - 38 -

been successfully done before by the AFC in Afghanistan and there is noapparent reason why it should not be done again (SCA, 1990).

For an account of VCRs obtained with fertilizer trials (FAO, 1971), seeparagraph on "Review of past research" above.

Table 5. Fertilizer recommendations (MoA, Kabul) Province Crop Seed Recommended amount of fertiliser (kg /ha) kg /ha Urea TSP Urea DAP Urea AP K2SO4 KCI Kabul Winter wheat 110 -120 240 140 110 140 210 130 Wardak Semi -winter 120 -130 174 98 156 28 152 14 wheat Ghazni Barley 80 -100 130 43 113 17 120 42 Logar Maize 50 260 130 237 130 246 125 120 100 Peas 90 -100 87 115 10 165 42 188 NangaharSemi -winter 110 -120 217 120 170 120 110 115 wheat Maize "Mash" 87 130 36 130 57 125 Rice (thin) 217 196 140 196 172 187 95 75 Rice (thick) 260 196 183 196 215 187 90 75 Baghlan Semi -winter 110 -120 217 136 166 137 187 125 wheat Rainfed wheat 80 -90 76 46 58 46 66 44 Rice (thin) 217 166 140 116 172 187 90 75 Rice (thick) 260 166 183 116 215 187 90 75 Sugarbeet 110 110 68 110 85 104 100 83 Barley 80 -90 120 43 113 17 120 42 Kunduz Semi -winter 110 -120 217 130 166 130 187 125 wheat Rainfed wheat Cotton 80 -90 76 46 58 46 66 44 Sunflower 60 -65 260 174 162 174 220 167 85 67 Peas 195 65 170 65 180 63 90 -100 87 195 10 195 42 188 Balkh Semi -winter 110 -120 217 163 153 163 180 156 wheat Barley 80 -100 130 43 113 171 120 42 Cotton 174 174 106 174 134 167 80 75 Sunflower 65 130 15 130 35 125 Herat Semi -winter 110 -120 174 109 132 109 149 104 wheat Rainfed wheat 80 -90 76 46 58 46 66 44 Cotton 60 260 174 162 174 220 167 87 67 Sugarbeet 110 117 67 115 185 104 100 83 Sunflower 130 65 105 65 112 62 HelmandSemi -winter 110 -120 217 176 192 195 94 wheat Cotton 174 174 106 174 134 167 80 75 QandaharSemi -winter 110 -120 217 171 195 64 wheat Bamyan Semi -winter 110 -120 217 108 175 108 192 104 wheat Spring wheat 120 -130 174 88 156 58 152 244 Takhar Semi -winter 110 -120 217 130 166 130 187 125 wheat Rainfed wheat 80 -90 76 46 58 46 66 44 TSP: Triple Superphosphate (46% phosphate); DAP Diammonium phosphate (18% N and 46% phopsphate) AP: Ammophos (12% Nitrogen and 46% phosphate) The table was provided in handwritten form and was tranlated from Dari to English. Some errors may therefore have occurred in the translation

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 39 -

2.4.4 Fertilizer consumption

Consumption levels

Local fertilizer has been used for a long time in Afghanistan, but ammonium nitrate, of which 500 metric tonnes were brought to Kabul in 1963 -64, was the first chemical fertiliser to reach Afghanistan for wide use.After that the use of chemical fertiliser increased year after year.

The consumption of urea increased from 3,000 tonnes in 1967/68 to 54,300 tonnes in 1976/77 (rate of 58 kg per ha of irrigated land).

The consumption of DAP (diammonium phosphate) increased from 6,600 tonnes in 1968/69 to almost 27,000 tonnes in 1976/77.

The compound annual growth rate over the period 1973/74 - 1976/77 was 25 %.All the phosphate fertilizers were imported. Since 1975/76 there was no import of urea any longer due to own urea production (Mazar- i- Sharif factory). SCA (1990) reports that fertilizer use on irrigated wheat was widespread before the war and that an average of 61% of farmers used both urea and DAP in 1978, 79% used Urea or DAP or both.In 10 provinces more than 90% of farmers used fertilizer.

Consumption levels are likely to have decreased strongly during the war years but since 1982 consumption is increasing again, partly due to the efforts of numerous NGOs and international agencies and partly due to the private sector. SCA (1990) reports that fertilizer supplies were severely disrupted from the early years of war, and in 1987 the proportion of farmers using fertilizers was 46 %, or nearly half of the 1978 level.In some provinces such as Herat, Ghazni, Qandahar and Paktia, the reduction exceeded 90 %. However, average use has in a few areas been restored to, or even exceeds, pre -war levels.Taking the country as a whole, only a third of farmers (who were still there) were using both types of fertilizer in 1987, and more than half were using no fertiliser at all.It is not known if pre -war consumption levels have been attained or surpassed in 1995 as no reliable figures were available on present consumption levels.

The installed capacity of the Mazar- i- Sharif urea plant (1975/76) is 105,000 tonnes of urea per annum.The production in 1976/77 was 85,000 tonnes.The factory is working at present but Agriculture Department officials in the northern provinces pointed out that the urea produced is sold at a high price and preferably exported by local authorities for hard currency earnings. The (local) government rate for urea is reported to be 50,000 Afs /50kg bag whereas the black market price seems to be around 75,000 Afs /50kg bag (April 1996). Farmers respond by cutting back on fertilizer consumption. According to Agriculture Department officials in a number of northern provinces they are reported to use half the recommended urea amount (see below) in two stages and to use verylittleor no phosphate.

With the present capacity of the Mazar- i- Sharif urea factory and the expected continuous increase of urea consumption in the near future, domestic supplies may soon not be enough to meet the demand unless a new factory, which is being planned since 1975 (SCA,1990), will be established.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 40 -

Constraints

1. The price of wheat, and other cash crops, fluctuates widely and farmers cannot be certain that they will get back in cash from incremental yield what they have spent on fertiliser.

Many farmers produce for subsistence and may have little need for cash.Purchase of fertiliser can therefore represent a large cash commitment. This may be overcome with credit, but there are often collateral and procedural requirements which act as a strong disincentive to small farmers.

3. There is often substantial risk in growing certain crops.In rainfed crops it is clear from the SCA Survey that this risk is high enough to prevent farmers from using fertiliser. But the risk can also be high for irrigated crops, particularly for small farmers who lack a controlled water supply or who have precarious water rights at the end of karez system for example.Many farmers will quite sensibly not increase their risk by investing in fertiliser in this situation.

4. Isolation and poor communication may prevent supplies from reaching farmers or at least may make the price too high.Although this problem can be serious, in many areas itis less important than the constraint of farmer acceptance.In other words, effective extension can generally overcome the supply problem.In that sense all farmers have been isolated during the war.

2.4.5 Conclusions a) Research:Pre -warresearchresultsaregenerallynotveryconsistentbut nevertheless demonstrate the ample scope for improvement of yields of Afghanistan's major crops through the application of sound agronomic practices, including the use of chemical fertilizer.Little or no research seems to have been carried out on the subject of the sustainability of the use of chemical fertilizer in the absence of soil management practices such as maintenance /improvement of the organic matter content for instance, or on the subject of yield improvement in rainfed agriculture, except perhaps some research on wheat varieties. b) Fertilizer recommendation: Recommendations, based on pre -war research, are based on the principle of the elemental nutrient ratio of N and P2O5 to be about 2:1 (with the two common fertilizers urea and DAP this means approximately 35 kg urea and 21 kg DAP per jerib for e.g.irrigated autumn improved wheat). Since soils and climatic conditions as well as crop varieties vary from place to place recommendations were subsequently adapted to zones or regions (groups of provinces.After finding significant differences in the soils within the different zones the Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform eventually recommended soil and plant analysis for fertilizer recommendations. The right amount of fertilisers to be applied can actually be determined with precision only by soil and plant analysis and the result of other researches in the area.This procedure was working very well until the war started.In the present situation (May 1996) none of the pre -war soil laboratories are believed to be operational.This will probably not have grave consequences for the on -going short term phase of rehabilitation and reconstruction but may seriously hamper progress in the medium term development phase. c) Consumption: Although nitrogen (N) is considered to be the most important nutrient in crop yield improvement in Afghanistan, phosphate (P2O5) is certainly a good

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report -41 -

second and should not be neglected. As no natural sources of phosphate have been discovered so far in the country the price difference between locally produced urea and imported DAP is such that farmers may be tempted to use urea only or to use urea and phosphate in unbalanced ratios if farmgate prices reflect the free market situation. A careful fertilizer pricing policy may therefore be required to prevent the unbalanced use of urea and DAP. d) Constraints: Relatively high risks in rainfed agriculture and certain irrigated farming situations seem to be a major constraint affecting the use of fertilizers by farmers. More research efforts are required in order to come up with improved agronomic practices,acceptabletofarmers, which would make rainfedagriculture more sustainable and less risky to farmers.

References

This chapter is largely based on the reports and publications mentioned below, on (visual) field observations and on (oral and handwritten) information provided by Department of Agriculture officials in various provinces.

FAO 1971. Soil fertility and fertilizer use.Report to the Government of Afghanistan, based on the work of P.M. Tamboli.

FAO 1978. Report on a Joint FAO /Netherlands Mission to the Republic of Afghanistan, in preparation of a project for Yield Increase through Development of the use of Fertilizers and Related Inputs. FAO Fertilizer Programme.

Swedish Committee for Afghanistan. 1990Report 4: Fertiliser. Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan. February 1990.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 42 -

3. LAND USE

3.1 IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

3.1.1 Importance

According to FAO Landcover Statistics (1972) the total irrigated land areaoccupies around 3.3 million ha (excluding Herat).If DAI /Earthsat (1993) data for Herat are added, the total area would be around 3.5 million ha, corresponding toabout 5.5% of the country.Irrigated land comprises orchards (about 2.5 % of the total irrigated area),doublecropped irrigated land (about 14% of the total irrigated area), singlecropped land(about 22% of the total irrigated area) and intermittently (every other year or every two or moreyears) irrigated agricultural land (about 22% of the total irrigated area).

According to the Water Resources and Irrigation Consultant's Report(TCP /AFG/4552), irrigated land in 1978 produced nearly 80% of all wheat and 85% of all crops.

From the agricultural production point of view, the irrigation sectorisclearly the most important one.

3.1.2 Problems

Low cropping intensities

If one of the aims of an agricultural enterprise would be to achieve ashigh a sustainable cropping intensity as possible, some provinces appear to be ina privileged position whereas others apparently are facing severe constraints.

According to FAO Landcover Statistics (1972), see Table 1, the average forthe country with regard to doublecropping, singlecropping and intermittent cropping are13.7, 22.3 and 61.5% of the irrigated land respectively (doublecropping on rainfed land doesnot occur because of the rainfall regime; singlecropping and intermittentcropping are the rule). Considerable differences between provinces (and geographic zones) occurwhich are directly related to the availability of water for irrigation and to the agro- ecologicalconditions (temperatures in particular).The "best performing" provinces are situated in the Eastern Mountains zone and in the eastern parts of the Turkestan Plains and NorthernMountains and Foothills zones.In the Eastern Mountains zone the averages for the seven provinces are 40.5, 33.6 and 23.4% for doublecropping,singlecropping and intermittent cropping respectively. Among these Kabul and Laghman provinces have the lowest cropping intensities,probably due to lower temperatures (higher altitude). Inprovinceslike Nangarhar, Kunduz and Laghman the cropping period is long enough, given areliable supply of water and early maturing varieties, that up to three crops per year arepossible (personal communication by Dr N. Wassimi, April 1996).

The northern provinces, from Faryab to Takhar, clearly reflect the differencesin overall water constraints.In the northwestern provinces (Faryab, Jawzjan, Balkh and Samangan), where rivers are not or hardly fed by perennial snow in summer, the cropping intensities are lowest (3 -9% doublecropping, 15 -40% singlecropping and 48 -80% intermittent cropping), whereas inthe northeastern province (Kunduz, Baghlan and Takhar) the cropping intensitiesarehighest(36 -73% doublecropping, 24 -34% singlecropping and3 -29% intermittent cropping).Kunduz province is by far Afghanistan's best performing province with 73% doublecropping, 24% singlecropping and only 3% intermittent cropping.Worst off appears to be Nimroz province where water shortages reducethe cropping intensity to almost entirely intermittent cropping.

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The 1972 cropping intensities have probably been sharply reduced in most areas since the outbreak of war due to various factors such as the partial breakdown of irrigation systems (cf Water Resources and Irrigation Consultant's Report), interruption of improved seed supplies and shortage of labour and draft power.The ongoing rehabilitation efforts are certainly having an impact on the improvement of cropping intensities although this could not be quantified.Further improvement will have to be based on techniques such as increasing the efficiency of water supplies and on -farm water management, the testing, multiplication and distribution of early maturing improved varieties, intercropping and relay cropping techniques and extension.

Priority for further improvement should be given to provinces or areas where the present scarcity of water supplies on irrigated land leads farmers to practice rainfed agriculture on fragile rangeland or steep slopes, to cultivate opium poppies or to resettlement areas.

Low yields

In the table below yields recorded in 1966 (eastern provinces) and in 1991 (SCA /ASA) are compared.

Crop 1966 Faculty of Agriculture 1991 (ASA)

Irrigated wheat 700 - 1400 1400- 3150 Rained wheat 350- 1400 0- 1400 Rice 1400- 2800 1400- 3500+ Maize 1050- 2100 1050- 2450 Barley 350- 1400 0- 2450(including rainfed)

The average (irrigated) wheat yield appears to have increased between 1966 and 1991 but hardly any increase is being recorded for the other crops listed.The irrigated wheat yield increase is most likely due to an increased use of fertiliser (mainly urea) and improved wheat varieties.There appears to be much scope for further improvement of the yields through better agronomic practices such as deeper and timely ploughing, balanced fertilizer gifts, organic matter increase or maintenance (animal manure, green manure) and the use of improved high yielding varieties with qualities such as earliness and disease resistance.

Cereal- clover /lucerne rotations or cereal -grain legume rotations or intercropping appear optimum for soil fertility maintenance. The use and value of compost and crop residues seems to be known and the benefit from applying animal manure well understood.In many cases however manure is given higher priority as a source of fuel.Produce removed from the field removes essential plant nutrients, part of which need to be replaced with mineral elements easiest provided in the form of fertiliser.

Salinity

Because of the arid to semi -arid climate prevailing in most of Afghanistan, saline soils may occur in almost any irrigation area, except perhaps at higher altitudes in the mountainous regions. Salinity (often associated with alkali conditions) of the soil horizons in Afghanistan is generally the result of: a) upward and lateral movement of solutes from groundwaters; b) deposition by evaporation of saline runoff waters in fields or in natural catchment basins; c) weathering and redeposition from geologic formations;

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 44 - d) results of irrigation or flooding with saline waters of those soils which havé inadequate drainage; and e) continued irrigation with limited amounts of saline waters of soils with adequate drainage so that no percolation occurs and salts accumulate at or near the surface.

For areas surveyed in Southwest Afghanistan the International Engineering Company (1959) gives the following estimates concerning the salinity conditions:

severe to very severe salinity (147,800 ha of which 65,600 are considered not reclaimable): 23% of total surveyed area; and moderate to slight salinity (228,900 ha): 35% of total surveyed area.

FAO (1965) identified the following approximate percentages of soils affected by salinity limitations: Area Approx per cent Est Area (ha) Kabul Valley: 10 10,000 Ghazni /Jilga: 15 58,000 Nahar: 20 25,000 Ab- i- Istada /Lora: 30 90,000 Waza Khwa: 15 8,000 Farah: 50 25,000 Hari Rud: 2 to 6% 8,000 to 25,000

Lower Konar Valley (Electrowatt /Norconsult, 1977):

Within the Konar Flood Plain (Channel Terraces and Low Terraces) a moderate salinity hazard was recorded in the surface horizons, probably due to salts being concentrated by evaporation from the high watertable.However the extent of saline soils appears to be small; saline soils do occur as inclusions in soil units mapped as Calcaric Gleysols and Calcaric Fluvisols; total area is probably less than 10% (< 230 ha).

Development and Resources Corporation, 1971:

Three soil series of the Kunduz- Khanabad area (total area surveyed: about 23,000 ha) were identified as being somewhat saline (electrical conductivity below or slightly exceeding 4 mmhos /cm). These soils are situated in the lowest areas of the low floodplain and occupy a combined area of about 3,245 ha or 14% of the area.These soils are difficult to drain properly and are used for paddy rice cultivation.

J.Pias (ORSTOM, 1976) identified severely saline soils ( "sols sodiques") in the confluence area of the Kunduz and Khanabad Rivers. These soils are not cultivated and are used as pastures. One area on the reconnaissance soil map measures between 2000 and 2500 ha

(about 4 % of the area surveyed). Other , smaller areas are likely to exist and intergrades (slightly saline to moderately saline) between the lower lying hydromorphic soils and saline soils were also observed. The extent of slightly to moderately saline soils is not given by J. Pias but is estimated to be between 10 and 20 % of the area surveyed (600 to 1,200 ha).

From the above studies one may conclude that salinity affects an approximate average of 50% of irrigation areas and former (abandoned) irrigation areas in the southern half of Herat -Farah Lowlands, Southwestern Stony Deserts and Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin zones: approximately 20% of the soils may be severely to very severely saline, half of which perhaps unreclaimable, whereas about 30% of the soils would be slightly to moderately saline.

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In the Southern Mountains and Foothills zone salinity may affect between 15 and 30% of irrigated (and irrigable) soils.

In other geographic zones salinity probably affects 10% or less of the soils in irrigated or irrigable areas, especially at lower altitudes.In irrigation areas of the Turkestan Plains however this percentage may again be higher, e.g.10 to 30 %, but littlequantitative information has been available. Probably less than 10% of the soils in irrigated or irrigable areas in the Turkestan Plains zone would be severely saline, the rest would be slightly to moderately saline.

Saline soils are not necessarily unsuitable for crop production but usually yields are reduced even with salt -tolerant crops. Leaching and drainage may be the most obvious measures to be taken,if economically and technically feasible, but the planting of highly salt -tolerant plants (e.g.Atriplex) at the initial stage of reclamation, followed by gradually less salt - tolerant foddercrops such as barley, bermuda grass and tall wheatgrass for instance may also be considered.For leaching purposes rice may be especially useful, the addition of gypsum being recommended. The technique of raised beds separated by furrows may also be used to grow e.g.melons, squash, cucumbers and grapes successfully, provided that the seed or cuttings are located carefully so as to avoid the zones where salts accumulate.

Cultivation

Most of the land is cultivated in a traditional way (oxen and "desi" plough.Below this technique is compared with improved ploughing techniques.

A pair of oxen and desi plough cover 5 jeribs /40 hours.

A pair of oxen needs about 2 jeribs of fodder in irrigated areas (rule of thumb, simplistic because complicated by amount of crop residues available as fodder and altitude of farm).

A desi plough stirs soil to 10 cm or less and does not invert soil like a mouldboard plough; hence weeds are not completely buried; several passes are required before seedbed is ready for sowing; the soil structure is destroyed (fine powder) which means that upon irrigation or rain surface sealing occurs; a plough pan is also formed.

A medium (45 hp) tractor and a 9 tine tiller cover 5 jeribs /hour.This combination offers no improvement of traditional method but only faster operation (40 times) and timely sowing. In many areas of Afghanistan there are only 4 weeks or less between crops; hence the use of tractors means larger area of crop can be sown in a restricted time span. This means a big improvement to the farmer; however tractors are not used to their maximum potential (tine tillers are designed for secondary cultivation after first ploughing but used almost exclusively for all tillage operations).

A tractor plus mouldboard plough permits deep tillage and may increase average yields by 36% in rainfed areas and 10% in irrigated areas.

Opium

Importance: Opium poppies are grown in low altitude areas (Nangarhar, Konar, Helmand, Qandahar, Oruzgan, Zabul and Nimroz provinces) and in high altitude areas (Badakhshan and part of Oruzgan provinces). Most of the poppy areas are irrigated except for the high altitude areas where poppy fields are rainfed.

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1995 survey results (UNDCP, 1995) indicate a total area of 53760 ha under poppy cultivation in Afghanistan during the 1994/95 growing season (Helmand and Nangarhar accounting for 85% of the area under cultivation).Compared to the 1994 survey, overall poppy cultivation was 25% less.Per ha opium yield in Afghanistan is estimated to range between 21 and 48 kg /ha.Prices vary between 82,000 and 32,4000 Afs /kg. Total production in 1995 was estimated to be around 2,335 metric tons (the above figures concerning estimated poppy growing areas are given with reservation).

One of the reasons given by farmers, for (irrigated) opium cultivation is a lack of irrigation water for the cultivation of other crops (UNDCP, 1995).Poppies are preferred in such situations because of their relatively high cash return per unit area of land and because of their alleged relatively low water requirements.Rehabilitation of irrigation schemes in the opium growing provinces may therefore help reducing the opium growing area.Another possibility is the introduction and /or promotion of high value substitution crops.Possible candidate substitution crops are (the list is not considered to be exhaustive):

Substitution crops:

Spices e.g.saffron (Crocus sativus ), black cumin (Carum bulbocastanum), anise (Pimpinella anisum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum). Fruits (e.g. dried apricots, raisins, nuts). Vegetables (e.g. onions). High yielding varieties of wheat and possibly other food crops. Medicinal plants, e.g.Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice), Ferula assa -foetida /Umbelliferae, local name hing, yields gum -resin from roots of living plant).

Examples of on -going "substitution crop" activities:

Saffron: MADERA has started an experimental programme in September 1992 in order to study the possible adaptation of saffron in the Eastern Mountains zone (field trial sites in Laghman and Konar provinces were visited by the reporter in April 1996). Provisional results indicate that bulbs with a diameter of more than 2 cm give better results.Planting depth does not seem to be an important factor but a planting depth of about 10 cm appears preferable. Trial sites were situated at various altitudes ranging from 715 m to 1010m. The sites of 850 m and above gave the best results.

Although saffron could in theory generate a higher income for the producer than opium poppy, the processing and marketing problems of the produce may well prevent saffron from becoming a widespread substitution crop.

Black cumin: Carum bulbocastanum, actually a kind of caraway seed, grows to a perennial herbaceous plant with a fleshy, bulb -like root.It is planted as a fall or winter crop and spends at least two years in a vegetative phase.Usually in the second spring after planting, and every spring thereafter, it flowers and then produces the seed. During the first two seasons the black cumin stand is intercropped with winter wheat and sometimes a leguminous forage croplikelucerne. In southwestern Afghanistan MCI (1990 -1994) recorded a first harvest (planting was apparently done in 1991) in June 1993. Average yield was 74 kg /jerib (370 kg /ha).At harvest time the farm price for black cumin seed was Afg. 5000 /kg. The harvest was considered to be very light and increases are expected as the stands mature and fill in.Its present value per jerib exceeded by about 20% the value of a good wheat harvest from the same amount of land.

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Other crops: MCI (1990 -1994) reports the dramatic profit potential that exists in producing high -quality dried fruit.The example of a farmer is given who recovered 500 kg of dried apricots from 2,500 kg of fresh fruit. The high quality fruit was brought to Quetta (Pakistan) and sold for a total of 60,000 rupees which was five to ten times more than he would have expected from selling his fresh apricots locally. While still not as lucrative as the ubiquitous opium poppy, dried fruits are an increasingly viable alternative to the very labour intensive poppy production.However, if an increasing number of farmers would choose to produce dried fruit, the market may soon become saturated with a probably considerable drop in price.

This is also true for vegetables such as onions. The reporter learnt that in 1995 the onion price was so high that it was more profitable than poppy (Laghman province).The high price however proved to be ephemeral as soon as onion production increased.Similarly high yielding wheat varieties may give the farmer a high enough gross margin to give up poppy growing or to reduce its acreage but this would depend on a good and stable wheat price.A comparison of opium and wheat yields and prices (UNDCP, 1995) reveals that wheat production had a higher value (Afs /ha) such as in Helmand, Nimroz and Oruzgan provinces than opium in 1995 and only slightly lower values in Qandahar and Farah provinces.

Absence of watershed management

Irrigated agriculture is usually found in river valleys, on alluvial terraces situated on either or both sides of a river.Irrigation water is usually river water, diverted into canals with the help of temporary intake structures (brush weirs)in informal systems or permanent intake structures in modern systems.Irrigation water may also be groundwater, either channeled with the help of underground tunnels (kareze systems) or lifted from shallow wells with the help of a Persian wheel (arhad). The above -mentioned (primary) irrigation canals generally follow a pathway situated at the upper limit of an area to be irrigated and usually have to cross a number of (torrential) tributaries descending from the surrounding hils or mountains. The irrigation systems are affected by a number of problems:

1. Sediment accumulation in irrigation canals and kareze systems. 2. Shifting of main river channel and subsequent uselessness of intake structures. 3. Stream bank erosion and damage to or destruction of intake structures, either due to annual floods or to exceptional floods occurring e.g. once every 5 or 10 years. 4. Damage to irrigation canals and fields due to (torrential) flashfloods, especially due to spring rainstorms, in the numerous tributaries ( "washes ") originating in the hills and mountains on both sides of the valleys.

To a greater or lesser degree these problems are probably unavoidable due to the climatic, vegetation and topographic characteristics of Afghanistan and the farmer communities have learnt over time how to cope with them, i.e.cleaning of canals and kareze systems and fixing damaged temporary brush weirs and irrigation canals used to be, and still are, part of the annual workload [Extensive damage and lack of maintenance during the war years led to an alarming degree of destruction that prompted the international community to launch a rehabilitation programme that is still on -going (see also the Water resources and Irrigation Consultant's Report, May 1996)].

While the above -mentioned problems probably cannot be completely eliminated, and apart from solutions such as permanent intake structures, siphons and superpassages for irrigation canals to cross "washes ", actions can be taken at the upland level of catchments to reduce the recurring damage.A major aim of such actions would be to increase

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infiltration in order to diminish the sediment load of rivers, reduce the intensity of flashfloods and recharge groundwater for the benefit of kareze systems.

Possible measures toincreaseinfiltration,would include the establishment ofe.g. (vegetated) stone lines and infiltration ditches, and drought tolerant tree, shrub and fodder grass planting on micro -catchments. Such measures need to be undertaken by the local communities and therefore their involvement and acceptance are crucial.

A grave threat to existing irrigation systems, especially in the lower Eastern Mountains zone and in Paktia province, arises from the on -going irresponsible clearcutting of natural forests in the upper catchment areas (see also the chapter on Forestry below).Similarly the virtual disappearance of pistachio and almond forests in the Northern Mountains and Foothills zone is threatening the irrigation systems in the Turkestan Plains zone.No data were available during the consultancy to compare the present frequency and intensity of flashfloods and the present sediment loads of rivers with those of pre -war times but indications are, based on discussions with local authorities and farmers, that these are on the increase almost everywhere in Afghanistan.

Wind erosion

Wind erosion is a serious hazard in parts of the Marja, Shamalan, Darweshan, Garmser and Chakansur areas (Helmand Valleyirrigation schemes):drifting sand produces small hummocks around desert shrubs and bunch grasses and small dunes; large active dunes and sparsely covered sand hills occur to the windward side of structures in the Central and Lower Darweshan, South Marja and South Shamalan. The menace of drifting sand during periods of strong winds which are common to the lower areas in the Helmand Valley is threefold:

1. filling of ditches and drains creating an annual high cleanout cost. 2. damage to young and growing crops by a dessicating effect and smothering; 3. a source of discomfort and unhealthy living conditions for settlers and for peple working in the area.

InternationalEngineering Company (1959) proposes three typesof erosioncontrol measures: a) temporary or emergency (starting land development on the windward side, listing or deep ploughing, mulching /seeding of dunes), b) permanent (range control, tree windbreaks or shelter belts, perimeter belts, sand dune stabilization plantings of local shrubs and grasses) and c) annual or farm wind erosion control measures (maintenance of vegetative cover, rough ploughing surface until ready to seed, increase organic matter through green manure, stubble and animal manures, plant susceptible crops between borders of taller growing more resistant plants).

3.1.3 Conclusions and options

a) There is much scope for improving cropping intensities and crop yields through: - improvement of irrigation efficiency and on -farm water supply; continued research (including on -farm trials) concerning high yielding and early maturing varieties; - soil fertility management with particular attention to organic matter (animal manure, green manure, rotations) and to balanced mineral fertilizer application (especially phosphates); and - promotion of deeper tillage (mouldboard plough and small /medium tractors).

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b) The cultivation of opium poppies may be reduced by improved irrigation efficiency and on -farm water supply, and the promotion of substitution crops.Traditional cash crops (spices, vegetables, dried fruit/nuts) appear to be suitable substitution crops. Saffron may find a niche at medium altitudes, e.g.in the Eastern Mountains zone. Wheat, especially HYVs. is a good competitor given a stable and favourable farmgate price. c) Salinity may affect some 50% of irrigation areas inthe Herat -Farah Lowlands, Southwestern Stony Deserts and Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin zones.Saline soils are also present in irrigation areas in most other zones but generally occupyless than 20% of the irrigated area. Farmers may deal with the salinity problem by leaching and drainage, the cultivation of salt tolerant crops and the use of raised beds. d) On the one hand, apart from some very localized efforts by NGOs, nothing is done at the river catchment level to reduce the frequency and intensity of (flash)floods.On the other hand the on -going clearcutting of natural forestsinthe upper river catchments of the Eastern Mountains zone and Paktia province and the virtual disappearance of pistachio /almond forests in the Northern Mountains and Foothills zone are bound to lead to an increase of flashfloods and of the level of damage to irrigation schemes and other infrastructure.If nothing continues to be done at the catchment level, most of the irrigation rehabilitation investments will most probably turn out to be a waste of money and energy.

References

Pickett, L. and Gul, A 1966 An AgronomicSurveyin SixEasternprovincesof Afghanistan, Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, 1966.

HAVA 1967 AnoverallviewoftheHelmand ArghandabValley Development. Helmand Arghandab Valley Authority, March 1967.

Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd 1977 Konar River Basin Development. Master Plan Studies - Annexe 1: Soils and Land Classification.Zurich, SwitzerlandinassociationwithNorconsultAs,Oslo, Norway, November 1977.

General. International Engineering Company, IncReport on Soil and Water Resources of Southwest Afghanistan. Volume I.September 1959.

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, 1986 Maize Production Manual, Islamabad, Pakistan

Mercy Corps Int'ni 1994 Agriculture project for Southwest Afghanistan, Final Report, 1990 -1994. Mercy Corps International, Quetta, Pakistan.

MADERA, 1994. Effet de lataille des bulbes et de leur profondeur de plantation sur lagermination et lafloraison du safran (Crocus sativus L.) dans l'est de l'Afghanistan.E. Nizami, S. Siddiqi, O. Cossée, O. Laborde -Debat, Activity Report 1994.

Swedish Committee for Afghanistan 1989 Report 2 Vol 1 Farm Power,Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan, April 1989,

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3.2 RAINFED AGRICULTURE

3.2.1 Importance

According to FAO 1972 Landcover Statistics rainfed agriculture occupied about 4,835,700 ha or 8% of the country's total area.DAI /Earthsat 1993 Landcover Statistics put the total rainfed area close to 3,080,000 ha or 4.8% of the country's total area.

Considerable differences occur between provinces and between geographic zones.Both Landcover Statistics sources agree on the importance of rainfed agriculture in the northern provinces (Faryab, Badghis, Jawzjan, Balkh, Samangan, Baghlan and Takhar), except for Badakhshan and Ghor where the figures diverge considerably (see tables 1 and 2).

In terms of geographic zones rainfed agriculture (according to FAO 1972) is concentrated principally on the Northern Mountains and Foothills, Central Mountains, Badakhshan, and Turkestan Plains zones.It is still important, but much less than irrigated agriculture, in the Eastern Mountains and the Southern Mountains and Foothills zones.In Wakhan, Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin, Herat -Farah Lowlands, Western Stony deserts and Southwestern Sandy Desert zones itis (almost) absent as may be expected from the climatic point of view.

The mostcriticalfactorsare the amount and distributionofrainfalland /or snow, temperatures /evapotranspiration and the quality of soils.Climate, and in particular the amount of rainfall and /or snow, is the most critical factor. The general trend is that rainfall increases with altitude and this explains why most of the rainfed agriculture is to be found in mountainous areas. Typical annual rainfall averages range from 300 to 600 mm, with the Northern Mountains and Foothills and Badakhshan being somewhat advantaged.Rainfall is distributed over the period December - April at lower altitudes and October /November - May at higher altitudes, the wettest months being February, March and April with 50 to 60% of the annual rainfall (a notable exception is Khost in Paktia province where a second rainy period occurs from July to september due to monsoonal influence).Temperatures, and evapotranspiration, also decrease with altitude. The upper altitudinal limit for agriculture in general lies at about 3,200 m but this may vary with exposure and the presence of soil cover.The presence of often very thick loess -like deposits, covering hills and mountain slopes and mountain valleys in the above -mentioned geographic zones, where otherwise one may have expected only rather shallow and stony soils, is probably also a major reason behind the importance of rainfed agriculture.

3.2.2 Problems

Rainfed agriculture in Afghanistan is of an extensive and opportunistic nature and appears to be a very neglected sector from the agricultural research and technological point of view. Problems are manifold but do not seem to have excited much passion at research and extension levels.Rainfed winter wheat is by far the most important rainfed crop, followed by barley; melons and oilcrops (linseed /flax and sesame) are also found. Rainfed wheat is generally an economically critical crop to the poorer farming communities but is highly vulnerable to plague insect attack and rainfall variations.Although the irrigated areas are much more productive per unit of area, the success or failure of the rainfed wheat crop is the critical determinant of whether there will be a food surplus or deficit in the north (UNDP Action Plan, 1993).

Yields are generally low and soil erosion is ubiquitous although it rarely seems to reach the stage of spectacular accelerated erosion.Yields for rainfed wheat are generally low and vary widely from year to year, probably ranging from 300 to 1400 kg /ha according to rainfall,

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the region and farmers' practices.According to a socioeconomic assessment of Faryab province by OXFAM (1995) rainfed wheat yields in 1994 ranged from 360 to 640 kg /ha with a survey average of about 450 kg /ha. SCA (FSS, 1991) reports that in Shulgara district (Balkh province) 72% of the farmers obtained less than 1050 kg /ha, average yields being around 945 kg /ha.

The reasons for low yields are mainly erratic rainfall, the almost total absence of fertilizer applications, the lack of improved seeds, inadequate planting and weeding practices and the incidence of crop pests and diseases. The prominent lack ofsoil and water conservation measures certainly contributes to the problem of low yields and is probably the major reason for recurrent flashfloods and subsequent damage to irrigation systems.

Erratic rainfall

Though annual rainfall anditsdistribution are known to vary widely, no records of sufficiently long periods for the purpose of statistical analysis have been available3.

During a meeting at the Department of Agriculture in Pul -e Khomri (Baghlan province) on 27 April 1996 the rainfall variability was discussed and the following information was provided: average annual rainfall is about 300 mm; the average yield of "lalmi" (rainfed) wheat is said to be around 1000 kg /ha (1750 kg /ha at higher elevations against 700 kg /ha at lower elevations); a bad rainfall year only receives around 150 -200 mm and would mean a yield reduction of about 50 %; the frequency of occurrence of bad years was not known.

Low soil fertility

SCA (1990) reports that the risks associated with rainfed farming are probably too high for farmers to invest in fertilizers.In Shulgara district (Balkh province) only 2% of the farmers used fertilizer (only urea) on rainfed wheat (SCA, 1991).In Faryab province only 8% of farmers interviewed in 1994 used fertilizer, most of which was used on potatoes and /or irrigated wheat (OXFAM, 1995).Nevertheless past research has shown that moderate amounts of N and P2O5 (15 -15 kg /ha) and in some areas P2O5 only (0 -15 kg /ha) led to Value -Cost Ratios (VCR) ranging from 4.7 to 14.6 (see also chapter on Soil Fertility).

Farmers seem to rely rather on a rotational system to regenerate soil fertility.According to the rotational system in Shulgara district, described by SCA (1993), the cropping intensity is 100 %, i.e.the rainfed fields are cropped every year. Winterwheat is planted in December and harvested inJuly,barley, melon and linseed are planted in March or April and harvested in July /August.During the remainder of the year the land is fallowed. OXFAM (1995) reports that the local rainfed area rotation cycle ( Faryab province) involves a year of wheat followed by a fallow year during which the same landis cropped with melon, linseed /flax or sesame.

Sometimes farmers seem to practice a form of mixed cropping: barley or wheat are combined with a leguminous crop (beans or vetch). Such practices in "remote areas" were mentioned by Department of Agriculture officials in Kunduz (meeting on 27 April 1996).

3 During a meeting at the Department of Agriculture in Sheberghan (Jawzjan province) on 26 April 1996, the Director of Meteorology Department promised to prepare a table with monthly rainfall figures for Sheberghan station covering the period 1955 -1995 and to send the data to the reporter's base in Islamabad. Unfortunately these data have not (yet) been made available.

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Lack of soil and water conservation measures

At national level approximately 20% of rainfed agriculture is practiced on flat or almost flat land against 80% on sloping land (FAO, 1972 Landcover Statistics). This proportion varies widely between provinces butin those provinces with thelargest areas of rainfed agriculture, the percentages of sloping rainfed land are all above 80% (80 to 97 %), probably because of the prominent presence of thick aeolian, loess -like deposits covering the mountain and foothills slopes.

At the time of the reporter's field visits to rainfed agriculture areas in northern Herat, southern Faryab, Samangan, Baghlan and Kunduz provinces(April and May 1996), ploughing of fields was either still going on or had been completed during the preceding months. On yet unploughed slopes or on slopes where ploughing had been completed some time ago, the surface was usually scarred with parallel, long rills that would often coalesce further down the slope.On freshly ploughed sections of the slopes these rills were obliterated. Slope gradients vary widely but are typically between 20 and 60 %. Slope lengths are usually long (> 200 m). Contour ploughing (oxen) appears to be the rule but, in the absence of any other soil conservation measures, proves to be totally ineffective, given such slope characteristics.

Farmers generally acknowledged that erosion is a problem but almost invariably made it clear that it was not high on their priority list.This is understandable in the present situation where food requirements are difficult to fulfill and rehabilitation of water supply systems (for household consumption, irrigation and livestock) is still a major concern. The farmers do not seem to be fully aware however of the link between low yields or the reported (apparently) increasing frequency of flashfloods and the almost total lack of any form of protection of the cultivated slopes against spring rainstorms. According to several provincial Departments of Agriculture in the northern provinces a soil conservation programme seems to have existed before 1979.Apart from contour ploughing farmers were advised to establish strips of fodder or pasture in between strips of "lalmi" (rainfed wheat) fields. Remnants of this practice could still be observed in some areas south of Maimana ( Faryab province) andin Samangan province but this form of striperoppingisunfortunately disappearing fast at present.

Farmers were also advised to plant trees (pistachio, almond) on the contour.Spacing of trees on a contour was 15 -18 m (nothing was planted to fill up the empty space between trees); spacing of contours was about 20 m; 10% of the farmers were said to have participated in this programme. Examples of such plantings have been observed south of Maimana (May 1996) but these had been established by the Department of Agriculture. On the lower slopes farmers had removed the trees and were now cultivating wheat.

Although the pre -1979 soil conservation programme appears to have been satisfactory from the technical point of view (no records or reports were available to check upon the technical background), itis doubtful whether the local communities were involved in a participatory way from the start or whether the programme took into account the farmers' priorities at the time. Except for small pre -1979 plantation areas, established by local Departments of Agriculture and a few very localized afforestation attempts by local NGOs, in cooperation or not with local departments, not one single tree was seen in the rainfed agriculture areas visited in April and May 1996.

It can be understood that in the present situation farmers have more pressing priorities and are not keen on planting trees for soil conservation purposes, but in view of the alarming and ever -increasing fuelwood deficit (see chapter on Forestry),itis difficult to see why farmers do not plant trees at all (except in irrigated areas, e.g. orchards and poplar

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 53 - plantations)inrainfed areas. When asked about tree planting farmers usually reply (politely) that the idea is a good one but that it would be difficult to get the trees established because of roaming livestock.This kind of reply probably addresses only part of the problem but indicates that the question of tree planting needs to be solved by the communities themselves, with the assistance of a well -prepared extension service, as the problem is not one of the rainfed cropping areas alone but is linked to the farming system (transhumant grazing included) as a whole.

Potentially catastrophic phenomena, which may be precipitated by deforestation, are mass movements such as landslides.In Badakhshan province for instance, the frequency of land slides appears to be on the increase.Occasional earthquakes, which affect particularly northeastern Afghanistan, increase the risk of landslides.During field visits to the Northern Mountains and Foothills zone (April 1996) a slower form of mass movement was observed on loess -like deposits covered hillsides.Signs of movement were especially crescentic scars followed by slumping. Areas prone to mass movements should be reafforested where possible, perhaps combined with controlled grazing of pasture land in between forest belts.

3.2.3 Conclusions and options

Rainfed agriculture is mainly concentrated in the Northern Mountains and Foothills, Central Mountains, Badakhshan and Turkestan Plains zones.Especially where thick, extensive aeolian (loess -like) deposits occur and where winter /spring rainfall exceeds 300 mm on average. More than 80% of rainfed agriculture in these zones takes place on sloping land in the almost complete absence of soil and water conservation measures. Much of the prewar pistachio /almond forests, which offered at least some measure of protection against erosion, have disappeared during the war years.

Options to reduce run -off and erosion and hence flashflood damage and sedimentation in lower -lying irrigation schemes, will probably have to be chosen from combinations of reafforestation, controlled grazing and conservation based rainfed cropping.

Rainfed agriculturein Afghanistan has not received much attention from the side of agricultural research so far.Conservation oriented extension efforts have been taken before the war but were not or not sufficiently built upon farmers' priorities and acceptance. The best option for developing a sustainable rainfed cropping system therefore should be to investigate possibilities for increased yields, for which there appears to much scope, and to involve farmers from the startin the development of conservation based agronomic practices which generate additional benefits such as fuelwood, fodder, fruit/nuts and medicinal plants.

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3.3 EXTENSIVE GRAZING

3.3.1 Importance

At least 80% of the total pre -war population of 13.9 million people lived in rural areas. About 2 million Afghans were either fully nomadic or semi -nomadic. Dupree (1973) divides the rural population into four groups: Sedentary farmers: agriculturists who live permanently in the same village. Semi -sedentary farmers: agriculturists who own enough livestock to be moved by herdsmen in the summer to highland pastures and to be returned towards winter. Semi -nomads: herdsmen who practice some agriculture; part of such a group moves with the livestock to summer pastures while the remainder tend crops in the winter headquarters. Nomads: herdsmen who move as a group from summer to winter pastures and back again; nomads do not own grazing land but depend on traditional grazing rights, for which they sometimes pay.

3.3.2 Livestock

Livestock production has always been an integral part of smallholder farming systems in Afghanistan,providing farm power, income, supplementary food, wool and leather. Livestock have also provided a means of transforming crop residues and grazing into marketable commodities, and have also contributed to the maintenance of soil fertility4. There appears to be a positive correlation between the livestock component of a small farm enterprise and food crop yields and net returns from farming (FAO- Afghanistan, 1995).

Table 6. Pre -war national livestock herd estimates Year Sheep Goats Cattle Camels, horses, million head million head million head donkeys, mules million head

1967/68 *: Sedentary 17.8 3.1 3.4 1.81 Nomads 3.6 0.07 0.2 0.26 Total 21.4 3.2 3.6 2.07

Pre -war estimates ** 26.8 4.85 2.04 * Source: Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Planning, Kabul 1978 ** Source: UNDP Action Plan for Rehabilitation, 1993 (quoted by N. Cossins, 1994)

As these official figures have been based on ground estimates and district census returns and as no accurate remote -sensing methods have been applied, they may not be very accurate.

Before the war, livestock products were estimated to comprise 18% of the country's domestic product. While the majority of small stock, and more or less all cattle, were owned by sedentary communities, some 27% of the national flock belonged to nomadic and semi - nomadic pastoralists who also owned camels.

Cattle are kept in smallholder mixed farming systems mainly as a means to cultivate land. Other reasons include milk and manure. 84% of the nation's farmers own (or owned) cattle (SCA, 1990). Agro- climatic conditions however favour small ruminants, and large ruminants will continue to be important only so long as alternative means of farm power and fertilizer

4 Maintenance of soil fertilityis meant here to concern agricultural fields, see paragraph on "Grazing Pattern"

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 55 - are not readily available. They are costly to feed and difficult to maintain on natural grazing resources. Large ruminants are rarely part of the transhumant system, and are also more dependent on fodder and crop byproducts produced on farm than are smallstock.

Sheep and goats are the key element in the livestock composite of Afghanistan. 77% of the nation's farmers own (or owned) sheep and goats (SCA, 1990).They are very important to poor upland farming families as butter, yoghurt and wool are important supplementary consumption and income earning products. Contrary to large ruminants, the productivity of smallstock of smallholders can be improved by increasing their mobility (transhumant movement).

Horses, camels and donkeys /mules are particularly important for transport.In the north, horses are also a major status symbol.

3.3.3 Rangeland

Extent and distribution

According to the DAI /Earthsat land cover and land use report (March 1993) rangeland would occupy around 70% of the country, and therefore be by far the most important land cover type in Afghanistan. Rangeland is primarily vegetated land including managed range, natural grasslands, alpine tundra and vegetated wetlands.In the Central Mountains, Herat - Farah Lowlands and Southern Mountains and Foothills (except Paktia province where it lies around50 %)zones the rangeland percentage varies from85to 96 %.In the Northern Mountains and Foothills, Turkestan Plains the percentage varies roughly between 50 and 80 %. In the Eastern Mountains the percentage varies between 25 and80 %. The large differences may be explained by the fact that in the provinces with a relatively low rangeland percentage, forests and shrubs occupy considerable portions (Konar, Kapisa, Laghman and Parwan).If rangeland, forests and shrubland are added the percentages vary between 65 and90%(Paktia province, with 53% rangeland, 36% forest and shrub land and a combined total of89 %,would rather belong to the Eastern Mountains zone from this point of view). Inthe Western Stony Deserts, Helmand Valley Sistan Basin and Southwestern Sandy Desert the rangeland percentages vary roughly between 45 and 75 %. The relatively low 45% in the Southwestern Sandy Desert is probably due to the fact that much of the zone consists of shifting sand dunes with little or no grass or bush cover.

Grazing pattern (transhumant systems)

Cossins(1994)reviews available literature as follows:

The key production strategy was the progressive exploitation of specific ecological niches from early spring onwards shortly after lambing, at increasingly higher altitudes so that flocks graze in a spring environment from March to June.From July onwards the flocks begin to descend, feeding on crop stubble as they move down through the harvested fields, and in turn manuring the fields of farmers.

In winter the flocks graze the vegetation available in the winter grazing area. Although the various references are not unanimous on the subject there is likely to be a severe nutritional stress towards the end of winter.Upwards of18%of annual household budget may be spent on supplementary feeds in a "normal" year and larger amounts may have to be spent in "hard" years.

Three major events have affected the outlook and viabilityof pastoral systemsin Afghanistan since the 1960s:

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the closure of the Pakistan border in1961, denying Ghilzai groups access to traditional winter grazing areas. the steady decrease of winter grazing areas due to the encroachment of irrigated and rainfed agriculture. the war of the 1980s which shut down most movement as herds and flocks were highly vulnerable targets and some of the heaviest fighting and most densely mined areas cut across traditional movement routes.

Biomass availability

The problem common to many grazing systems similar to those studiedin western Afghanistan in the 1970s is not so much one of quantity than of balance: there are insufficient amounts of criticalnutrients required to sustain the efficientutilisationof available biomass which isof low digestibility and deficient innitrogen and minerals. Research has shown that, adding strategic amounts of protein which bypass the rumen will dramatically improve the ability of the rumen to utilise low quality feed. This may well be the key to the problem in Afghanistan.The challenge for the future will thus be (Cossins, 1994):

1. determine under otherwise traditional conditions, the improvement of productivity which can be achieved by providing small amounts of bypass protein per breeding ewe during the late winter period or before substantial body weight loss occurs (e.g. cotton seed meal). 2. find or develop an economically viable source of bypass protein which will be readily available to livestock producers and which isavailable from within the general production system.

These two activities have the potential to create a major improvement in small ruminant production in Afghanistan.

3.3.4 Problems

Over 50% of the domestic energy usage comes from trees and shrubs. The high demand for fuel today, as in the past, is satisfied primarily through wood and charcoal.Barren, desert -like environments have been created over large areas in Afghanistan. Various degrees of desertification can be witnessed in the southwestern plains and northern forests of Afghanistan.Slowly, but surely, the deserts are on the march in arid and semi -arid ecosystems of Afghanistan (Hassanyar 1977).

Due to the effects of war, natural pastures and overall vegetative cover (except forests) in many areas are possibly at a higher level than they have been for many decades.The effect is directly related to reduced animal numbers and thus reduced grazing pressures. The availability of feed from natural pastures is likely to be far better than the pre -war situation.This presents a unique opportunity that is unlikely to be ever again available. Pasture preservation and management projects should be given high priority once food securityisattained, and a systematic regional and national vegetation and grazing assessment survey should be initiated as soon as possible (UNDP Action Plan, 1993).

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Uprooting of shrubs

In Afghanistan, where only a small portion of the country is forested, the scarcity of fuel is strikingly apparent. People living in the central highlands have as their only source of fuel for heating and cooking steppic shrubs and semi -shrubs and manure from their livestock. As the manure is also of great value as fertilizer, heavier use is made of the small shrubs. The genera mostutilizedareAcantholimon,Acanthophyllum,Artemisia,Cousinia, Astragalus and Ephedra. The plants are dug up with their roots and carried by hand or on donkey back to winter quarters where they are stored on the roofs of houses (Larsson, 1978).

Field observations inHerat, Qandahar, Helmand and northern provinces (April 1996) confirm that the practice of uprooting shrubs for fodder and fuel purposes is an on -going process which is bound to contribute, possibly more than overgrazing, to desertification and wind erosion.

Overgrazing

The trend of the annual grazing cycles seems to be toward a heavier pressure on summer grazing lands because of increasing stock numbers and moving the herds to the ranges at still earlier dates. The latter has to do with encroachment of irrigated and rainfed on winter rangeland (see below) and a decreasing ability of the winter rangeland to meet winterfeed requirements.Too early and continuous grazing on rangelands with low annual rainfall reduces or prevents seed setting, diminishes plant vigor and leads to a steady lowering of productivity (Larsson, 1978).

Drought

In Afghanistan, a severe drought generally equates to low winter rainfall in two consecutive years.Rainfall record suggest that low winter rainfall in two successive years occurs at least once every 10 to 15 years.

The effects of a drought on vegetation are not very clear.In western Afghanistan, the dominant perennial plant Artemisia herba -alba may take two years to fully recover from the short period of intensive grazing at the outset of a drought and the subsequent period of desiccation, but highly productive annuals were seen to be fully recovered within 12 months of the drought breaking.In very general terms most studies suggest that vegetation cover and species variability of the grazing areas of western Afghanistan at least, was not in a state of degradation, but had reached a relatively stable state which fluctuated within recognizable limits depending on seasonal rainfall (Cossins, 1994).

Encroachment of irrigated and rainfed agriculture

The encroachment of irrigated and rainfed agriculture on rangeland is a major factor contributing to overgrazing and hence range degradation.With large portions of the best rangeland becoming unavailable for livestock grazing, more animals are now grazing areas oflessproductive pastures. Loss of productive rangeland couldina sense be compensated by the increased production of foddercrops but this is generally not the case.

Field observations in the Turkestan Plains and Northern Mountains and Foothills zones as well as discussions with Department of Agriculture in various northern provinces confirm the trend of rampant encroachment.Dry land cultivation was observed in the "Dasht -e Layli" area in Faryab province, halfway between Sheberghan and Dowlatabad (24 April 1996). The "Dasht -eLayli" which consists of Quaternary aeolian depositsisan important

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 58 - winter /springpasture area and scattered nomad camps were observed. Although vegetation cover appeared to be satisfactory in general, denuded areas exhibiting wind erosion features such as ripples and hummocks were regularly seen.Topsoil texture is loamy sand in general but some areas were slightly loamier (sandy loam).It looked as if the sandy loam areas, which would have a somewhat better water holding capacity than the loamy sand areas, had been picked out for dryland cultivation. The reporter was informed by Department of Agriculture officials that farmers were actually encouraged by local "commanders" to cultivate in the Dasht -e Layli in order to increase wheat production.This isa dangerous practice however because the rainfallis so marginalin these areas (approximate average of 250 mm per year) that any cultivation, and consequently destruction of natural vegetation, strongly increases the risk of wind erosion (see also chapter on "Geographic Zones ").

3.3.5 Conclusions and options

Natural regeneration

The first step in the restoration of depleted vegetation is to correct the improper uses that have been responsible for these conditions. Improper grazing practices of rangelands are a primary cause of reductions in productivity.Drought and fuel collection are also important factors in the desertification process.

Inthecentraland northernhighlandsof Afghanistan, where the average annual precipitation exceeds 400 mm, restoration of native vegetation may be accomplished by rest -rotation grazing (Hassanyar, 1977) or deferment (delay or discontinuance of livestock grazing on an area for an adequate period of time to provide for plant reproduction, establishment of new plants or restoration of vigor of existing plants).It is well possible that the temporary reduction of livestock numbers during the war years has had the effect of rest -rotation grazing but this can only be established with the help of a national vegetation and grazing assessment survey.

To introduce this system in Afghanistan will be a complex task involving the assistance of sociologists, extension services, range ecologists and planners. In order to facilitate acceptance by farmers and pastoralists, the system could be based on the traditional hema grazing system, where a grazing reserve was controlled by a family or tribe who determined its period of deferment and method of use (Larsson, 1978).

Artificial revegetation

In many, if not most, semi -arid or arid areas, where average annual precipitation is less than 300 mm, recovery of native plants is very slow.Artificial revegetation is probably the only solution for the restoration of such regions. Apart from the national vegetation and grazing assessment survey, reasonably detailed soil maps and topographic maps, together with baseline data on climatic conditions, would be needed. Itis desirable to include in the revegetation plan all of the life -forms (grasses, forbs, browse) that were found in the area prior to desertification.Exotic species that are known to be adapted to the various sites may also be considered. Germination and seedling establishment require time and patience. Because of the harsh climatic conditions, and danger of soil erosion, it would be best to seed grass species into a mulch seed -bed.Successful restoration may involve years of protection from grazing, weed and pest control,fertilization,and,in some situations, irrigation during seedling establishment (Hassanyar, 1977).

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Agricultural land use planning

Appropriateplanning,coveringalltheagriculturalland uses (rainfed andirrigated agriculture, extensive grazing, forestry etc), should aim to promote a sound equilibrium between agricultural development and range management practices. Dangerous practices like dryland cultivation of low rainfall rangeland should be completely stopped.

References

This chapter is largely based on the following reports or publications:

FAO 1995 Semi -annualreport, January -June 1995,Afghanistan, Islamabad, August 1995.

Hassanyar, Amir S. 1977. RestorationofAridand Semi -aridEcosystems in Afghanistan, Environmental Conservation, Vol 4, no 4.

Larsson, J. 1978. Status of alpine rangelands in Central Afghanistan with special reference to the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve, FAO Project AFG /78/007, Field Document no 1.

Cossins, N. 1994. A review of the livestock production systems of Afghanistan, FAO, Rome.

UNDP 1993 AfghanistanRehabilitationStrategy,ActionPlanfor ImmediateRehabilitation,VolumeIV:Agricultureand Irrigation. Kabul, Afghanistan, October 1993.

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3.4 FORESTRY

3.4.1 Importance

Forest resources

According to Government provincial statistics (Ministry of Planning,1978) the total area under forests in Afghanistan in 1967/68 was almost 2 million ha(1,987,420 ha).Details for estimated forest cover as at 1967 -68 and 1989 -90 are given in Table 7.

Table 7. Forest resources of Afghanistan by Province Province Area ** (ha) Forests* % ** Forest /shrub ** % ** Reduction (ha) 1967/68 (ha) 1989/90 % Badakhshan 4376867 90000 2.1 247186 5.6 Badghis 2158837 149560 6.9 37131 1.7 75 Baghlan 1739454 87540 5.0 288594 16.6 Balkh 1235990 70900 5.7 0 0.0 100 Bamyan 1768730 3200 0.2 98079 5.5 Farah 5874013 20060 0.3 214 0.004 99 Faryab 2110274 76680 3.6 1854 0.09 98 Ghazni 2155023 29000 1.3 6691 0.3 77 Ghor 3929017 22440 0.6 6457 0.16 71 Helmand 6249968 5580 0.09 0 0.0 100 Herat 4246587 41640 1.0 15429 0.4 63 Jawzjan 2656974 28700 1.1 1908 0.07 93 Kabul 442583 200 0.05 32553 7.4 Kapisa * ** 551914 2320 0.4 194017 35.1 Konar 1018330 308400 30.3 454816 44.7 Kunduz 810614 34940 4.3 0 0.0 100 Laghman 701818 57680 8.2 254528 36.3 Logar 449885 3140 0.7 45898 10.2 Nangarhar 753296 134860 17.9 156455 20.8 Nimroz 4181185 9720 0.2 0 0.0 100 Oruzgan 2851892 78040 2.7 8997 0.3 88 Paktia 951714 537260 56.5 339225 35.6 37 Paktika * * ** 1917018 0 0.0 71594 3.7 Parwan*** 596621 2320 0.4 181617 30.4 Qandahar 4945437 5600 0.1 0 0.0 100 Samangan 1744514 137700 7.9 0.0 100 Takhar 1228320 49700 4.0 37386 3.0 25 Wardak 987645 40 0.0 135037 13.7 Zabul**** 1756494 0 0.0 Total 64391014 1987220 2615666 Percent 3.1 4.1 Note: * Forest areas published by Ministry of Planning , 1978 ** Forest /shrub areas determined by DAI /Earthsat, 1993, Provincial areas determined by DAI /Earthsat, 1993, Percentage areas based on DAI /Earthsat provincial areas * ** The 1967/68 forest area is given for Parwan & Kapisa; an arbitrary 50% has been allocated to each of the two provinces * * ** Paktika and Zabul provinces are not included in the 1967/68 forest area list

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Comparison of these data with the DAI /Earthsat 1993 Land cover and land use report (given in Table 7), is difficult because:

a) in the case of the 1967/68 Government statistics the methodology by which the forest covers have been established is not known. b) the DAI /Earthsat figures represent areas dominated by woody vegetation (forest and /or shrub) whereby a 10% canopy closure is all that is required.

Nevertheless some indications may result from the comparison as is indicated in the last column (Reduction, %). The idea behind is that if the DAI /Earthsat indicate a lowerarea of forest/shrub than the 1967/68 forest cover, the real reduction in forest cover will be at least, and probably more than, the calculated reduction. Badghis province hada forest cover of about 150 000 ha in 1967/68. The forest/shrub cover in 1989/90 was only about 37 000 ha. The calculated reduction would be approximately 75% (100- 37000x100/150000).

It appears that the forest cover reduction over a period of 22years has been severe. In provinces like Balkh, Farah, Faryab, Helmand, Kunduz, Nimroz, Qandahar and Samangan for instance 100% of the forest cover seem to have disappeared. Itis probably no coincidence that in 1990 the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reforms requested the FAO AFG/86/011 project (Strengthening of the Forestry Department, Phase II)to extend its activities to six other provinces, i.e.Balkh, Herat, Samangan, Nangarhar, Badakhshan and Nimroz.In provinces that were famous for their forest cover, like Paktia, Konar, Parwan, Kapisa and Nangarhar, the situationis masked because of a possibly high "shrub" component in the DAI /Earthsat figures.

There is evidence to suggest that the natural vegetation of large parts of Afghanistanwas originally woodland and forest. The present steppes have resulted from the cutting of wood by man and the grazing and browsing of domestic animals over millennia, indicating that trends in resource depletion started long before the conflicts prevailing since 1979 (Ministry of Planning, 1992). What is left today of the once vast forest tracts is to be foundin the mountainous zones of the country.

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of forests (Asian Study Group, 1993):

Broad leaved forests: mainly oak trees; between 1300 and 2200m; provides fire wood, charcoal and fodder for livestock; effective for soil and water conservation. Needle leaved forests: made of conifers like cedar, pine,fir and spruce; between 2000 and 3000 m; good quality wood used for construction and furniture; effectivefor erosion control.

The description below of the different forest belts5 is basedon "Ministry of Planning, 1992 ".

Central Mountains and Northern Mountains and Foothillszones

To the north of the HK on the extensive loess hills and plains between 600and 1600 m woodlands of Pistacia vera with some Amygdalis bucharica and in the northwestCercis priffithii are characteristic.

5 Exposure of mountain slopes, north /south but also west/east, influences the altitudinal levels at which various forest belts may be found (see J.Pias, 1976 or the Chapter on Geographic Zones in this report.

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2000 - 3000 m: Above this zone and in areas with more than400 mm of precipitation, a 2.5- 6 m high Amygdalis (almond) community is dominant.

The upper part of the forest belt on the northern slopesof the HK is formed by an open mixed woodland dominated by Juniperus excelsa. The Pistacia veraand Juniperus excelsa woodlands are heavily exploited for charcoal production and fuelwood.

Eastern Mountains and Southern Mountains andFoothills(Paktiaprovincein particular) zones

1200 - 2000 m: Oak (Quercus baloot) dominates the forest, with otherspecies like almonds (Amygdalis kuramica) and pistachios (Pistacia khinjuk). These areas areheavily used for fodder, fruits and fuelwood and large forested areas have beendestroyed to provide fuel for Kabul and Qandahar.

2200 - 2500 m: The forest belt is a 5 -12 m high pine (Pinusgerardina) woodland with stands of birch (Betula).

2500 - 3100 m: Cedar (Cedrus deodara) forest; depending on soil andclimate the cedars may be up to 50 m high and form a very denseforest. Large parts of the forest have been exploited and replaced by a stable Artemisia community. Logging throughoutforests of the eastern provinces has increased steadily, reaching even the western partsof Nuristan.

3100 - 3300 m: In the humid areas the upper belt of the forest, up to an altitudeof 3300 m, is formed by a 20 -25 m high Picea smithiana and Abies webbiana forestand in the drier areas by a 10 m high Juniperus servaschanica and J.semiglobosa woodland. Most areas have been cut for fuelwood and mature stands are rare.

Utilization of the forests

Traditional use:

People traditionally use the forests for their own needs: house construction, furniture, tools, fuelwood /charcoal, fodder, grazing, fruits, medicinal plants etc.Although theoretically all forests are Government property, Government does not have authority and can not technically control the exploitation.

Cossée (1991) reports that all surveyed farmers (Lower Pech Valley) were using firewood. Animal manure is not burnt but used to fertilize cultivated land.Fire wood is collected by men and women. An estimated three days a week during threemonths in summer are devoted to this work (about 80 to 120 mandays per year per family).Estimated annual consumption of one family is 2.5 metric tons. The price of firewood was reportedly 1 Rs /kg which translates the annual consumption of a family to about Rs 2 500.

Every family needs wood for construction of houses, sheds for crop storage and animals, shepherd houses and fences.The standard for a normal room is 20 to 25 beams to support a heavy roof of branches, stones and soil. The wood price for a house of 3 rooms is at a minimum of Rs 12 000. As it is costly to rebuild a house, and also unwise until a real peace is achieved, returning refugees very often delay such rebuilding. Once lasting peace will be avhieved the demand for timber will therefore probably rise steeply (Cossée, 1991).

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Commercial use:

Clearcutting by local and foreign merchants, often in alliance with local "commanders" appears to be a widespread practice.Trees are purchased at very cheap rates from the villagers and cut in an untechnical manner. Data collected in Barikot (upper Konar Valley) from 1990 to 1992 indicate that about 1200 ha of conifer forest were destroyed per year in this area alone (Asian Study Group, 1993). This type of utilization is the most dangerous.

3.4.2 Forestry related activities

The Forestry and Range Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (Kabul) provided part of the following overview in April 1996.

Before 1979

UNDP sponsored programme in Konar province: nursery development, transplantation, reforestation and exploitation activities (1964 -74).

German Government aid programme inPaktia province:nursery development, transplantation and reforestation activities, exploitation and wood processing factory.

Afghanistan Government: pistachio plantations in the northern, northeastern and nortwestern provinces; forest and range conservation; forest tree nursery in Paghman province; vegetation mapping (bilateral cooperation programme with the French Government).

After 1979

A Vegetation Mapping project (UNDP /FAO) has been operational between 1979 and 1983. According to the Ministry of Agriculture (Kabul) the plant collection, assembled by the earlier bilateralproject, was sent to France for identificationin May 1978.The maps and documents that were stored in Kabul have been destroyed during the war years.

The UNDP /FAO project AFG /82/003 assisted the Department of Forestry and Range in forestry planning and development, provided training for the forestry personnel, and supported programmes of afforestation with poplar and other fast -growing species in Kabul. After December 1986 the project was replaced by AFG/86/011, "Strengthening of the Forestry Department, Phase II ".In 1990 the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reforms placed emphasis on extending the project's activities to six other provinces.In the same year the Project Document was revised to incorporate community forestry (FAO, 1992).

Involvement of NGOs in the forestry sector

MADERA (Mission d'Aide au Développement des Economies Rurales) was requested to engage in a forestry programme in 1988 by Afghan intellectuals who were worried about the extent of deforestation taking place in Konar province.In 1989 an exploratory mission was carried out to determine the state of the forests. As a result the project launched its first campaign of awareness in 1990, after having trained 10 forestry agents and having started a mapping of the vegetation (field investigations and SPOT satellite imagery). The strategy adopted by the forestry project recognizes the right of ownership and of use by the local population and aims to increase awareness about the effects of deforestation. The project makes suggestionstothebeneficiary populationtoadvise and help theminthe management of their wooded areas.In 1992 MADERA operated 8 fruit and forest tree nurseries. Almost 23 000 forest trees were produced and distributed locally (Rs0.5/ piece).

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DANA (Development Association for Northern Afghanistan) is involvedin the afforestation (pistachio trees) of bare hillsides and the protection of some of the fewremaining pistachio forests in Samangan province. Cooperation with DANA is claimed by the localDepartment of Agriculture.An afforestation site south of Samangan village was visited on 26 April 1996. Pistachio seedlings (raised in plastic bags) are planted in 0.5 m diameter pits situated in slightly sloping ditches with contour bunds on the downslope side. The contour bunds are about 3 m apart, planting pits about 5 m.

AFGHANAID and Austrian Relief Committee have included social forestry projects intheir workplans for 1996 and onwards.

3.4.3 Problems

Afghanistan is a wood -deficit country. Wood supplies are declining rapidly as evidenced by the deteriorating wood quality and steeply escalating wood prices in Kabul (FAO, 1992). The impact of traditional use may be described as follows (Asian Study Group, 1993):

Burning of trees to create new pastures for growing mushrooms to cultivate maize to protect the maize from monkeys Debarking of conifer trees because they are believed to exhaust the water (fallen dead trees are subsequently burnt). Cutting of small trees due to the lack of tools for cutting mature trees. Grazing inside the forests hampers germination and regeneration. Shepherds destroy seedling of conifer trees.

The consequences of clearcutting are summarized below: severe soil erosion decrease of available wood /timber decrease in fodder drying of springs increase of flash floods (frequency and intensity) land slides (the risk of landslides is enhanced by earthquakes; according to the National Atlas, 1984, northeastern Afghanistan, in particular the northern Konar, Laghman and Parwan and the southern halves of Badakhshan and Takhar provinces, is considered a high earth quake risk zone where major damage is probable) environmental degradation decrease of wildlife, flora and biodiversity weakening of economic prospects for local people

3.4.4 Conclusions and options

Priority number one, at the short term level, should be to stop the uncontrolled commercial clearcuttingin the Eastern Mountains zone and Paktia province. This can however probably be achieved only by a strong central Government in cooperation with neighbouring countries.

Priority number two, at the short to medium term level, would be to assist local communities to sustainably produce fuelwood and timber for their own needs in order to relieve pressure

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 65 - on the remaining forest areas. Poplar wood is traditionally grown in Afghanistan and is also an important cash crop. The practice of poplar cultivationis outmoded and low in prodUctivity.Improving the productivity of the traditional, as well as Government poplar plantations, will directly benefit the vast majority of the rural population. A lasting solution to the problem of increasing wood supplies lies in resorting to a dynamic and successful programme involving not only the Government but also the people who have been traditionally raising poplars as an essential and integral part of land use. Such a programme would reduce the current heavy stress on natural forests and would be a major "conservation- production" strategy (FAO, 1992).

Thirdly, at 'he medium term level, a reforestation programme, in cooperation with local communities, should be undertaken to protect the most critical areas in the most critical watersheds, gradually extending to other less critical areas. An assessment survey should provide a basis for planning.The reforestation programme would be combined with an awareness campaign at community level and in schools.

References

Cossée, O. 1991 MADERA /Care International, Agriculture andNatural Resource Survey Lower Pech Valley, Draft 2, October 1991.

DANA 1995 DANA Magazine, first edition 1995, Development Association for Northern Afghanistan, Mazar- i- Sharif, 1995.

FAO 1992. Terminal report, Project AFG/86/011 "Strengthening of the Forestry Department, Phase ll ".FAO, 1992.

Ismael, Mohammad 1993 Afghan Forestry, Engineer, Mohammad Ismael, Manager Afghan Social Forestry Project, in "The destruction of the forests and wooden architecture of Eastern Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan: Nuristan to Baltistan ". Asian Study group (Afghanistan Circle), Islamabad, October 1993.

MADERA 1992 Annual Report 1992, MADERA, Mission for Relief of Rural Economics, Peshawar.

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3.5 NATURE CONSERVATION

3.5.1 Importance

Wetland areas

Since most of Afghanistanissemi -arid or arid, the few wetlands that exist are of considerable ecological and social importance.

Afghanistan's rivers, with the exception of Kabul River, have no outlet to the sea and drain into a series of depressions from which water is lost by evaporation.This results in the formation of large shallow saline lakes and marshes, the most extensive being those of Seistan in the southwest. Hamun -i- Puzak, Ab- i- Estada and Dashte Nawar are the three wetlands of outstanding importance as habitat for water birds (flamingo, waterfowl..).

In the migration season huge numbers of birds migrate from Siberia through Afghanistan to the warmer Indian peninsula and Africa. During this season the country's wetlands serve as essential resting place for the thousands of waders, ducks and other waterfowl. The rare siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus), the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) and falcon (Falco cherruq) are among these species.For these birds the Afghan wetlands are an essential stop for resting and feeding during their migration. Many also overwinter there.

Fauna

The Afghan faunaischaracterized by animals adapted toarid steppe or mountain conditions.The large herds of wild asses (Equus hemionus) and gazelles (Gazella spp) which until recent times populated the steppes, have been almost exterminated by hunting. Similarly their predators, the cheetah (Acinonyx lubatus) and to a lesser degree the hyena (Hyaena hyaena), have declined. The forests and mountains also harboured large numbers of wild goat (Capra aegagrus), urial (Ovis orientalis), ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri),Bactrian deer (Cervus elephas bactrianus), feral yak (Bos grunniens), otter (Lutra lutra), marten (Martes foina) and long tailed marmot (Marmota caudata). These also have been much reduced by hunting and habitat degradation.

Predators much sought after for their furs, such as the Turanian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata, probably extinct in Afghanistan), the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), the leopard (Panthera pardus), wolf (Canis lupus), jackal (Canis aureus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), brown bear (Ursus arctos), ermine (Mustela ermina), lynx (Lynx lynx) are now rarely seen.Only relatively protected or isolated areas such as the Pamirs with its famous Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon poloi) (may) have retained their fauna.

3.5.2 Nature conservation efforts

Once peace returns to Afghanistan, the Government of the Republic of Afghanistan will take stringent measures to protect wildlife species through the enforcement of wildlife and forestry legislation and through the establishment and management of six National Parks. In the past the Government has taken measures to draft legislation to restrict hunting during breeding season and to restrict the collection of bird eggs.prsent conditions of war and instability make the enforcement of these laws impossible.

Protected areas such as parks and ecological reserves have been given little attention over the past decade. There is one official national park, Bande Amir (Bamyan province), and Ab- i- Estada and Dashte Nawar waterfowl sanctuaries (Ghazni province) have been gazetted. Afghanistan ratified the World Heritage Convention on March 20, 1979, however

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with the onset of war in 1979 it has been impossible for the Government to undertake further actions in the field of conservation.The Government intends to establish the following six areas as National Parks once peace returns to Afghanistan:

Ab -i- Estada Waterfowl Sanctuary

Location: Ghazni Province, southeast Afghanistan. Special interest: Siberian crane and greater flamingo. Present situation: in 1978 there were an estimated 70 Siberian cranes in the Indo- Soviet flock; only 17 cranes were known to have survived in 1990.

Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve

Location: Hindu Kush Highlands, northwest of Bamiyan. Special interest: Ibex, Bactrian deer, feral yak, snow leopard, leopard, lynx, wolf, jackal, fox, otter, marten and long tailed marmot. Present situation: unknown; Ajar valley represents the largest tract of land in Afghanistan with a history of effective environmental protection (Govt. of Afghanistan, 1992).Larsson (1978) reports that the number of people living within the reserve area probably does not exceed 500 individuals. Human impact is represented by limited dry- farming (lalmi), grazing of domestic stock and uprooting of shrubs.

Dashte Nawar Waterfowl Sanctuary

Location: Ghazni province, southeast Afghanistan Special interest: migratory waterfowl and waders (along with Ab- i- Estada). Present situation: see Ab- i- Estada Waterfowl Sanctuary

Pamir -Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary

Location: Western Wakhan Corridor, Badakhshan Province. Special interest: Marco Polo sheep, ibex, wolf, red fox, brown bear, ermine, lynx and snow leopard. Present situation: due to its relatively protected and isolated location ecological values may still be intact in Pamir -Buzurg National Park but this can only be confirmed through field visits once peace and stability have returned to the country.

Bande Amir National Park

Location: Hazarajat Mountains of the western Hindu Kush, Bamiyan province. Special interest: this area, which includes six deep blue lakes, is reported to be one of the most beautiful landscapes in Afghanistan. Present situation: In 1978 it was reported that the area was becoming seriously degraded from unrestricted grazing, harvesting of reeds and uprooting of shrubs.

Kole Hashmat Khan Waterfowl Sanctuary

Location: Kabul province, southeast of Kabul city. Special interest: Lake Hashmat was declared a waterfowl reserve in the 1930s.As of 1978 there were over 30,000 migratory birds using the lake with 157 species having been identified. Itis the only remaining waterbody and marsh area of the formerly expansive marshlands of Kabul.

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Present situation: the high number of waterfowl available in the markets in Kabul (1991) would indicate continuing indiscriminate shooting of waterfowl from Lake Hasmat. The lake appears to be badly degraded by heavy human use of water for irrigationand livestock.

Hamoon -e Helmand

Hamoon -e Helmand consists of a number of lagoons (lakes) in a dry sandy desert formed from the waters of the Helmand river and its tributaries reaching the southwestern edge of Afghanistan. Many species of birds come down to the lagoons for rest on their migratory pathway.Flamingo and Siberian crane are the two rare birds that can be found there during summer. This wetland is believed to have been the least affected by the war.

Pre -war FAO involvement

At least two projects have been been executed by FAO and financed by UNDP during the 1970s: AFG/74/016 and AFG /78/007 "National Parks and Utilization of Wildlife Resources. Project field documents have been produced on several Reserves, National Parks and Regions (Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve, Band -e Amir National Park and Western Nuristan).

3.5.3 Conclusions and options

An environmental survey, to assess the impact of war on Afghanistan's environment, appears to be an essential and urgent step towards sound future management of the country'snatural resources and should contributetothe formulationofaNational Environmental Action Plan. Such an action plan is necessary for providing a framework for incorporationenvironmentalconsiderationsintomedium-andlong -termeconomic development plan.Contacts should be sought with the French Government and FAO to salvage the possible remnants of the ecological mapping project (see chapter on Forestry) which could serve as a basis for the environmental survey to be undertaken.

Once peace and stability will be re- established in Afghanistan, National Park status should be conferred to all or part of the above -mentioned sanctuaries and wildlife reserves on the basis of the environmental survey. The survey should also identify additional areas to be protected. Future management of protected areas should take into consideration the involvement of local communities and, if possible, the traditional nomadic user groups.

References

Afghanistan Government The National Report of the Government of the Republic of AfghanistanfortheUnited NationsConference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Ministryof Planning, Kabul, 1992.

Larsson, J. 1978 Status of alpine rangelands in Central Afghanistan with special reference to the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. FAO Project AFG /78/007, Field Document no 1.

Formoli, T A, Afzal Rashid, M and Du Bruille, J P. 1994. An Overview and Assessment of Afghanistan's Environment. A ScientificPublicationof Afghanistan Horizon, Sacramento, California, in cooperation with Afghan Development Association (ADA), Peshawar, Pakistan. September 1994.

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3.6 LAND TENURE

3.6.1 Irrigated and rainfed land use

Farm size

The average holding was 3 ha in 1967 (Griffiths, 1981). The vast majority of holdings fall in the range of 0.5 to 6 ha.Holdings under 20 ha accounted for 60% of landownership in 1967 and those over 100 ha for 8 %.In a prosperous area such as Paktia or Kunduz, for example, a 2 ha holding of good, irrigated land would yield 3 tonnes of wheat and 2 tonnes of cotton.This would provide food for a family of 6 or 7 and an income of Afg 35,000 (about US$740 in 1980).Yields vary greatly and that from a well- irrigated, fertilized area using improved seeds can be twenty times as high as that for traditional dry land wheat. An average farm size for Afghanistan has little meaning because of the differencesin productivity between rainfed and irrigated agriculture.

SCA (1993) figures provide a distribution of farm size in six districts with irrigated farms and in one district with rainfed farms:

Table 8. Farm size distribution Size class (ha) Irrigated farms (av 6 districts) Rainfed farms (Shulgara dist)

< 3 83% 8%

3 - 6 14% 8%

> 6 3% 84%

Median 1.4 ha 6 - 7 ha

It appears that the median size irrigated farm for the six districts is around 1.4 ha. Regional differences are as follows: the median farm size lies between 0.6 and 1.2 ha in Nejrab (Kapisa), Arghandab (Qandahar) and Maydan Shar (Wardak) districts, between 1.2 and 1.8 ha in Mehterlam (Laghman) district, between 1.8 and 2.4 ha in Qarabagh (Ghazni) district and between 2.4 and 3.0 ha in Nad -i -Ali (Helmand) district.

For rainfed farms (Shulgara district, Balkh province) the median farm size lies between 6 and 7 ha.

There appear to be few large landowners in Afghanistan. According to 1968 estimates only about 30 individuals in Afghanistan own over 1000 jerib (200 ha) of land (Dupree, 1973).

Tenure arrangements

The following major land tenure types appear to occur in Afghanistan (SCA, 1993; Scott, 1971):

Ownership: Having legal right to land as farmers own property.

Sharecropping:The arrangement under which a person cultivates others land in return for a fixed part of production.

Renting: The arrangement through which a fixed amount of grain or money is paid by the cultivator (farmer) to the owner of the land for using the land.

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"craw ": A form of money lending where a piece of landis turned over for the use of the lender for an agreed upon amount. Thereis no interest charged but the lender can frequently get his investment backin crops in1 -3 years. Some of the arrangements are of long term butthe property is never transferred.

Mortgaging: The arrangement where money lenders (local creditsources) take the land as security against a loan, which hasbeen given to the landowner.

In the areas surveyed by SCA, various combinationsof these forms of land tenure ( "graw" was described byScott,1971and was not mentioned by SCA) were observed. Predominantly they were owner occupiers, of whom some wereat the same time sharecropping out, or renting land to others.Some were renting or sharecropping from others or in the above combination some were pure sharecroppers orrenting group.

One farmer could in fact have a combination of a numberof different land tenancy arrangements.There are also practices of mortgaging land for security or benefitsfrom loans, where many lenders cultivate the land themselves (thisarrangement could be what Scott, 1971 describes under "graw "), or let the land owner do it andthen take a share.

Dupree (1973) provides an estimated distribution of agriculturalland by form of tenure by province (1963): Table 9. Land tenure forms by province Sharecropped Mortgaged Owner operated Province* Other percent percent percent Badakhshan 1.3 0.8 75.4 22.4 Bamyan 1.6 0.6 73.9 23.8 Farah 24.1 11.2 60.1 14.3 Ghazni 8.1 11.2 79.6 1.1 Ghor 12.1 1.2 75.8 10.9 Girishk 6.4 5.7 18.7 69.2 Herat 13.4 0.7 62.7 23.2 Kabul 16.1 6.6 74.9 2.4 Maimana 2.4 0.6 75.2 21.8 Mazar -i- Sharif 23.6 1.5 60.0 14.8 Nangarhar 5.4 43.6 45.1 5.9 Paktia 2.0 3.7 94.3 - Parwan 5.8 9.1 80.0 5.1 Qandahar 9.1 7.5 54.1 29.3 Qataghan 22.2 5.8 63.2 8.7 Shiberghan - - - - Oruzgan 13.3 5.8 79.8 1.1 Average 13.8 5.5 60.5 20.2

" The provinces are different from those figuring in the Land Resources Chapter of this report: Girishk more or less corresponds to Helmand; Herat to Herat plus Badghis; Maimana to Faryab; Shiberghan to Jawzjan; Qatagan to Kunduz plus Baghlan plus Takhar; Ghazni to Ghazni plus part of Paktika plus Zabul; Paktia to Paktia plus part of Paktika; Mazar -e- Sharif to Balkh plus Samangan; Kabul, Parwan and Nangarhar together to the provinces of the Eastern Mountains zone.

Ownership and sharecropping

From the 1963 figures (Table 9) it appears that an average of about 60% of the agricultural land was owner -operated and about 14 % was sharecropped.Regional differences are apparent however: the lowest percentage (19 %) of owner -operated land appeared to occur in Girishk (Helmand) province whereas the highest percentage (94 %) was recorded in

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Paktia province. Itis not clear why the percentage of sharecropped land in Girishk (Helmand) province is only 6.4% while Scott (1971) states that 83% of the land is worked by sharecroppersinNorth Shamalan (Helmand). Perhaps this discrepancyisdue to differences in interpretation or to considerable variations within a given province.

SCA (1993) figures indicate that 84% of the farmers on rainfed land in Shulgara district owned the land. The percentages of owners of irrigated land varies from 34% in Arghandab district (Qandahar) to 99% in Nad -i -Ali district (Helmand).Average irrigated farm size per owner varies from 4.1 jerib (0.8 Ha) in Mehterlam district (Laghman) to 16.6 jerib (3.3 ha) in Nad -e Ali district (Helmand).

Dupree (1973) explains the principle of sharecropping as follows:

Basically, agricultural production in Afghanistan involves five elements: land, water seed, animal or mechanical power, and human labour. Theoretically, whoever contributes one of the elements receives one fifth of the resulting crop.Land and water rights often go together. Usually the landowner also supplies the seed.Animal or tractor power for ploughing and cultivation may be provided by the landlord, the cultivator, or a professional oxen or water buffalo owner.In many instances, the individual who ploughs, plants, weeds, tends, reaps and winnows the crop receives only the one -fifth due to labor.

Scott (1971) describes two types of sharecroppers in North Shamalan (Helmand province): a) Kashtagar Farmer who generally contributes his labor, animal power for ploughing and seed; he is involved in farming decisions on crops and receives about 50% of the total crop produced. When fertilizer is used, the tenant will generally share the cost. b) Buzgar Farmer who generally contributes his labor only; he makes no farming decision about the crop and is supervised by the landowner. He receives one -fifthof the crop produced.For the cotton harvest his share will increase depending on the amounts he picks.

With cash crops that require more labor (e.g.melons, cotton, vegetables), or modern agricultureelementslikechemicalfertilizerandmechanization,thesharecropper agreements become more complicated. The key element however remains supplementary labor.For a fifth of a wheat crop a landowner may have a buzgar who furnishes all the labor from planting to threshing, frequently excluding the actual harvesting or cutting.A landowner may work along with his buzgar and halve the tenant's share.A widow with small children may sharecrop her otherwise idle land providing only land and water supply and receive one -fourth to a fifth of the product. The variation of sharecropper agreements are many, depending on the status and size of the landowning family (Scott, 1971).

Critical farm size

Farm size requirements for self- sufficiency are substantially different for owner -operators and sharecroppers. The following example may illustrate these differences (AAEC, 1992):

If an owner operator has 4 jeribs (0.8 ha) and an average annual yield of 40 seers (wheat) /jerib (1.4t/ha), he will get 160 seers, and this is not sufficient to feed his family (family needs: approx. 280 seers /year). This is a situation of deficit: the farmer will have to find other incomes.That may be from animal husbandry, or from another occupation (commerce, handicraft, casual work, salaried occupation etc.). The situation will be different for a doublecropping situation of course.

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With about 7 jeribs, the family will be self- sufficient. One may consider that the critical size of farm for an owner operator is around 7 jeribs. With 8 jeribs or more, the farmer will have more than enough food to feed his family.In this situation of surplus, he will be able to sell part of his production, or food supply being secured, to grow another crop providing more cash incomes.

A share -cropper gets for example 50% of the yield (20 seers /jerib). The net income that the farmer gets from the land he is cultivating is half the amount which the owner operator gets. The situation is then more difficult and the farmer must be able to cultivate more land to become self- sufficient and to avoid deficit.The critical size of farm would be around 14 jeribs for a share -cropper.

Problems

For returning farmers, the rehabilitation of long unused land will be a primary task. This will include clearing weed and shrub covered land, rebuilding terraces for irrigation etc., all of which are labour intensive activities. However one problem that faces a number of refugees is to be able to regain title to land they once held as owners or tenants. For some farm families, the problem is so acute that they are unable to return.For other the area of land they once farmed is so meagre or the social contracts are so unfavourable that there is little incentive to return. Already such groups are becoming apparent, and these will form a residual refugee problem which will be difficult to resolve (UNDP Action Plan, 1993).

The low pre -war level of mechanization (about 3000 tractors in the whole country in 1980) implied that the larger landowners were almost all forced of necessity either to hire labour additional to the family labour force or to allocate their land to other cultivators on a sharecropping basis.In the present situation there appears to be a strong drive towards mechanization due to a critical shortage of animal draft power.SCA (1989) reports an increase in tractor ownership from 2.5 to 7% of farmers on a national basis. The number of farmers hiring tractors had also risen to over 30% in 1989 compared with 19% in 1988, and a prewar figure of no more than perhaps 5 %.Several local and international NGO's are involvedin making tractors available to destitute farmers at subsidized rates. The Norwegian Refugee Council /Norwegian Church Aid NGO for instance operates five tractors in Balkh and Baghlan provinces and assists very poor farmers (less than 1 ha) with cultivation, fertilizer and seeds in a kind of cooperative agreement: 140 farmers in Baghlan and 100 farmers in Balkh province (interview on 23 April 1996 in Mazar- i- Sharif).

If mechanization continues to expand, and this trend is likely also because animals for draft power are expensive to maintain (see chapter on Extensive Grazing), the question is whether this will deteriorate the sharecropping situation for those farmers who are to a greater degree dependent on such tenure arrangements.

3.6.2 Forestry

According to the law, forests belong to the State. Occasionally Government tried to establish its ownership claim and to prevent local communities from cutting the forest. The local communities reacted strongly against the Government's interference into their affairs. Local peopleinPaktia,Kunar and Nuristan had already divided the forest among themselves and were not by any means prepared to give up the ownership of the forests in the interest of Government.

Quercus baloot for instance, whose leaf is used as winter fodder, is divided among the extended family within a clan while the conifer forests are held commonly by the clan. The

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 73 - forest claimed by a clan may not be large enough to accomodate the herds of all the clan members. The right to exploit this type of communal property being divided among the extended families, a kind of cooperative system ( "palai ") has been devised. A person in each extended family will invite certain families to join him during his turn for the summer utilization of the forest. The number of families for "palai" depends on the size of the herds and the area they are entitled to use.Families have the right to sell their summer grazing rights in a particular tract (Asian Study Group, 1993).

3.6.3 Rangeland

Little information on tenure arrangements concerning rangeland appears to be available.

A traditional grazing system, called "hema ", where a grazing reserve was controlled by a family or tribe who determined its period of deferment and method of use, is reported to exist, at least in the higher mountains areas (Larsson, 1978).

In Afghanistan, unlike Iran, the nomad does not own grazing land, but simply depends on traditional grazing rights, for which he sometimes pays. Many nomads, realizing that time and Government are against them (Dupree 1973), make a compromise. They get permission to buy and farm the grasslands of their traditional winter quarters and become semi -nomadic.The move towards sedentarism may pose problems for nomad women however.In many pastoral societies the style of life and the management of economic resources (animals and animal products in particular) provided women with freedoms and powers that were not available to women in settled societies.These reasons were sufficiently important for Afghan pastoral women to oppose development projects which might lead to a more settled life, for the personal freedom and mobility achieved in nomadic camps were not luxuries to be abandoned willingly (Tavakolian, 1984, in, Cossins, 1994).

3.6.4 Conclusions and options

The available data on farm size and land tenure arrangements are either outdated or fragmentary and data from different sources are difficult to compare. The SCA Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan provides valuable data but these are available for a total of 7 districts only. Such a survey needs to be undertaken in at least a few districts per province.

No clear trends in ownership or other tenure types can be derived from the available data. When assuming a critical (irrigated) farm size of 7 jerib (1.4 ha), a great number of owner farmers appear not to be self- sufficient with regard to food production on the land they own. They may have to resort to sharecropping for instance or supplement their income from another occupation.Improving the yield per jerib may improve the general situation. It would result in lower critical sizes of farms, which means that more farmers would be self - sufficient.Such a model can help to assess for which types of production units and to which extent the problems are solved, which groups are still in need, which additional steps could be taken to give further support to those (AAEC, 1992).

References

Afghanistan Government 1992 Wheat production and fieldexperimentationin Afghanistan, Extracts of AAEC Moqur Conference (October 1991) as a "Textbook for Extension Workers" Afghan Agriculture Experimental Centre (AAEC), November 1992.

Griffiths, J C. 1981. Afghanistan, Key toacontinent.André DeutschLtd, London.

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Larsson, J. 1978. Status of alpine rangelands in Central Afghanistan with special reference to the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. FAO Project AFG /78/007, Field Document no 1.

Dupree, Louis. 1973. Afghanistan.Princeton University Press, 1973, First Indian Edition, 1994.

Scott, R B. 1971 The North Shamalan. A survey of land and people, Helmand Valley. August 1971. USAID.

Swedish Committee for Afghanistan 1993. The Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan. Report 15, Part VIII, Farming Systems in Afghanistan. July 1993.

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4. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the consultancy's findings and conclusions itis recommended that, the political situation permitting, a comprehensive land use planning programme, to be placed in the broader framework of UNCED's Agenda 21, be established in Afghanistan as soon as possible.The primary aim of this programme would be to create a combined bottom -up and top -down institutional structure which should facilitate the development of sustainable and environmentally sound use of Afghanistan's land resources. Among the land management top -priorities are the need to stop the process of clearcutting of natural forests in the Eastern Mountains zone, including Paktia province, and of rainfed cropping of winter pasture lands in the Turkestan Plains zone.

Itis crucial that a long term vision be adopted when formulating and costing the proposed programme.

The programme could approximately be phased as follows:

Phase 1: Preparatory and rebuilding programme, comprising:

(Re)building of indispensable databases in the fields of climate, agro- ecology, natural vegetation(range /forests)andfauna,soils,landuse,farmingsystems,land tenure /user rights, the status of nomads...)

Complementary studies to complete crucial databases, to identify priority areas for land use planning and the needs of the rural population in such areas.

Sustainable land resources management oriented education programme (schools and adults)

Training of professional staff in various technical, socioeconomic, managerial and participatory fields of land use planning

Revitalization of the agricultural extension service, oriented towards a bottom -up approach.

Establishment of regional or provincial multi -disciplinary land use planning groups whose mandate would be to prepare )agricultural' land use plans on the basis of available land resources and of priorities and acceptance indicated by communities and /or land user groups.

Establishment or adaptation of the legal framework for the promotion of sustainable land use and of an environmental policy

Close cooperation with the (revitalized) Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan, building upon past and on /going research (e.g. AFG /94/002), to increase cropping intensities and yields per ha in irrigation areas and to improve agronomic practices and yields in rainfed areas.

Prepare the implementation programme (phase 2)

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Phase 2: Implementation programme

Perhaps after one or two years of preparatory activities, and whilst continuing (and probably reorienting) key elements of the preparatory programme, the implementation programme will be initiated and should focus on the promotion and involvement of land user groups.Instead of adopting a sector or sub -sector approach (e.g.rainfed agriculture, forestry, extensive grazing etc oriented groups) it is probably more effective to adopt an integrated approach where the communities c.q.land user groups would participate in the planning and management of, for instance, critical watershed sections, involving crop production as well as extensive grazing, forestry and nature conservation.

For the priority areas regional or provincial land use planning groups would provide technical background information, based on quantitative land evaluation where possible, and work out various land use options with land user /stakeholder groups and the provincial or district extension service.Soil conservation measures are indispensable, especially in the rainfed agriculture areas, but need to focus on increasing benefits for the farmers, e.g.fruit trees, fodder crops and medicinal and /or spice plant production on contourbunds. The problem of protection of foddercrops and young trees on contourbunds from roaming livestock may need special attention in order to fit into the overall farming systems.

To stop the clearcutting of natural forests may be impossible as long as local communities are not fully aware of the consequences and as long as alternative sources of income are not sufficiently available. An important step might be to recognize the right of local communities to exploit these resources. At the same time considerable extension efforts are needed to show how these forests can best be used and regenerated.Solutions need to be found by the communities to protect forest seedlings from livestock. Increased on -farm tree production, which is part of the Afghan farmer's tradition, will probably do much to relieve the pressure on the natural forest and shrub lands.

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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACBAR 1996 Directory of Humanitarian Agencies working for Afghanistan. Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief, Peshawar, April 1996

Afghanistan Government 1978 Afghan Agriculture in Figures.Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Planning, Kabul, Dec 1978

Cossee, O. 1991 Agriculture and Natural Resource Survey Lower Pech Valley. Draft 2, MADERA /Care International. October 1991.

Cossins, N. 1994 A review of the livestock production systems of Afghanistan. FAO, Rome, 1994.

Cressey, G.B. 1960 Crossroads - Land and life in Southwest Asia (Chapter 17: Afghanistan). The Lippincott Geography Series.

DANA 1995 DANA Magazine. First Edition, Development Association for Northern Afghanistan, Mazar -i- Sharif, 1995.

Dev Alternatives Inc 1993 Afghanistan LandCoverand Land Use Report. DevelopmentAlternatives, Inc. and EarthSatellite Corporation, USA, March 1993.

Development and Resource Corporation 1971 Kunduz -Khanabad Irrigation Feasibility Study. Appendix 1: Soil and land classification. (D &R), New York/Sacramento /Tehran, 1971.

Dupree, Louis 1973 Afghanistan. PrincetonUniversityPress,FirstIndian Edition, 1994.

Electrowatt Engineering Services Ltd 1977 Konar River Basin Development. Master Plan Report: Annexe 1:Soils and land classification.Zurich, Switzerland inassociationwithNorconsult AS,Oslo, Norway. Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Water and Power, 1977.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report - 78 -

FAO 1965 Survey of land and water resourcesof Afghanistan (FAO /SF:9 /AF6). Volume I- General Report andVolume IV - Soil surveys and landclassification. Rome, 1965.

FAO 1971 Soil fertility and fertilizer use.Report to the Government of Afghanistan, based on the work of P.M. Tamboli.

FAO 1972 Afghanistan Landcover Statistics.

FAO 1992 Terminal report. Strengthening of the Forestry Department, Phase Il. (AFG/86/011) FAO, Rome. 1992.

FAO 1995 Semi -Annual Report January - June 1995, Afghanistan. August 1995

FAO 1995 Project Performance Evaluation Report (1995). Integrated Crop and Food Production (AFG /94/002). Islamabad, 16 February 1996

FAO 1995 Project Performance EvaluationReport (1995).Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme for Afghanistan. (AFG /93/004). Islamabad, December 1995

Formoli, T.A, Afzal Rashid, M and Du Bruille, J P. 1994 An Overview and Assessment of Afghanistan'sEnvironment. AScientificPublicationof Afghanistan Horizon, Sacramento, California, in cooperation with Afghan Development Association (ADA), Peshawar, Pakistan. September 1994.

General International Engineering Company Inc. 1959Reporton SoilandWater Resources of Southwest Afghanistan. Volume I. September 1959.

Griffiths, J.C. 1981 Afghanistan. Key to a continent. André DeutschLtd, London.

Hassanyar, Amir S. 1977 Restoration ofAridandSemi -aridEcosystemsin Afghanistan. Dept of Forestry and Natural Resources, Kabul University, in Environmental Conservation, Vol 4, No 4.

HAVA 1967 AnoverallviewoftheHelmand Arghandab Valley Development, March 1967.

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Larsson, John Y. 1978 Status of alpine rangelands in Central Afghanistan with special reference to the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. FAO Project AFG /78/007, Field Document no 1.Department of Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture, Kabul, 1978

MADERA 1993 Annual Report 1992, Mission for Relief of Rural Economics, Peshawar.

MADERA 1994 Effet de lataille des bulbes et de leur profondeur de plantation sur la germination et lafloraison du safran (Crocus sativus L.) dans l'est de l'Afghanistan.E.Nizami, S.Siddiqi, O. Cassée, O. Laborde - Debat, Activity Report 1994.

MADERA 1995 Activity Report 1994.

Mercy Corps Int'nl 1995 Agriculture project for Southwest Afghanistan. Final Report, 1990 -1994. Mercy Corps International, Quetta, Pakistam.

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council 1986. Maize Production Manual. Islamabad, Pakistan.

Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Wheat Production Manual. Islamabad, Pakistan.

Patterson, M.T. 1995 A socioeconomic assessment of Faryab province. Field Crop Protection in Northern Afghanistan. AFG /92/009. FAO. February 1995.

Pias, J. 1976 Formations superficielles et sols d'Afghanistan. Travaux et documents de l'ORSTOM no 55. ORSTOM -CNRS, Paris, 1976.

Pickett, L. and Gul, A. 1966 An AgronomicSurveyin SixEasternprovincesof Afghanistan. Faculty of Agriculture, Kabul University, 1966.

Scott, R.B. 1971 The North Shamalan. A survey of land and people, Helmand Valley. USAID.

SOGREAH 1966 Kunduz -Khanabad Irrigation Study, Final report. SOGREAH, Grenoble, France. 1966.

Swedish Committee for Afghanistan. The Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan. 1989 Report 2, Vol I: Farm Power. April 1989 1990 Report 4. Fertiliser. February 1990 1993 Report 15, Part VIII: Farming Systems in Afghanistan, July 1993 (Survey of the 7 districts in 7 provinces of Afghanistan. 1991).

UNDCP 1995 Afghanistan Opium Poppy Survey 1995. Regional Office for Southwest Asia, UN Drug Control Programme, Islamabad, September 1995. (PC)

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UNDP 1993 AfghanistanRehabilitationStrategy, ActionPlanfor ImmediateRehabilitationVolume IV, Agricultureand Irrigation. UNDP, Kabul, October 1993.

MAPS

FAO /Unesco 1979 Carte Mondiale des Sols. Volume VII: Asie du Sud. Rome, Italy.

FAO 1990 Soil Map of the World -Revised Legend. World Soil Resources Report 60. Rome, Italy.

National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, GEOKART, 1984.Warsaw, Poland.

Nelles Verlag Map of Afghanistan, scale 1:1,500,000, , Muenchen.

UNIDATA /Mapping Service, Afghanistan, Districts and Codes, by Province; Administrative Divisions Map ofAfghanistan, scale approximately 1;4000000.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Land Management Report TCP/AFG/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

FARMING SYSTEMS

Bernhard Schelhas

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, December 1996 CONTENTS Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1 1.2 Objectives 2 1.3 Activities 2

2. FARMING SYSTEMS IN AFGHANISTAN 4

2.1 Methodology 4 2.1.1 General Approach 4 2.1.2The Agro- ecological Zones 5 2.1.3Land Use by Agro- ecological Zone 7 2.2 The Farming System Models 8 2.2.1 Overview 8 2.2.2Model 1: Shulgara District, Balkh Province 9 2.2.3Model 2: Nejrab District, Kapisa Province 10 2.2.4Model 3: Mehterlam District, Laghman Province 11 2.2.5Model 4: Maydan Shar District, Wardak Province 12 2.2.6Model 5: Qara Bagh District, Ghazni Province 13 2.2.7Model 6: Nad Ali District, Helmand Province 14 2.2.8Model 7: Arghandab District, Qandahar Province 15 2.2.9Conclusions 16 2.3 Main Features of the Farming Systems 17 2.3.1General 17 2.3.2Active and inactive land 17 2.3.3Farm size 17 2.3.4Household Size and Labour Force 19 2.3.5Land Tenure 19 2.3.6Farm Inputs 21 2.3.7Agrochemicals, Pests and Diseases 24 2.3.8Farm Power 26 2.3.9Crop Production and Management 29 2.3.10 Horticulture 34 2.3.11 Livestock 37 2.3.12 Crop Subsistence and Cereal Consumption 38 2.3.13 Rural Women 39 2.3.14 Economic Returns 39 2.3.15 Problems and Expectations of Farmers 41 3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY 48

ANNEX 1. Agroecological Zone Data

ANNEX 2.Discussion Group 1, Report, Agricultural Strategy Development Workshop

ANNEX 3. Rapid Appraisal Questionnaires and Checklists LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1.Irrigated and Rainfed Gross Area by Agro- ecological Zones (ha) 7 Table 2. Area under various crops in 1967 -68 7 Table 3. Land Cover / Land Use Data from Satellite 1993 7 Table 4. Farming System Models by Agro- ecological Zones 8 Table 5. Farming System Profile, Model 1. Shulgara District, Balkh Province 10 Table 6. Farming System Profile, Model 2. Nejrab District, Kapisa Province 11 Table 7. Farming System Profile, Model 3. Mehterlam District, Laghman Province 11 Table 8. Farming System Profile, Model 4. Maydan Shar District, Wardak Province 12 Table 9. Farming System Profile, Model 5. Qara Bagh District, Ghazni Province 13 Table 10. Farming System Profile, Model 6. Nad Ali District, Helmand Province 14 Table 11. Farming System Profile, Model 7. Arghandab District, Qandahar Province 15 Table 12. Average size of small, medium and large farms (jeribs) 18 Table 13.Irrigated Land Ownership 20 Table 14. Land ownership 1996 21 Table 15. Fertiliser Use in Afghanistan 1971 -1986 23 Table 16. Farm Power 27 Table 17. Rental costs of tractors and oxen 28 Table 18. Comparison of tractor and oxen rental costs 1991 and 1996 28 Table 19. Cultivated Area, Production, Yields in 1977 -78 30 Table 20. Opium Cultivation in 1995 32 Table 21. Fruits and vines growing in seven districts in 1991 34 Table 22. Typical livestock products 38 Table 23. Gross Margins of Major Crops 39 Table 24. Cash Income and Return to Labour 40

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1. Afghanistan by Administrative Divisions Frontispiece Map 2. Afghanistan showing Agroecological Zones 6 AREA AND WEIGHT UNITS

Area: jerib = 2000 sq metres 0.2 hectare Weight seer (Kabul) = 7.0 kg

EXCHANGE RATE

Sep /Oct 1996 US$1.00= Pak Rp 40 = Afs 25,000 (in Northern Afghanistan) Sep /Oct 1996 US$1.00= Pak Rp 42 = Afs 15,000 (in other areas of Afghanistan)

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACBAR Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief AFC Afghanistan Fertiliser Company ASARP Agricultural Requisites Scheme for Asia and the Pacific BHC Benzine hexachloride DAP Di- ammonium phosphate FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations FFS Farmer Field School FMC Funds Management Committee (with WFP `Food for Seed' programme) IPP Integrated Production and Protection ISE Improved Seed Enterprise MINPLAN Ministry of Planning (Kabul) NGO Non -Government Organisation RAP Rapid Appraisal SCA Swedish Committee for Afghanistan SSP Single superphosphate STA Senior Technical Adviser (FAO projects) TSP Triple superphosphate WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation UNDCP UN Drug Control Programme 74 0 SCALE(km) SO 100 66 64 ez Kabul O CAPITAL OF COUNTRY Gala-K r- INT'L BOUNDARY o PROVINCIALPROVINCE CENTRE BOUNDARIES ALAGADARIDISTRICT BOUNDARIES

34 PromotionFOOD & AGRICULTURE of AgriculturalOF THE ORGANIZATION Rehabilitation UNITEDand NATIONS Development Programmes TCP /AFG/4552AFGHANISTAN, ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONSApril 1996 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Afghanistan has been involved in a civil war for the past 17 years. One consequence of the was has been over five million refugees.During this period, bilateral and international assistance was provided in form of short term relief aid,particularly after 1988. The objective of the assistance was to ensure the immediate survival of the respective target groups.Although successful rehabilitation and repatriation efforts have been undertaken since 1993 (UNDP Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation), the nature of assistance has remained more or less the same, short term relief aid with little attention to sustainability and long term impact.

The absence of active state mechanisms, continued changes in the configurations of local power and financial constraints have been the main reasons why bilateral and international assistance programmes have again and again, been directed towards restricted and provisional forms of short term relief aid.Doubts have also emerged as to whether or not the type of emergency and relief aid provided over years is contributing to the strengthening of the peace process and the stabilisation of the overall socioeconomic situation.

There are some exceptions to this general situation. FAO has been directly involved in the rehabilitation of Afghan agriculture since 1988.It currently has a strong presence in the ongoing rehabilitation process with two major programmes:

AFG /94/002 `Integrated Crop and Food Production in Afghanistan'.This program includes crop and seed production, horticultural production and plant protection. The project aims to move the crop sector from rehabilitation to sustainable development.

AFG /93/004 `Livestock Production and Health'.The project deals with the livestock sector and also attempts to lift the sector from relief and rehabilitation to sustainable livestock production and health.

These two programs have demonstrated alternative options to relief assistance and the possibility of implementing development programs in conflict situations where no proper central government exists.

The Afghan situation presents a paradox.Although there is a war going on, a certain recovery of the agricultural sector can be observed. The fact that the TCP team was able to travel toallsignificant agricultural areas in Afghanistan without having been seriously troubled, as well as the presence of NGOs in almost all areas of Afghanistan are certainly proof that a large part of the country is relatively stable. Since 1995 the war has moved to Kabul and surroundings and as a consequence, large parts of the rural areas have become quiet and peaceful. While one part of Afghanistan needs emergency and rehabilitation aid, an even larger part, needs agricultural development programmes. Rural Afghanistan is now in a transitional phase, moving from an emergency and relief situation to development

To ensure the progression of the transition, the correct management of natural renewable resources, and sustainable production based on addressing priority problems of existing household farming systems, an agricultural strategy framework is urgently required. To meet these needs FAO has implemented the present project: TCP /AFG/4552 "Promotion of agriculturalrehabilitationand development programs ". Under thisprojectvarious consultants have been fielded in 1996 to provide the expertise for the elaboration of an Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report 2

1.2 OBJECTIVES

The objective of the strategy is to provide an up -to -date framework and methodologies for the management of naturally renewable resources, increased productivity in agriculture and forestry, the delivery of inputs and services to farmers and for strengthening agricultural development and implementation capacity through an AgriculturalRehabilitation and Development Program. This is to be achieved through following activities:

Review of the agricultural sector including livestock and forestry and identification of potentials and constraints, in the context of existing farming systems.

Review of the status of land and water resources and identification of potentials and constraints.

Review ofdelivery systems foragriculturalinputs,knowledge andskills,and identification of potentials and constraints.

Review of existing agricultural development implementation capacity, potential and constraints.

Develop project proposals where applicable.

The task of the farming systems specialist was to look at the agricultural sector from the micro level and to ascertain that the needs of the farmers of the different farming systems are reflected in the overall strategy.

The specific responsibility of the consultant was to provide farm -level information with respect to agricultural production and natural resource use, to analyse the potential for participatory approaches to medium -term rehabilitation and to the delivery system of agricultural inputs, and to contribute to drafting a strategy paper. The specific duties were:

Visit selected field sites and institutions within Afghanistan to review the structure of agricultural production with special attention to farm - level information.

Examine the medium -term aspects of sustainable agricultural production and farm management, including participatory approaches and community -based input delivery systems. Advise on the future strategy for assistance to the development of Afghanistan's agricultural sector, according to the major farming systems.

Collect appropriate information concerning increased sustainable productivity in the rural sector for the drafting of a strategy paper. Participate in project and programme formulation as appropriate.

1.3 ACTIVITIES

The consultant was in Pakistan and Afghanistan from 29 August to 16 November. Despite the tense security situation in and around Kabul, the consultant had the opportunities to visit 11 provinces: Jawzjan, Balkh, Samangan, Baghlan and Kunduz in the North and Paktia, Wardak, Ghazni, Zabul, Qandahar and Helmand in the South and South East. The Eastern provinces Nangarhar, Kunar and Laghman had been visited during a previous mission in spring 1996.Field visits took place from the 24 -30 September in the North and from 7 -15 October in the South and South East.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report -3

Logistical support and valuable technical advice were providedby FAO project staff stationed in Ghazni, Mazar- i- Sharif, Herat, Qandahar and Jalalabad.Support was also provided by various NGOs working as implementing partners of thetwo FAO projects. They have established a network of activities and offices all over the country.

During the mission 124 farmers were interviewed in groups andindividually.In addition, information was obtained from a large number of resource personsfrom international, bilateral and non governmental organisations in Islamabad, Peshawarand Afghanistan.

The main target areas of the field visits were seven districts withrepresentative farming systems. Five of these districts, Shulgara (Balkh), Maydan Shar(Wardak), Qara Bagh (Ghazni), Arghandab (Qandahar) and Nad Ali (Helmand) were visitedduring the mission. Mehterlam district (Laghman) had been visited during the earliermission. It was not possible to visit Nejrab district (Kapisa) in the Panjsher valley because ofsecurity problems.

Interviews were undertaken with the help of a structured, compactquestionnaire a copy of which is provided in Annex 3. Separate interviews with farmers, traders andother resource persons were undertaken in each district to obtain data onfarm -gate and market prices as well as data on agricultural inputs (see checklist in Annex 3).The interviews were done in the fields or in the respective villages with groups of five to ten farmers.Each farmer was interviewed individually.Critical issues were discussed openly within the group.Interviews were done by the consultant with the assistanceof national experts from the FAO Integrated Crop and Food Production project.

With this methodology, a larger number of farmers could be interviewedthan originally intended.The data obtained was processed with the assistance of the Survey Unitof Agency Body for Co- ordinating Afghan Relief (ACBAR).This enabled some degree of cross -checking as the same group was involved in theagricultural survey of the Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA) in 1991 and 1993.This procedure had the advantage that the analysed data were compatible and could be compared with earlier surveydata.

Preliminary findings were discussed in working groups of a National Workshop inPeshawar on the 30 -31 October. (see Annex 2, Strategy Workshop,Report of Discussion Group 1). Finally, the main results and recommendations were presented to FAO headquarters on19 November 1996.

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2. FARMING SYSTEMS IN AFGHANISTAN

2.1 METHODOLOGY

2.1.1 General Approach

The lack of current information on agricultural production, farming systems and demography is one of the key problems in elaborating a strategy for agricultural rehabilitation and development in Afghanistan.Knowledge about the farming systems is essential for three purposes:

to provide benchmarks for impact monitoring of projects, or against which further progress in the development of agriculture can be measured;

to identify gaps in data and technology; and

to provide an assessment of the needs and problems of the various potential target groups in the production and delivery structures of agriculture.

The aim of analysing the Afghan farming systems is to gather farming systems information as a basis for assessing the consequences and settingprioritiesin the Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy.

The farming systems work is presented and discussed in terms of a series of farming system models. These are used as general representations of the various types of agricultural activities within the agroecological zones of Afghanistan. The models do not attempt to be all- encompassing or exhaustive of all possibilities.

The models are based on already published information, mainly the Farming Systems Survey of Afghanistan 1993.This is based on the agricultural survey of Afghanistan undertaken in 1991 by the SCA (SCA, 1993a)1.Another important source was the Agriculture Survey of Afghanistan 1992 -1993, also published by the SCA in December 1993.2 Both of these reports were part of a series of 18 studies and reports based on field work undertaken by the Swedish Committee and published between 1988 and 1994.

As far as possible, the project team has tried to verify the validity of the models and to update some of the data.For this purpose a rapid appraisal was undertaken by the consultant infive of the seven zones covering almost half of the 29 Afghan provinces. In addition some preliminary data from a current FAO Horticultural Survey have been analysed and utilised.

The general conclusion regarding the data base for agriculture in Afghanistan must be that while there is a lot of information available, much of it is unreliable and often contradictory. Even the basic national parameters most important for planning of aid programs, such as size of population, total area under cultivation, total production of major food crops, use of inputs, etc. are unreliable or refer only to limited sample areas and can rarely be applied on the macro level.

SCA, 1993a.Farming Systems in Afghanistan, Summary, 15th Report, Part VIII, July 1993. The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan. 2 SCA, 1993b.Agriculture Survey of Afghanistan, 1992 -1993, 17th Report, December 1993. The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 5

Although there have been some very valuable survey data collected during the recent years, particularly by SCA, there has not been any agricultural censusfor many years. Some of the surveys undertaken by NGOs and international organisations were limited in scope and quality. Some of the reasons for this were:

some of the provinces and districts have been inaccessible for longperiods;

the involvement of organisations lacking the appropriate technical experience in data collection, processing and interpretation;

rapid changes in the process of agricultural recovery; and

use of different definitions for basic agricultural parameters.

It must therefore be accepted that any conclusions drawn from the models will only be a general approximation of the current situation in Afghanistan.

One of the basic requirements for the design of future national development programmes will be reliable agricultural data. A comprehensive national agricultural survey is required as soon as possible.The statistical data would have to meet international standards and should be the responsibility of the respective specialised UN agency, at the same time involving local and regional capacities, such as the survey units of NGOs.

The farming system models used in this report are at the micro -scale, or farm and village level. For the purpose of elaborating a national strategy for agricultural development, conclusions will be at the macro -scale, that is at national and zonal level.The agroecological zones adopted in the Land Utilisation Consultants Report (Berding 1996) 3 have been used for this purpose. The linkages between micro and macro -level are also based on the land use data of FAO (Afghanistan Land Cover Statistics, 1972) and satellite data (DAI /Earth Satellite Corp, 1993)4. This approach is acknowledged to be simplistic and this should be recognised from the outset. Any future investment based on the findings should be preceded by a detailed analysis and when possible by a national agricultural survey.

2.1.2The Agro- ecological Zones

For the purpose of land use assessment, the Land Management consultant adopted the agroecological zoning system developed by Dupree5 which recognised 11 zones. In defining the zones, Dupree took into account lines of human contact and communication in reference to zones of accessibility and relative inaccessibility, as well as the more strictly agricultural and geographic criteria.

In adopting these zones, the Land Management consultant acknowledged that for defining agricultural productivity, it would be necessary to subdivide the zones according to altitude. As far as possible, the consultant kept the zone boundaries to the provincial and district boundaries.Where this was not practicable, districts were apportioned between zones. The agroecological zones are listed in Table 1 on page 7 and shown in Map 1 on page 6. Annex 1 gives a detailed listing of the provinces and districts in each of the various zones.

3 Berding,F R. 1996. Land Management Report. Promotion of AgriculturalRehabilitation and Development in Afghanistan. FAO TCP /AFG/4552, Subsector Report No 1. Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996. (See this volume). 4 DAI and ESC, 1993. Afghanistan Land Cover and Land Use Report, Development Alternatives Inc. and Earth Satellite Corporation, March 1993. Afghanistan Agricultural Sector Support Project. USAiD.

5 Dupree, Louis, 1980. Afghanistan.First Indian edition, Rama Publishers, New Delhi.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 6 -

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2.1.3Land Use by Agro-ecological Zone

Table 1 shows the major rainfed and irrigation areasin Afghanistan as at 1972 (FAO), set out by agroecological zones.It is obvious that rainfed agriculture is concentratedin the northern zones of Badakhshan, Northern Mountainsand Foothills and the Turkestan Plains, which together include 75 per cent of all rainfed farmingland.This concentration in one region would facilitate a strategy to assist the improvementof rainfed production.

Table 1. Irrigated and Rainfed Gross Area by Agro- ecologicalZones (ha) No. Agro- ecological Zone Irrigated per centRainfed per cent Total 0.1 0 0.0 4,770 1Wakhan Corridor and Pamir Knot 4,770 2Badakhshan 78,229 2.4 714,398 14.8 792,627 3Central Mountains 489,668 14.9 848,532 17.51,338,200 4Eastern Mountains 464,855 14.1 151,057 3.1 615,912 5Southern Mountains and Foothills 526,754 16.0 229,676 4.7 756,430 6Northern Mountains and Foothills 309,027 9.42258,796 46.72,567,823 7Turkestan Plains 663,995 20.2 627,189 13.01,291,184 8Herat -Farah Lowlands 211,064 6.4 134 0.0 211,198 9Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin 410,325 12.5 297 0.0 410,622 10Western Stony Deserts 77,020 2.3 0 0.0 77,020 58,192 11South -western Sandy Deserts 52,562 1.6 5,630 0.1 Total Gross Area 3,288,269 100.04,835,709 100.08,123,978 Sources: FAO 1972 and Berding 1996

The table also shows the proportion between gross areairrigated (40 per cent total agricultural land) and rainfed area (60 per cent total agriculturalland).However these percentages do not reflect the actual area cultivated in any one year.The agricultural statistics of 1967 of the Ministry of Plannings show about 2.0 millionhectares under irrigated grain production and about 0.43 million under other irrigatedfield and tree crops.The rainfed area was about 1.1 million hectares (mainly cereals).In total there were a total of about 3.5 million hectares under cultivation in 1967/68. Details aregiven in Table 2.

Table 2. Area under various crops in 1967 -68 Crops Irrigated (m ha)Rainfed (m ha) Total Cereal 2.00 1.08 3.08 Industrial /Horticulture 0.43 0.00 0.43 Total 2.43 1.08 3.51 Source: Ministry of Planning, 1978

Recent data suggests that the areas have not changed significantly.The land cover /land use data from satellite images in 1993 inTable 3 show a picture which is only slightly different and maybe due to some increase in irrigated land or tomethodological differences.

Table 3. Land Cover f Land Use Data from Satellite 1993 Class million ha percent Active Irrigated Agriculture 2.63 3.92 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture 0.72 1.07 Rainfed Agriculture 3.08 4.60 Other Classes 58.21 90.41 Total 64.38 100.00 Source: DAI Earth Satellite, 1993

MINPLAN, 1978. Afghan Agriculture inFigures (1976 -1977), Central Statistics Office,Ministry of Planning, Kabul, 1978

Farming Systems Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy -8

The main picture of the land use structure is that about 3.5 million hectares, orless than half the gross area of around 8 million hectares of agricultural land, are activelycultivated in any year.Of this less than a third is rainfed production while the bulk is under irrigation. The difference in productivity of irrigated and rainfed land is significant. The averageyield of irrigated wheat is about 2.0 tonnes /ha or more per year, while 1 hectare of rainfedland yields about 0.4 tonnes /ha every 3 -5 years, or one twentieth the output of the irrigated land.

The obvious conclusion is that rainfed production is not highly significant in terms of total production. The total contribution of rainfed agriculture to the overall production of cereal is estimated to be not more than 10 per cent. However, rainfed agriculture is concentrated in the Northern Region and the large area produces a significant surplus within that region which can be used to fill deficits elsewhere in the country. The concentration of production in the north also suggests that it would be practical to develop locally -based programmes to increase the productivity of rainfed cropping within the region.

2.2 THE FARMING SYSTEM MODELS

2.2.1 Overview

The farming systems survey of the SCA distinguishes seven farming systems models which were developed from the SCA agricultural survey of 1991. Theydescribe the structure of a farming system prevailing in an agroecological zone and which can be considered as typical of similar climatic situations across the country. The basic features of these models are described by location, altitude, precipitation, type of irrigation; farm andhousehold size; land tenure; crop production; farm inputs; farm labour and farm power; pests and diseases, livestock production; crop and farm budgets. The models cover most of the agroecological zones as developed in the Land Management report (Berding 1996).

Together the models are considered to be representative for over 95 per cent of irrigated agricultural and 85 per cent of rainfed land. The obvious omissions are the high mountain areas of the north -east and to a certain part, central Afghanistan.Also excluded are the nomads (kuchis) who account for some 7 -10 per cent of the population and are the principal users of the large areas of semi -arid grazing land..? Details are summarised in Table 8.

Table 4. Farming System Models by Agro- ecological Zones No. Agro- ecological Zone Models per cent per cent applicable Irrigated Rainfed

1Wakhan Corridor and Pamir Knot - 0.1 0.0 2Badakhshan - 2.4 14.8 3Central Mountains No 5 14.9 17.5 4Eastern Mountains No 2, 3, 4 14.1 3.1 5Southern Mountains and Foothills No 5 16.0 4.7

6Northern Mountains and Foothills No. 1 9.4 46.7 7Turkestan Plains No 1 20.2 13.0 8Herat -Farah Lowlands No 5, 6 6.4 0.0 9Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin No 6, 7 12.5 0.0 10Western Stony Deserts - 2.3 0.0 11South -western Sandy Deserts - 1.6 0.1 Total Gross Area 100.0 100.0

7 Thieme, O. 1996. Livestock Production Report, Promotionof AgriculturalRehabilitation and Development in Afghanistan. FAO TCP /AFG/4552, Subsector Report No 4. Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996. (See this volume).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report 9-

Model 1, Shulgara (Balkh), covers the mixed extensiverainfed and irrigated cropping system of Zone 7 (Northern Mountains and Foothills), andparts of Zone 6 (Turkestan Plains), with a relatively large component of extensively grazedlivestock.This is the only system with large areas of integrated rainfed agriculture.

Model 2, Nejrab (Kapisa), Model 3, Mehterlam (Laghman) andModel 4, Maydan Shar (Wardak) can be found in the intensively cropped Zone 4 (EasternMountains). They have relatively small farm sizes, varying degrees of cropping intensity andproductivity and differ in cropping pattern, depending on local micro -climate.

Model 5, Qara Bagh (Ghazni), is a subsistence cropping systemin Zone 5, (Southern Mountains and Foothills), where productivity is limited by length of growing seasonand by available moisture.This model is probably also frequently found in the various pocketsof irrigated land lying within the huge area of the Central Mountains (Zone3), varying with the altitude and length of growing period found.The model is probably also applicable for some areas in Zone 8 (Herat -Farah Lowlands).

Two models are based in the low -lying hot areas of the Helmand Valley,Zone 9, where production is dependent on the management of water flows from large -areairrigation schemes. One is Model 6, Nad Ali (Helmand), with relative large mechanisedirrigation farms producing food grain and industrial crops like cotton and poppy.The last one is Model 7, Arghandab (Qandahar), which is an exclusively horticulture-based system with a production of fresh and dried fruits, such as pomegranates, grapes, apricots,apples and vegetables, as cash crops. Model No 6 can also be found in some areas ofZone 8 (Herat - Farah Lowlands) and in the North. The outline of each of the models isdescribed in the following sections 2.2.1 to 2.2.7.

2.2.2Model 1: Shulgara District, Balkh Province

The system combines intensive irrigation, extensive rainfed cropping andrelatively large numbers of livestock in varying combinations. The main crops are irrigatedwheat and rice, and rainfed wheat and barley.Close to the rivers and canals, land is heavily subdivided and intenselyused,whilefurther from the water sources,croppingisrainfedor opportunistically irrigated.Relatively large numbers of livestock are grazed, sometimes at considerable distances from home areas.Farm and herd sizes vary widely between the small -farm and large -farm groups. Sixty per cent of the population is ofUzbek origin.

The model is based on Shulgara district in Balkh province in the NorthernMountains and Foothills (Zone 6). Itis considered representative of much of the rainfed farming area throughout the northern region covering roughly 3.6 million of the totalof 4.8 million hectares of rainfed area. The average altitude is 500 - 1000 metres and theprecipitation about 200 mm. The climate is relative cold with most precipitation falling in winter.From January to March, snow falls in the valleys, especially in the upper regions.Summers are mild with scant rain from June to October. Rivers are the main source of irrigation water.

A number of districts and provinces which broadly follow the northern contourline of the Agroecological Zone 6, share the features of this model, particularly extended rainfedgrain production with low yields.Of the total rainfed area (FAO 1972) of about 4.8 million hectares almost 3.6 million hectares are within the agroecological zones6, 7 and 2. These are mainly the foothills and slopes of the northernmountains with sometimes sufficient but unreliable rainfall for wheat and barley cultivation. The rainfed areas oftenremain fallow for 3 -5 years to store moisture and increase nitrogen. With unreliablerainfall, fertiliser use is low and in general, cereal yields are low.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report In 1967 -68, only 1.1 million ha of the total rainfed area of 4.8 million ha, were cultivated. The relation between total area and effectively cultivated area of 23 per cent (1.1 million hectares) corresponds with the average rotation period of about 4 years and is unlikely to have changed.It is more likely that the cultivated rainfed area has decreased due to lack of mechanised farm power required for this extensive form of farming.

Table 5. Farming System Profile, Model 1. Shulgara District, Balkh Province Agro- ecological zone North: south -centralBalkh Zone 6, NorthernMountains and Foothills - bordering Zone 7, TurkestanPlains Basic features Extensive rainfed and intensive irrigated food grain production Rainfed wheat and barley production. Surplus grain production Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium lame 20 60 125 Household size (persons) 10.5 11.2 12.7 Land tenure Mainly owner cultivators. share cropping 50 per cent - - Share cropping only on small farms. Cropping intensity 0.70 0.35 0.30 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) Cereal crops - Irrigated Wheat 5.6 5.0 15.6 43 - Rainfed Wheat 1.8 7.0 7.0 27 - Rainfed Barley 2.0 4.0 8.0 23 - Rice 5.6 5.0 7.0 53 Livestock (numbers) - Oxen 2 4 5 - Cows 2 3 5 - Donkeys 3 6 7 - Sheep and Goats 100 230 750 Source: SCA 1993a

Average rainfed cereal yields of not much more than 12 seers /jerib were reported during the Rapid Appraisal (RAP, 1996). With an acreage of not more than about 1.1 million hectares under rainfed cereals (not considering abandoned land) the total national production from the rainfed cultivation would be not more than 400,000 tonnes of cereals per year.This amount is about 10 per cent of total cereal production.

Although rainfed cereal production is only a small part of the total production and could be considered as a lower priority in an agricultural strategy, the fact that most of this production is concentrated in the North, provides an opportunity to concentrate efforts of a strategy for the use of improved seeds for rainfed wheat and barley, mechanised farm power and improved agricultural techniques (increasing moisture and fertility in soils).

2.2.3Model 2: Nejrab District, Kapisa Province

This is an intensive, small -scale, traditional irrigated system producing food crops. These are generally autumn -sown wheat or clover followed by maize or beans.Because of the relatively high productivity of the system, land has become the limiting factor for most farmers.It is one of three systems in the Eastern Mountains (Zone 4) and is considered typical of significant agricultural areas in the region.The system is based on the Nejrab district in the Panjsher Valley, Kapisa province. The area is located between altitudes of about 1,000 - 2,000 metres , annual precipitation is around 280 mm. January to March are the coldest months with a lot of snow. July to October are the driest months with almost no rainfall.Soils are typical mountain serozems. The population consists mainly of Tajiks.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report The main source of water is through canal systems from rivers fed by snow melt.Besides the main food crops, wheat, maize and beans a number of vegetablessuch as potatoes and onions as well as fruits and vines are grown. Clover, which is grown by almost80 -90 per cent of the medium and larger farms has up to five cuts per year.Farm power is normally oxen. Tractors are used by very few farmers which may reflect small farm size.

Table 6. Farming System Profile, Model 2. Nejrab District, Kapisa Province i Agro- ecological zone I East -Central: South -central Kapisa Zone 4. Eastern Mountains Basic features Intensive small scale traditional, irrigated; food crops production. Subsistence with some cash crops (pulses). Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium large 3 5 8 Household size (persons) 8 10 10 Land tenure owner cultivation share cropping ------Cropping intensity 1.5 1.6 1.4 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) - Irrigated wheat 2.5 4.0 6.5 54 - Maize 1.5 2.0 2.5 25 - Beans 1.5 3.0 3.5 50 - Clover 0.5 1.0 1.5 - Livestock (numbers) - Oxen 1 1 2 - Cows 2 3 5 - Donkeys 1 1 1 - Sheep and Goats 3 3 3 Source: SCA 1993a

2.2.4Model 3: Mehterlam District, Laghman Province

This is a highly intensive system producing irrigated grain crops (wheat and rice) with saleable surplus cereal production.

Table 7. Farming System Profile, Model 3. Mehterlam District, Laghman Province Agro- ecological zone Southeast: Central part of Laghman Zone 4. Eastern mountains Basic features highly intensive irrigated (traditional) grain crops (wheat, rice) with cereal surplus production Farm sizes ( jeribs) small medium large 3 6 10 Household size (persons) 8 10 13

Land tenure large farms sharecrop share cropping 33 per cent some irrigated land Cropping intensity 2.0 1.92 1.90 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) - Irrigated wheat 2.5 4.5 7.0 54 - Rice 3.0 6.0 10.0 100 - Fodder crops 3.0 5.5 9.0 - Livestock (numbers) - Oxen 0 1 2 - Cows 3 5 6 - Donkeys 1 2 2 - Sheep and Goats 2 3 4 Source: SCA 1993a

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 12 -

The system is found in a localised subtropical climate with abundant water,which allows for double cropping of a wide range of crops; wheat, rice, maize, clover, vegetables aswell as citrus and other subtropical fruit as permanent tree crops.The system is based on Mehterlam district on the Alingar River, Laghman province in the Eastern MountainsZone 4.

Mehterlam is located in the centre of Laghman province. The villages in this farmingsystem are between altitudes of 500 to 1500 metres. Average annualprecipitation is 184 mm per year. The climate is semi -arid and sub -tropical atlower elevations with marginal rains in summer and winter.The coldest months are December and January.Irrigation water comes only from rivers fed by snow melt. Soils are alluvial andmountain brown forest soils. Mehterlam has fragments of natural willow, poplar and oleander shrubs on irrigated areas. Four ethnic groups live in the area, Pashtuns, Tajiks, Kohistanis and Nuristanis.

2.2.5Model 4: Maydan Shar District, Wardak Province

This model recognises that much of the land used for irrigated agriculture in Afghanistan is at higher altitudes. These areas have a cooler climate and shorter growing seasonwhich allows only single cropping.Length of growing season is the limiting factor in this system. Located in Zone 5 (Southern Mountains and Foothills) and based on Maydan Shar in the upper reaches of the Kabul River valley in Wardak province

This system is considered to be representative of many of the upper river valley areas in the higher altitude parts of southern, eastern and northern Afghanistan.Potatoes are the dominant field crop in the system, grown in rotation with wheat, rice, clover, alfalfa and barley. Orchard crops, notably apples, are a feature.Livestock are important and climatic restrictions on fodder production are a key factor limiting this component and thus the system as a whole.

Table 8. Farming System Profile, Model 4. Maydan Shar District, Wardak Province Agro- ecological zone East -Central: Zone 4. Eastern Mountains Basic features intensive,irrigated(traditional)horticultural cashcropsand subsistence food grains production Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium large 3 6 12 Household size (persons) 10 14 20 Land tenure all owner cultivation share cropping Cropping intensity 1.33 1.38 1.38 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) - Irrigated wheat 1.0 1.5 4 54 - Rice 0.0 0.0 1 50 - Potato 1.0 2.0 3 650 - Fruits 1.0 2.5 3 500 - Forage crops 1.0 2.0 6 - Livestock (numbers) - Oxen 0 1 2 - Cows 3 5 6 - Donkeys 1 2 2 - Sheep and Goats 2 3 4 Source: SCA 1993a

The altitude is between 2,000 and 3,000 metres with an average annual rainfall of 266 mm. Climate in Maydan Shar is cold. The land is normally frozen and covered with snow from January to March. Summers are mild, with little or no rainfall expected.Irrigation water

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 13 - derives from rivers through canal systems. Most of the people are Pashtuns with a small number of Tajiks.

The system has potential for cash crops. One is the production, packing and marketing of fruit, in particular apples. The increase of potato yields through the cultivation of improved varieties and introduction of improved practices is another potential of the system.

2.2.6Model 5: Qara Bagh District, Ghazni Province

While the key limiting factor on production in Model 4 was length of growing season, in Model 5 itis sufficient water to complete the cropping period satisfactorily.This model is also based in Zone 5. but functions at a lower altitude.It is not length of growing season, but reliability of water to complete the production cycle which sets the production pattern. There is insufficient water, in either surface flows or karez, so farmers in this system are limited to single cropping and with half their land in long fallow to store moisture.

Average annual precipitation is 253 mm. Besides wheat and potatoes as stable food crops and alfalfa as fodder, a substantial production of vines and fruits are grown.Tractors are almost exclusively used as farm power. Only about 15 per cent of farmers use oxen. The main groups living in the area are Pashtuns (70 per cent) and Hazara of the Sadat tribe (25 per cent). Five per cent are Tajiks.

Based on Qara Bagh district in Ghazni province, this model is considered typical of many of the intermediate plains areas in the Northwest (Zone 8) and north (Zone 6) of Afghanistan, as well as the Southern Mountains and Foothills.

Table 9. Farming System Profile, Model 5. Qara Bagh District, Ghazni Province Agro- ecological zone East -Central Zone 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills Basic features Traditionally (karez) irrigated food crops(wheat and potatoes) with low crop intensity and mainly subsistence farming. Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium large 5 11 18 Household size (persons) 8 11.5 Land tenure large farms share crop share cropping 33 per cent out Cropping intensity 0.6 0.77 - Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) - Irrigated wheat 3.0 8.0 18.0 51 - Potatoes 0.5 0.5 1.25 300 - Forage crops 1.5 2.5 7.25 600 Livestock (numbers)

- Oxen 1 1 1 - Cows 2 2 2 - Donkeys 3 3 3 - Sheep and Goats 3 3 3 Source: SCA 1993a

The focus of any agricultural development program will probably be in the rehabilitation and development of the irrigation schemes which is the main limiting factor on production. Specific studies and cost benefit analysis will show how far the karez systems can be put back into full efficiency.

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2.2.7Model 6: Nad Ali District, Helmand Province

Model 6 represents the modern mechanised irrigationsector, in schemes such as the Helmand Valley Irrigation Scheme. The system is based onNad Ali in Helmand province, which is part of Zone 9 (Helmand Valley /Sistan Basin. Themain source of irrigation water is the Helmand River with annual flows stabilised by large upstreamdams and a modern canal system. Under normal conditions this scheme operates with anadequate supply of water.

The farming system is located in a hot semi -desert district with anannual rainfall of less than 150 mm. Frost rarely occurs and crops are grown all aroundthe year.Soils are light serozems and brown semi -desert soils.In general Afghan soils have one percent organic matters and are mostly alkaline.

Table 10. Farming System Profile, Model 6. Nad Ali District, HelmandProvince Agro- ecological zone Southwest: west -central Helmand Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin Basic features Intensive large -scale irrigation producing food grains and industrial crops. Subsistence and cash farming Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium large 5 17 28 Household size (persons) 10 14 20 Land tenure owner cultivator and share cropping 20 per cent 20 per cent 20 per cent sharecroppinginall categories Cropping intensity 1.84 1.66 1.50 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) - Irrigated wheat 4.6 14.0 24.2 81 - Maize 1.3 4.4 4.2 56 - Alfalfa 0.4 1.4 1.8 - - Cotton 1.0 3.6 5.8 - - Poppy 0.7 2.1 2.0 3 - Other 1.0 3.5 4.0 - Livestock (numbers) - - Oxen - - Cows - - Donkeys - - Sheep and Goats - Source: SCA 1993a

In Nad Ali almost all are Pashtuns, with the major Pashtun tribes beingBarakzai, Alizai, Noorzai, Eshaqzai, Alekozai, Ghilzai, and Popalzai. Over 40 per cent of thepopulation of Helmand Province were refugees in Pakistan or Iran.

Apart from cereals the farming systemistypicalfor the productionof large scale mechanised industrial crops, like cotton.Nad Ali has also become the largest poppy growing area in Afghanistan. Beside cereals and industrial crops about 20 per cent of the farmers produce fruits and grapes.

In the past the system has demonstrated its vulnerability.As a formal irrigation system, established with foreign assistance, it requires a central water management structure and heavy machinery to maintain the system.During the war and until now, the formal structures have almost disappeared, resulting in the deterioration of the system.Lack of water and other irrigation problems mean that large areas can not be irrigated, or can only be cultivated once, rather than twice /year (RAP 1996). The deterioration of the system has also affected the cropping pattern. A large number of farmers have increased cultivation of illicit high value crops (poppy) to compensate for economic losses.

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This farming system has probably suffered most from the impact of warand break down of central state powers,Its rehabilitation will require large amounts of foreign capital.High costs and the linkage of the model to the growing of illicit crops will make anyrehabilitation process difficult and less attractive to donors.Despite high economic returns per farm, rehabilitation efforts of the system is likely to have a low strategic priority under present circumstances.

2.2.8Model 7: Arghandab District, Qandahar Province

Model 7 is an irrigated horticulture based farming system in the low lying areas ofSouthern Afghanistan. Farms are typically orchards planted inside mud walled compounds to create a suitable micro -climate and to protect fruit trees and vines.

Table 11. Farming System Profile, Model 7. Arghandab District, Qandahar Province Agro- ecological zone Southwest: north west of Qandahar Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin Basic features Large scale formal (modern) irrigation scheme with intensive food crops and horticulture production as cash crops. Farm sizes (jeribs) small medium lame 5 Household size 7.1 9.6 10.9 Land tenure ownercultivator and share cropping 50 per cent sharecropping on small farms Cropping intensity 1.85 1.5 1.4 Cropping pattern: Yield(seers /jerib) Irrigated wheat 0.5 1.0 3.0 50 Potatoes 1.0 1.0 1.0 168 Forage crops 1.5 3.0 4.0 - Apricots 0.5 1.0 3.0 150 Apples 0 1.0 1.0 300 Pomegranates 2.0 3.0 5.0 1000 Livestock (numbers) Oxen 0 0 0 Cows 1 2 2 Donkeys 0 0 0 Sheep and Goats 3 4 5 Source: SCA 1993a

Together with Nad Aliitis the system with the highest returns in all categories of farmers (small, medium and large).Its development potential is very high and it can generate additional employment inrelation to packing, food processing and conservation. Of particular importance are raisins and dried apricots.In terms of the farming systems models representing the principal fruit crops, the selection of the survey area by the SCA (SCA 1993a) is somewhat unfortunate, as the specific survey area did not include grapes (and raisins), which are one of the most important products of the province.

Nevertheless the model can be considered representative for a number of horticulture based farming systems found in Afghanistan. Such horticulture based systems and sub- systems may also include other horticultural crops, such as almonds, walnuts, mulberries, oranges, figs, apples, prunes, quinces, peaches (source: preliminaryresults of Horticulture Survey 1996).

The climate is generally moderate in Arghandab however it is cooler than in Qandahar city. The mean annual rainfall is less than 150 mm and irrigation water is supplied by canal from

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 16 - the Arghandab River, with controlled flow from a large upstream dam.The whole province is dominated by the Durant Pashtuns.

Strengthening and development of the this farming system is highlyrecommended. Within an agricultural strategy the developmentobjective for this component would not be related so much to food security but to the overalleconomic development and generation of income and foreign exchange.

2.2.9Conclusions

The Afghan farming systems can be considered as very stable androbust.Although the war has seriously affected some of the componentssuch as the family labour force, farm power, availability and quality of inputs, areaunder irrigation, yields, cropping intensity, cropping patterns, etc., most of the components have resisted external stressand are steadily recovering.

The robustness of the systems is particular due to factors such as:

the diversity of crop and livestock production; relative reliability of crops due to the nature of almost entirely irrigated agriculture; the skill of farmers; the strong family coherence, and the variety of different farm incomes such as: - production of cereals (wheat) for household consumption; - production of vegetables, fruits and nuts for household consumption and cash; - production of meat, milk and milk products for own consumption and cash; - production of hides and skins for cash; - production of handicrafts from animal products rugs, carpets etc; - remittances from family members working outside Afghanistan; - production of opium and cannabis; and -other income generating activities in transport, commerce and handicrafts.

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2.3 MAIN FEATURES OF THE FARMING SYSTEMS

2.3,1 General

Most of the seven farming systems rely on traditional irrigation from perennial riversand ephemeral streams (Klemm, 1996)8. Canal irrigation from rivers accounted for 85 per cent of the totalirrigatedland. The potentialof rainfed farmingislimited and mainly concentrated across the northern foothills of the Hindu Kush, from Badghis to Badakhshan.

The most important variables which influence the type of farming system are altitude and the availability of river water and land. Most of the agricultural activities are confined to the valley floors.In the upper reaches where the valleys are narrow, water is sufficient but land is limiting and production is limited by the growing period (temperature).Because land is limiting, farm sizes are generally small. At lower altitudes where the valleys widen and the climate is moderate with longer growing periods, the constraint is water rather than land.

2.3.2Active and inactive land

According to the SCA Survey of 1993, as a result of the war, altogether about 1/5 of the irrigated land and 1/3 of the rainfed land was abandoned. The South East was said to be the worst affected.The main reasons given were, problems with irrigation water and shortage of farm power, followed by salinity, floods, weeds, lack of funds and tribal conflicts, in declining order of importance.For rainfed land, the particular reasons given were shortage of farm power and labour, absence of land owners and mines.

During the Rapid Appraisal (RAP 1996), farmers were asked about their main problems. Abandonment of land was not on the list of major problems as reported in these face -to- face interviews.However lack of reliability of irrigation flows and poor maintenance of irrigation works has remained the principal problem, which results in a reduction of the command area or insufficient water to finish planted crops.Shortage of farm labour was never mentioned as a problem.On the contrary, all farmers replied that they had no problem to find sufficient farm labour.Neither shortage of farm power, nor mines were identified as major problems by the farmers interviewed.

According to the survey undertaken in 1993 by the SCA (SCA 1993b) 87 per cent of all rural village houses were habitable. The remainder were not suitable for habitation because of direct or indirect damage caused by fighting or lack of maintenance.According to the villagers, 71 per cent of the refugee families have returned to their villages, though many families still have family members outside Afghanistan.Remittances transferred by these migrants constitute an important contribution to the income of rural families in particular for those with small land resources (RAP 1996).

2.3.3Farm size Farm size is one of the basic parameters and has a close link to most of the other components of a farming system.Small and medium holdings are typical for irrigated farms.In Nejrab, Maydan Shar, Arghandab and Mehterlam average irrigated farm sizes are about 5 -6 jeribs (1 to 1.2 ha.).Larger farms are more common in Qara Bagh and Nad Ali, which are situated on the plains.Average sizes are 13 and 16 jeribs (2.6 to 3.2 ha.)

8 Klemm, W. 1996. Water Resources and Irrigation Report,Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development in Afghanistan.FAO TCP /AFG/4552, Subsector Report No 3.Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996. (See this volume).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 18- respectively.In Shulgara, where farms include both irrigated and large rainfed areas, average farm size is about 65 jeribs (13 ha) of which only 9 jeribs (1.8 ha) areirrigated.

Thereisconsiderable confusioninthepublications about average farmsizesin Afghanistan. According to the SCA 1991 survey (SCA 1993a), the statistical average farm size in all districts surveyed was 14 jeribs (2.8 ha). However, other surveys show significant differences in farm sizes due to following reasons:

Average farm size comprises both irrigated an rainfed area. Farms in the North which have large components of rainfed area are included in the statistics and influence the national average.In fact two qualities of land are mixed.

The direct and indirect impacts of war might have influenced farm size. A number of farmers (the richer ones) have left the country and passed over their land to relatives or neighbours on a leasing or share cropping basis.These arrangements may confuse the concept of farm size in the interviews.

The surveys do not always use the same definition for the average farm size (area owned, area operated, area cultivated, irrigable land, irrigated land etc.).

Another source of confusion is provided by the sometimes `opportunistic' forms of irrigation, i.e. cultivation of irrigable land which does not get always sufficient water and is therefore only cultivated every two or three years (Berding 1996). The size of this class of land is sometimes not even expressed in terms of area units but units of water received.

The same problem exists with rainfed land which is cultivated only every three to five years. Figures provided by farmers may vary significantly.

Clearly there is an urgent need for methodologically sound agricultural statistics.

The Rapid Appraisal (RAP 1996) confirmed the low average farm sizes in Mayden Shar (5 jeribs /farm) and the larger sizes in Nad Ali, Qara Bagh and Shulgara. The impression was that there has not been a further fragmentation of land since 1991, but that there had been some slight increase in farm sizes as a result of migration of some of the richer farmers leaving behind land on lease or share cropping basis.

Data from the SCA 1991 survey (SCA 1993a) indicates that the seven farming systems can be represented by three typical household farm sizes, which vary according to the system.

Table 12. Average size of small, medium and large farms (jeribs Model District Province small medium large

1 Shulgara Balkh <45 45 -75 <75 2 Nejrab Kapisa <4 4 -6 >6 3 Mehterlam Laghman <3 3 -7 >7 4 Maydan Shar Wardak <3 3 -7 >7 5 Qara Bagh Ghazni <7 7 -15 >15 6 Nad Ali Helmand <10 10 -25 >25 7 Arghandab Qandahar <4 4 -10 >10 Source: SCA 1993a

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2.3.4Household Size and Labour Force

Farm households are the socioeconomic units on the micro -level. The averagesize has an important effect on a number of other parameters in a farming system, such as farmsize, subsistence needs, farm labour availability, sales of farm products and others. The average size of a farm household across all systems is 11 persons.The major source of labour derives from the family labour force.However most of the farms also hire labour from outside during peak seasons, i.e. June, July, August and October, the busiest time of the year. December to March are reported to be the less busymonths. Only a small part (2) of the adult population of a household are permanent farm workers.In general, the household size increases with the size of the farm.

Shortage of farm labour does not seem to be a problem. When asked, farmers replied that they had no problem to find sufficient farm labour (RAP 1996).

Findings from the Rapid Appraisal indicate also that there might be an increase in the average household size as well as in the labour force numbers availablein the household. This may be induced by certain conditions to keep the extended family together and provide social and economic protection in times of war.It would also not be surprising if the birth- rates have increased. However the validity of such a statement would have to be checked by a representative survey.

A cross check can be made to confirm the validity of the average farm size with the relatively reliable figure on average household size on the macro -level. On the assumption of a total population of 18.0 million (without the 3 million emigrants and refugees outside the country) and an urban population of 20 per cent, the present Afghan rural population is 14.4 million. Taking the average household size of 11 persons per household, there would be statistically approximately 1.3 millionrural households, corresponding to the same number of farms.With an average farm size of 14 jeribs, the total estimated farm area would therefore be about 3.64 million hectares. This figure matches more or less with the figures of the agricultural data of 1967 -68 (Ministry of Planning 1978) which reports a total national crop area of 3,506 million hectares.In other words, the parameters and data obtained from the survey are consistent.

2.3.5Land Tenure

Land tenure is the system of arrangements, rights and obligations under which farmers cultivate land. Based on data from SCA surveys (SCA 1993a and b) and RAP 1996, the following forms of land tenure can be found in Afghanistan:

Ownership Land is kept and cultivated as the farmer's private property.

SharecroppingArrangement under which a farmer cultivates the land of another person in return for a fixed share of the harvest. The share depends mainly on the proportions of inputs (seeds,fertiliser,farm power) provided by the landowner and the sharecropper. The share to be given to the landowner also depends on the type of land (rainfed /irrigated) and on the crops (horticulture or field crops) cultivated.In most cases the share cropping arrangement reflect real economic values of inputs, labour and outputs invested by both sides.For example, if the landowner and sharecropper each provide half the inputs, the share arrangement for the harvest will be 50:50.If the sharecropper provides only his labour and the landowner all other inputs including farm power, the sharecropper will receive only 1/5 of the harvest of wheat; for other crops it maybe 1/4.

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Leasing Leasing is an arrangement under which a fixed amount of the crop (grain) or money is paid by the cultivator to the land owner for the useof the land. The amount depends on the economic value of the land (measured for instance by the amount of irrigation water /water rights linked with the land) and whether the land owner provides inputs or not. As the inflation rate in Afghanistan is high the leasing arrangement under which a fixed amount of grain is being paid is often preferred. A variation of the leasing system exists in orchard cultivation.Just before the harvest of fruit such as apples, apricots, grapes or pomegranates, the whole orchard is leased for a fixed sum to a trader, who organises the harvest, packing and transport.

Mortgaging Mortgaging is an arrangement where local money lenders provide a loan to a land owner and take the land as a security.Mixed forms also occur where the money lender cultivates the land taken as a security by himself or lets the land owner do it against a share of the harvest.

Other Forms There are also arrangements where labour arrangements (money against farm labour) are linked with or transformed into various forms of land tenure arrangements In some cases land labourers are paid fully with a fix amount of grain.In the opium cultivation in Nad Ali the opium collectors are paid with a third of the raw opium they collect.See also Annex 1 of the Livestock Production Report for a descriptionof some of these arrangements in livestock production.

Owner cultivation is the predominant form of land tenure in Afghanistan. The SCA 1991 survey (SCA 1993a) indicates a national total of 77 per cent of irrigated land under owner operation. In Shulgara land ownership on rainfed land was 70 per cent.Often the sharecropper is himself a land owner, he owns and cultivates land and has enough family labour or management capacity tocultivatedlandof others under share cropping arrangements.Someone who is only a sharecropper is not frequent.There exist also mixed forms where landowners cultivate a part of their own land and lease or sharecrop out land to other farmers.Sharecropping of rainfed land is common in the rainfed area of Shulgara. Irrigated land ownership is highest in Maydan Shar and lowest in Arghandab.

Table 13. Irrigated Land Ownership Model District Province per cent irrigated land ownership

1 Shulgara Balkh 55 2 Nejrab Kapisa 87 3 Mehterlam Laghman 68 4 Maydan Shar Wardak 100 5 Qara Bagh Ghazni 82 6 Nad Ali Helmand 99 7 Arghandab Qandahar 34 Source: SCA 1993a

The RAP 1996 confirmed the high proportion of owner cultivators. Of the farmers interviewed, 79 per cent were landowners of which about a quarter (18 per cent) were both landowners and sharecroppers, while 20 per cent were solely sharecroppers.

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Table 14. Land ownership 1996 Farmer's operating status per cent Only Owner 61 Both Owner and Sharecropper 18 Only sharecropper 20 Source: RAP 1995

The different formsoflandtenurereportedinthesevendistrictsareobviously arrangements to optimise available land resources, existing family labour force and the limited financial resources.In times of lack of capital these arrangements prevent land lying idle and provide the opportunity for landless farmers to cultivate land.During interviews with farmers (RAP 1996) land tenure issues were not verbalised as problem issues. At this point land tenure issues will not have a high priority in an agricultural strategy. However, as discussed at the Strategy Workshop, there may well be some underlying problems in the future over which set of Land Laws, pre -1974, the 1974 reforms, or the 1978 reforms, are considered valid.

2.3.6Farm Inputs

Seeds

Afghan farmers are well aware of the importance of improved seeds, the use of fertiliser and other agrochemicals for plant protection and weed control.They know about the impact of improved inputs on the productivity of labour and land.

In 1991 half of all farmers reported the use of seeds of improved varieties.This was a substantial increase compared with the situation two years earlier. This increase in use was a direct result of the massive distribution of improved seeds since 1988 by the international community as an emergency measure to stop the decline of crop output (SCA 1993a).

In 1993, 56 per cent of the farmers reported the use of seeds of improved wheat varieties (35 per cent of the area under wheat). Compared to wheat, the proportion of the maize (9 per cent) and rice (7 per cent) area planted with improved seed was much lower. This trend has been confirmed by the RAP 1996. About 46 per cent of the farmers reported the use of seeds of improved varieties.

At the beginning of the 1990s, farmers received improved wheat seed through NGOs and other sources.High quality seed produced by parastatal and private agencies in Pakistan was brought in by aid agencies.Parallel to the cross -border operations, seed production inside Afghanistan was also developed to provide improved seed.Since 1994 FAO have developed a major programme for local seed production based on the earlier FAO /UNDP improved seed programs which operated between 1988 and 93.

After the collapse of the Government in 1992 the FAO Seed Program helped the provincial units of the former state -owned Improved Seeds Enterprise (ISE) to produce breeder and foundation seed at their seed farms and sell it at commercial prices.

Since 1995 the FAO has further refined and strengthened its seed program.Virtually all seed is now produced inside the country and sold or distributed to farmers.This activity involves former parastatal organisations and state farms, together with NGOs and farming communities.The programme has developed different innovative arrangements of seed production for this purpose.Variety purification and increase of seed production in large quantities are the two important components.

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In order to produce seeds in large quantity different institutions areused to multiply seeds:

Parastatal organizations: Provincial units of ISE multiply breederand foundation seed under direct supervision of the project.

State farms: A few state farms have survived and the localauthorities were interested to use the state farms for seed production. They have beenprovided with foundation seed and fertilizer to produce seed.

NGOs: International and national NGOs have been contracted to produceQuality Declared Seed (QDS). The widespread presence of the NGOs inAfghanistan helped to bring more area under the seed production and distribution programme.

Farmer Production Committees: Under this scheme rural communities areforming seed groups to produce and distribute seed directly under supervision ofthe project. The direct involvement of the community ensures a quick spread of the seed.Under this scheme a community is provided foundation seed and fertilizer.Expenditures of production are met by the community.The sale proceeds are used for further strengthening of seed activities.

Food -for -seed: This approach was launched together with the Word FoodProgram (WFP).Under the scheme seed growers exchange their quality declaredseed for food wheat provided by WFP (1.25 kgs food wheat for 1 kg of qualityseed).The seed procured is processed, packed and sold at reasonable price. The saleproceeds are kept in a separate account administered bythe Fund Management Committee (FMC). Funds generated under the scheme are being invested immediately. Alarge seed complex is being constructed at Herat from the sale proceeds. Thecomplex will help in maintaining quality control of seed.

The present coverage of total cultivated area with improved seeds is not known.However the relative stable production of food and surprising yields reported are probably asign that the use of improved seed has further increased. There is still a substantial need toexpand the use of improved seeds on a sustainable basis.The average yields which can be realistically achieved on a broad basis, particularly in wheat production, would beby far enough to make the country self- sufficientin a short period. The costs of such a sustainable program would be much less than an equivalent food aid program.A cost benefit analysis would be desirable to demonstrate the advantages of such a programme compared with alternative means of sustaining food security.

The amplification and strengthening of the present improved seed production program should be part of a medium and long term agricultural strategy.

Fertiliser

Increasing yields by rotation, improved tillage and application of manure are traditional practices in Afghanistan. Chemical fertiliser, mainly urea (locally called white fertiliser) and diammonium phosphate (DAP, locally called grey fertiliser) where introduced duringthe 1960s.The Afghan Fertiliser Company (AFC) started to distribute fertiliser in 1974, the same years as the fertiliser plant in Mazar -i- Sharif started producing urea.Details on fertiliser use in various years are given in Table 15.

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Table 15. Fertiliser Use in Afghanistan 1971 -1986 year tons 1971 36,700 1972 48,000 1982 137,655 1986 157,710 Source: ASARP, 1977

In 1967/77, 56 per cent of the total sales was urea and 32 per cent DAP. The balance was made up by triple superphosphate (TSP), potassium phosphate and singlesuperphosphate (SSP). The high concentration of nitrogen and phosphate fertiliser use reflectsthe central role of cereal production, especially wheat, as the main food crop in Afghanistan.

The import of the fertiliser was handled by the AFC while fertiliser distribution atthe retail level was undertaken by private traders.Prices were fixed all around the country and dealers received a fixed commission on each bag of fertiliser handled.AFC paid the transport to the trader's shop at fixed rates.In case of bad roads extra costs were shared between AFC and the trader.It seems that the system discouraged those dealers in remote areas with bad roads. Nevertheless, it appears that the system as awhole functioned.

The urea plant in Mazar- i- Sharif is based on natural gas as raw material and fuel. It became functional in October 1974 as part of the USSR technical assistance. The capacity was 105,000 tons of urea per year and in 1976 -77production reached 80 per cent of this capacity. The plant was supposed to meet the demand for urea until 1981, after which a new plant with a capacity of 300 000 tons per annum was tobe built.However, it was never implemented.9In 1996 the plant is reported to be managed by a Korean group and running at only 30 per cent of its capacity with most of the fertiliser being exported to Uzbekistan. The recommended study on a fertiliser program should, amongst other matters, examine the problems of the plant.

The present total national consumption of fertiliser is not known. However, the survey data provides some indicators for a very rough estimation.The average application rate of fertiliser in all the areas surveyed 1991 by the SCA (SCA 1993a) was 47 Kg per jerib (235 kg /ha). The highest rate was 59 kg /jerib in Nad Ali.In Shulgara, Maydan Shar, Mehterlam, and Arghandab the rates were 50, 47, 46, and 40 kg /jerib respectively. About 80 per cent of the farmers in Nad Ali and Nejrab, 40 per cent in Mehterlam and 13 per cent in Mayden Shar have used urea and DAP fertiliser together on wheat. The same districts and also in Shulgara and Qara Bagh, urea alone has also been used in wheat by a high proportion of the farmers.

In Shulgara, 53 per cent of the farmers have used only urea on all crops. The crops with the highest percentage of farmers using fertiliser are irrigated wheat and rice.In Nejrab a high percentage of farmers have used nitrogen fertiliser on beans and maize. In Mehterlam, rice and irrigated wheat received more fertiliser compared to other crops. In Maydan Shar, potatoes, irrigated wheat and clover are the main crops where fertiliser is applied.In Qara Bagh, alfalfa and wheat are the two main crops on which limited amount of fertiliser is applied.In Nad Ali, all fertilisers are used across a range of crops. The main crops on which only nitrogen fertiliser is applied are maize, poppy, cottonand irrigated wheat. The combination of urea and DAP seemed to be rewarding and was applied on irrigated wheat, poppy an cotton.In Arghandab, where pomegranate is the main cash crop, 35 per cent of the farms apply nitrogen fertiliser.

9 ASARP, 1977. Marketing, Distribution and Use of Fertiliser in Afghanistan, Bangkok, November 1977

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In 1990 -1993 improved technology packages were extended to some areasin Afghanistan. This packages included improved seed and fertiliser.The impact of these programs is reflected in the results of the SCA 1993 survey (SCA 1993b), where 71 per centof the villages surveyed reported the availability of DAP and 91 per cent availabilityof urea. In 1992/93, 88 percent of wheat growers using improved seeds, reported the useof fertiliser. The average rate of DAP applied on wheat was 25 kg /jerib, for maize it was 24kg /jerib and for rice 27 kg /jerib. Urea application on wheat reported for all provinces was 33 kg /jerib.

The relatively high consumption of fertiliser reported by SCA in 1991 and 1993 reflectedthe impact of aid programs in the early 1990s. These boosted the consumption of fertiliser and agrochemicals, but the programmes were later stopped.In fact, in 1996 a lack of fertiliser was reported by the farmers during the RAP. Farmers stated as oneof their top problems (after shortage of irrigation water) was the need for fertiliser, improved seeds and agrochemicals for plant protection. Farmers reported the use of mainly urea on wheat, which is applied in small quantities. According to the farmers the problems with fertiliser are:

There is no fertiliser available on the local market. There is only urea (white fertiliser) available but no DAP (grey fertiliser). Fertiliser is available but it is not good (fake fertiliser from Pakistan is common). Farmers cannot afford fertiliser.

It is obvious that agricultural development will have to be linked with the use of fertiliser. A fertiliser scheme will have to be established.It is recommend to undertake a feasibility and implementation study for the establishment of a fertiliser supply scheme with the possibility to attach a credit scheme in addition.The study should take into consideration previous Afghan experience with fertiliser schemes.In the same context an assessment of the situation at the fertiliser plant in Mazar- i- Sharif should be undertaken.

2.3.7Agrochemicals, Pests and Diseases

Farmers are aware of the positive effect of agrochemicals on their yields.In 1993 (SCA 1993b) 56 per cent of the farmers reported the use of agrochemical for various purposes. Use of herbicides was reported by 2/3 of the farms surveyed. Insecticides were used by 59 per cent, 11 per cent used pesticides and 51 per cent of farmers used rodenticides.The high percentage of farmers using agrochemicals was a result of aid programmes during the early 1990s. Some of the agrochemicals were available with traders, but half were provided by NGOs. Only 15 per cent of the farmers interviewed reported purchase from the market.

Post harvest losses are estimated by experts at 10 per cent, however there are a number of doubts as to the accuracy of this figure. As winters are cold and grain eating insects are dormant or become less active there are probably less losses than one would expect under the storage conditions found in Afghanistan.

Plant Protection and Pest Control

The breakdown of the former Government structure, which was responsible for the importation of agricultural inputs including agrochemicals and for the extension services, has meant that Afghan farmers have not had access to agrochemicals or technical advice for a number of years. The result is that farmers are often uninformed about quality and application of agrochemicals and ignorant about the negative impacts in the medium and long -term, of chemicals when wrongly applied.

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This situation is compounded by the paucity of private traders to importthe required agrochemicals and their lack of knowledge about quality and application of agricultural inputs. To deal with this problem, both NGOs and FAO have assumed a role ofimporting inputs on a limited scale and supplying technical information.

The current FAO /UNDP Integrated Crop and Food Production Project (AFG /94/002)has a plant protection component which implements appropriate techniques of plant protection and pest control.This program has taken the view that it is the task of traders to supply suitable quality inputs and to satisfy the demands created by successfuldemonstrations.lo

Lack of quality inputs and proper technical advice are two important constraints for agricultural development.To overcome these constraints, the program is applying an integrated pest management approach by training and demonstration, the tenets of which are:

minimum and safe use of insecticides; conservation of natural enemies; mechanical and cultural control; limited damage to the environment; and identifying and targeting properly the major problem.

Rainfed wheat is subject to seed borne diseases, such as smut which causes annual losses of up to 30 per cent, and to attacks by sunn pest and locusts which in outbreak years can cause serious local crop losses. Seed treatments give some breathing spacebefore new resistant varieties can be introduced. The demonstrations of seed treatment with Vitavax is being used.However, the product is 60 -70 per cent subsidised in Iran and has to be smuggled into Afghanistan.It is unlikely that such a program is economically sustainable as Afghan farmers would have to pay US$ 20 /kg for the non -subsidised product.

The project is training communities to control locusts by mechanical means, rather than spraying. The sites of egg beds are located and their development monitored. The newly hatched nymphs are then subsequently destroyed by ushering them into trenches dug around the egg bed sites.This has been a success, and no chemicals have been used in 1996 compared with 2200 litres in 1995. The method is known to be sustainable in farming communities, but its effectiveness in outbreak years is still to be tested.

Sunn pest is more difficult to control without using agrochemicals. According to the literature, the main mortality factor in field populations is egg parasitism, but survival of overwintering populations is apparently critical in determining the likelihood of an outbreak on wheat later in the year.ULV chemicals are used for control and these have been imported by FAO.

The project monitors the aestivating (summer) and overwintering populations and the numbers which invade wheat in the spring as part of an on going process to give some early warning of possible outbreaks.In addition, the project has identified two species of entomophagous fungi from overwintering populations.It was originally hoped that these would produce a novel method of control, but it has not been possible to produce epizootics by spraying the fungus on field populations.However, this is a technical field which is difficult for the project to explore without specialised assistance.

10 FAO, 1996a. Note on Plant Protection, Dr B Stride, STA Plant Protection, AFG /94/002

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Grapes are a major cash crop for large numbers of farmers throughout Afghanistan and powdery mildew is extremely common and causes total crop loss where it occurs. However, it can be controlled easily with a dormant spray of lime sulphur and subsequent applications of sulphur dusts. Fortunately, cheap sulphur is available from Central Asia.

Codling Moth in apples is the most serious pest of orchard crops, with two or three generations per year.In more sophisticated agricultural systems, populations of Codling Moth are monitored using pheromone traps coupled with specific methods of control such as bacteria, viruses or hormone analogues. The cost of such control methods is prohibitive in Afghanistan. As a result, mechanical means are being used by trapping the final larval stage prior to pupation in bands of cardboard or sacking tied around the trunks of trees. This technique is coupled with timed sprays of a broad spectrum organo- phosphorous insecticide to control fresh infestations.It is a method which is not ideal, but which farmers can afford.Fungal diseases of orchard crops are controlled with prophylactic sprays of copper and sulphur.Woolly Aphid is common in Kabul province. Itis planned to use biological means to control this by introducing parasitic wasps from Pakistan in 1997. Tent Caterpillars, which are serious defoliators in all orchard crops, are controlled by mechanical means by cutting out and destroying the nests.

Melons are an important crop particularly in the rainfed areas.Melon fly is a serious pest notably in the Herat region.Farmers who try to control it generally use broad spectrum, persistent insecticides, usually expired products imported from Pakistan, which are available in the bazaars in the larger regional centres.In the last year the project has started trials with home made insecticidal baits which control the melon fly and overcome the problem of producing melons containing high levels of pesticide residues.

As part of a program to clean up the environment 1000 tonnes of Benzine hexachloride (BHC) dust in Kunduz have been stored in a warehouse.In Baghlan 1200 tonnes is being removed from the environment inthe same way. However, the security of these warehouses can not be guaranteed. BHC is an organo- chlorine based insecticide imported by earlier Afghan governments from the former Soviet Union for use in locust control. BHC is carcinogenic and has been banned by WHO. In 1994 it was estimated there were some 6000 tonnes in Afghanistan, mainly in the north.

In 1996 an extension system based on Farmers Field Schools was started by FAO, together with an international NGO, to support training of fruit producers in the southern provinces. These are based on modules of technical information given to farmers in the form of training packages delivered in the field schools by community trainers.In addition, some support in the form of a pilot exercise was given to a trader to set up two shops and a warehouse in Ghazni and who is expected subsequently to import the recommended inputs. This aspect of the program has potential to integrate other elements of the FAO program which is working towards fully sustainable agriculture development. The program will be further developed in 1997 (Stride 1996 pers comm).

2.3.8Farm Power

Oxen are the traditional source of farm power, while the tractor is a relatively new innovation in the farming systems. At farm level the ox is still the predominant source of farm power. According to SCA (SCA 1993a), between 1978 and 1993 there was an increase of the number of 194 per cent in the number of tractors (1978: 1,627; 1993: 4789).Most of the tractors are in the Northern provinces and the South West.A total of 1,050 threshing machines have been also reported by the same source. The demand for beef during the war has forced farmers to slaughter oxen. This has increased the importance of tractors, which are particularly crucial in the cultivation of large acreages of the main crops.

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The use of oxen is inversely related to farm size.Oxen as a traditional source of farm power is efficient in small and medium size farms,but when farm sizes increase tractors become more convenient and economic.Beside oxen as draught animals, donkeys are widely used for the transport of agricultural products.

The average number of oxen owned per farmer is 0.78.However, if the two farming systems 6 (Nad Ali) and 7 (Arghandab) are left apart - the one was amechanised system from the beginning, the other is almost exclusively horticulture based -the average number of oxen becomes one per farmer. This has been confirmed by the RAP1996.

The average number of oxen owned in the different farming systems andthe percentage of farmers using oxen or tractor can be found in Table 16.

Table 16. Farm Power Farming System Oxen Owned Per cent Farms Per cent Farms Per Farm Using Oxen Using tractor 24.0 1 Shulgara 1.8 98.0 2 Nejrab 1.4 100.0 5.0 3 Mehterlam 1.6 100.0 0.0 4 Maydan Shar 0.9 97.0 0.0 5 Qara Bagh 0.3 14.0 87.0 6 Nad Ali 0.1 6.0 94.0 7 Arghandab 0.0 2.0 12.0 Source: SCA 1993a

The average price for oxen in 1996 is about US$200 /head (RAP 1996). However,there are large price differences. The price of an ox in the north is only half of that in thesouth.It is an expensive undertaking to feed oxen year round andsmall farmers often cannot afford to do so. The consequence is that oxen are shared with other farmers or hired.

Tractor ownership was not common in 1991.Tractors, mainly state -owned, were hired. The overall statistical average shows that about 1/4 of the farmers used tractors.In 1993 about 31 per cent reported hiring tractors (SCA 1993a).

This figure appears high.Although it is likely that since 1993 a number of tractors have been stolen, sold in Pakistan or are out of order, the RAP 1996 (which may havebeen biased, in the sense that interviews have been in areas accessible to vehicles, including tractors) could not confirm a decrease in the use of tractors. An average of about 44 per cent of the farmers interviewed reported using tractors.It appears that not even the war was able to stop mechanisation.

Table 16 on farm power reflects more or less the needs and structures of the farming systems.In the farming systems of Shulgara, Nejrab, Mehterlam, and Mayden Shar, the main source of farm power is oxen, while in Qara Bagh, Nad Ali and Arghandab the main source of farm power is tractor. Arghandab is a special case, thepredominantly horticulture based system with densely planted orchards requires mainly human power for picking, spaying, pruning, packing, etc.

In Shulgara the simultaneous use of oxen (98 per cent of the farms) and tractor(24 per cent) for the cultivation of rainfed barley, rainfed wheat, irrigated wheat and ricereflects the large component of extended dryland farming besides the intensive farmingof irrigated plots. Considerable farm power has to be mobilised in a brief period on the rainfed land as the cropping calendar (rains) leaves only a small window for land preparation,sowing and harrowing.

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In Nejrab, Mehterlam and Mayden Shar irrigatedfarms are relatively small and the use of tractors for the cultivation of wheat, rice, barley andpotatoes is often limited by the micro - relief. The smaller number of the oxen owned in MaydenShar (0.9) reflects also the strong horticultural component (apple) where human farm poweris more required than oxen.

In Qara Bagh as well as in Nad Ali, tractors are used on alarger scale for the cultivation of the main crops. Nad Ali, a large sale irrigation scheme withflat land, has been mechanised from the outset.In Arghandab, oxen and tractors are only used by asmall number of farmers. mainly through hiring arrangements.

Rental cost for oxen and tractors in 1991 and 1996 are shownin Table 17. The low rate for the tractor service is probably due the low prices of former Soviettractors (still in use) which used to be sold to Afghanistan at subsidised prices.The prices also reflect to a certain degree, the general demand for farm power in the farming systems,the relative availability in the region and the specific demand for the type of farm powerrequired for certain farm operations.

Table 17. Rental costs of tractors and oxen Farming System Oxen Tractor US$ per day US$ per hour 1991 1996 1991 1996 4.46 1 Shulgara - 3.57 9.20 2 Nejrab - -- 4.00 -- 3 Mehterlam ------4 Maydan Shar 5.33 - - - 5 Qara Bagh - - 2.64 3.13 6 Nad Ali 4.00 - 9.76 5.45 7 Arghandab 7.33 - 3.05 4.08 Average 5.56 3.57 5.73 4.28 Source: SCA 1993a and RAP 1996

In 1991 the average rental cost per land unit for tractors wasabout US$5.98 and US$7.51 for oxen. Between 1993 and 1996 this relationship changed. Thecosts for hiring oxen and tractors per land unit became almost the same.In 1993, the rental cost per jerib for a tractor was US$4.01 and US$4.16 for oxen, while in 1996the costs were respectively US$4.5 and US$4.8 per jerib.This trend reflects probably a recovery of the animal farm power in the country.

Table 18. Comparison of tractor and oxen rental costs 1991 and 1996 Source Average tractor rental Average oxen rental Oxen /tractor cost. US$ /jerib cost. US$ /jerib ratio SCA 1991 5.98 7.51 1.26 SCA 1993 4.01 4.16 1.04 RAP 1996 4.45 4.82 1.08 Source: SCA 1993a, SCA 1993b and RAP 1996

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2.3.9Crop Production and Management

Crops in Afghanistan are relatively diversified and constitute one of thefactors for its robust production system. Five major categories of crops are produced:

Cereal crops: irrigated and rainfed wheat, maize, rice and rainfed barley; Industrial crops: poppy, cotton and flax; Pulses: mung bean, peas and peanuts; Forage Crops: clover and alfalfa; Horticulture crops:apples, pomegranates, grapes, almonds, apricots; and Vegetables: potatoes, onion, tomato, melon.

A considerable number of minor crops are produced all over the country, such as:

horticulture crops: nuts, mulberry, all kind of fruits, citrus, etc; vegetables: all kind of vegetables; and industrial crops sugar cane, sugar beet, olives.

.01 Cereal Crops

Wheat: A very high percentage of farmers produce wheat on a large acreage in all ofthe seven farming systems. The bulk of the wheat is produced under irrigation, while rainfed wheat occurs mainly in the north. Irrigated and rainfed cereal production aretwo different systems and yields on cultivated rainfed areas are significantly lower (often only 1/5 to 1/10) than on irrigated fields.

Rainfed wheat as well as rainfed barley is a typical crop of the northern plains and outputs are directly related to the variation in rainfall. The crop is grownin the farming systems of Shulgara and on a limited scale in Nejrab and in Qara Bagh. While the rainfed production is unreliable, the irrigated production provides the stability for the staple food crops.

Water is overall main constraint of agricultural production in rainfed areas.While home consumption is secured on safe irrigated plots,rainfed landisoften opportunistically cultivated in the hope there some rain at the right time will provide extra production.

A similar approach is taken on irrigated land where water is a constraint. Farmers will plant on plots without being sure that they will get enough irrigation waterduring the year, while their own subsistence production is maintained on safe irrigated plots with a reliable water supply. As a result, production of wheat and other cereals is erratic.In fact regional and national production figures can differ widely.Pre -war figures and recent survey data show a significant fluctuation of cultivated area, production and yields over the years.

With these statistical constraints in mind the following estimations on total cereal production are done with reservation.

The total area under cereals at present is not known, however pre -war statistics of 1967 -68 indicate that out of a total area of 3.1 million hectares under cereals, 2.0 million hectares were irrigated and 1.1 million were grown under rainfed conditions.In the following years the total area increased by about 0.3 million hectares, which is probably due to an increase in irrigated area.

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In 1978, the total area (irrigated and rainfed)under cereal crops was about 3.39 million ha. The total production was 4.15 million tonnes ofwhich 2.65 million tonnes were wheat. Average yields were 1.13 tonnes /ha for wheat and1.22 tonnes /ha for all cereals (see Table 19). With a total population of about 15.1 million cerealproduction was 275 kg /capita. This figure does not take into consideration that about 75 percent of the barley and maize was for animal consumption. Also, it does not include theseed requirements (10 per cent) and post -harvest losses (10 per cent).

Table 19. Cultivated Area, Production, Yields in 1977 -78 Crops Area Production Yield million ha per cent million tonnes tonnes /ha Wheat 2.35 69.3 2.65 1.13 Maize 0.48 14.2 0.76 1.58 Rice 0.21 6.2 0.40 1.91 Barley 0.31 9.1 0.30 0.97 Other Cereals 0.04 0.1 0.04 0.81 Total 3.39 100.0 4.15 1.22 Source: Central Statistics Office, 1978

Taking these factors into consideration there were probablyabout 2.57 million tonnes of cereals available for human consumption, which is about 170 kg/capita.

Data from surveys undertaken indicate that yields havesignificantly increased since the pre -war time. The SCA survey of 1991 reported averagewheat yields on irrigated land of about 1.85 tonnes /ha country wide.

The average national yield of improved wheat, reported by 34 percent of the farmers in 1992/93, was 3.25 tonnes /ha.An average yield of 1.82 tonnes /ha for the local variety was reported by 72 per cent of the farmers (SCA 1993b).

An average national wheat yield of 2.65 tonnes /ha has beenreported by a recent survey (preliminary results of FAO HorticultureSurvey 1996).During the RAP 1996 an average of roughly 2.45 tonnes /ha on irrigatedland and 0.53 tonnes /ha on rainfed land was reported by farmers. Considering that the rainfed areais less than a third of total area, the national average would be about 1.91 tonnes /ha(RAP 1996).

Recent yields obtained from the crop -cut samples for the 1995-1996 wheat growing season, indicate average yields on irrigated plotsusing seeds of improved varieties of 3.9 tonnes /ha with PS -85, 4.3 tonnes /ha with Ataya -85 and 3.3 tonnes/ha with Ingilab.

The total area under cereal cultivation at present is not known. However,the SCA survey reports that in 1993, 1/5 of irrigated land and 1/3 of rainfed land was notutilised because of direct or indirect effects of war. Assuming that in the pre -war figures of areacultivated there would be at least 0.73 million ha rainfed land and 1,84 million ha ofirrigated land under cereal cultivation, total area was 2.57 million ha. Assuming further, thatthe percentage of area planted for animal consumption remained the same(75 per cent of area under barley and maize, i.e. 17.4 per cent of total area under cereal cultivation) therewould be roughly 2.12 million ha under cereals remaining for human consumption. Thiswould produce 4.05 million tonnes of cereals at average yields of 1.91 t/ha.

Considering also post- harvest losses of 0.4 million tonnes and seed requirementsof 0.3 to 0.4 million tonnes, 3.3 million tons of cereals would remain for direct humanconsumption. With a current total population of 18 to 20 million this would provide between165 kg /capita and 183 kg /capita for human consumption, which would be close to the pre -warsituation.

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While these production estimates are at the national level,different circumstances would control the availability of food at the household level.Nevertheless the figures indicate a certain recovery of national food production capacity. The implicationis that in the short to medium, term food aid will become less important for thepromotion of development activities and will be more concentrated on the most vulnerable groupsand areas only.

Rice: Rice growing is an important crop in Mehterlam, Shulgara and Nejraband is also reported in Maydan Shar. Rice is grown on relatively large plots by a large numbersof farmers in these areas.In the past rice cultivation occupied about 6 per cent of total areaunder cereals.

There is a great disparity in yields.The national average is about 2.1 tonne /ha. (SCA 1993a). Mehterlam is the most important rice growing area with averageyields around 3.5 tonnes /ha in 1991.Nejrab, second in place, showed yields of 2.9 tonnes /ha, and Maydan Shar, known for its short grained rice, reported yields of 2.2 tonnes/ha.Shulgara in the north was the lowest in performance (1.9 tonnes /ha), which has beenconfirmed during the \ \Rapid Appraisal 1996. Kunduz and Baghlan are also important ricegrowing areas.

Maize: Maize is grown by a high percentage of farmers in Nejrab, though onrelatively small plots. It is also grown by a number of farmers in Mehterlam, Shulgaraand Nad Ali.The RAP 1996 showed that maize was also produced on small plots in Arghandab(Qandahar). With 14 per cent of total area under cereals it is the second largest cereal crop,.A large part of the maize crop is fed to farm animals. Average yields are about 1.7 tonnes/ha.

Rainfed Barley: Rainfed barley cultivation can be found on the northern plains. Itis cultivated on large acreage following rainfed wheat.Barley is mainly produced for animal consumption in particular for horses and for donkeys for which barley is an ideal feed.Yield level is around 0.9 tonnes /ha or less. Present total area under cultivation is not known.

.02 Industrial Crops

Cotton, opium poppy, sugar cane and linseed are the main industrial cropsreported from the seven farming systems. During the Rapid Appraisal 1996, the cultivationof sesame has been reported in Kunduz, Baghlan and Balkh (Shulgara).Some tobacco cultivation has been reported from Shulgara.Olives are produced in Nangarhar and formerly sugar beet was cultivated in Baghlan province.

Cotton is produced on a large acreage in Nad Ali.Cotton is also produced in Shulgara (Balkh), Baghlan and Kunduz (RAP 1996).It appears that processing cotton inside the country has totally stopped. No reports about the status of the cotton processingfacilities in the country were available.

Cultivation of rainfed linseed has only been reported from Shulgara. Sugarcane is produced by a small percentage of farmers on small plots in Mehterlam and generallyin the low lying warmer areas around Jalalabad. The making of gur (raw sugar) is auseful source of cash income for farmers in areas where sugarcane production ispossible.

Poppy cultivation has developed rapidly in recent years. Within thefarming systems under review, its cultivation has been reported from Nad Ali, where 50 per centof all categories of

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 32 - farmers (small, medium and large) cultivated poppyin 1991.In 1995 opium was produced in nine provinces. Details are given inTable 20.

Table 20. Opium Cultivation in 1995 Province Cultivated area Average Yield ha kg dry opium /ha Helmand 53,759 48 Nangarhar 15,722 42 Badakhshan 2.970 21 Uruzgan 2,573 37 Qandahar 2,461 32 Kunar 152 40 Nimroz 119 42 Zabul 54 Farah 9 40 Total 53,759 43 Source: UNDCP 1995

During the 94/95 growing season about 54,000hectares were estimated to have been under opium poppy cultivation.The largest areas under poppy were found to bein Helmand and Nangarhar provinces which accountedfor 85 per cent of total production. Total production was 2,335 tons of dry opium gum.Average yield was 43 kg per hectare.11 Average farmgate price of dry opium is betweenUS$ 20 /kg and US$ 40 /kg and up to 110 /kg for superior strains as in Badakhshan.

During the Rapid Appraisal, farmgate prices of US$46/kg were reported from Nad Ali. Taking a total production of 2,335 tonnes per yearand an average farmgate price of US$46 /kg the total crop value is about US$107 million.The final market price of heroin is probably 1000 times the farmgate price of poppy whichgives an indication of the enormous economic power of the crop.

Assuming a poppy field of two hectares in Nad Ali and an averageyield of dry opium of 43 kg/ ha as reported form the farmers in Nad Ali (RAP1996), the farmer will produce 86 kg of raw opium. The gross income will beabout US$3,960 from which the opium grower will have to pay one third for hired farm labour and the costof fertiliser and land preparation. This is an income which can also be achieved with other highvalue crops.

Opium poppy is grown almost exclusively on irrigated land.Natural and chemical fertiliser are used heavily.Much of the refining (processing into heroin) takes placein Pakistan, mainly in the so called tribal areas (special zones of limitedstate authority).However a survey undertaken by the UN Drug ControlProgramme (UNDCP) indicates that for the first timerefineriesare being establishedinAfghanistan,inborder provinces such as Nangarhar, Helmand and Nimroz.In addition mobile refineries are being established in Uruzgan (UNDCP 1995).

It has been demonstrated that returns from other high value cropssuch as potatoes, onions, tomatoes, fruits and groundnuts, can compete with returns from`average' crops of poppy. Therefore a substitution of poppy withother high value crops would `in principal' be possible; However, the major problem in the introduction of alternative cropsis the extremely elastic price margins of raw opium in the market chain,which permits buyers to immediately bid up the farmgate price if the supplies fall off.

11 UNDCP, 1995. Afghanistan, Opium Poppy Survey, UNDCP 1995

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The strategy of developing alternatives to poppygrowing can only work as an integrated and regional approach. Without improving generalagricultural productivity, the upgrading of social and physical rural infrastructure and adecisive law reinforcement of the illicit crop the substitution will be not successful.

Sugar beet: Irrigated sugar beet was produced on large scale in Baghlanprovince in the 1970s and 1980s. However, production has totally ceased due to the war.The huge sugar factory still exists and its machinery preserved by the previousstaff (RAP 1996). Raw material supplies came to a standstill when farmers wereurged by the mujahideen during the civil war to stop sugar beet cultivation as a kind ofsabotage and the factory had no funds to continue subsidising the cultivation of sugar beet. At present, allthe considerable volume of sugar consumed in Afghanistan (with tea) is imported.A technical and economical feasibility study would be required to obtain more data about thepotential and constraint of sugar production from sugar beet in this region.

Olives: Large irrigated olive groves were established on a statefarm with USSR assistance in Nangarhar (Jalalabad) during the war.Something of the order of 10,000 hectares with approximately 5,000,000 olive trees are at present lying idle andneglected. The potential production of the plantation is about 10,000 tonnes of olive oil per year.The big olive factory in Jalalabad can produce olive conserves as well asolive oil.It is in good condition and well maintained by the former staff.It appears that the main problem is the question of ownership of the previous state farm. A feasibility study isrecommended to analyse the technical and economical prospects of the olive groves.It would also have to look into the problem of land ownership and the privatisation of the plantationand the olive factory.

.03 Forage Crops

Small areas of forage crops such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa)and clover (Shaftal, Trifolium resupinatum and Berseem, T. alexandrinum) and are grown by alarge number of farmers in almost all farming systems. On average, roughly 40 per centof all farmers interviewed in 1991 grew alfalfa and also 40 per cent grew clover.

The forage crops are grown as fodder for livestock and for theimprovement of soil fertility. In Qara Bagh, alfalfa and clover are grown by almost 90 per centof the farmers.Both of these fodder crops are also grown in Maydan Sher on small plotsagain by a large number of farmers.In Nejrab and Mehterlam, clover is grown by a high percentageof farmers. Little of this crop is grown in Shulgara.

.04 Pulses

In most of the farming systems some pulses are produced.Nad Aliis the main pulse growing region, where beans, mung beans and peanuts are grown.In 1991 peanuts were grown by about 1/3 of the farmers in Nad Ali on areasaveraging about 3 -5 jeribs.

Nejrab is the most important bean producing area where almostall farmers produce beans on average areas of 2 -4 jeribs. Mung beans areproduced in Mehterlam and Nejrab.

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2.3.10 Horticulture

.01 Fruits, Vines and Nuts

Horticultural crops can be found to a varying degree inalmost all of the seven farming systems. Some typical examples of horticulture -basedfarming systems are found in Arghandab (pomegranates, apricots and vines), followedby Nejrab (vines), Maydan Shar (apples) and Qara Bagh (vines).Almonds are an important horticultural cash crop. Important areas of almond production can be found inQalat district (Zabul) and in Baghlan province. Table 21. Fruits and vines growing in seven districts in1991 Farming Fruit trees inproduction Vines in production System per cent of Av. no. per cent of Av. no. farmers of trees farmers of vines Shulgara 8 36 2 50 Nejrab 79 13 49 26 Mehterlam 0 0 0 0 Maydan Shar 73 155 0 0 Qara Bagh 11 38 28 681 Nad Ali 22 70 22 242 Arghandab 87 402 high (no data)high (no data) Source: Extract from SCA 1993a

Fruit production is highest in Arghandab, where almost 90 percent of the farmers have on average about 400 trees in production. The1991 Survey did not detail the vine cultivation which is predominant in the Arghandab district.Vines are grown on a large scale on the east side of the Arghandab river.

The scale of vine cultivation is highest in Nejrab were almost50 per cent of the farmers produce grapes, though only on a small scale, i.e. 26 vines per farm on average.In Qara Bagh fewer farmers produce grapes but with larger number ofvines (682 per farm).

Drying of grapes (raisins) and apricots are an important economicactivity in the horticultural areas. Drying of fruits for export markets as well asprocessing of fresh fruit (juices, canned fruit, jams and marmalade) have a great potential to underpin horticulturedevelopment in Afghanistan.

This economic potential could be made effective at a number of levels.This could be at the farmer's household level, the local community level, or on a regionalindustry level, at different degrees of feasibility.It appears that at present, the farmer's household level is the best starting point. A number of modern processing facilities, like theFruit Processing Factory in Qandahar are currently totally out of operation.Specific feasibility studies on food processing, handling and marketing will be required prior to reviving suchindustries.

The conflicts and the political and social disruptions have severely affectedthe country's production and processing of fruit of all kinds. Orchards and vineyards which produced37 per cent of Afghanistan foreign exchange earning inlate 1970's and provided a valuable contribution to the diet of the people, have been neglected and have fallen outof production. Amenity, timber and fuel wood trees have been felled and not replanted.Rural support activities from Government extension services have been disrupted andnurseries for the production of high quality fruit and other trees have ceased to exist or havefallen out of production.

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Between 1989 and 1994, FAO managed a relief-oriented programme supplying quality fruit trees to a number of NGOs for distributionto returnees for the re- planting and re- establishment of village orchards. Under this programmeapproximately 1.5 million budded fruit tree saplings (mainly deciduous, stone and pomefruits) were procured from selected nurseries in Pakistan and distributed in the Southernand Eastern Provinces.

Though the programme for procuring budded fruit treesoutside Afghanistan was justified as necessary to meet emergency requirements,efforts are now being made to encourage local production of high quality trees inside Afghanistan.This is done through the establishment of strategically positioned, commercially oriented, self-sustaining nurseries to cater for local needs for both fruit and amenity trees.

Nursery projects have been supported in Kunar andNangarhar Provinces since 1991. In 1994 the activities were expanded to establish morefruit and forest tree nurseries in Kunar, Nangarhar, Laghman, Khost, Paktia, Qandahar, Helmand,Zabul and Uruzgan provinces.

In January 1996, a new programme approach waslaunched by FAO to directly support farmers in establishing their own private commercialnurseries under joint FAO /WFP /NGO support. Through this program 76 new private fruit treenurseries have been established in 17 provinces of Afghanistan and will be expanded to morethan 150 nurseries in 1997. The programme aims to provide initial supportfor the establishment of private nurseries based on sound technical and economicalprinciples and training for supervisors, nursery owners and nursery workers.It is expected that each private fruit tree nursery willbecome a viable commercial enterprise within a period of two years. Each nurserywill have a potential of at least 10,000 fruit trees per year.

The main objective of the program is the `rehabilitationof local agricultural economy through sustainable development of fruit production inside Afghanistan'.The program will produce high quality fruit and other trees for local distribution; stonefruit trees (peach, apricot), almonds, apple trees, grape vines, mulberries, figs, poplarsand other fruit and amenity trees. WFP will ensure supply and distribution of`Food for Work' wheat to the nursery owners and workers who effectively work inthe field. The long -term impact the programme will be the production of an additional 225,000 tonnesof fruits from which a minimum of 75,000 to 100,000 families will benefit.12

.02 Vegetables

Before the war, the Southern and Eastern provinces ofAfghanistan were famous for supplying fresh winter vegetables to higher altitude areas, whilehigh quantities ofquality vegetables were also exported all year -round to neighbouringPakistan.This situation has still not been re- established. Vegetables as a high valuefood and cash crop can play a decisive role in the process of economic stabilisation

Important vegetable crops grown in the farming systems underreview are onions, tomatoes and potatoes, all of which require large amounts of water.Other important vegetables grown are cucumber and eggplant, melon andwatermelon, carrot, garlic and okra.

Potatoes are consumed in large quantities in Afghanistan andproduced mainly in farming systems at higher altitude.About 30 per cent of all farmers interviewed in 1991 grew potatoes.The high number of farmers growing potatoes in most of thefarming systems reviewed has been confirmed during the Rapid Appraisal.Maydan Shar is a centre for

12 FAO, 1996b. Note on Horticulture Development, J -M Arnoult, STA Horticulture,AFG /94/002

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 36 - potato production and is the main supplier of potatoes to Kabul. Also in Qara Bagh alarge number (70 -80 per cent) of farmers reported growing potatoes. Yields vary significantly.In 1991 yields of 22.7 tonnes /ha were reported from Maydan Shar and 10.5 tonnes/ha from Qara Bagh. During the Rapid Appraisal average yields of only 9.2 tonnes /ha werereported.

The reason why potato yields are falling can be found in poor crop rotations resultingin the reduction of soil fertility, while at the same time fertiliser is not applied. The second reason is that growing potatoes repeatedly on the same land results in the build -up of disease.In short, the consequence of continuous potato monoculture is the building up of soil -born diseases and reduction in soil fertility and structure. The introduction of improved varieties and appropriate cultural practices may produce yields up to 30 tonnes /ha. There is probably a great potential for developing this crop in Maydan Shar and similar areas.

On a smaller scale, cucumber and egg plants are cultivated in Nejrab, Mehterlam, Nad Ali and Arghandab. Melons are grown in Shulgara, Nad Ali and Arghandab. The juicy melon from the Northern Region is known as one of the best. Growing of watermelon on rainfed areas is reported from Shulgara. Carrots, garlic and okra are grown indifferent locations.

Since 1989, FAO has distributed significant quantities of imported vegetable seeds through various NGOs, which has contributed substantially to the recovery of vegetable production in Afghanistan. There is an need now to consolidate vegetable seed production locally on a sustainable basis.There is a considerable interest from farmers to grow vegetables as a cash crop and for own consumption.Farmers need to be sensitized to use improved vegetable seeds and to be trained in improved cultural practices in order to increase productivity and to produce products which meet market standards.This can be done through training courses and demonstration plots.

.03 Horticulture Development

Horticulture has great potential to contribute to achieving national self -reliance.Fruits, dried fruits and nuts are high value crops and have good markets inside and in particular outside, Afghanistan.There is a strong linkage in horticulture development between production, processing, packing, transport and marketing.It has a potential to generate income and new employment in the processing sector.It is anticipated that in the medium and long term the horticulture sector willplay an important role for the social and economic development in areas with horticulture -based farming systems.

A horticulture development program should be based on private entrepreneurship and a minimum involvement of state structures.Its short and medium -term objectives would be to rehabilitate and develop horticulture based farming systems to pre -war levels and beyond. It may include the following immediate objectives or outputs:

Fruit production

To establisha network of nucleus nurseries throughout the country for the preservation and propagation of foundation planting material. To establish at least 150 private nurseries each able to produce a minimum of 10,000 quality budded fruit tree saplings annually on a sustainable commercial basis. To establish a training scheme for fruit growers on Integrated Production and Protection (IPP) management practices by applying the community -level Farmer Field School (FFS) approach.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 37 -

Vegetable Production

To establish a scheme for the preservationand propagation of vegetable foundation seeds of local varieties, and some introducedvarieties where economically justified. To supply farmers with locally produced andimported quality vegetable seeds, as technically feasible and economically justified. To establish a training scheme for vegetable growers onIntegrated Production and Protection (IPP) management practices by applyingthe community level Farmer Field School (FFS) approach.

Horticulture Development Planning

To establish a horticulture data base with updatedfield data covering most horticulture based districts. To undertake feasibility studies on processingpacking and marketing of horticultural products.

2.3.11 Livestock

Livestock husbandry is a major component in allfarming systems in Afghanistan. Itis common in irrigated and rainfedfarming.Pastoral farming systems involving livestock raising on open grassland are separate systems.The migratory livestock owners (kuchis) use pastures on a seasonal basis.They migrate according to the need of their animals. Qaraqul sheep are the predominant livestock on openpastures.

Because of the importance of this component a separatestudy on livestock in Afghanistan has been undertaken by the TCP project (Thieme,1996)13 In this section of the report only some of the basic characteristics offarm livestock husbandry are outlined.

Livestock is well integrated into the farming systemsunder review.Livestock includes milk cows, sheep and goats. They are keptfor the production of meat, milk and milk products, wool, hides and fat. The type and number of livestockkept by the farmer varies according to farm size and region.In most of the farming systems we find oxenand donkeys as draught animals. Horses can be found in the north butthey are not an important production component in the farming systems. The same applies for camels, though they are important to the kuchi nomads.

Women and children often look after the cattle withinthe family compound. Also poultry raising is done by women and children but productionis limited to providing eggs and meat for the family only. The restrictions on women workingoutside their homes is a significant constraint for the women's training programmes. Projects,particularly in Taliban controlled areas, are confined to work with women onlywithin the farm compound. As chicken raising is one activity which can be done within thecompound, itis one of the few training programmes which are feasible at present.

Livestock production is mainly based on feed produced onthe farm. Feed consists mainly of alfalfa, clover, vetch and pulverised straw (buhs).Animals are grazed on residues left after harvest of the crops (mainly wheat fields) andreceive high quality supplements in form of fresh clover and alfalfa.During winter, straw and clover hay is fed. Some barley,maize and vetch are fed for the fattening of sheep and goats.Horses and donkeys also receive substantial amounts of barley. Weeds are a significant partof the summer fodder.

13 Thieme, O. 1996. op. cit.

Farming Systems Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy - 38 -

The RAP found that on average each farmer had (statistically) almost two cows,half an ox, almost one donkey and some sheep and goats. Dairy cows aretypical animals of almost all farm households. Milk,yoghurt, white cheese, dried buttermilk (qurut) are important products providing income to the farm.While milk is not sold, the cheese and qurut is marketed.

Typical milk yields are about 4 -5 kg /day at the beginning of the lactation, which lasts about 8 -9 months.Milk and milk products are valuable parts of the diet of farm families and an additional source of income.In Nejrab for example a household with 2 cows is capable of producing 8 kg of white cheese per week. Over the winter they can make about 50 -60 kg of cheese (SCA 1993a) which has a monetary equivalent of 70 -90 Kg of wheat which is almost half of the subsistence requirement of a person.

Qurut is made in summer when it is too hot to make white cheese. A farm with two cows can produce 7 kg per month, at a value of about US$1 /kg. Sometypical livestock products in the seven farming systems have been listed in the Table 22.

Table 22. Typical livestock products Farming Products Market /Home consumption System Shulgara Qaraqul pelts, wool, gee, sheep qurut. Products are marketed Nejrab White cheese, wool and skins from sheep Products are marketed, mainly in and goats. Kabul. Mehterlam Wool, hides, fat, milk products, Gonapal Products are marketed cheese, dried mutton. Maydan Shar Cheese, cream, yoghurt, butter, qurut, Only for home consumption dough. Qara Bagh Skins, wool, gee, qurut, Chaka cheese; Products are marketed. Skins skins of sheep, goats, wolves, foxes and and furs are also exported to wild cats, handicrafts from wool: rugs, Pakistan carpets, jackets, etc. Nad Ali gee, wool, qurut, furs and skins Products are marketed Arghandab Livestock products Only home consumption Source: SCA 1993a and RAP 1996

The diversity of livestock products is striking.Products from livestock provide an additional income and make a contribution to the stability of the farming systems.The whole sub sector has a potential for development and income generation.It also provides some good opportunities for gender oriented projects.

2.3.12 Crop Subsistence and Cereal Consumption

Farming systems in Afghanistan are oriented both towards subsistence farming as well as the production of cash crops. The main factor determining whether a farm produces only for the own consumption, or also for the market, depends on various factors. These include access to markets, farm size, productivity level, household size, land tenure arrangements and the status of the delivery system for inputs.

The main staple food crop is wheat, which is grown primarily for family consumption. Surplus production is sold. Itis clear that surplus production increases with farm size, though increases in sales were observed more in barley, beans, rice, apples and potatoes then in irrigated wheat. Even the larger farms still considered wheat more of a staple food.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 39 -

Cereal consumption of Afghans, particularly in form of bread, is veryhigh.It is estimated that the average annual consumption of cereals is about 180 to 200kg /capita.

2.3.13 Rural Women

Little is reported on the role of women in the farming systems studied.Women and children participate in the farm work and in animal husbandry (see also Thieme1996). The type of activity in which women are involved varies by region. They are generallyinvolved in farm practices like weeding and harvesting and less, or not at all,incultivation and land preparation. Women are involved in the processing of animal products and theproduction of handicrafts.

Currently, women in the northern parts have more rights than they have inthe Taliban controlled areas. FAO has started some training programs for women, such astraining of women in vegetable production, in basic animalhealth care and in poultry production. These programs face major implementation difficulties in Taliban controlled areas.

War and migration have reduced the male population, so that the female portionof the population is probably much more than fifty percent.Potentially women constitute more than half of the rural labour force.The success of long -term programmes will be questionable without involving women actively into the development process.The question of basic human rights for women in Afghanistan is one of the most crucial aspectsfor the funding and implementation of any long term development program.

2.3.14 Economic Returns

A farm budget expresses a farm plan in monetary terms. The farm income andthe return to labour provide indicators of the economic potential and strength of a farming system.In the SCA Survey 1991, gross margins of individual crops grown in the seven farming systems and farm budgets of the model farms were calculated. The results should beinterpreted with care as the very high inflation rate and the substantial fluctuations in theexchange rate reduce the reliability of some of the figures provided.It is also possible that some of the extreme figures were due to shortcomings of the survey itself.Details are summarised in Table 23.

Table 23. Gross Margins of Major Crops US $ /hectare Crops Shulgara Nejrab Mehterlam Maydan Qara Bagh Arghandab Nad Ali Shar Irrigated Wheat 168 340 449 545 340 307 328 Rainfed Wheat 64 Rainfed Barley 42 Rice 605 636 65 Maize 102 128 Beans 902 Potatoes 178 2604 700 1774 Clover 2735 172 147 2735 Alfalfa 78 400 387 Apricots 6967 Apples 9667 Fruits 4230 Pomegranates 5264 Cotton 1402 Poppy 4648 Source: SCA 1993a

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 40 -

The gross margins have been calculated on the basis of farmgateprices minus variable cash expenses. This means, that the value of the farmers own labourinputs as well as own farm power (mainly oxen) have not been taken into consideration. In this sense the interpretation of the gross margins is limited.However the table shows clear that cereals are not great cash earners for the farmers, whichin fact corresponds to reality. The cereals produced under the different farming systems are basically for the ownconsumption.

Second, the results show clearly the high value of fruits and potatoes.It also demonstrates that the gross margin from poppy is in any case less than that offruits.Which again confirms the socioeconomic potential of the horticulture based farming systems as amodel to substitute poppy cultivation.The same correlations, with some exceptions, have been found during the RAP 1996. However, the cross margin for poppy appears to be exaggerated. When applying farmgate prices (US$46 /kg) and yields (43 kg /ha ) from the RAP 1996, the cross margin results less than half of the that reported by the SCA (SCA 1993a).

The net cash income (i.e. without value of home grown consumption) of the different farm households calculated by the SCA (SCA 1993a) demonstrates again the economic potential of some of the farming systems.This is particularly the Arghandab horticulture -based system, the large scale mechanised irrigation system in Nad Ali (before the deteriorationof the irrigation scheme) and the potential of the system in Maydan Shar (irrigated wheat, potatoes, apples and fodder). Next in the order is the system in Mehterlam and to a certain degree the northern farming system in Shulgara. The weakest economic performance in the system in Qara Bagh, where all there categories of farmers (small, medium andlarge) showed a negative cash income as well as a negative return to labour figure.

Table 24. Cash Income and Return to Labour Farming Farm Size System Small Medium Large Net cash Cash return Net cash Cash return Net cash Cash return income US$/ US$/ income US$/ US$/ income US$/ U$$/ farm man /day farm man /day farm mari /day Shulgara 52 0.2 622 2.1 1338 1.7 Nejrab -35 -0.1 536 1.8 667 0.8 Mehterlam 239 0.6 730 1.2 1753 2.2 Maydan Shar 519 1.3 1758 2.9 2027 2.5 Qara Bagh -122 -0.4 -182 -0.6 -96 -0.3 Nad Ali 1623 5.6 5806 10.0 7350 12.6 Arghandab 2250 7.5 5633 14.1 9963 12.5 Source: SCA 1993a

Small farms, except those with horticulture components and Nad Ali (where all farm sizes are significantly larger), have no capacity to generate cash income. They justproduce food for the family. The return to labour (after consumption) in some of the small farms is only above the average labour cost of US $1 /day in 1996.

Although all large farms produce more cash income than the medium scale farms, the medium size farms seem to produce higher returns to labour in most cases. This economic relationship could be of interest for the selection of income generating models and for the selection of target groups of future development programmes.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report -41 -

2.3.15 Problems and Expectations of Farmers

During the Rapid Appraisal farmers were asked about their mainproblems and their main hopes and wishes. The answers were often discussed within thesmall group of farmers present during the interviews.In almost all cases, farmers stated that their biggest problem was insufficient irrigation water. One of the mostfrequent causes mentioned was lack of maintenance and repair of damages caused by negligence accumulatedduring the last 18 years. Main problems with irrigation water mentioned was:

main canals are so heavily silted that farmers cannot clean themwithout outside assistance; intakes are frequently washed away due to floods in springtime; irrigation structures have been directly destroyed during the war or havebeen destroyed due to the lack of maintenance; to much water due to problems with the intake; not enough water downstream, because of too much rice cultivation upstream; water rights not respected by local commanders, the authority of traditionalwater managers is eroded; not enough snow in the mountains in winter time; lowering of water table in karez systems; and silting and damages in karez systems which cannot be repaired because farmers have not enough money to pay the `technicians'.

The importance of irrigation will require a special irrigation rehabilitation and development program with a short, medium and long -term planning horizon.This is discussed in detail in the Water Resources and Irrigation Report (Klemm 1996).

The second main problem stated by farmers is linked with the use of fertiliser.All farmers knew about the importance of chemical fertilisers.If fertiliser is applied it is often used in small quantities only. Mostly only urea is applied. The farmers fertiliser problems are:

there is no fertiliser available on the local market, or there is only urea (white fertiliser) available but no DAP (grey fertiliser), or fertiliser is available but it is not good (fake fertiliser from Pakistan is common) or farmers cannot afford fertiliser.

The third order of problems are the lack of improved seeds and lack of plant protection measures. Farmers are well aware of the advantages of improvedseeds and would like to have more and in larger quantities. The same applies to plant protection materials.

When asked about their three main personal wishes, farmers stated `peace; as their first priority. The second and third priorities were always something very concrete to the living situation of the farmer.This could be either something very personal, such as a wife, or related to the farm situation,like a better road, a school, a health post, etc.These spontaneous answers confirm that farmers are tired of the war and that they want to live in peace and solve their own personal and farm problems.

It can be concluded that farmers have a very realistic picture about the situationin which they find themselves and their problems.They also clearly want peace. Itis further concluded that development assistance which was properly planned, monitored and targeted towards those concrete groups who are interested in peace, is probably the most effective form of assistance to improve the human rights situation and support democracy and peace efforts in Afghanistan.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 42 -

3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This report has reviewed the farming systems of Afghanistan to provide a basis for the agricultural strategy from the micro (farm and household) level.By analysing existing farming systems data and interviewing farmers in selected areas, the constraints and potentials of Afghan agricultural have become transparent. The findings will contribute to the formulation of a strategy.

The Problem

The main problems facing Afghan farmers today are general poverty and limited hopes to improve this situation. Three main causes are contributing to this negative situation are the ongoing war, the narrow natural resource basis and a complex of geo- political and cultural factors.

A clear perception of the main problems is being confused by a `paradox'.While there is war in Afghanistan, thereis no emergency situationin the rural areas.The war is concentrated mostly on the urban centre of Kabul. While Kabul needs emergency aid, in the rural areas the need is for development programmes.

The work of FAO inrecent years has demonstrated thatitispossible to undertake agricultural development programmes in Afghanistan.The current programmes in crop production and livestock can largely substitute for costly emergency assistance.

The war has had both a direct and indirect impact on the agricultural sector as a whole and on the lives of the rural households in particular through:

the devastation of physical and social rural infrastructure; destruction and inefficiency of traditional and formal irrigation systems; the haemorrhage of qualified human resources by emigration and flight; the lack of essential agricultural inputs; the break down of internal and external markets for horticultural and industrial crops; the destruction and paralysis of food processing facilities; and the lack of development impulses.

The problems caused by the war can be addressed by rehabilitation, reconstruction and reintegration programmes with a short to medium -term planning horizon. Structural constraints of poverty and underdevelopment, the limited natural resource basis and the absolute dependency of agricultural production on irrigation, have to be addressed by medium and long -term development programmes.The agricultural strategy will have to address both.

Within this overall strategy, the cultural and geo -political dimension of the problems of Afghanistan must be taken into consideration.Respect for human rights and the rights of women in particular, the eradication of opium production and ecological aspects should be reflected in the strategy as firm preconditions for the implementation or continuation of agricultural development programmes and projects.

It would make no sense to start a reforestation program without having clearly banned illegal felling and export of trees from the same area and having the ability to implement such bans.It would also give no sense to rehabilitate irrigation schemes within poppy

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 43 - growing areas without banning poppy cultivation.Finally it would be difficult to defend a fruit processing programme where women are not permitted toparticipate.

Rural poverty is obvious in Afghanistan and there are numerous pocketsand provinces like Badakhshan, Bamyan and Ghor existing in the country. These areashave extreme food deficiencies and which require special food security and other social programmes.However the overall food security picture seems not to be as desolate as itlooked a few years ago.

Yields of wheat have recovered and increased through the use of improvedseeds and the other measures undertaken.Significant areas of the agricultural land abandoned during war have been brought back into production.The livestock numbers, which were severely reduced, seem to have substantially recovered providing increased amountsof milk and other products to rural households.Horticultural crops seem to have improved and are widely on offer in rural markets.

It must be stressed again, that there are absolutely no reliable data atpresent available on the nutritional status and volume of the national food production.No national food and nutrition surveys have been done so far and emergency and humanitarian programmes have to be designed on a weak data base.In order to improve the data base for a better planning and targeting of food aid, the implementation of country-widenutritional and vulnerability surveys would be required.

National agricultural survey

One of the basic requirements for the design of national development programmeswill be reliable agricultural data. Therefore a comprehensive national agricultural surveywould be required as soon as possible.The statistical data would have to meet international standards and should be under the responsibility of the respective specialised UN agency, at the same time involving local and regional capacities, such as the surveyunits of NGOs.

Afghan farming systems

The Afghan farming systems can be considered as very stable and robust.Although the war has seriously affected some of the components,like the family labour force, farm power, the availability and quality of inputs, cultivated area,yields, cropping patterns, etc., most of the components have resisted and are now partially recovering.

The robustness of the system is particularly due to the diversity of crop and livestock production, the relative reliability of crop output due to the fact that itis almost entirely irrigated production, the skill of the farmers, the strong family coherence and to the variety of different farm incomes such as:

production of cereals (wheat) for household consumption production of vegetables, fruits and nuts for household consumption and cash production of meat, milk and milk products for own consumption and cash, production of hides and skins for cash, production of handicrafts from animal products rugs, carpets etc., remittances from family members working outside Afghanistan's, production of opium and cannabis, and other income generating activities in transport, commerce and handicrafts

The seven farming system models reviewed constitute acceptable general representations of different agricultural activities found in Afghanistan.However for concrete project and

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 44 - programme planning and evaluation, more detailedstudies will be necessary to identify changes which have occurred and structures which have developed overthe last 18 years.

Land tenure

The different formsoflandtenurereportedinthesevendistrictsareobviously arrangements to optimise available land resources, existing familylabour force and the limited financial resources.In times of lack of capital these arrangements prevent land lying idle and provide the opportunity for landless farmers to cultivate land.During interviews with farmers (RAP 1996) land tenure issues were not spoken of asproblem issues. At this point land tenure issues will not have a high priority in an agricultural strategy.

Improved seeds

The present coverage of total cultivated area with improved seeds is notknown. However the relative stability of food production and surprising yields reported areprobably a sign that the use of improved seed has further increased.There isstill a significant need to expand the use of improved seeds on a sustainable basis. The average yieldswhich can be realistically achieved on a broad basis, particularly in wheat productionwould be quite enough to make the country self- sufficient in a short period.The costs of such a sustainable program would be much less than an equivalent food aid programme.A cost benefit analysis would be desirable to demonstrate the advantages of such a programme compared with other programmes.

The amplification and strengthening of the present improved seedproduction program should be part of a medium and long -term agricultural strategy.

Fertiliser

In 1996 a lack of fertiliser was reported by the farmers during the RAP. Farmersstated the need for fertiliser as one of their top problems. According to farmers the mainissues are:

there is no fertiliser available on the local market; there is only urea (white fertiliser) available but no DAP (grey fertiliser). fertiliser is available but it is not good (fake fertiliser from Pakistan is common); and farmers cannot afford fertiliser.

It is obvious that agricultural development will have to be linked with the use offertiliser.It isrecommend that afeasibilityand implementation study be undertakenforthe establishment of a fertiliser scheme with the possibility to attach a credit scheme. The study should take into consideration previous Afghan experience with fertiliser schemes.In the same context an assessment of the situation at the fertiliserplant in Mazar- i- Sharif should be undertaken.

Cereal Production

The total area under cereal cultivation at present is not known. However, from surveysthe indications are that at present at least 0.73 million ha of rainfed land and 1.84 millionha of irrigated land are under cereal cultivation, a total of 2.57 million ha.Assuming that the percentage of area planted for animal consumption remained 17.4 per cent oftotal area under cereals, there are roughly 2.12 million hectares of cereals for human consumption. At average yields of 1.91 tonnes /ha total production will be 4.05 million tonnes of cereals.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 45 -

Taking into account 0.4 million tons post -harvest losses and 0.3 to 0.4 million tonnes for seed, there would remain 3.3 million tonnes of cereals for direct human consumption.

With a total population of 18 to 20 million there would be 165 kg /capita to 183 kg /capita available for human consumption at present. This would be close to the pre -war situation.

These production estimates are at the national level.The availability of food at the household level would be different.Nevertheless the figures indicate a certain recovery of agricultural production. The implication also is that in the short and medium -term food aid will become presumably lessimportant and willprobably concentrate on the most vulnerable groups and areas only.

Horticulture Development

Horticulture has great potential in the process of achieving national self -reliance. Fruit, dried fruit and nuts are high value crops and have good markets inside and in particular outside Afghanistan. The strong linkage between production,processing,packing, transport and marketing provides opportunities for diversification and to generate income and new employment.It is anticipated that in the medium and long -term the horticulture sector will play an important role for the social and economic development in areas with horticulture -based farming system.

A horticulture development program should be based on private entrepreneurship and a minimum involvement of state structures.Its short and medium term objective would be, to rehabilitate and develop horticulture based farming systems to pre -war levels and beyond. It may include the following immediate objectives or outputs:

Fruit production

To establisha network of nucleus nurseries throughout the countryforthe preservation and propagation of foundation planting material. To establish at least 150 private nurseries each able to produce a minimum of 10,000 quality budded fruit tree saplings annually on a sustainable commercial basis. To establish a training scheme forfruit growers on Integrated Production and Protection (IPP) management practices by applying the community level Farmer Field School (FFS) approach.

Vegetable Production

To establish a scheme for the preservation and propagation of vegetable foundation seeds of local varieties, and some introduced varieties where economically justified. To supply farmers with locally produced and imported quality vegetable seeds, as technically feasible and economically justified. To establish a training scheme for vegetable growers on Integrated Production and Protection (IPP) management practices by applying the community level Farmer Field School (FFS) approach.

Horticulture Development Planning

To establish an horticulture data base with updated fielddata covering most horticulture based districts. To undertake feasibility studies on processing packing and marketing of horticultural products.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 46 -

Rainfed agriculture

Rainfed cereal productionisonly a small part of the total production and couldbe considered as a lower priority than irrigated production in anagricultural strategy. However, the fact that most of this production is concentrated in thenorth, provides an opportunity to concentrate efforts of a strategy for the use of improvedseeds for rainfed wheat and barley, mechanised farm power and improved agricultural techniques(increasing moisture and fertility in soils).

Women

War and migration have reduced the male population, leavingthe female portion of the population is probably much more than fifty percent. Womenconstitute more that half of the potential rural labour force.Without involving women actively into the development process the success of each long term programmewill be questionable. The question of basic human rights for women in Afghanistan is one of the mostcrucial aspects for the funding and implementation of any long term development programme.

Economic Returns

The net cash incomes at the farm household level demonstratethe economic potential of some of the farming systems, particularly thehorticulture based system in Arghandab, the large scale mechanised irrigation system in Nad Ali (before thedeterioration of the irrigation scheme) and the potential of the system in Maydan Shar (irrigatedwheat, potatoes, apples and fodder).Next in the order is the system in Mehterlam and to a certaindegree the northern farming system in Shulgara. Very weak economic performanceshows the system in Qara Bagh, where all three categories of farmers (small,medium and large) showed a negative cash income as well as a negative return to labourfigure.

Small farms, except those with horticulture components and NadAli (where all farm sizes are significantly larger), have no capacity to generatecash income. They just produce food for the family.After family consumption the return to labour is insignificant.Only in some cases its above the average labour cost ofUS$1 /day.Although all large farms produce more cash income than the medium scale farms, themedium size farms seem to produce higher returns to labour in most cases. This economic relationshipcould be of interest for the selection of income generating models and for the selection oftarget groups of future development programs.

Problems of Farmers

In almost all cases farmers stated that their biggest problem was insufficientirrigation water. One of the most frequent causes mentioned was lack of maintenance and repairof damage caused by negligence accumulated during the last 18 years. The importance ofirrigation will require a special irrigation rehabilitation and development program with a short,medium and long -term planning horizon.

The second main problem stated by farmers is linked with the use of fertiliser.All farmers knew about the importance of chemical fertiliser.If fertiliser is applied it is applied often in small quantities only. Mostly urea is being applied.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 47 -

Lack of improved seeds and plant protection measures have been theproblems mentioned in the third place.Farmers are well aware about the advantages of improved seeds and would like to have more and in larger quantities. The same applies to plantprotection.

When asked about their wishes farmers stated as their first priority, peace.The second and third priority was always something very concrete and relate to the livingsituation of the farmer or related to the farm situation.

Farmers have a very realistic picture about their problems and they clearly want peace. Development assistance which is properly planned, monitored and targeted towardsthose groups which are interested in peace, is probably themost effective form of assistance to improve human rights and support democracy and peace efforts in Afghanistan.

Projects Proposed

There are two broad areas where significant work is needed. The first is in the collection and documentation of an accurate statistical base for the agricultural sector forplanning purposes. The other is to plan for the rehabilitation ofprocessing and marketing facilities for agricultural products as a means for creating markets for increased production and employment. The following project concepts are proposed:

1. Preparatory studies and data collection

National Agricultural Survey National Vulnerability and Nutrition Study Study for the establishment of a Centre for Agricultural Statistics Inventory of surviving processing facilities in Afghanistan.Formulation of TOR for feasibility studies on processing of agricultural products The development of programmes for rural women Programme for the development of rainfed cropping areas in the north

2. Feasibility studies

Establishment of fertiliser and rural credit programmes Potato development programme Rehabilitation of sugar beet cultivation and processing Rehabilitation of the sugar factory in Baghlan Processing, packing and marketing of horticultural crops Rehabilitation of the fruit processing factory in Qandahar Rehabilitation of olive production and processing in Nangarhar Rehabilitation of cotton and cotton processing Production and processing of milk products Processing of wool, hides and skins

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report - 48 -

4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ASARP, 1977 Marketing, Distribution and Use of Fertiliser in Afghanistan, Bangkok, November 1977.

Berding, F R. 1996 Land Management Report. PromotionofAgricultural Rehabilitation and DevelopmentinAfghanistan. FAO TCP /AFG/4552,Subsector Report No 1. Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996.(See this volume).

DAI and ESC, 1993 Afghanistan LandCoverand Land Use Report, DevelopmentAlternatives Inc. and Earth Satellite Corporation, March 1993.Afghanistan Agricultural Sector Support Project. USAID.

Dupree, Louis, 1980 Afghanistan.First Indian edition, Rama Publishers, New Delhi.

FAO, 1996aNote on Plant Protection, Dr B Stride, STA Plant Protection, AFG /94/002

FAO, 1996bNote onHorticultureDevelopment, J -M Arnoult,STA Horticulture, AFG /94/002

Klemm, W. 1996 Water Resources and Irrigation Report, Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development in Afghanistan. FAO TCP /AFG/4552, Subsector Report No 3.Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996.(See this volume).

MINPLAN, 1978 Afghan Agriculture in Figures (1976- 1977), Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Planning, Kabul, 1978

Thieme, Olaf. 1996 Livestock Production Report, Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and DevelopmentinAfghanistan. FAO TCP /AFG/4552,Subsector Report No4. Food and Agriculture Organisation UN, Rome, May 1996.(See this volume).

SCA, 1993a. Farming Systems in Afghanistan, Summary, 15th Report, PartVIII,July1993. The Swedish Committeefor Afghanistan.

SCA, 1993bAgriculture Survey of Afghanistan, 1992 -1993. 17th Report, December 1993. The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan.

UNDCP, 1995 Afghanistan,Opium Poppy Survey,UN DrugControl Programme, Islamabad, 1995.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report ANNEX 1.

AGROECOLOGICAL ZONE DATA

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 1. Page 1

1. Agro- ecological Zones by Province and District

Table 1.1 Agro- ecological Zones by Province and District Zone 1. Wakhan Corridor and Pamir Knot Badakhshan. Wakhan Zone 2. Badakhshan Badakhshan, all except Wakhan Takhar Chahab, Darqad, Farkhar, Kalafghan, Rustaq, Warsaj and Yangi Qala Zone 3. Central Mountains Oruzghan All Baghlan All Ghor All, except Chaghcharan (northern 1/3) Bamyan All, except Kahamard, Sayghan, Yakawlang (northern half) Herat Karokh, Pashtun Zargoon, Obey, Chest -i- Sharif, Adraskan (eastern 1/7) Farah Farsi, Purchaman and Shindand (eastern 1/10) Helmand Baghran and Naw Zad (northern 2/5). Qandahar Nesh, Khakriz and Shahwalikot Zabul Daichopan, Mizan and Arghandab Ghazni Nawor, Malestan and Jaghuri Wardak Behsud, Gardan, Diwal, Dai Mirdad and Chak -i- Wardak Kunduz Ali Abad and Khanabad (southern 1/5) Takhar Eshkamesh and Chal (southern 2/3) Zone 4. Eastern Mountains Kabul All Kapisa All Kunar All Laghman All Logar All Nangahar All Parwan All Wardak Chak -i- Wardak, Dai Mirdad, Jalrez. Kowt -i- Ashrow, Maydan Shar, Nerkh, Seyyedabad Zone 5. Southern Mountains and Foothills Paktia All Paktika All Wardak Jaghatu Ghazni Khvajeh `Omri, Zana Khan, Jaghatu, Ghazni, Deh Yak, Qarah Bagh, Andar, Moqor, Ab Band, Giru, Gelan and Nawan Zabul Shah Juy, Qalat, Jaldak, Shenkay, Atgar and Shamalzai Qandahar Arghistan, Maruf and Spin Boldak (northern half) Wardak Jaghatu Zone 6. Northern Mountains and Foothills Baghlan All Kunduz Aliabad, and Khanabad (southern 1/5) Samanga Dara e Souf, Roye Doab, Samangan, Hazrat -e- Sultan and Kholm, (southern 1/6) Bamyan Kahamard, Saygan and Yakawlang (northern half) Balkh Chemtal, Shulgara, Char Kent and Keshendeh Jawzjan Sar -i -Pol, Sang Charak, Kuhestan and Balkhab Faryab Qeysar, Kohestan, Belcheragh, Darzab and Pashtun Kowt (southern 3/5) Badghis Jawand, Qades, Koshk -i- Kohneh (southern 1/3), Qal'eh -ye Now (southern 1/4) Morghab (southeastern 1/3) and Ghowrmach (southern 2/3)

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 1. Page 2

Table 1.1 Agro- ecological Zones by Province and District (continued) Zone 7. Turkestan Plains Takhar Khvajeh Ghar, Talogan, Bangi and Chal (northern 1/3) Kunduz All, except Aliabad and Khanabad (southern 1/5) Samangan Kaldar and Kholm (northern 5/6) Balkh Shur Teppah, Dowlatabad, Char Buldaq, Balkh, Mazar -i- Sharif, Naher, Shah and Dehdadi Jawzjan Khamyabi, Qarquin, Mordian, Mangah Jek, Sherberghan, Khanaqa, Aqchah and Feyzabad Faryab Khan -e, Char Bagh, Qorghan, Qaramqol, Dowlatabad, Shirin Tagab, Almara and Pashtun Kowt (northern 2/5) Badghis Ghowrmach (northern1/3), Morghab (northwestern 2/3), Qal'eh -ye Now (northern 3/4) and Koshk -i- Kohneh (northern 2/3) Herat Koshk (northern 3/4) and Golran (northern 3/5) Zone 8. Herat -Farah Lowlands Herat excluding Karokh (eastern), Pashtun, Zarghoon, Obey, Chesht -i- Sharif, Golran (northern 3/5) and Koshk (northern 3/4) Farah excluding Farsi and Purchman Zone 9. Helmand Valley -Sistan Basin Qandahar Ghowrak (southern 5/6), Maywand (northern 1/5), Panjvaj (northern 1/4), Arghandab, Qandahar, Daman and Dand Helmand Kajaki, Musa Qala, Sarbon Qala, Nahre Sara /Gereshk, Nawae -Barakzae, Deh, Shu, Naw Zad (southern1/3), Washir (southern1/3),Nad -i -Ali, (eastern 1/2), Bust /Lashkar Gah (northern 1/2), Garmser (northwestern 1/40) and Khan Neshin (southeastern 1/2) Nimruz Char Borjak (southern 3/4) Zone 10. Western Stony Deserts Nimroz Khosh Rod, Asle Chakhansur, Kang Zaranj and Char Borjak (northern 1/4) Helmand Naw Zad (middle 1/5), Washir (western 2/3), Nad -i -Ali (western 1/2) and Khan Neshin (western 1/2) Zone 11. Southwestern Sandy Deserts Qandahar Shegah, Reg, Shorabak, Maywand (southern 4/5) and Panjvaj (southern 3/4) Helmand Bust (southern 1/2) and Garmser (39/40)

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 1. Page 3

2. Land Use by Agro- ecological Zone

Table 2. Afghanistan Agricultural Land Use by Agro- ecological Zones as at 1972 (FAO) No Zone OrchardsIrrigated Rainfed Total agr. Unclassif.Total(ha) Total(km2) 11100 1 Wakhan 8 4762 0 4770 1105404 1110174 2 Badakhshan 5957 72272 714398 792627 3331450 4124077 41200 3 Central Mtns (-.H) 10322 479346 848532 1338200 1011382511452025 114500 3 Central Mtns ( +H) 12236085 122400 4 Eastern Mtns 12783 452072 151057 615912 4465968 5081880 50800 5 South Mtns F'hills 4283 522471 229676 756430 5682849 6439279 64400 6 North Mtns Fh( -H) 7636 301391 22587962567823 6461874 9029697 90300 6 North Mtns Fh( +H) 9106399 91100 7 Turk Plains (-H) 16238 647757 627189 1291184 3599046 4890230 48900 7 Turk Plains ( +H) 5508955 55100 8 Herat -Farah Ll(-H) 689 210375 134 211198 4675350 4886548 48900

8 Herat -Farah LI( +H) 7653648 76500 9 Helmand-Sistan 22165 388160 297 410622 4430495 4841117 48400 10 West Stony Desert 139 76881 0 77020 3610155 3687175 36900

11 SW Sandy Desert 0 52562 5630 58192 4392537 4450729 44500 Total (-Herat) 80220 320804948357098123978 5186895359992931 599900 Total ( +Herat) 64239518 642400 Source: F R Berding, Land Management consultants report

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report ANNEX 2.

DISCUSSION GROUP 1. REPORT

AGRICULTURAL STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP

Prepared by

Bernhard Schelhas

Islamabad, November 1996

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 2. Page 1

SESSION 1.

Priorities for Agricultural Development

The discussion group consisted of international and Afghan staff working in international, non -governmental and bilateral organisations and included a participant from the Taliban Jalalabad administration.In the first meeting the group tried to find some methodological approach on the subject and looked at theoretical concepts how to identify priorities. The approach was chosen was to collect the major statements related to the main theme:

1. There is clearly a need for agricultural development programs in contrast to short term rehabilitation and emergency programs.

2. Priorities should be developed from the various needs existing at present within the four main components of agriculture: the farming family, the farm, the socioeconomic and the agroecological environment.

3. The data base of agriculture is not sufficient to decide on programs and priorities. There is clearly a need for upgrading agricultural statistics and surveys.

4. One of the important components of a strategy should be to assure food security for the county as a whole and in particular for those target areas and target groups which have been neglected by aid programs.

5. Food security and the economic return to the farm household are the major criteria for achieving agricultural development objectives.

6. The livestock sector has not been presented sufficiently in the background paper. Rangeland development is considered a priority.

7. The strong linkage between raising livestock and irrigation development should be taken into consideration in formulating a strategy.

8. The irrigationsector has clearly apriority. Itisthe backbone of agriculture. Insufficient irrigation water is the main problem of agricultural development. There is a wide range of irrigation problems: software and hardware problems.

9. Priorities are not the same in each zone, they differ according to agroecological zones and provinces.

10. Proper input supply is one of the major problems and should be considered as a priority in the agricultural strategy.

11. Marketing of agricultural products is clearly a priority.

12. Horticultural development plays an important role in Afghanistan.

13. Watershed management is important and should be part of the strategy.

14. In general, human resources development is the key issue of the strategy.

Finallyit was regretted that there was no women in the discussion group.The group proposed to include the gender issue into the next sessions.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 2. Page 2

SESSION 2.

Role of the State (Ministry of Agriculture)

For both discussion and presentation in the plenum, the group decided to list tasks which only the state should perform, tasks which should be shared with the NGO and private sector, and those which should be exclusively the task of the private and NGO sector.

Tasks of Central Government Shared with NGO and Only NGO /Private Private Sector

Basic role :planing, facilitation, Basic role: participate in Basic role: production, monitoring implementation of some delivery of inputs and government tasks commercially viable services 1. Agricultural policy formulation

2. Quality standards for agriculturalyes inputs 3. Facilitate standards for yes agricultural export 4. Facilitate agricultural research, yes training and extension 5. Facilitate agricultural credits yes

6. Facilitate negotiations with yes external investors 7. Raise and wave taxes on agricultural inputs and outputs 8. Facilitate conservation and yes protect natural resources 9. Border control (quarantine)

The discussion was very intensive. There are two lines of thought regarding the role of the State and the Ministry of Agriculture in particular:

1. One part is convinced that the liberation of the Afghan state from some ofits important functions, in particular those which are related to agricultural production, services and provision of inputs, is a positive development and ensures efficiency and cost effectiveness in long term.This school believes the state should not do what it cannot do well.

2. The other part believes that the state is down at the moment and efforts should be made to strengthen it, so that it can regainmore or less its previous status and functions,suchaslargeextensionservices,establishmentofco- operatives, development of large scale irrigated farms, provision of inputs to farmers, etc.The limited role of the state in agricultural development is supposed to be only preliminary.

At a certain point of the discussion the Taliban representative from Nangahar remarked, that his administration is content with the work of the NGOs and the FAO, they should continue their work.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 2. Page 3

SESSION 3.

Discussion on Delivering Services

Creating Capacity: First the group discussed what type of services would be required by the agricultural sector, what afghan capacity is more or less still existing or which could be mobilised, and what should be done in short and long term to meet the shortfalls. The following table presents the results of the discussion. Quantities given are just guesstimates" of the group.

Services required Capacity Shortfall to be met available short term long term 1. Management training 30 -50 per encourage University training cent repatriation

2. Agricultural statistics and data 50 per cent not needed University training management with NGOs

3. Applied agricultural research and 70 per cent not needed university training university level training

4. Extension service many still refresher training available

5. Agricultural vocational training some still vocational training programs available training courses

6. Training in marketing of agriculturallittle capacitymanufacturer, professional inputs and outputs associations provide training

7. Training in food processing and not known training courses training programs preservation (men and women)

8. Home economics training for limited training courses training program women

9. Promotion of small industries none courses programs

Delivery Services (Role of NGOs): The issue has been discussed by the group along the discussion paper. The following three options have been assessed:

1 2 3 NGO providing general socialNGO proving general and NGO providing specialised and technical services basedspecialised humanitarian services on a fee for service on humanitarian and and technical services on a basis compassionate grounds. semi -commercial basis.

The group felt that there is a need in future Afghanistan for all three types. Type 1 will still be required in future for humanitarian tasks, for instance for services to most vulnerable groups. Type 2 is the prevailing type found at present in Afghanistan.Type 3, the

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 2. Page 4 specialised commercial type, constitutes almost a private company.It can offer specialised professional services required in the future to the governmentand private sector. Some of the NGOs may even turn into a government service ordepartment.

In general it was agreed by the group, that it would bedesirable if NGOs would move more towards specialisation and for some also towards type 3.

Quality Control: Finally the question of quality control wasdiscussed.Quality control is considered to be necessary when services, originally providedby the state (Min Agri), are provided by the private and NGO sector.It implies to a certain degree that government services (fertiliser, extension etc.) is good and efficient but theprivate sector cannot be trusted and must be controlled. Members of the group where not sureabout this implicit relation. Corruption and inefficient services had been also partof the government system.

Some group members expressed, that the Government shouldformulate and set standards but civil bodies should implement and control such standards.These bodies could be professional associations with their own ethics and methods ofreinforcing standards, rules and regulation as well as the competition of the market itself.If transparency about the quality of the products can be developed the consumer wouldbe able to decide on the quality and product he wants.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The team presented its findings and conclusions to a group ofAfghan and non -Afghan role players in emergency, rehabilitation and development programs forAfghanistan.Afghan Government representatives were not or were insignificantlyrepresented. We do not no their views properly.Afghan farmers had been contacted and interviewed by the team earlier.

Apart from funding problems it appears that one of the mainproblems of implementing an agricultural strategy will be the formation of a new delivery system forthe rural areas.

The strategy developed is understood as a model that transfersthe responsibility of planing, implementation and control of agricultural services andproduction from state bodies to social bodies, i.e.to the immediate producers of goods and services.

The qualified afghan cadre who remained in the region and areworking at present in international,bilateral and non -governmental aid organisations seem to haveonly a restricted sympathy for a strategy model which reduces the statusand function of the state and empowers the role of civil bodies.

The human resource basis for the implementation of the proposedagricultural strategy is weak or not available. Itis unlikely that the capacity outside the region can be tapped. Although there are many qualified Afghans around the world most ofthem are not interested to return at this point.

A manpower and management training study to identify the existing andavailable afghan management potential in the region and the respective training needswould be desirable.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report ANNEX 3.

RAPID APPRAISAL QUESTIONNAIRES AND CHECKLISTS

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Table 1. Rapid Appraisal data collection sheet Farming Systems Annex 3. Page 1 LandFamilyFarmer1. Farming tenure size No /family Systems labour. Province: owner 1 share % owner District: 2 share % Village:owner 3 share 5 owner 4 share °k owner 5 share % AreaTotalCropLand intensityareacrops type(ier) cultivated /yield (estimate) (se (ler) /je): irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain irr rain wheatmaizebarley grains: beansrice pulses: potatopeas vegetables: onionstomato fruits /nuts: pomegranategrapesappleapricot almonds 1 2 3 4 5 alfalfaclover forage: ownerirr rain shareirr rain ownerirr rain irrshare rain ownerirr rain irrshare rain ownerirr rain irrshare rain ownerirr rain irrshare rain poppyflaxcotton industrial crops: Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 3. Page 2

livestock ox co Tablej 1. Rapiddon Appraisal data collection sheet (continued)s &g oxe cow don s &g oxe cow don s &g oxe cow don s&g oxe cow don s &g labourfarm power: available. w! problemsDrovedfertiliser useseeds (crops) use croppriorities rotation:

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 3. Page 3

YIELDS AND INPUTS yield fertiliser seed seer /jerib serlienb seer /jerib rainfed Crops irrigated rainfed irrigated rainfed irrigated grains: wheat barley maize rice

pulses: beans peas

vegetables: potato tomato onions

fruits /nuts: apricot apple grapes pomegranate almonds

forage: clover alfalfa

industrial crops: cotton flax poppy sesame

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report Farming Systems Annex 3. Page 4

PRICES

Exchange rate (U$): Date: District:

Farm inputs Unit market price farmgate price seed s(major crops). white fertiliser grey fertiliser hired labour (day) hired oxen (day) hired tractor ( /hour) Livestock oxen cows donkeys sheep /goat Fodder: alfalfa clover buhs camel load (16 -17 seers) Grains Irrig. Wheat Rainfd. Wheat Rainfd. Barley Rice Maize Pulses Beans Peas Vegetables Potatoes tomato

Forage crops Clover Alfalfa

Fruits Apricot Apple Pomegranate grapes almonds

Industrial crops Cotton Poppy flax sesame

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Farming Systems Report TCP/AFG/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURALREHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

WATER RESOURCES ANDIRRIGATION

Walter Klemm PhD

in collaboration with

Adul Haq Zia, Bashir Ahmad, Golam Zadick, HusseinRahimi, Mohammad Hassan Hamid and Sayed Sharif Shobair

Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations

Islamabad

November 1996 CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY 1

1. INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 Background and Objectives 3 1.2 Methodology and Scope of Report 4 2. CLIMATE AND WATER RESOURCES 5

2.1 Climate 5 2.1.1 Climatic Zones and Their Characteristics 5 2.1.2 Precipitation, Temperatures, and Evapotranspiration 5

2.2 Water Resources 7 2.2.1 Hydrological Classification 7 2.2.2 Surface Water Resources 9 2.2.3 Ground Water Resources 10 2.2.4 Water Use 10 2.2.5 Water Balance 11 2.2.6 Water Resources Management 11 3. IRRIGATION IN AFGHANISTAN 13

3.1 Historical Development of Irrigation 13 3.1.1 Irrigated Agriculture 13 3.1.2 Irrigation Methods and Efficiencies 15 3.1.3 Irrigation in 1978 15

3.2 Present Conditions of Irrigation Schemes 16 3.2.1 Impact of War (1979 -1995) 16 3.2.2 Quantification of Destruction 17 4. IRRIGATION REHABILITATION 18

4.1 Relief and Rehabilitation Measures in the Irrigation Sector 18 4.1.1 Measures Undertaken by UN Agencies (except for FAO) 18 4.1.2 Measures Undertaken by FAO 19 4.1.3 Measures Undertaken by Non -Governmental Organisations 19 4.1.4 Measures Undertaken by the Local Population 19 4.2 Irrigation Rehabilitation Strategy 20 4.2.1 Framework Conditions 20 4.2.2 Constraints and Opportunities in the Irrigation Sector 21 4.2.3 Strategic Considerations in Irrigation Rehabilitation 22 4.3 Options for Future Irrigation Rehabilitation 26 4.3.1 Short- Term(1997 -99) Options: Low Cost Interventions and Capacity Building 26 4.3.2 Medium- Term(1997 -2001) Options: Individual Irrigation Scheme Rehabilitation 27 4.3.3 Long- Term(2001 -2010) Options: Integrated Irrigation System Rehabilitation 28 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 29 5.1 Conclusions 29 5.1.1 Water availability for irrigation purposes 29 5.1.2 Irrigation in Afghanistan Today 29 5.1.3 Irrigation in Afghanistan in the Future 30 5.2 Recommendations 30 5.2.1 Water Resources Management 30 5.2.2 Rehabilitation of Irrigation Schemes 30 5.2.3 National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme 32 5.2.4 Follow -Up 33 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 35 8.1 Background Literature 35 8.2 Reports 1950 - 1979 35 8.3 Reports 1980 - 1996 37

Annex 1. Background information. Seven Year Plan from 1975 Annex 2. Meteorological Data Annex 3. Water Law and Regulations concerning the use of water in agriculture Annex 4.Active and inactive irrigated agriculture in 1992 Annex 5. Maps

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.Climatic Zones 5 Table 2.Precipitation, Temperatures and Evapotranspiration 6 Table 3. Estimated Surface Water Potential 9 Table 4. Estimated Surface and Ground Water Balance (million m3 per year) 11 Table 5.Irrigated Area per Province in 1978 16 Table 6.Irrigated (active) and non -irrigated (inactive) land in 1992 (ha) 24

LIST OF MAPS

Map 1.Provinces of Afghanistan by Region Frontispiece Map 2. Main River Basins of Afghanistan 8

EXCHANGE RATE

Exchange Rates in May 1996 1 US$ = 37 PAK Rupees = 12,000 Afs ABBREVIATIONS

AA Afghan Aid ACBAR Agency Co- ordinating Body for Afghan Relief ACLU Afghan Construction and Logistic Unit AGLW Water Resources Development and Management Service (FAO) ARIA Authority for the Reconstruction of Infrastructure in Afghanistan ARRP Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programme AWWO Afghan Women Welfare Organisation CBR Consultant Bureau for Reconstruction CIUP Construction and Irrigation Unit of Pamir CPO Country Programme Office (former TCO) CTA Chief Technical Adviser DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid To Afghan Refugees DRS District Rehabilitation Shura ECRA Engineering Committee for the Rehabilitation of Afghanistan (under IRC) EDS Engineering Development Service FAO Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GAA German Agro Action HAVA Helmand -Arghandab Valley Authority IDP Internally Displaced Persons IRC International Rescue Committee JCE Jihad Consulting Engineers MADERA Mission d'Aide au Dévelopement des Économies Rurales en Afghanistan MOWP Ministry of Water and Power (Kabul) NAC Norwegian Afghanistan Committee NCA Nangahar Canal Authority RAH Reconstruction Agency of Hindu Kush RAFA Reconstruction Authority for Afghanistan RSC Rehabilitation Steering Committee SCA Swedish Committee for Afghanistan STA Senior Technical Adviser SWABAC Southern and Western Afghanistan Baluchistan Association for Coordination TCO Technical Co- operation Office (now CPO) TCP Technical Co- operation Programme UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) UNDP United Nations Development Programme. UNDCP United Nations Drug Control Programme. UNIDATA United Nations Information Data Collection UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. UNOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services WRC Welfare and Relief Committee for Afghanistan WFP World Food Programme AFGHANISTAII E.tflJsn. nnd Cstdau

EASTERN 03

o !o lool50 200

Map 1. Provinces of Afghanistan by Region SUMMARY

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Since 1989, UN agencies and international and local NGOs have assisted the Afghan people in the recovery from 18 years of war. A major element of FAO's contribution to the rehabilitation process was the Agriculture and Irrigation Component of the Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation (UNDP, 1993), though the irrigation unit was terminated in 1996.

The consultant's objective was to review the water resources sector as well as the irrigation sub -sector,to prepare an up -dated strategy framework and methodologies for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes. The primary focus is on traditional, farmer -managed irrigation systems, though the consultant was also expected to advise whether prevailing conditions allow, or even require, the consideration of the rehabilitation of modern irrigation systems within medium -term development strategies and programmes.

MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The water resources are sufficient to support the irrigation of some 5.3 million ha. The most significant restriction on exploiting this potential is water availability in both time and space. Only 30 per cent (1.02 m ha) of the area irrigated before 1978 (3.4 m ha) is estimated to be managed satisfactorily; 20 per cent (0.68 m ha) has poor on -farm water management; 10 per cent (0.34 m ha) has been destroyed by direct impact of warand 40 per cent (1.36 m ha) is damaged due to lack of maintenance. The present progress in irrigation rehabilitation made by the so- called "Quick Impact Projects" is unsatisfactory in both quantity and quality. Unless the total annual expenditure on irrigation rehabilitation (US$ 3 m) is increased significantly, it will take some 200 years to rehabilitate all existing irrigation schemes to fully productive status. Besides security and accessibility, the five issues to be addressed when setting priorities for irrigation rehabilitation are:

food security resettlement of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) opium cultivation environmental degradation irrigation infrastructure degradation

Technical and economical feasibility must be reflected by the question: what is the least amount of money to achieve the best result? "Best results" must reflect those interventions which maximise output, and those which help the poor.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There are not many options for irrigation rehabilitation in Afghanistan. Under the prevailing conditions, only a pragmatic approach can lead to an improvement of the present irrigation sector management.If FAO is given overall planning responsibility in the irrigation sector and adequate funding, a significant contribution can be made to the recovery of the agricultural economy. Assuming that most parts of Afghanistan remain secure, the following hierarchy of priorities for irrigation rehabilitation is proposed:

small -scale (< 100 ha) traditional irrigation schemes managed by individual user groups or by a village community; medium -scale (100 -2,000 ha) traditional schemes managed by village communities; large -scale (> 2,000 ha) traditional irrigation schemes close to urban or rural centres;

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 2

large -scale modern (with and without storage) irrigation schemes located close to urban centres; the Helmand -Arghandab irrigation scheme.

It is recommended that irrigation rehabilitation be implemented in three phases (short -term: 1 -3 years overlapping with medium -term: 3 -5 years; long -term: 5 -10 years). viz:

Phase I: Low cost interventions and capacity building 1997 -1999 (short-term) with the objective to rehabilitate crucial hydraulic structures to solve key problems of individual schemes and overcome bottlenecks of otherwise functioning schemes. Main components of the short -term phase are (i) training, (ii) maintenance, and (iii) construction activities.

Phase II: Individual irrigation scheme rehabilitation 1997 -2001 (medium -term) with the objective to systematically rehabilitate individual irrigation schemes in order to maximise water use through increase of the overall system efficiency. Main activities are construction works following the hierarchy of priorities given above.

Phase III:Integrated irrigation system rehabilitation 2001 -2010 (long -term) with the objective to systematically rehabilitate in an integrated manner - at watershed level - large irrigation schemes in order to optimise the sustainable use of water resources in priority watersheds as well as to safeguard national natural and capital assets.

For the next 3 years in which short- and medium -term objectives overlap, all activities in the irrigation sector should be systematically implemented under one programme:

The National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme should be based on the irrigation rehabilitation strategy proposed in Section 4.2 focusing on the following 10 objectives:

to find an agreement among all UN agencies and the EU on FAO taking over the overall responsibility for all activities required in the irrigation sector, to establish rules and guidelines for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, to strengthen local capacities for irrigation system management, to create a sound basisfor future major investments in the irrigation sector once a national government is in its place again, to provide technical expertise for the proper design of hydraulic structures, to implement irrigation projects in an economical and sustainable manner, to assure sustainable management practices in the whole water resources sector; to channelfunds of different origin into a systematic rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, to register upon certification NGOs with proven professional capacities and know -how, and to undertake all efforts to acquire funds from bilateral donors and concentrate them on identified projects according to an agreed rehabilitation schedule.

Activities must be concentrated on low cost interventions and capacity building and on rehabilitationof individual schemes. An Islamabad -based STA would supervise the programme, with field operations under FAO's five regional offices with an additional sub - office in Faizabad /Badakhshan, a critical food deficit area.It is essential for project success to assign one STA at least part-time (50 per cent) to each regional operation centre. Estimated funds for the first 3 years are US$16 m with US$1 m annually for each office and US$ 1.0 million over the three years for Faizabad. This is a modest budget in face of the large amount of capital required for the most urgent irrigation rehabilitation works.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report -3

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In spite of the political changes having taken place in September1996 and renewed fighting between the Rabbani Government and Taliban forces, there is peaceand security in most of Afghanistan's provinces which enables UN agencies, localand international NGOs as well as provincial (former government) institutions to assistthe Afghan people in the recovery from 18 years of war. A major outputof FAO's contribution to the agriculture rehabilitation strategy for Afghanistan (TCP /AFG/2251 F) was the Agricultureand Irrigation Component of the Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation (UNDP,1993). To date, irrigation rehabilitation activities have been limited to so- called"Quick Impact Projects" focusing on the most vulnerable components of an irrigation systemwhose "repair" promised to sustain food production of the people stillin place and to encourage the resettlement of internally displaced people and refugees, respectively.

During the last 3 years, FAO has retained a small irrigation unit underits ongoing "Crop and Food Production Programme" (AFG /94/002) which has produced goodresults but suffered severe shortages of funds leading to itstermination in June 1996 (ANDERSON, 1996). A major draw -back of FAO's irrigation rehabilitation activities wascaused by the polarisation ofrehabilitationmethodologies with UNOPS on the one sideintegratingirrigation rehabilitation into the Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programmespread all over the country and being well supported by UNDP, and FAO on theother side operating rehabilitation projects situated exclusively in the provinces of Nangarhar,Kunar, Laghman and Paktia fromitsPeshawar Office and being deprived of UN funds due toits incompatibility to comply with the UN Operational Strategy (see Section 4).Meanwhile, it is understood by all parties that FAO is expected to take over theoverall irrigation planning role and enable UNOPS to continue its construction activities in theirrigation sector within the Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programme (ARRP).

WithinFAO'sTechnicalCo- operationProgramme(TCP /AFG/4552: Promotionof Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes), theWater Resources and Irrigation Component was given the following three main objectives:

to review the status of Afghanistan's water resources, to develop strategies for their sustainable development, managementand agricultural use, and to propose programmes for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes.

In reviewing the water resources sector and the irrigation sub -sector,special attention had to be given, inter alia, to the collection of information essential to theMission's task, to the present planning and delivery mechanisms ofirrigationand drainagerehabilitation programmes, and to the medium -term aspects of sustainablewater resources management and irrigation development.

The overall objective of FAO's policy of assistance is reflected in the support ofthe rural population in order to enhance the Country's food security.Hence, the primary focus is directed towards traditional, farmer -managed irrigation systems; but theconsultant is expectedtoadvise whether prevailingconditionsallow,or evennecessitate,the consideration of modern irrigation system rehabilitation within medium -termdevelopment strategies and programmes.

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1.2 METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE OF REPORT

Although knowing the country before 1978, the present conditions in Afghanistan required the consultant to allocate a disproportionate amount of time to field visits.During the 2 months assignment in March and April 1996, over 3 weeks were spent in Afghanistan visiting 12 out of 28 provinces, 4 weeks in Peshawar and Islamabad participatingin meetings with UN agencies, NGOs and the EU as well as collecting data and documents, and 1 week for overseas travel, briefing and debriefing in Rome. On the basis of this extensive, albeit limited, field experience, main findings, conclusions and recommendations are presented in this Report which also includes 5 annexes (for regions and provinces see Location Map of Afghanistan at the front of the Report).In the wake of renewed power struggles between the Rabbani Government and Taliban Forces, and considering the overall Project strategy evolving from the individual contributions of the Mission's team leader and team members throughout this year, the Draft Report delivered in May 1996 was revised and updated in November 1996.

After a brief introduction, the main findings are presented in 3 chapters: climate and water resources are analysed at national level in Section 2, the irrigation sub -sector is reviewed in Section 3, irrigation rehabilitation is evaluated and options for future irrigation rehabilitation are proposed in Section 4.Having summarised the conclusions in Section 5.1, the recommendations in Section 5.2 focus on three subjects, (i) sustainable water resources management, (ii) the phasing of irrigation system rehabilitation, and (iii) an outline for an integrated "National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme ".Background information is given for Afghanistan before the war with emphasis on irrigation development projects included in the 7 Year Plan from 1975 in Annex 1. Annex 2 provides climatic data from meteorological stations having been operated in some 20 provinces before the war and Annex 3 the Water Law issued in 1981 as well as regulations for the use of water in agriculture.Annex 4 shows the distribution of irrigated and non -irrigated land at provincial level on maps reproduced from the Landcover Survey in 1992. Finally, several maps attached in Annex 5.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report 5

2. CLIMATE AND WATER RESOURCES

2.1 CLIMATE

Due to Afghanistan's rugged mountainous relief characterised by snow covered peaks (kuh) of high altitude (up to 7,500 masl), deeply incised fertile valleys (darya) and large desert plains (dasht), the climate is very heterogeneous, and hence not easily described at a country-wide scale.The typical continental climate varies from aridin the South and Southwest to semi -arid in most other parts of the country.The high mountain ranges of Hindu Kush and Pamir are moderate humid and covered by permanent snow and glaciers at altitudes above 5,000 m.With a few exceptions of some locations receiving sufficient rainfall in spring (Northern slopes of Hindu Kush above 1,000m altitude), the climate is not favourable for rainfed agriculture: during winter, temperatures are low and precipitation occurs in form of snow whereas during summer, temperatures are high and rainfallis virtually nil.This unfavourable climate for rainfed agriculture is, however, rather favourable for irrigated agriculture.Snow stored in the Hindu Kush during winter is melting in late spring providing irrigation water at a time when crop water requirements are at their peak in early summer.

2.1.1 Climatic Zones and Their Characteristics

Climatic zoningis based on the modified geographic zones system (Duprée, 1973) proposedinthe Land Management Consultancy Report of thisMission. As water availability for irrigationpurposes is mainly a function of effective rainfall and surface as well as ground water resources - which depend in turn on the amount and distribution (time and space) of precipitation - the 11 geographic zones are reduced to 7 climatic zones using precipitation as the most decisive parameter as follows (see Annex 5):

Table 1. Climatic Zones Zone Name Precipitation (mm) dry (months) frost (months)

1 Badakhshan (without Wakhan) 300 -800 2 -6 1 -9 2 Central and Northern mountains 200 - 600 2 -9 0-8 3 Eastern and Southern mountains 100 - 700 2 -9 0 -10 4 Wakhan corridor and Pamir <100 - 500 2 -5 5 -12 5 Turkestan plains <100 - 400 5 -8 0-2 6 Western + South -western Lowlands <100 - 300 6 -12 0-3

In general, there is a strong correlation between precipitation, length of growing season and altitude: the greater the altitude, the greater the amount of precipitation and the shorter the growing season due to frost hazard.Zones 1 -4 are mountainous, and where rainfall is sufficient, the limiting factor isfrost. Zones 5 and 6 are flat, the growing season is sufficiently long - even for double cropping under irrigated conditions -but the limiting factors are effective rainfall (rainfed agriculture) and irrigation water availability (irrigated agriculture).

2.1.2Precipitation, Temperatures, and Evapotranspiration

On average 12 year records of precipitation, temperatures and evapotranspiration are available from 19 meteorological stations located in 18 provinces.In Table 2, the altitude of each station is given, the mean annual precipitation, the range between the mean monthly minimum (December /January) and maximum (July /August) temperature, the mean annual reference evapotranspiration (ETP = potential evapotranspiration of grass), and the mean daily evapotranspiration during the months of July and August when evapotranspiration

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report -6 reaches a maximum. In Annex 2,precipitation, temperatures and evapotranspiration records are presented at provincial level as far as data wereaccessible.

Precipitation.Generally, precipitation is directly correlated with altitudevarying from less than 100 mm per year at altitudes below 1,000 mand 800 mm per year above 5,000 m. However, there are several distinctive regions which do notcomply with this rule due to their surrounding mountains: the Wakhan corridor situatedin Badakhshan province, several valleys in the provinces of Ghor and Bamyan and theKabul plains of Nangarhar province receive disproportionately littlerainfall whereas Badakhshan (without Wakhan corridor), Takhar, Kunduz and Faryab province benefit from adisproportionately high amount of rainfall.Almost half of the country is covered by the HinduKush mountains at altitudes higher than 2,000 m asl.With the exception of parts of Ghor, Bamyan,Nangarhar and Badakhshan provinces, these high altitude areas receive a meanannual precipitation of 500 mm varying from 300 mm to 800 mm depending onaltitude, exposure and monsoon influence. Generally, over 90 per cent of all precipitation occursin the Hindu Kush between November and May, and in the Western and South -westernplains between December and April. Only the provinces of Paktia and Paktika situatedin the southeast of the country are under monsoon influence and hence benefit from rainfallduring summer, too.

Table 2. Precipitation, Temperatures and Evapotranspiration Location Altitude Precipitation Temperature Annual ETP Daily ETP [m asl] [mm /a] [ °C] [mm /a] [mm /d]

Shiberghan 360 214 -2 - +38 1,420 8 Mazar -i Sharif 378 190 -2 - +39 1,530 9 Kunduz 433 349 -2 - +39 1,390 8 Baghlan 510 271 -2 - +37 1,100 6 Jalalabad 580 171 +3 - +41 1,350 7 Farah 660 77 -0 - +42 1,610 8 Lashkargah 780 89 -0 - +42 1,720 8 Maimana 815 372 -2 - +35 1,310 7 Herat 964 241 -3 - +36 1,720 10 Qandahar 1,010 158 -0 - +40 1,790 8 Khost 1,146 448 -1 - +35 1,390 6 Faizabad 1,200 521 -5 - +35 1,020 6 Qadis 1,280 323 -3 - +30 1,240 6 Jabul-Saraj 1,630 499 -0 - +31 1,610 9 Kabul 1,791 303 -7 - +32 1,280 7 Karizimir 1,905 433 -7 - +31 1,100 6 Ghalmin 2,070 222 -8 - +29 1,100 6 Ghazni 2,183 292 -11 - +31 1,420 7 Lal - Sarjangal 2,800 282 -21 - +25 950 5

Temperatures.The daily (20 ° -30 °C) as well as the seasonal (35 ° -40°C) variations of temperatures prevailing all over the country lead to distinctivedifferent lengths of growing seasons, and require a careful selection ofthe most suitable crop for an area.This is reflected in many regions very well known for their particularagricultural product (e.g. grapes, melons, rainfed wheat) or theirnatural forest cover (pistachio trees, pines).In the South -western desert plains, frost can occur in any monthof the year even when temperatures reach a daily maximum of up to 40° C.Daily minimum temperatures in the Northern (Turkestan) plains can be as low as -20° C in winterand as high as +50° C in summer at one and the same location.

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Evapotranspiration. Annual evapotranspiration rates are relatively low in the Hindu Kush (1,000 -1,300 mm) because of severe and long winters. They vary between 1,300 mm and 1,500 mm in the Northern plains and reach values of up to 1,800 mm in the Southern and South -western plains. However, seasonal (summer) evapotranspiration rates are high everywhere showing a daily peak of 6 -8 mm in July /August. Due to strong winds occurring particularlyin Mazar -iSharifandHerat(bad -esad -obistruz), maximumdaily evapotranspiration rates are 9 mm and 10 mm, respectively.

2.2 WATER RESOURCES

Excluding fossil ground water, over 80 per cent of the country's water resources have their origin in the Hindu Kush mountain ranges at altitudes above 2,000 m which function as a natural storage of water in form of snow during winter and thus support perennial flow in all major rivers by snow melt during summer. The amount of water received in these areas through precipitation is estimated to be in the order of 150,000 million m3. The other half of the country receives only about 30,000 million m3 annually through rainfall resulting in a total amount of 180,000 million m3 for the whole country.There were over 140 stations located all over the country where rainfall and /or river flow was measured regularly.At present, most of these stations are destroyed and their measurement equipment looted. Thus, none of them is operational.

2.2.1 Hydrological Classification

Afghanistan is part of 3 large river basins: The Amu Darya basin in the North separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range from the Desert basin in the South, and the Indus basin in the East.Because of practical reasons related to the quantification of available surface water volumes, the hydrological classification chosen is based on principal watershed units. These are sub -divided into main catchment areas whose river either joins a river of the principal watershed within the country or outside of the country, or disappears in a plain within the country because of topographical reasons. Eight basins can be distinguished:

Amu Darya Basin 1. North eastern river basins. Pamir /Panj riverhaving common boundary with Tajikistan; 2. Northern river basins. Murghab,Kashan,Kushk and Gulranflowoutto Turkmenistan, Samangan, Balkhab, Saripul and Shirin Tagab do not join Amu Darya; and 3. Hari river (Harirud) basin. partial common boundary with Iran

Desert Basin 4. South -western river basinsall rivers drain into depressions situated along the Iranian border; 5. Helmand river basin entering Helmand lake (Hamun -eHelmand)partially situated in Iran; 26 m3 /s to be allocated to the Iranians throughout theyear accordingtotheinternational agreement between Afghanistan and Iransignedin 1972; and 6. Southern river basins only ephemeral rivers, outflow to Baluchistan /Pakistan

Indus Basin 7. South -eastern river basinsoutflow to NWFP /Pakistan; 8. Kabul river basin watershed of the tributary Kunar is partially situated in NWFP /Pakistan outflow of Kabul river to NWFP /Pakistan

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Although the country features eight river systems (see River Basin Map in Annex5), only one river system (4) can be exclusively used by Afghanistanitself, another one (2) to a great extent.Two river systems (1 and 3) have a common border with another country (Tajikistan and Iran, respectively), and four rivers flow out of Afghanistan to Iran (5) and Pakistan (6, 7 and 8).It should be well understood that any reduction of the discharge of Amu River by potential water users must be seen in the context of ongoing rehabilitation measures for saving Lake Aral.

Map 2. Main River Basins of Afghanistan

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2.2.2Surface Water Resources

There are plenty of individual discharge data of manyof Afghanistan's rivers, particularly from the Kabul and the Helmand river as well as fromtheir tributaries. However, their is no reliable documentation available about the systematicquantification of surface water resources at watershed level. Additionally, nospecific rainfall /run -off relationship for any of the country's rivers is known to the Author.

Table 3. Estimated Surface Water Potential No. Name of River Basin Drainage Area (km2) Mean Ann. Vol. (min m3) AMU DARYA BASIN North- eastern river basins Panj 27,800 (+ 29,000 in Tajikistan) 36,420 Kokcha 21,100 5,700 Kunduz 37,100 6,000 Total North- eastern river basins 86,000 (+ 29,000 in Tajikistan) 48,120 2 Northern river basins Murghab 26,200 1,350 Kashan, Kushk, Gulran 12,200 110 Samangan (Khulm) 8,300 60 Balkhab 19,300 1,650 Saripul 10,800 40 Shirin Tagab 12,100 100 Amu Darya deserts 27,100 30 Total Northern river basins 116,000 3,340 1,600 3 Hari river (Harirud) basin 39,000

DESERT BASIN 4 South -western river basins Farah 27,800 1,250 Harut (Adraskan) 23,800 210 Gulistan (Bakwa desert) 9,100 40 Khash 10,500 170 Kajrud 20,800 60 Total South -western river basins 92,000 1,730 5 Helmand river basin Ghazni 19,200 350 Helmand at Kajakai dam 42,200 6,000 Musa Qala 3,700 220 Arghandab 53,000 820 Lower Helmand 47,900 110 Total Helmand river basin 166,000 7,500 6 Southern river basins 70,000 70

INDUS BASIN 7 South -eastern river basins Gomal 10,700 350 Margo, Shama!, Kurm 8,300 400 Total South -eastern river basins 19,000 750 8 Kabul river basin 54,000 (+ 14,000 in Pakistan) 20,920 Panjir 11,000 3,130 Kunar 13,000 (+ 14,000 in Pakistan) 15,250 Kabul (without Panjir & Kunar) 30,000 2,540 Total Kabul river basin 54,000 (+ 14,000 in Pakistan) 20,920 Total 642,000 84,000

In Table 3, an attempt is made to quantify the annual surface water resourcesat watershed level by using different sources (FAO, 1965; HAVA, 1972;MOWP, 1985;etc.) and

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 10 - estimates derived from similar watersheds in Iran. The limited reliability of data collected did not allow to present the surface water resources potential at regional level.Most of the rivers listed in the table are perennial although many of them fall dry at their lower reaches during late summer due to the diversion of water for irrigation purposes.Discharges are rising continuously from March onward caused by snow melt culminating in June /July before receding to a minimum in Dec. /Jan.Most disastrous floods occur after heavy rainfall in March /April, especially when snow melt is already well advanced.

The total annual surface water volume of 84,000 million m3 is supposed to be shared with the neighbouring countries Tajikistan (Panj river), Pakistan (Kabul river), Iran (Helmand river and Harirud), and Turkmenistan ( Murghab). Assuming a 50 per cent share of the annual volume available from Panj river (18,200 million m3), 30 per cent from Kabul river (6,970 million m3), Murghab (450 million m3) and Harirud (530 million m3), resp., 10 per cent from Helmand river (750 million m3) and 300 million m3 from the rivers of the southern and south eastern basin, Afghanistan would be left with 56,800 million m3 of surface water for its own use.This is a rather large amount of surface water (2,840 m3 per head and year) which compares favourably with Iran (1,430 m3 per head and year).

Surface water quality is excellent in the upper basins of all rivers throughout the year and good in the lower basins in spite of large irrigated areas. As far as it is known, the presence of saline soils in irrigated areas is never caused by minor water quality but rather by over - irrigation (water logging) or lack of irrigation water (fallow fields and high ground water table).Water quality data are available for some of the major rivers like Helmand, Kabul and Harirud. However, no systematic assessment - e.g. seasonal variation of water quality - has been made so far.

No reliable bed and wash load data are available.It is well known, however, that sediment discharge is high, particularly in areas below 2,500 m altitude during spring when the snow has already melted and heavy rainfall is common. But even throughout the whole irrigation season, the sedimentation of irrigation canals is considerable and requiresexcavation of accumulated wash load at least once a year.

2.2.3Ground Water Resources

Many region specific ground water studies have been made in the past (UNDP, 1972; WHO /UNICEF, 1979; FAO, 1988; etc.), but there is no ground water assessment at national scale known to the Author. The most comprehensive hydrogeological investigations were madeby MALYAROV /CHMYRIOVin 1976 who sub -divideAfghanistan inthree hydrogeological zones,(i)the Northern Afghanistan artesianregion,(ii)the Central Afghanistan " hydrogeological folded" region, and (iii) the Southern Afghanistan artesian region.Ground water is usually abundant in quaternary aquifers along all major river valleys where infiltration of surface water is high.If an amount of only 10 per cent of the total annual precipitation volume (see Chap.2.2 above) is adopted - which is a rather conservative estimate - the annual ground water recharge volume would be in the order of 18,000 million m3. Ground water quality is generally good but varies from place to place.In the lower reaches of river valleys intensively irrigated by the diversion of surface water, ground water is frequently found to be saline or brackish and not usable for neither drinking norirrigationpurposes(foradetaileddescriptionofAfghanistan'saquifers,see MALYAROV/ CHMYRIOV, 1976).

2.2.4 Water Use

Without any industrial production taking place at present, water is used for potable water supply of towns and villages and for irrigation purposes. As not a single town or village has

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report a functioning water supply network todate, the annual volume of water used for drinking purposes (humans and animals) is not morethan 200 million m3. Adopting a rate of 10,000 m3 /ha for an irrigated area estimated to be about 2 millionha (at present), the annual volume of water used for irrigation purposes is estimated to be inthe order of 20,000 million m3, hence 99 per cent of all water used. Taking intoconsideration the annual volume of water used from alluvial ground water aquifers with thehelp of underground canals (karez), springs and Persian wheels (arhad) for the irrigation of some 300,000ha (at present), total ground water extraction amounts to some 3,000 million m3.

Thus, approximately 15 per cent of the total water volume usedannually originates from alluvial ground water aquifers (9 per cent) and springs (7 per cent), andalmost 85 per cent from rivers and streams. Ground water used from deep wells countsfor less than 0.5 per cent.

2.2.5Water Balance

Without any proper calculation based on historical data, there is no sensein attempting the presentation of a quantitative analysis at national level. However, aqualitative assessment certainly allows the statement that Afghanistan's water resources are stilllargely underused which is supported by the following figures in Table 4:

Table 4. Estimated Surface and Ground Water Balance (million m3 per year) Water Resource Potential Present Use Balance Future* Use Balance Surface water 57,000 17,000 40,000 30,000 27,000 Ground water 18,000 3,000 15,000 5,000 13,000 Total water 75,000 20,000 55,000 35,000 40,000 * all existing irrigation schemes rehabilitated and managed efficiently

The water resources potential for future irrigation developmentis given by the annually renewable and still unused ground water volume of 13,000 millionm3. The use of the surface water potential of 27,000 million m3 will require storagecapacities in the order of 15,000 million m3.It should be noted, however, that the use of the availablewater resources potential beyond the annual amountrequired in the future for all rehabilitated irrigation schemes can have a negative impact on the ground watertable affecting traditionalirrigation practices: ground water exploitation can reduce the dischargeof underground canals (karez) or make them even obsolete, and the constructionof reservoirs in the upper part of a basin can reduce ground water recharge in thelower part.

Note: The surface and ground water balance presented above has beenestimated on the basis of various "official" and unofficial publications from the past(1960- 1988), and conservative estimates wherever the figures found were obviously erroneous.The main conclusion drawn from the balance is the indisputable fact that there is noshortage of water in Afghanistan in the near future if the former hydraulic infrastructure (forirrigation and potable water supply as well as hydropower generation) is rehabilitated and evendeveloped further, and the water resources managed efficiently.

2.2.6Water Resources Management

In the absence of any national or provincial institution capable or authorised tomonitor ground water extraction or surface water use, thereisvirtually no water resources management taking place at present. Water allocation for the supplyof irrigation schemes is handled in a mix of traditional water rights (MirabNakil system) andarbitrary orders by

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 12 - local commanders and /or authorities. The latter claim the exclusiveright over the generation of hydropower being presently only a fraction of the one GWh produced in 1989 due to lack of maintenance of the hydropower stations themselves, their supporting hydraulic infrastructure, and the destruction of transmission lines.

Before 1992, the use of water for any purpose was based on the Water Law established in 1981 which incorporated to a certain extent, the traditional water rights (see Annex 3) but was never implemented due to lack of authority of the Government in rural areas.With regard to the importance of the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, it is worthwhile to quote §38 of the Water Law which states: Itis prohibited to allow water to flow into irrigation systems not yet repaired or ready for this purpose!" Water resources planning and management including the allocation of water rights fell under the responsibility of the Ministry of Water and Power.Without counting several diversion dams located on major rivers, there are the following five dams under operation:

1. Qargha dam on Paghman river with a reservoir capacity of 14 million m3; 2. Darunta dam on Kabul river with a reservoir capacity of 40 million m3; 3. Sardeh dam on Jilga river with a reservoir capacity of 259 million m3; 4. Arghandab dam on Arghandab river with a reservoir capacity of 479 million m3; and 5. Kajakai dam on Helmand river with a reservoir capacity of 1,7000 million m3.

None of these dams is operated adequately. Reservoir management is more or less done by technicians of the former government institutions without having at their disposal any operation rule curves. No immediate danger caused by their poor maintenance and operation is expected from these dams. However, in the long -term (> 5 years), the existing dams do require attention, as the flow regulation structures (e.g. intake towers and ground releases) will cease to fulfil their function contributing further to either water shortages in the irrigation schemes or waste of water due to uncontrolled outflow.

A number of diversion and storage dams planned or under construction in 1978 (e.g. Salma Dam on Harirud) were left unattended during the last 18 years.Construction sites have been ransacked and the construction equipment looted. Hence, little if anything at all isleft from these activities.Any attempt to revive those former plans require careful verification of the impact on the traditional irrigation schemes situated downstream of the respective sites.

The mandate of water resources management is with the Water Management Department of the Ministry of Water and Power (MOWP).There is also said to be an Institute of Surveying and Projection of Water Resources arguably active in all provinces. However, no trace of the Institute's activities could be found in April 1996. Other government institutions once active in the water resources sector, and particularly in irrigation development, arethe Department of Irrigation in the Ministry of Water and Power, the Helmand Construction Company (HCC), the Spinghar Construction Unit, and the Water & Power Engineering Company of Afghanistan (WAPECA).

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3. IRRIGATION IN AFGHANISTAN

3.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION

The origin of irrigated agriculture dates back to more than 4,500 years ago (ancient settlement near Qandahar).The establishment of permanent settlements and irrigation development went hand in hand, as, with the exception of a few areas suitable for rain -fed crops, agricultural production without irrigation is not possible under the climatic conditions prevailing in Afghanistan. The allocation of water and land is closely related to customs and traditions of the sedentary population, and maintenance works of irrigation schemes have always been a well defined activity in the farmers' seasonal calendar.

3.1.1 Irrigated Agriculture

Irrigation systems can be divided into 2 main categories: traditional and modern systems, each one sub -divided into 5 and 3 sub -categories, respectively:

Traditional Irrigation Systems

Arhad system. Ground water is lifted from shallow wells with the help of a Persian wheel (arhad) supplying irrigation water to the fields of an individual farmer. The size of the irrigated land does usually not exceed 3 ha.

Karez (qanat) systems. Water is brought by free flow via underground tunnels from alluvial aquifers for surface irrigation.Dug by local craftsmen from shafts at close intervals, kareze are usually small in dimensions but may be many kilometres in length. On average, their discharge varies between 10 1/s to 200 l/s but can in some cases reach up to 500 I /s.Karez water is used for irrigation purposes (irrigated area ranges from 10 ha to 200 ha) as well as for drinking water supply.

Small -scale traditional (informal) surface water systems being supplied by stream flow diverted with the help of temporary brush weirs. Often situated in remote valleys along a stream or river, they vary in size (up to 100 ha) and can be characterised by the fact that only one village community isresponsible for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation scheme.

Medium -scale traditional (informal) surface water systems being supplied by river flow diverted with the help of temporary brush weirs. Defined as a separate category, these systems are characterised by size (100 ha to 2,000 ha) and by the fact that only a single village community is using irrigation water through a single intake. Otherwise, the schemes are operated and maintained in a similar way as small -scale and large - scale irrigation systems.

Large -scale traditional (informal) surface water systems being supplied by river flow diverted with the help of temporary brush weirs. Extending over an area of up to 200,000 ha (hish -dah -e nahr scheme at Balkh), they are mainly located in flat plains and along the main valleys.Although they are called informal, their operation and maintenance was highly structured involving several communities of sometimes different ethnic origin. Using the same source of water through many individual intakes along a river, even the secondary canals branching off from the main canal supplied water to the field of different village communities. Each village has at least one water master (mirab) who delegate his authority to sub water masters responsible for the allocation of water to different plots of the scheme. Lawyers (vakil) support the

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mirabs in disputes over water rights and providethe linkage to government authorities for the registration of land and water rights.Repair and maintenance works are executed by mobilising large gangs of labour for along period, and farmers in the command area have to contribute in labour, cash orkind.Historically, large parts of these schemes have been abandoned because ofthe impact of wars, water logging and salinisation,particularly in the Harirud, Farah Rud, Balkhab,Murghab and Helmand valleys.

Modern Irrigation Systems

Modern (formal) surface water systems without storagehave a permanent intake structure whichis operated and maintained by the IrrigationDepartment of the Ministry of Water and Power. The management of theirrigation scheme itself follows the rules of the large -scale traditional surface waterschemes described above. However, the significant difference is that the regulationof water flow to the system depends on a functioning interaction between governmentauthorities and the village communities.

Modern (formal) surface water systems with storage. Organised large -scale irrigation system development is a relatively recent innovation(1960-1978),the most important systems being the Helmand (Kajakai dam)and Arghandab (Arghandab dam) irrigation schemes.Land tenure was different from traditional systems inthat some parts of the schemes were operatedunder private land ownership agreements, while others were operated as State farms "owned"by the government. The management of these schemes was under completegovernment control and heavily subsidised leaving the farmers little choice of crop selection orfarming practice.

Modern (formal) ground water systems. Very little isknown about the few irrigation schemes supplied by ground water from deep andshallow wells.In Khost/Paktia province, surface water irrigation schemes were suppliedby some 100 deep wells until the late1980s.In the1970sabout 100,000 ha are said (MOWP) to have been under sprinkler irrigation(private and government owned) and plans existed to introduce drip irrigation.In a few cases, particularly in the lower reachesof large traditional schemes where water shortage is common,surface water irrigation from shallow wells was undertaken by individual farmers.

Cropping intensity varies widely from system to system accordingto the scarcity of water versus land.It reaches 200 per cent in the upper part of the irrigationschemes while in the lower parts up to two thirds of the command area is keptfallow each year on a rotational basis.Flood damages to irrigated land are common, particularlyin the large schemes supplied by rivers changing their course frequently due to theirhigh sediment load and unfavourable geomorphological conditions.

Although no recent survey supports the figures establishedin1977/78(Ministryof Agriculture and Land Reform), the irrigation potential is supposed tobe in the order of 5.3 million ha which corresponds well with the water resources potentialestimated in Section 2.2.5.Total actually irrigated area in 1972 (Landsat survey) wassupposed to be in the order of 3.4 million ha leaving about 35 per cent of the irrigable areafallow due to water shortages mainly caused by low overall efficiencies (see alsoSection 3.1.3).

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3.1.2Irrigation Methods and Efficiencies

In traditional as well as in modern irrigation schemes the dominant irrigation method is basin /border irrigation for cereals and furrow irrigation for vegetables and grapes.Main constraints are(i) shortage of water after the peak (June /July) of snow melt, and (ii) shortage of labour for the cleaning of canals.In areas experiencing high ground water tables, salinisation of soils is common due to over -irrigation and subsequent water logging. Temporary salinisation of soils of fields left fallow for one or two years does principally not mean that these fields require drainage (as is often quoted in manypublications).Within the confinement of alluvial deposits of a valley commonly used for irrigation, soil texture is usually fine to medium in the upper layers and often course in the lower layers.Once thoroughly leached before the growing season, the temporary salt accumulation is washed out.However, a drainage system is indispensable in all those cases where irrigated fields are situated on older terraces "outside" the geomorphologicallydefined river valley and impervious soil layers or conglomerates obstruct deep percolation, as itis the case in the Helmand irrigation system.

Overall efficiency is only about 25 to 30 per cent for both modern and traditional irrigation schemes due to the following reasons:

high conveyance losses in traditional schemes with earth canals, - high operation losses in modern schemes with lined conveyance canals, and high on -farm distribution losses (over- irrigation, poorly levelled land) in both traditional and modern schemes.

Additionally, there is usually a waste of irrigation water in traditional schemes during the first half of the growing season due to unregulated flood water entering the conveyance canal, and a shortage of water during the second half when river flow decreases to its annual minimum. Although the traditional irrigation method does not allow the most efficient use of the available water resources,it should be well understood that a properly maintained traditional irrigation scheme can attain an overall irrigation efficiency of some 35 to 40 per cent. This is a rather acceptable value when compared with computerised surface irrigation schemes in the USA reaching a maximum overall efficiency of 46 per cent.

3.1.3Irrigation in 1978

In 1978, irrigated land produced nearly 80 per cent of all wheat and 85 per cent of all crops. The total irrigated area in 1978 was in the order of some 2.63 million ha (corresponding to the 1992 Landcover Survey but reduced from 3.4 million ha as surveyed in 1972) irrigated by the following sources (MOWP, 1985):

0.98 million ha by ephemeral streams (traditional), kareze, and arhads; 1.32 million ha by perennial rivers (traditional); and 0.33 million ha by perennial rivers (modern).

An explanation for the "missing" 0.80 million ha might be the fact that there are many small traditional schemes irrigated by perennial rivers and streams located all over the country, and not always, even in 1978, accessible, and hence not surveyed.In Table 5, the irrigated area in 1978 is given for each province.There is no reliable list of irrigation schemes operatedin1978 available asallpublications usually mix up the existing and the designed /planned irrigation schemes.Using different sources of documents published at different times, the irrigation schemes existing in 1978 are roughly categorised as follows:

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 16 -

Major traditional irrigation schemes are:

Northern region Murghab, Maimana, Shiberghan, Balkh, Tashkurghan, Samangan, and Kunduz Western region Herat and Farah Southern region Helmand, Arghandab, Tarnak and Argastan Eastern region Ghazni, Khost, Jalalabad, Kunar and Mehtarlam Central region Panjir, Bamyan and Yakolang.

Concerning modern irrigation schemes, an attempt is made to list(probably not completely) all major hydraulic structures serving irrigation systems operated inthe country in 1978 :

Dam River Irrig area (ha) Balkh diversion dam (nahr - -i Shahi, 23 m3 /s) Balkh 20,000 Shahrawan diversion dam (85 m3 /s) Amu Darya 90,000 Kunduz diversion dam (96 m3 /s) Khanabad 100,000 Kalagai diversion dam (30 m3 /s) Kunduz 30,000 Parwan diversion dam (29 m3 /s) Panjir 24,800 Paghman diversion weir Paghman 2,400 Darunta dam and reservoir (50 m3 /s) Kabul 50,000 Sardeh dam and reservoir dam Jilga 15,000 Arghandab dam and reservoir with Arghandab diversion dam (Nahr -e Al Beruni: 52 m3 /s North Tarnak Canal: 17.5 m3 /s, and South Tarnak Canal: 9.5 m3 /s) Arghandab 61,000 Kajakai dam and reservoir with Bokhra (73 m3 /s), Shamalan (21 m3 /s) Darweshan (28 m3 /s) diversion dam Helmand river 144,000 Nahr -e Lashkari in Nimroz Province (20.6 m3 /s) 18,000

Table 5. Irrigated Area per Province in 1978 Province Area [ha] Province Area [ha] Kabul 73,261Paktika 39,648 Ghazni 101,241Wardak 29,127 Badghis 66,596Qandahar 121,662 Ghor 57,726Nangarhar 85,707 Logar 40,631Takhar 150,788 Bamyan 28,103Parwan -Kapisa 100,094 Laghman 34,742Badakhsh. 96,907 Paktia 49,919Baghlan 145,344 Balkh 162,921Konar 17,044 Jawzjan 100,089Samangan 80,899 Kunduz 195,324Farah 49,051 Zabul 64,260Helmand 111,906 Faryab 82,439Nimroz 76,475 Oruzgan 98,667Herat 259,552

3.2 PRESENT CONDITIONS OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

3.2.1 Impact of War (1979 -1995)

About one third of all villages were destroyed by the Russians during the first 10 years of war (1979 -1989). However, the direct negative impact of war on irrigationinfrastructure was less a consequence of destruction but much more a consequence of the exodus of farmers

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 17 - leaving behind the schemes without attendance. Since 1992, many refugees have returned to their villages and tried to use their former schemes again.

Traditional irrigation systems having had a temporary intake were relatively easy to put under operation again, the only limiting factor being the availability of labour. The larger the scheme,however,thegreater weretheproblemsencountered:partlycomplete sedimentation of the conveyance canals, division of the command area among different local commanders, and hence the impossibility to install the former mirab /vakil system again. These circumstances made and still make it difficult to rehabilitate large traditional irrigation schemes in spite of the fact that there are no uncommon technical problems to the farmers.

Although it could be thought that modern irrigation systems having a permanent intake structure would have been less prone to destruction than traditional ones, the indirect impact of war on these systems is much more serious: additionally to the problems occurred in traditional schemes, the "inflexible" (stationary) intake structures of modern irrigation schemes are now in most cases out of function due not only to the missing mechanical parts looted during the war, but much more due to lack of unprofessional or non -operation of the gates (e.g. flushing gate closed, intake gate open).In several cases, this led to the accumulation of large quantities of sediment in front of the intake causing the river to change its thalweg or widen its bed (e.g. Helmand river at Bokhra intake).Once this has happened, the rehabilitation of the intake is too costly in the medium -term (major river training works are required) if not impossible even in the long -term (the former intake site is not any more technically and /or economically feasible).

3.2.2Quantification of Destruction

An estimated 10 per cent of all irrigation systems were directly affected by war (not taking into account the indirect effects of neglect and abandonment).This corresponds to an irrigated area of 340,000 ha. Another 40 per cent of all irrigation systems (particularly large - scale schemes) were damaged due to lack of maintenance, especially due to uncontrolled flow (floods) into the systems and siltation of canals. This corresponds to an irrigated area of 1.36 million ha and totals 1.70 million ha or one half of all irrigation schemes in need of rehabilitation. An estimated 20 per cent of all irrigation systems require improvement of onfarm water management to avoid under -irrigation (low crop yields) or over -irrigation (water logging > salinisation). This corresponds to an irrigated area of 680,000 ha.

It must be emphasised that the assessment made above is purely qualitative without the possibility at present to make a proper inventory of all irrigation schemes. The only detailed inventories were made by FAO (ANDERSON, 1992, 1994 and 1996) for a few irrigation schemes situated in the Eastern provinces of Paktia, Laghman, Kunar and Nangarhar and the Helmand -Arghandab irrigation schemes situated in the Southern provinces of Helmand and Qandahar.

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4. IRRIGATION REHABILITATION

4.1 RELIEF AND REHABILITATION MEASURES IN THEIRRIGATION SECTOR

A large number (at present over 300) of local andinternational NGOs as well as most of the UN agencies are in one way or another involved inthe rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, generally on an individual basis, the number andsize of projects depending almost exclusively on the availability of funds provided by UN orEU. There is an unbalanced geographical distribution of assistance in the country leavingfood deficit areas like the provinces of Badakhshan, Bamyan and Ghor neglected.

The funds having been provided by all agencies and NGOsfor the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes is US$ 17 million for the period 1989 -94, and US$2.5 million in 1995 resulting in a total amount of almost US$ 20 million for a period of 6 years or on averageUS$ 3.5 million annually.The average cost of irrigation scheme rehabilitation wasestimated in 1993 at US$ 200 per hectare for small schemes and US$ 150 per hectarefor larger ones.

It should be noted that rehabilitation works implemented inthe past comprised usually only the rehabilitationof the most elementary components of an irrigation scheme(e.g. excavation of sediments in conveyance canals, wash crossingstructures, retaining walls against erosion, etc.) in order to make them somehow functionat all.Taking this into consideration and compensating for inflation, the present cost perhectare of a complete rehabilitation including on -farm water management improvement,flood protection and access roads is estimated to be in the orderof US$ 300 for traditional irrigation schemes and US$ 500 for modern ones. Experience shows that only25 per cent of this amount can be covered by food for work, the remaining 75 per cent mustbe raised in cash for the purchase of material as well as for professional staff and operationcosts.

Itis very difficultif not impossible to quantify the amount of irrigated arearehabilitated country wide between 1989 and 1996. Some irrigation structureshave been "rehabilitated" twice or even three times, either theoretically according to fundsspent or practically due to destruction by floods. Many irrigation schemes which have beenabundant during the war are indeed operational again but with afew exceptions, most of them are prone to flood damages and, as field observations have proved, will not survivein the medium -term without further rehabilitation works.

Irrigation rehabilitation implemented in the past six years has certainlycontributed to the mitigation of the impact of war and reduced the suffering of theruralpopulation. Nevertheless, it must be spelled out clearly that the sheer quantity of assistancegiven to the farmers by the international community has definitely underminedthe self -reliance as well as the self -resilience of the Afghans once so proud and self-assured.At several occasions during his field visits, the Author was approached by farmersand asked for assistance in circumstances which never would have occurred to anAfghan to be talked about to a foreigner some 20 years ago (e.g. the construction of a flood protectionwall in dry masonry, 2 m high and 40 m long).

4.1.1 Measures Undertaken by UN Agencies (except for FAO)

The most active, and besides FAO the most competent, UN agency engagedin irrigation rehabilitation is UNOPS. UNOPS has set up regional operation centres - in Mazar -iSharif, Herat, Qandahar and Jalalabad-coordinating, designing and implementingirrigation rehabilitation worksincollaboration with NGOs and WFP after having established Rehabilitation Shuras inselected districts under itsAfghanistan RuralRehabilitation Programme (ARRP).

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Wafer Resources and Irrigation Report - 19-

The immediate objectives of ARRP are(i)to increase community participationin the rehabilitation process, (ii) to rehabilitate rural infrastructure, and (iii) toincrease women's participation in the rehabilitation process through direct activities for theadvancement of women. Although irrigation rehabilitation plays only aminor role in the overall programme, UNOPS has managed to be the most important agency active in theirrigation sector (for further information, see UNOPS ARRP Methodology, 1995). On the basisof documents and information made available by UNOPS, the quantification of the amountof irrigated area affected by rehabilitation works was not feasible.

In hundreds of projects UNDCP, WFP, UNHCR, and partially UNCHShave contributed to irrigationrehabilitation, mainly in canal cleaning and flood protection but alsointhe rehabilitation of hydraulic structures.All the four agencies have recently expressed their willingness to cooperate much closer in irrigation rehabilitation with FAO inthe future than they have done in the past.

4.1.2Measures Undertaken by FAO

FAO is maintaining a small irrigation rehabilitation unit in Peshawar which concentrates on the rehabilitation of intakes and canal structures in collaboration with NGOs throughdirect contact with village communities in the provinces of Nangarhar, Kunar, Laghmanand Paktia. Total budget for the period of 1989 to 1996 was 3.5 million US$ equal to US$500,000 per year (in comparison: total turnover of all projects of an individual major NGOs is US$ 1 -2 million per year). A detailed description of all FAO activities performed in the four provinces mentioned above including recommendations proposed forfuture irrigation rehabilitation works is given by ANDERSON, April 1996 inhis report on the eleventh technical assistance mission. The available FAO documents, too, do neither allow the quantification of the amount of irrigated land affected by rehabilitation works nor a systematic assessment of irrigation performance after rehabilitation.

Besides its field programme briefly outlined above, FAO has participated in the elaboration of the agriculture rehabilitation strategy for Afghanistan (TCP /AFG/2251 F), andprepared several project proposals submitted for funding to UNDP, UNOCHA and the Japanese government. None of them was approved up to now.

4.1.3Measures Undertaken by Non -Governmental Organisations

Local as well as international NGOs have implemented thousands of projects in different sectors during the last 18 years, and at least several hundred in the irrigation sector during the last 6 years, e.g.surveys, canal cleaning and protection, river training works around intakes, wash crossings, spillways, intake and water distribution structures and the repair of gates. In many cases, NGOs are subcontracted as implementing organisation by UN agencies. Capable NGOs are indispensable forirrigationrehabilitation works but experience shows that their professional expertise does not always correspond to their enthusiasm and ideology.Potential NGOs for the implementation of future irrigation works are ACLU, ARIA, CBR, DACAAR, ECRA, EDS, RAFA and AFGHANAID.

4.1.4Measures Undertaken by the Local Population

The degree to which rehabilitation measures are undertaken by the farmers themselves is a direct function of the remoteness of the individual village: the less accessible the village, the less foreign assistance is given and the more the farmers are ready and prepared to rely on their own initiative.However, even in small traditional irrigation schemes, the means for scheme rehabilitation are often beyond the farmers' capacity which results in starvation of

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 20 - farmers living in Badakhshan and parts of Bamyan and Ghor. In more accessible areas, the farmers are always ready and eager to participate in the rehabilitation of their irrigation schemes when assistance is offered, but not without bargaining for the best deal.

Although there are many examples where farmers have managed to make their irrigation system operational again, they cannot usually rehabilitate an irrigation system in such a way as to make irrigation management sustainable, which it was not,in many cases, even before the war. The redesign of an intake or a conveyance canal due to the change of geomorphologic conditions, the blasting of rock filling up canals as a result of mountain slides, and the repair of roads for market access are all activities which require foreign assistance and cannot be done by the farmers alone.

4.2 IRRIGATION REHABILITATION STRATEGY

4.2.1 Framework Conditions

For the future irrigation rehabilitation in Afghanistan, it is necessary to involve the short -term needs as part of a logical plan which has to achieve the ultimate goal of reviving irrigated agriculture at its pre -war level. The options available for the rehabilitation of Afghanistan's irrigation schemes are a function of three essential framework conditions:

1. UN operational strategy for rural recovery 2. UNDP funding mechanism 3. Institutional and professional capacities in the irrigation sector

UN operational strategy for rural recovery.Consistent with the 1993 Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation, the irrigation sector will continue to justify urgent attention in the medium range future.Whilst the planning of appropriate sub -programmes necessitates collaboration in problem identification of all Agencies, leadership will be provided by the Agency whose mandate most closely matches each issue.In order to encourage local authorities to support and participate in addressing expressed community needs and wishes,DistrictRehabilitation Shuras (DRSs) willbe establishedinprioritydistricts determined by the application of selection criteria (see ARRP methodology Chap. 4.1.1).

UNDP funding mechanism. Funding of future irrigation rehabilitation activities will have to rely to a large extent on capital raised by UNDP. The presentation of topics of focus for future projects to be funded in the period of 1997 -99 was scheduled for May 1996, followed by the verification of available funds in September 1996.Project formulation must be finalised in December 1996 to be included in the "Consolidated Appeal for Assistance 1997" (note: the rather modest amount of capital made available since 1989 for the irrigation sector does not at all reflect the importance of the crucial impact of rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure on agricultural production!).

Institutional and professional capacities in the irrigation sector.Most of the pre -war government institutions do still exist in the country: the Ministry of Water & Power and the Ministry of Agriculture in Kabul, the Departments of Irrigation in most of the provinces, the Helmand & Arghandab Valley Authority (HAVA) in Lashkar Gah, the Helmand Construction Company (HCC) in 7 provinces, the Spinghar Construction Unit, and the Nangarhar Canal Authority (NCA) in Jalalabad.None of these institutions are operational due to lack of capital, equipment and professional staff. Among the major UN Agencies (UNOPS, FAO, WFP, UNHCR, and UNDCP) working in the irrigation sector only UNOPS and FAO retain qualifiedstaff capable of designing and monitoring the implementationofirrigation structures. With a few exceptions, most of the many local and international NGOs active in

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report -21 - the irrigation sector have neither sufficiently qualified staff to design irrigation structures nor the logistical capacity to monitor their proper implementation.

4.2.2Constraints and Opportunities in the Irrigation Sector

Prevailing constraints.In spite of the existence of the Rehabilitation Steering Committee (RSC), there is hardly any coordination of rehabilitation activities in the irrigation sector among UN agencies and NGOs.In the past, FAO and UNOPS have been entrenched in arguments about the right methodology of irrigation rehabilitation. Ad hoc interventions by other UN agencies and particularly by NGOs as well as the reluctance of bilateral donors to fund irrigationprojects have further contributed to the unsatisfactory performance of irrigation rehabilitation.The cause of irrigation and its crucial importance for agricultural production are presented to potential donors at the same level as the necessity to repair a road culvert or to construct a primary school resulting in chronic under -funding of irrigation projects.Yet another complication arises from the semantic differentiation between relief, rehabilitation and development assistance neglecting the presently existing different stages of the evolutionary process of Afghanistan's recovery taking place with different pace in different locations at different times.It should be generally understood that assistance given to achieve pre -war level (1978) in irrigated agricultural production can only be called "rehabilitation ".

Potential for improvement.Conscious of the unsatisfactory coordination of irrigation rehabilitation activities,all UN agencies have unanimously expressed their willingness to "cooperate ".If the RSC and its working groups will manage to transform this willingness in active cooperation through the strict adherence of rules, guidelines and methodologies agreed upon for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes, major progress can be made with regard to a systematic irrigation rehabilitation programme.The readiness of the EU to concentrate its funds on a few capable NGOs active in the irrigation sector should be seen as an opportunity by the UN to agree upon a common approach infuture irrigation rehabilitation.In spite of its professional and logistical capacity, UNOPS is well aware of the present shortcomings in the country-wide rehabilitation of hydraulic structures, and thus welcomes thereinforcementofitstechnicaldivisions. AlthoughFAO'sirrigation rehabilitation project in the Eastern region has been terminated at the end of June 1996, FAO's Integrated Crop and Food Production Project (AFG /94/002) isstill going on with remarkable success and would benefit considerably of the synergetic effects of the timely implementation of irrigation rehabilitation works.

FAO /UNOPS collaboration.The basis for any fruitful cooperation is parity and a clear mandate of the collaborating partners.FAO will provide technical expertise inoverall irrigationplanning drawn fromitsvariousirrigationactivitiesinsemi -arid developing countries, particularly from its land and water survey project as well as from its irrigation and water management project implemented in Afghanistan some 30 years and 10 years ago, respectively. UNOPS will provide a functioning network of regional centres relying on its experience with local communities and DRSs in many parts of the country.Hence, the assets of both agencies are complementary giving reason to the assumption that a clear distribution of tasks and responsibilities amcing the two agencies will significantly boost rehabilitation activities in the irrigation sector.It is understood that all other UN agencies are willing to acknowledge such a cooperation and will channel their support for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes through either FAO or UNOPS refraining from individual interventions in the irrigation sector.In order to make sure that NGOs and bilateral donors are complying with the rules, guidelines and methods of irrigation rehabilitation to be established by FAO as the lead agency in the irrigation sector, it is essential to convince the

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EU that only a common approach of all funding institutionswill facilitate the economical and efficient use of available human and financial resources.

4.2.3Strategic Considerations in Irrigation Rehabilitation

Scope of rehabilitation.In spite of considerable efforts in the rehabilitationof irrigation infrastructure undertaken during the last years, thereremains the enormous task of rehabilitating about half (1.7 million hectares) of Afghanistan'sirrigation schemes.This includes about 1.4 million ha of traditional irrigation schemessupplied by perennial rivers and streams as well as about 50,000 ha supplied bysprings and kareze, all operated and maintained by the farmers themselves, and about 300,000 ha ofmodern irrigation schemes formerly operated and maintained, and subsidised, by theGovernment."Rehabilitation" comprises all activities which have to be undertaken tosafeguard the irrigation scheme against floods and to enable the farmers to manage "their" scheme,at best, efficiently and economically, or at least in the way it was operated before 1978.

Type of rehabilitation works.Irrigation rehabilitation activities can be classified into the following types of rehabilitation works:

verification: problem identification, survey, (re)design, project formulation

maintenance: cleaning of canals and kareze service and minor repairs of flow regulating devices and turnouts (re)establishment of temporary intake structures

construction: permanent intake structures spillway, distribution and drainage system structures canal lining and canal bank stabilisation river training (flood protection and thalweg rectification) flow gauge stations

management: (re)establishment and improvement of MirabNakil system reservoir operation and intake regulation watershed conservation and ground water recharge O & M of provincial irrigation departments O & M of regional water authorities and HCC branch offices monitoring of NGOs irrigation rehabilitation activities

training: engineers, technicians, craftsmen, Mirabs, extensionists, water user groups, (acc. to their tasks)

Itisimportant to agree with the farming community before theimplementation of construction works on future operation and maintenance rules. As thereis no alternative at present to the traditional mirab /vakil system, all water usersdepending on the same water source must acknowledge the authority of themirab and, possibly, accept the decisions made by the vakil in case of disputes. Major construction cost mustbe justified by a cost - benefit analysis and operation costs have to be covered by the water users.

Time horizon. Activities in the irrigation sector must address the presentdeficits in irrigated agricultural production and at the same time, lay a sound basisfor the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes within the next 20 years.Anticipating a gradual consolidation of the political powers towards a national government within the next10 years, no major investment in the irrigation sector requiring external financing by ADB,WB or other funding

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 23 - institutions can take place in the near future. Irrigationrehabilitationefforts to be undertaken from 1997 to 1999 will have to focus on types of works which (i) increasethe agricultural output of the individual farmer,(ii)prevent irrigation schemes from further destruction by floods and /or salinisation, and(iii)strengthen local capacitiesinthe (re)design, (re)construction, operation and management of irrigation schemes.

Priorities. There are 5 major problems which have to be taken into account when setting priorities for any type of rehabilitation activity (in order of importance):

food security resettlement of refugees and internally displaced people (IDP) opium cultivation environmental degradation irrigation infrastructure destruction

As 85 per cent of all agricultural production depends on irrigation water supply, the first problem must be fully addressed by irrigation rehabilitation. The second problem, to be seen in the context of the first one too, can be solved by irrigationrehabilitation in areas where refugees and /or IDP like to return. The third problem must be addressed by irrigation rehabilitation in the provinces of Helmand, Nangarhar and Badakhshan as water shortage is one of the reasons given by the farmers of these provinces for cultivatingopium. Limited to the Northern and North -western provinces, the fourth problemisindirectly related to irrigation rehabilitation: Due to lack or destruction of irrigation infrastructure, farmers are forced to crop rainfed wheat on steep mountain slopes not suitable for cultivation.Finally, the fifth problem must be addressed by irrigation rehabilitation in all those areas where a large amount of capital has been invested until 1978 in modern irrigation systems (e.g. over US$ 100 million in the Helmand -Arghandab irrigation schemes) which are rapidly degrading to a state where rehabilitation will not be technically and /or economically feasible any more.

Additionally to the criteria derived from the problems described above, security and accessibility of a location must be included.Technical and economical feasibility must be answered by the question: what is the least amount of money to achieve the best result? "Best results" must reflect those interventions which maximise output, and those which help the poor. Assuming that most parts of Afghanistan are secure, as it is presently the case, the following hierarchy of priorities for irrigation rehabilitation is proposed:

small -scale (< 100 ha) traditional irrigation schemes managed by individual user groups or by a village community; medium -scale (100 - 2,000 ha) traditional irrigation schemes managed by village communities; large -scale (> 2,000 ha) traditional irrigation schemes located close to urban or rural centres; large -scale modern (with and without storage) irrigation schemes located close to urban centres; and the Helmand -Arghandab irrigation scheme.

Note: Due to the low priority given to the modern irrigation systems, there is hardly any chance for their rehabilitation.In order to avoid further degradation of these schemes and to prevent the farmers from out -migration, the establishment of maintenance units fully equipped and mechanised is suggested.

The only means to set priorities geographically are the results of the Landcover Survey from 1992 which show active and inactive irrigated agriculture per province (see Table 6 and

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Annex 4)."Inactive irrigated agriculture" does not necessarily meanabandoned irrigated fields requiring rehabilitation.In large irrigation schemes, the irrigable area isusually larger than the one actually irrigated, particularly in dry yearswhen irrigation water is short and does not allow the cultivation of all irrigable fields.This is clearly seen from the landcover maps in Annex 4 where the inactiveirrigated land is in many cases at the lower part of the scheme where irrigation water does not reach in dry years.However, water logging, salinisation and water distribution structures out of function areother reasons which require rehabilitation measures.

Table 6. Irrigated (active) and non -irrigated (inactive) land in 1992(ha) Province Active Inactive Tot. Irrig. % inactive Rank* Badakhshan ** - 32,407 - - Badghis 40,333 11,131 51,464 22 8 Baghlan 94,371 14,559 108,930 13 13 Balkh 158,766 35,148 193,914 18 11 Bamyan 54,732 4,205 58,937 7 14 Farah 137,837 89,006 226,843 39 4 Faryab 125,466 22,148 147,614 15 12 Ghazni 147,037 63,061 210,098 30 5 Ghor 120,739 0 120,739 0 21 Helmand 201,229 29,990 231,219 13 13 Herat 176,299 66,495 242,794 27 7 Jawzjan 224,006 61,922 285,928 22 8 Kabul 54,334 2,781 57,115 5 16 Kapisa 40,647 0 40,647 0 21 Konar 16,814 3,462 20,276 17 11 Kunduz 147,475 4,555 152,030 3 17 Laghman 26,838 0 26,838 0 21 Logar 30,922 6,184 37,106 17 11 Nangarhar 80,923 19,087 100,010 19 9 Nimroz 43,097 1,158 44,255 3 17 Oruzgan 133,364 390 133,754 0.3 20 Paktia 48,344 52,895 101,239 52 2 Paktika 49,919 76,167 126,086 60 1 Parwan 46,969 2,746 49,715 6 15 Qandahar 152,341 119,090 271,431 44 3 Samangan 33,706 13,453 47,159 29 6 Takhar 80,188 679 80,867 0.8 19 Wardak 78,710 676 79,386 0.9 18 Zabul 62,210 17,938 80,148 22 8 Total 2,607,616 718,926 3,358,949 22 - (rounded) 2.61 mill 0.72 mill 3.36 mill one fifth inactive ranking of provinces according to extent of inactive irrigated agriculture (provinces with more than one quarter of inactive irrigated agriculture are listed in bold figures) no figures available, (in April 1996 extensive damages to irrigated fields by floods)

Importance of maintenance.Irrigation must be seen as a technology applied to satisfy crop water requirement for lack of precipitation. Natural resources use through the imposition of a technical /static (irrigation)system on a natural /dynamic (river)system is not sustainable without maintainingcrucialsystem components such asintake,water distribution and conveyance structures.Lack of maintenance of irrigation schemes does notonlydecreasetheoveralloperationefficiencybutcauseshydrologicaland geomorphologicalchangesofthenaturalsystemleadingtocompletelydifferent environmental conditions - such as change of river course, decrease( accumulation) /increase(erosion) of the river's sediment carrying capacity, and

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 25 - salinisation of land - than those under which the irrigationscheme once has been built and managed satisfactorily.This applies to traditional and modern irrigation systemsalike and has rather serious implications in the case of Afghanistanwhere the rural settlement pattern directly correlates with the availability and use of surfaceand ground water resources.

Importance and limit of community participation.Experiences gained elsewhere and also in Afghanistan since 1989 have unambiguously shownthat community participation is the most crucial element of making externalassistance sustainable.In the absence of a national government, District Rehabilitation Shuras (DRSs) canfacilitate the identification and coordination of rehabilitation activities.However, they can not substitute the village community (shura) responsible for the rehabilitation and operationof an irrigation scheme. It is "ownership" which counts for sustainability and not"patronage "!Active participation of the target population is based on a true bottom -up approachaiming at the establishment of an appropriate governing authority atdistrict level. The role of the DRS must be the one of a facilitator in those fields whererehabilitation activities are beyond the capacity of the individual community.This is particularly the case in all those irrigation schemes which share one and the same source of water or which are in such astate of destruction that they cannot be repaired or maintained without external know-how and the employment of heavy equipment.

Changing role of NGOs. With a few exceptions, NGOs have played animportant role in assisting Afghans to survive the impacts of war on social life andin the rehabilitation of Afghanistan's infrastructure.It is, however, indisputable that NGOs can neither take over the role of social services institutions nor the one ofconstruction companies. Many hydraulic structures rehabilitated or newly constructed all overthe country during the last years give ample testimony of lacking professionalismin the application of technical know - how and of missing logistical competence in the implementationof construction works. Among the more than 200 NGOs operating in Afghanistan, onlyabout 10 NGOs might have the potential to develop the necessary capacity in order todesign and implement hydraulic structures forirrigation purposes. Inthe future, these NGOs will have to become "engineering /construction companies ",act as "professional contractors" registered and eligible for contracting by UN agencies, EU and bilateral donors,and run their "business" accordingly.In the absence of a national government and private contractors,this process should be supported by all UN agencies through direct capacitybuilding of capable NGOs.

Cost of rehabilitation.Although no detailed engineering studies have been made upon which to base accurate cost estimates, it is believed that a total amountof approximately US$ 650 million is required to rehabilitate the existing irrigation schemesto such an extent as they have been operated in 1978.If US$ 10 million were annually made available during the next three years, this contribution (about 5 per cent of thecapital required for the rehabilitation of all irrigation schemes) will increase irrigated agriculturalproduction at least in those areas which are secure, politically rather stable and likely tobe both in the near future. Each of the five regional centres will then dispose of an annualbudget for irrigation rehabilitation of about US$ 2 million.In order to use the limited financial resources economically and equitably, individual construction works should not exceedUS$ 100,000 (short -term projects) and US$ 500,000 (medium -term projects), respectively.

UN funding. Funds made available by the UN itself were decreasingduring the last year and it cannot be anticipated that this trend is reversed in the nearfuture. However, it should be stressed again and again, that irrigated agriculture was,is and will be the backbone of the Afghan economy. Failure to recognise this will not only lead to aprolonged suffering of the Afghan people including the delay of the resettlement of returneesbut also inflict much higher rehabilitation costs to be covered at a later time.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 26 -

EU funding.The EU has made available considerable funds for individual irrigation rehabilitation works to international NGOs and their local partners.In order to use new funds more effectively, it intends to provide funds for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes to selected international NGOs (e.g. MADERA, GAA) in the immediate future.

UN -EU cooperation.It is of crucial importance for the success and the sustainability of future irrigation rehabilitation projects, that EU and UN agree at their earliest convenience upon how, where, to whom and what for irrigation rehabilitation funds areallocated.

Bilateral donor funding.Most of the potential bilateral donors abstain from contributing larger amounts of capital to the rehabilitation of Afghanistan's infrastructure justifyingly fearing yet another outbreak of hostilities and subsequent destruction. Although nobody is in the position to rule out that this will happen again, there are quite a number of provinces where security prevails and external assistance could enhance the existing resilience of the rural community thus further stabilising peace.In spite of the recent donor mission touring the country in March 1996, it might be questioned if all potential donors are fully aware of the present conditionsinAfghanistan,particularlyinthose provinces which are not connected by air to Islamabad.

NGO funding. Funds available to NGOs depend mainly on the willingness of UN and EU to contract NGOs, especially for construction works.In the absence of a national government, the UN should impose strict quality control on NGO activities providing capable NGOs with "Performance Certificates" for professional services in special fields. Capable NGOs should be encouraged to become private engineering /construction companies and be provided with a 1 -2 year UN contract assuring them a stable income over a limited time horizon for the delivery of professional service.

4.3 OPTIONS FOR FUTURE IRRIGATION REHABILITATION

Lacking any investment capital for the time being, there is not a great choice of options available for the implementation of irrigation rehabilitation measures in Afghanistan within a short- and medium -term perspective. Under the prevailing conditions, only a rather pragmatic approach canleadtoan improvement ofthepresentirrigationsector management. A pragmatic approach means, accepting realities and abstaining from speculations about Afghanistan's possible future development.In the following, three time - oriented options are briefly outlined and commented.Recommendations of activities as well as their timing and budgeting for the options identified are presented in Section 5.

4.3.1 Short- Term(1997 -99) Options: Low Cost Interventions and Capacity Building

The implementation of so- called "Quick Impact Projects" in the irrigation sector will definitely continue as it was done in the past as long as their is no better coordination among the different agencies and NGOs in general, and between FAO and UNOPS in particular. The impact of such projects on the well -being of the target population is certainly crucial in some cases, but without any chance of a major recovery of irrigated agriculture at national scale and without any chance of sustainability in the medium -term.If by any circumstances, Quick Impact Projects continued to be implemented the way it was done in the past, priority should be given to individual scheme rehabilitation."Individual scheme rehabilitation" is limited to irrigation schemes supplied by one source to the benefit of one community with little or no impact on other water users located downstream of the respective scheme.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 27 -

Low cost interventions are small in size, maximise output and addressall problems prevailing in the irrigation sector according to the priority ranking proposed inSection 4.2.3. They are area specific, will be identified in a participatory approach, andrealised by the target -population supported by FAO or UNOPS in cooperation with WFP(food for work), with UNHCR (resettlement of refugees and IDPs), with UNDCP (substitution of poppy cultivation), and with capable NGOs (environmental protection).

Capacity building is directed towards the water user groups (operation and management of irrigation schemes), NGOs with proven experience inconstruction works (logistics, accounting,technical know -how), and local(atdistrictlevel)irrigationdepartments (planning, budgeting, supervision, evaluation).

4.3.2Medium- Term(1997 -2001) Options: Individual Irrigation Scheme Rehabilitation

In acknowledging the different approaches required to rehabilitate traditional irrigation systems on the one side and "modern" irrigation schemes on the other side, UNOPS could continue itsirrigation rehabilitation programme focusing on individual irrigation scheme rehabilitation in the traditional irrigation sector. Whilst UNOPS would be responsible for the identification of irrigation rehabilitation projects through the active participation of selected communities, FAO would be responsible for all technical issues like surveys, design, drawings, etc., and would assure that individual construction works do not jeopardise future comprehensive irrigation system rehabilitation. UNOPS would further implement the construction works contracting capable NGOs, and FAO in turn would be charged with final monitoring.Preference would be given to those traditional irrigation schemes where the Mirab system is still intact or likely to be successfully re- established.

FAO could concentrate its efforts on the "modern" irrigation sector adding an irrigation rehabilitation component to its ongoing Integrated Crop and Food Production Project and its Animal Health and Livestock Production Project, using its existing office facilities in Kabul, Mazar -i- Sharif, Herat, Qandahar, and Jalalabad.The new irrigation programme could include the establishment of mechanised service units for the maintenance of the most important irrigation schemes, like Helmand, Arghandab, Harirud, Balkh, Kunduz, Nangarhar and others. Emphasis would be given to (re)establish former irrigation authorities, to train local professional staff, and to support water user groups in the operation and maintenance of those schemes.

Although focusing on individual irrigation scheme rehabilitation, the major objectives of the medium -term options are as follows:

toestablishrules and guidelinesfor therehabilitationofirrigation schemes, to channel available funds of different origin into a systematic rehabilitation of irrigation schemes based on a sound strategy, toprovide technical expertise for the adequate design of hydraulic structures, to implement irrigation projects in an economical and sustainable manner, to strengthen local capacities for irrigation system management, and to create a sound basis for future major investments in the irrigation sector once a national government is in its place again.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 28 -

4.3.3Long- Term(2001 -2010) Options: Integrated IrrigationSystem Rehabilitation

In anticipation of the limited funds available for the"Consolidated Appeal for Assistance 1997 ",and with regard to the urgency of rehabilitationworks in numerous irrigation schemes facing soon the spring floods with their inherent,well known consequences, nobody would accept the responsibility, at present, to spent money on asystematic survey of large irrigation schemes in order to prepare projectdocuments for an overall rehabilitation of such schemes. In the case of the Helmand irrigationscheme covering an area of some 140,000 ha, this would require capital in the order of US$ 70million which must be seen as a long -term option and be postponed tothe next century.

Its mandate given, FAO will be responsible for overallirrigation planning in Afghanistan, either assisting a national government ifthen established,or substituting a national irrigation agency by coordinating local (at provincial and districtlevel) irrigation departments and supervising all irrigation activities throughout the country.It would further concentrate on technical and environmental issues ofirrigation rehabilitation, and assure the necessary link to other development projects in the agricultural sector.Once a project has been approved by the target population, the local authorities, andFAO, the latter would engage in the acquisition of funds, back -stop appraisal missions ofpotential donors and supervise counterpart contributions during project implementation.

Any kind of irrigation rehabilitation measures undertaken during the next5 years should lay the basis for the long -term options whose objectives are asfollows:

establishment of a systematic inventory of all irrigation schemes; verification of the irrigation potential with regard to overall water resources use; preparation of an investment plan for the rehabilitation /reconstructionof key irrigation schemes; and implementation of irrigation rehabilitation /reconstruction projects.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 29 -

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

5.1.1 Water availability for irrigation purposes Afghanistan's water resources are abundant in quantity and still underused to a great extent,particularly the water resources of Panj river (36,420 million m3) shared with Tajikistan and of Kabul river (20,920 m3) flowing out of the country to Pakistan, and ground water resources (18,000 million m3).Surface water availability for irrigation purposes is a function of the seasonal variation of stream flow where no water is stored in reservoirs: there is too much water in spring due to snow melt and heavy rainfall, and often too little water in late summer when river discharge is low and crop water requirement still high.

No change of these physical conditions will be possible in the immediate future as there is nobody ready at present to provide investment capital necessary for the construction of dams and reservoirs to decrease maximum and to increase minimum stream flow. However, adequate rehabilitation measures can significantly increase irrigated agricultural production under the prevailing physical conditions (see Section 5.2.2).

5.1.2Irrigation in Afghanistan Today

As it was done in the past, 85 per cent of all crops are grown under irrigation. Today, more than two thirdsof Afghanistan'sirrigation schemes are not operatingsatisfactorily: approximately 1.70 million ha require comprehensive rehabilitation measures and about 0.7 million ha improvement of on -farm water management. This has resulted in an estimated overall national food deficit of 30 per cent.

Irrigation practices today are characterised by the necessity to irrigate "by all means" leaving little room for proper irrigation system management. Where village communities were able to organise themselves in a peaceful manner and received assistance in the rehabilitation of destroyed (intakes) or obsolete (conveyance canals) irrigation structures, irrigationis mostly practised in the traditional way: operation and maintenance of the schemes as well as water distribution are managed on a communal basis under the supervision of mirabs, and disputes over water rights are solved by vakils.In many other cases where communities share the same water resource for the irrigation of their individual fields but are ruled by different "authorities ", farmers are less fortunate and struggle to make their irrigation scheme some how operational. This involuntary attituderesultingin makeshift "structures" usually destroyed by the next flood, has serious repercussions on the overallfunctionof formerlyrather sophisticatedirrigationsystems: accumulationof sediments at intakes and conveyance canals force the farmers to abundant former existing intakes (e.g.in Lashkar Gah)), "bypass" intake canals jeopardise the traditional water distribution rules (e.g.in Balkh), uncontrolled floods enter newly constructed intake canals and destroy once fertile irrigable land cutting off other conveyance canals (e.g. in Herat), and so on.

With a few exceptions, there are no government nor private institutions operational in the irrigationsector. Most professionalstaff have eitherleft the country,or work for international organisations or NGOs, or have even founded an NGO to support themselves. There are no equipped offices any more in Afghanistan, no means to measure water flow, no mechanised construction units (like the Helmand Construction Company (HCC) orthe Irrigation Construction Unit (ICU) established by FAO in the Seventies) operational any more, and no detailed, systematically established inventory of the irrigation schemes operated at present in the country.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 30 -

5.1.3Irrigation in Afghanistan in the Future

Irrigation was, is and will be the backbone of Afghanistan'sagriculture.In spite of the completely inadequate amount of funds available atpresent for irrigation rehabilitation, irrigation schemes will continue to be operational in thefuture, albeit not necessarily in a sustainable manner. By contrary, the operational conditionsof modern irrigation schemes will continue to deteriorate further leading eventuallyin some cases like the Helmand valley to the migration of farmers resettled here inthe 1960sif mechanised maintenance equipment and funds for its permanent operation are notmade available immediately. The remaining irrigation infrastructure, even in its present poorconditions, is one of the last capital assets of the country after the war. To neglectthis fact and to refuse funding of the rehabilitation of modern irrigation schemes in the nearfuture, will further decrease the chances that Afghanistan willattain again at leastitspre -war status of agricultural production early in the next century.

Irrigation will definitely not be able to play its mandatoryimportant role for Afghanistan's national economy and for the food security ofitspopulationif funds for irrigation rehabilitation were not increased significantly in the nearfuture.Under the assumption of sufficient funds being available,it willstill take the country more than one generation to attain pre -war production levels, and even more years toattain self- sufficiency in food supply; the latter being only possible if already now birthspacing programmes will become an integral part of rehabilitation anddevelopment projects.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

5.2.1 Water Resources Management

Water resources management is crucial for the preservationof Afghanistan's most precious natural resource - water. Assistance should be given tothe Ministry of Water and Power in Kabul, to the Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority(HAVA) in Lashkar Gah, and to a number of provincial Irrigation Departments responsiblefor major irrigation schemes in the following subjects: the collection and evaluation ofdocuments and data relevant to the irrigation sector; the establishment of an irrigationscheme inventory on the basis of information collected; the management of reservoirs,the operation and maintenance of hydraulic structures, and the preparation of project proposalsfor irrigation rehabilitation.

If such an assistance is not feasible because of political reasons,local professional capacity and institution building should be incorporated in theNational Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme recommended in Section 5.2.4. Water user groupsmust be made aware of the interaction between water availability and watershed conservation.This is of particular importance in a country where the traditional water rightfavours those water users living close to the water source without obliging them to care forwater users living in the lower part of a watershed.It must be well understood that without support in thewater resources management sector(includinghydropower generation,potablewatersupply,and watershed conservation), no sustainable impact can be attainedin the irrigation sub -sector in the medium -term.

5.2.2Rehabilitation of Irrigation Schemes

Thereisnot a great choice of options availablefor theirrigationrehabilitationin Afghanistan. Under the prevailing conditions, only a rather pragmaticapproach can lead to an improvement of the present irrigation sub -sectormanagement.In combining the know - how and experience available in FAO and UNOPS, and FAObeing empowered by the

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report -31 -

International Community with the mandate for overall irrigation planning, a significant contribution can be made to the recovery of Afghanistan's agricultural economy in general, and to the revival of irrigated agriculture in particular. As far as they are compatible with the irrigation rehabilitation programmes proposed here, the recommendations made in the recent FAO Consultancy Report (ANDERSON, April 1996) for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes situated in the Eastern provinces of Paktia, Laghman, Kunar and Nangarhar, should be retained and integrated in the detailed Project proposals to be prepared for the "Consolidated Appeal for Assistance 1997 ".

It is important to recognise that the acquisition of funds from bilateral donors for irrigation rehabilitation purposes must be vigorously pursued by FAO in the future.Assuming that most parts of Afghanistan are secure, as it is presently the case, three phases (phase I and lIoverlapping) of an integrated irrigation rehabilitation programme are recommended as follows:

Phase I: Low cost interventions and capacity building: 1997 - 1999 (short -term)

Objective:Rehabilitation of crucial hydraulic structures in order to solve key problems and overcome bottlenecks of otherwise functioning irrigation systems.

Premises:- participatory project appraisal, - project cost not exceeding US$ 100,000, - approval of technical feasibility as well as assessment of impacts on environment and other system components of the respective irrigation scheme by professional staff.

Activities:1. Training of: - water user groups in on -farm water management, scheme operation and maintenance, - technicians and craftsmen in construction material characteristics and in hydraulic construction techniques, irrigation engineers in project survey, design and supervision, NGO and "government"staffinprojectformulation,cost -benefit analysis and contracting, and allparticipantsengaged in irrigationrehabilitationactivities in participatory project appraisal and impact assessment. 2. Maintenance of: canals and kareze, flow regulating devices and turnouts, and - traditional (temporary) intake structures. 3. Construction of - traditional (temporary) intake structures, - distribution and drainage system structures, - spillways and wash crossings, - flood protection structures (embankments), and - flow gauge stations at crucial sections.

Phase II:Individual irrigation scheme rehabilitation: 1997 - 2001 (medium -term)

Objective: Systematic rehabilitationof individualirrigation schemes inorder to maximise water use through increase of the overall system efficiency.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 32 -

Premises:- participatory project appraisal; project cost not exceeding US$ 500,000 (in 1997and 1998) and not exceeding US$ 1,000,000 (in 1999 to 2001); - detailed survey of the whole irrigation scheme includingall system components; and approval of technical feasibility and environmental impactassessment by professional staff.

Activities:Rehabilitation of: - small -scale traditional irrigation schemes managed byindividual user groups or by a village community,in extreme food deficit areas accompanied by poverty alleviation measures; medium -scaletraditionalirrigationschemes managed byvillage communities, starting with schemes supplied by one source and managed by one community (no impact on other water users!), large -scale traditional irrigation schemes located close to urban or rural centres under the condition that full authority is given to the water masters and lawyers (mirab /vakil system installed andacknowledged by all stakeholders!); and - large -scale modern (with and without storage)irrigation schemes located close to urban centres, with "rehabilitation measures" limited to the provision of mechanised maintenance units if the required capital for rehabilitation cannot be raised from bilateral donors (otherwise, conditions as stipulated for large -scale traditional irrigation systems!).

Phase III:Integrated irrigation system rehabilitation: 2001 - 2010 (long -term)

Objective: Systematic integrated irrigation scheme rehabilitation in orderto optimise the sustainable use of water resources in priority watersheds as well as to safeguard national natural and capital assets.

Premises:- participatory project appraisal; project cost not exceeding US$ 10,000,000; - appraisal by professional staff; and existence of a national government recognised by all parties.

Activities:Rehabilitation of: - the Arghandab irrigation systems; - the Helmand irrigationsystems after preparationof an updated feasibility study for its future operation and maintenance including a new, detailed cost -benefit analysis; - the Nangarhar irrigation system; - the Jilga irrigation system; -. the Kunduz- Khanabad irrigation systems; - the Balkh irrigation system; and - the Shahrawan irrigation system.

5.2.3National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme

Itis strongly recommended to abandon the ad -hoc Quick Impact Project implementation. The rehabilitation of irrigation systems is a rather complex affair, and - except for canal cleaning- no construction measuresshould be undertaken in the future without the approval of authorised professionals employed by FAO or UNOPS.All funds made

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 33 - available for irrigationrehabilitation and allefforts spent on this subject should be concentrated in a "National Irrigation RehabilitationProgramme" approved by all parties concerned.

The "National IrrigationRehabilitation Programme" should be based on theirrigation rehabilitation strategy proposed in Section 4.2 and aim at thefollowing 10 objectives:

to find an agreement among all UN agencies and theEU on FAO taking over the overall responsibility for all activities required in theirrigation sector; to establish rules and guidelines for the rehabilitation ofirrigation schemes; to strengthen local capacities for irrigation system management; to create a sound basis (detailed survey of allirrigation schemes, regular training sessions and workshops for local staff, minimumequipment for selected provincialIrrigation Departments, etc.) for future major investmentsinthe irrigation sub -sector once a national government is in its placeagain; to provide technical expertise for the proper design ofhydraulic structures; to implement irrigation projects in an economical andsustainable manner; to assure sustainable water resources managementpractices in the whole water resources sector; to channel available funds of different origin into a systematicrehabilitation of irrigation schemes; to register upon certification NGOs with provenprofessional capacities and know -how; and to undertake all efforts to acquire funds from bilateraldonors and concentrate them on identified projects according to an agreed rehabilitation schedule.

Activities. As already described in Section 5.2.2 above, the activitiesmust be concentrated on low cost interventions and capacitybuilding, and on individualirrigation scheme rehabilitation.

Institutional set -up.The Programme would be implemented under the supervision of a CTA employed by FAO and based in Islamabad.Field operations would be under the responsibility of FAO's Offices in Mazar- i- Sharif, Herat, Qandahar andJalalabad. The FAO Office in Kabul should be opened again as soon as securityallows.A temporary FAO office would need to be established in Faizabad /Badakhshan provincein order to operate in one of the two most critical food deficit areas(Bamyan /Ghor is the other one which can be supported by the Kabul office). As experience shows from UNOPSirrigation rehabilitation activities,itis essential for project success to assign one STA at leastpart-time (50 per cent) to each regional operation centre, respectively.

Budget.Total required funds for the first 3 years are US$ 16 million providingUS$ 1.0 million annually for each regional office and US$ 1.0 million over thethree year period for the sub -regional office in Faizabad. This would still be a modest budgetin comparison to the capital required for the most urgent rehabilitation works.

5.2.4Follow -Up

Irrigation Team in Peshawar. As long as there are no new fundsavailable, the Irrigation Team in Peshawar whose former contracts are terminated should be re-employed by FAO as soon as possible and retained by any means asthey are an important asset for the new Programme (1997 -99) under UN funding. Their major task for thetime being, would be the completion of data and document collection and the establishment of a database including

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 34 -

meteorological and hydrological data, irrigation scheme inventory, - irrigation rehabilitation inventory with priority ranking.

Funding.FAO is an agency who disposes primarily of technical know -how and offers technical assistance in the agricultural sector, but these services must be paid bythe international community who are not always aware or convinced of the necessity and the cost involved of FAO's services.Particularly in the case of Afghanistan where geo- political, ideological and humanitarian issues are interwoven with individual interests of singular organisations, FAO must develop a strategy for the acquisition of funds for irrigation rehabilitation in order to finance its services offered and play its mandatory role.

National Irrigation Rehabilitation Programme. At this stage, the recommendations made above have to be agreed upon by all parties involved.Only if such an agreement was achieved, FAO should present a brief outline of the National IrrigationRehabilitation Programme to the UN agencies and to EU, and submit individual project proposals as part of the Programme. Otherwise, it seems very unlikely that new individual project proposals elaborated for the Consolidated Appeal for Assistance 1997 will be more successful than those submitted to UNDP in the past.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 35 -

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

8.1 BACKGROUND LITERATURE

UNDP 1994 Programme of the Government of Afghanistan,Project Document, AFG/94/0011A101131, Afghanistan Rural Rehabilitation Programme, Islamabad,Pakistan, August 1994.

UNDP 1993 Action Plan for Immediate Rehabilitation of Afghanistan, Volume Il (national)+ VolumeIV(regional)Context, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1993.

UNHCR 1990 BackgroundReports, WardakProvinceandGhazni Province, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, April 1990.

UNHCR 1989aBackground Reports, Kunar Province, Nangarhar Province, Paktia Province and Paktika Province, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, September 1989.

UNHCR 1989bBackground Reports, Zabul Province, Logar Province and Laghman Province, Data Collection for Afghan Repatriation Project, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 1989.

UNITED NATIONS 1995 Appeal for Emergency Humanitarian and Rehabilitation Assistance to Afghanistan, 8/1995 to 10/1996, Volume I, October 1995.

WFP 1995aBriefing on the 1995 Relief and Rehabilitation Programme for Afghanistan, Islamabad, Pakistan, November, 1995.

WFP 1995bAssistance torefugees, Displaced Persons, and other VulnerableGroups,SituationReport No.3,Islamabad, Pakistan, October 1995.

8.2 REPORTS 1950 - 1979

Afghanistan Gov't 1976 Helmand River Basin Soil and Water Survey Study Report, PartI,Government of Afghanistan and US Agency for International Development, Kabul 1976

Afghanistan Gov't 1975 Seven Years Plan, Irrigation Projects in 1975, Ministry of Water and Power, Kabul, 1975.

Afghanistan Gov't 1966 Surface Water Resources Investigation Plan Afghanistan: Precipitation (Monthly & Annual), Monthly Mean Temperature,MinistryofWaterandPower, Kabul - Afghanistan, 1966.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 36 -

Afghanistan Gov't 1977 Konar River Basin Development, Master Plan Studies, Annex I- XIIII, Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Water And Power and Electrowatt Engineering ServicesLtd. Zürich, Switzerland, Nov. 1977.

Afghanistan Govt Kama Irrigation and Power Project, Final Reports, Part I + II, Ministry of Water and Power, Kabul.

Benz John S. 1962 AnOverallReviewoftheHelmandValley, Kabul, Afghanistan, November, 1962.

Chow Lee 1963 Development of Irrigation Projects in Afghanistan, FAO, Report No. 1736, Rome, 1963.

Dev Alternatives, Inc 1993 Helmand & Arghandab Valley Irrigation System, a Change of Assessment: 1973 -1990, Development Alternatives Inc andEarthSatelliteCorporation,supported by USAID. February 1993

FAO /UNDP 1970 Survey of Irrigation Possibilities in the Hari Rud and Upper KabulRiverBasins inAfghanistan, Final Report, FAO /SF80 /AFG10, Rome, 1970.

FAO /UNDP 1965 Survey of Land and Water Resources in Afghanistan, General Report and Vol.I -VI, Rome, 1965.

HAVA OverallReviewoftheHelmand Arghandab Valley Development, Helmand and Arghandab Valley Authority (HAVA).

Horning H. M. 1969 The Planning, Execution and Reconstruction of Irrigation Projects of Afghanistan, UNDP -FAO, Rome, 1969.

Sammel Edward A. 1971 Ground Water Reconnaissance inthe Arghandab River Basin near Kandahar, Afghanistan, December 1971

Stevens Ira M. 1965 Economics of Agricultural Production in Helmand Valley, Denver -Colorado, October 1965.

Westfall Arthur O 1969 Surface Water Investigations in Afghanistan, Summary of Activities from 1952 to 1969, Washington, D. C. March 1969.

UNDP 1970 Ground Water Investigations in Afghanistan, Conclusion and Recommendations, New York, 1970.

USAID 1976 Central Helmand Drainage (PhaseII),US Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. November 1976.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 37 -

8.3 REPORTS 1980 - 1996

Afghanaid 1995 Rapid Rural Appraisal in Badakhshan Province, Peshawar, Pakistan. 9/1995.

Afghanistan Govt 1982 Water of rivers and use of them in irrigation (InDari), Ministry Of Water And Power, Kabul, 1982.

Afghanistan Govt 1981 Regime of precipitation in Afghanistan (in Dari), Ministry of Transport and Tourism, Dept. of Meteorology, Kabul, 1981.

Anderson Ian M. 1995 Kama Intake and Irrigation Project, Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan, Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, Peshawar, Pakistan, March 1995.

Anderson Ian M. 1990- 94Reports on1st,2nd,3rd,4th,5th,6th,7th,and8th, Technical Assistance Mission, Agrisystems (Overseas) Ltd., Aylesbury, Buck, England, from 1990 to 1994.

Anderson Ian M. 1994aSummary Project Progress Report: Irrigation Component 1989 - 1994, FAO, Rome, 6/1994

Anderson Ian M. 1994b Summary Project Progress Report Irrigation Component 1989 -994, FAO, Peshawar, Pakistan, June 1994.

Anderson Ian M. 1993 FinalDraft DesignManual:Rehabilitationof Informal Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan, Agrisystems (Overseas) Ltd., Aylesbury, Buck, England, 11/1993.

Anderson Ian M. 1992 Kandahar Project Document, FAO, Peshawar, Pakistan, October 1992.

CARE 1996 Six Month Report (July- December1995),Peshawar, Pakistan, March, 1996.

DACAAR 1995 Emergency water supply Project in Sarshahi Camp of Nangarhar Province for displaced people of Kabul city, Water Supply Section, Peshawar, Pakistan 9/1995. DACAAR 1994 Annual Report 1994, Peshawar, Pakistan 1994.

Dev Alternatives, Inc1993 Afghanistan LandCover andLand Use Report, DevelopmentAlternatives Inc. and Earth Satellite Corporation, USA, March 1993.

FAO 1995 OfficeMemorandum, TCP /AFG /4552(A):Promotionof Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes, Rome, October 1995.

FAO 1990 ClimateTablesof 19 Provinces(includingAltitude, Longitude, Latitude), Climwat, FAO, Rome, 1990.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 38 -

Herat Irrigation Dept 1996 List of irrigation and hydro -technical structures of Herat Provincewhichneedtoberehabilitated /constructed, Irrigation Department of Herat Province Herat, 1996.

Khan Ismail. 1994 Request letter from Ismail Khan (former Governor of South West Zone of Afghanistan) forIrrigation Assistancein Nimroz Province, February 1994.

Leclercq Paul J. 1992 End of Assignment Report,Project UNO /FAO /102 and 103 /UNA, Peshawar, Pakistan, 11/1992

MADERA 1994 Objectifs de l'Action de MADERA, Peshawar, Pakistan, November 1994.

Patterson Mervyn T. 1995 A Socio- Economic Assessment of Faryab Province, Field crop protection in Northern Afghanistan, AFG /92/009,FAO, Mazar -i- Sharif, Afghanistan, February 1995.

Naimi M. Q. 1994 IrrigationDevelopmentinHariRud Valley(Herat), Reconnaissance Report, FAO, Peshawar, Pakistan, June 1994.

SCA. 1994 Reference Manual,AgriculturalSurveyof Afghanistan, Eighteenth Report, Swedish Committee For Afghanistan July 1994.

SCA 1996 Guidelines for Rural Drinking Water Supply Projects in Afghanistan, Revised for 1996, Swedish Committee For Afghanistan, Peshawar, Pakistan, Dec. 1995.

Shobair Sayed Sharif 1996 Assessment Survey of Zurmat District of Paktia Province, FAO Peshawar, Pakistan, 1/1996.

UNDCP 1995 AfghanistanOpium Poppy Survey1995, Islamabad - Pakistan, September 1995.

UNDCP 1995 Report of the Agricultural and Alternative Cropping Expert, Islamabad- Pakistan, 5- 7/1995.

UNDP 1995 Afghanistan Rehabilitation Steering Committees, Volume IV Summary Conclusions and Activitiesfrom10/1995to 3/1996, Islamabad- Pakistan, November 1995.

UNHCR 1995 MemorandumofAgreement, ProjectDocumentfor Infrastructure Rehabilitation of Zahir -Shah Canal Rehabilitation, Phase I, Kandahar, February, 1995 and document for Derweshan Main Canal Protection Work at Mian Pushta: Canal Protection Dike, Kandahar, !/1995.

UNHCR 1996 Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) Status Report (for Mazar- Sharif,Herat,JalalabadandKandahar),Programme Operation in Afghanistan, 1996.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report - 39 -

WFP 1995 Linking Relief and Development, Annual Report 1994, Rome, 1995.

8.4DATA BASES

ACBAR 1995 Database of NGO Activities,Volume I to VolumeIV, Peshawar, Pakistan, 1993 to 1995.

UNIDATA 1991 Population Estimates by Province, District and Sub District: a Graphic Presentation, Peshawar, Pakistan,April 1991.

8.5 MAPS AND SATELLITE IMAGES

OSC 1984 National Atlas of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, OrganizationforSurveying &Cartography,Warsaw, Poland, 1984.

UNIDATA 1990 Afghanistan Districts and Codes, by Province, Edition 1.1, UNIDATA Mapping Service Peshawar Pakistan, July 1990.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Water Resources and Irrigation Report ANNEX 2.

METEOROLOGICAL DATA

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report CONTENTS

Page

Station Altitude (mast) Latitude Longitude Table 1. Baghlan 510 36.12 68.45 1 Table 2. Bust 780 31.33 64.22 1 Table 3. Faizabad 1200 37.07 70.31 1 Table 4. Farah 660 32.21 62.09 2 Table 5. Ghazni 2183 33.32 68.25 2 Table 6. Ghelmin 2070 34.53 65.18 2 Table 7. Herat 964 34.13 63.13 3 Table 8. Jabul Saraj 1630 35.08 69.15 3 Table 9. Jalalabad 580 34.26 70.28 3 Table 10.Kabul 1791 34.33 69.13 4 Table 11.Qandahar 1010 31.30 65.51 4 Table 12.Kanzimir 1905 34.38 69.03 4 Table 13.Khost 1146 33.21 69.57 5 Table 14.Kunduz 433 36.40 68.55 5 Table 15. LaI 2800 34.30 66.18 5 Table 16.Maimana 815 35.55 64.45 6 Table 17.Mazar- i -Sharif 378 36.42 67.12 6 Table 18.Qadis 1280 34.48 63.25 6 Table 19.Shebirghan 360 36.40 65.43 7

Legend: masl metres above sea level T max mean maximum daily temperature in degrees Celsius T min mean minimum daily temperature in degrees Celsius Rel hum % mean monthly relative humidity as per cent Wind mean daily total wind run in kilometres Sunshine mean daily sunshine duration in hours Radiation mean daily solar radiation in thousand joules /square metre ETO mean daily (potential) reference evapotranspiration in millimetres P96 mean monthly total precipitation in millimetres Pe96 mean monthly effective rainfall in millimetres

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 2. Page 1

Afghanistan Meteorological Data from Selected Stations

Table 1.Station: Baghlan Altitude: 510 masl Latitude: 36.12 Longitude 68.45 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 8.2 -2.5 87 78 3.4 7.4 0.8 30 29 Feb 10.8 0.3 88 95 4.5 10.3 1.1 40 37 Mar 16.1 5.2 81 95 5.0 13.5 1.9 62 56 Apr 22.1 10.0 84 95 6.4 17.7 2.8 62 56 May 29.0 13.6 75 95 8.6 22.4 4.3 30 29 Jun 35.8 16.7 57 86 10.6 25.6 5.6 0 0 Jul 37.4 18.5 58 69 10.7 25.5 5.6 0 0 Aug 36.2 16.3 58 43 10.5 23.9 4.9 0 0 Sep 31.7 11.7 61 69 9.8 20.4 4.1 0 0 Oct 24.7 7.0 68 78 7.2 14.1 2.6 0 0 Nov 15.0 1.7 77 69 5.9 10.1 1.4 24 23 Dec 9.3 -1.5 87 69 3.7 7.1 0.8 23 22 Total 271 252 Av /m 23.0 8.2 73 78 7.2 16.5 3.0 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 2.Station: Bust Altitude: 780 masl Latitude: 31.33 Longitude64.22 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 15.0 0.6 61 173 6.6 11.6 2.0 21 20 Feb 17.9 3.4 67 173 6.3 13.4 2.4 16 16 Mar 24.5 8.9 54 164 8.5 19.1 3.8 21 20 Apr 28.9 12.3 55 156 8.3 21.1 4.8 13 13 May 35.4 17.6 43 156 10.4 25.3 6.4 3 3 Jun 40.6 21.2 32 156 9.6 24.4 7.2 0 0 Jul 41.7 23.9 32 156 10.1 25.0 7.5 0 0 Aug 39.9 20.8 32 156 10.9 25.1 7.2 0 0 Sep 35.5 14.8 34 173 10.7 22.7 6.4 0 0 Oct 29.7 9.1 44 130 8.5 16.9 4.1 0 0 Nov 22.1 3.6 60 121 8.5 14.0 2.6 3 3 Dec 16.6 0.3 55 156 6.7 11.0 2.1 12 12 Total 89 87 Av /m 29.0 11.4 47 156 8.8 19.1 4.7 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 3.Station: Faizabad Altitude: 1200 masl Latitude: 37.07 Longitude70.31 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km/day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 6.7 -4.7 82 60 3.8 7.5 0.7 43 40 Feb 8.5 -3.0 80 69 4.0 9.6 1.0 80 70 Mar 14.5 2.3 78 86 4.3 12.5 1.7 101 85 Apr 20.1 6.7 77 86 5.9 16.9 2.7 99 83 May 24.4 9.2 75 78 8.0 21.4 3.8 88 73 Jun 32.7 13.5 56 104 9.9 24.6 5.3 8 8 Jul 35.4 16.0 43 112 9.4 23.6 5.7 11 11

Aug 35.5 14.9 37 69 9.8 22.7 4.9 1 1 Sep 30.1 9.7 44 69 8.6 18.6 3.8 2 2

Oct - 22.7 6.0 65 60 7.1 13.7 2.3 28 27 Nov 15.6 1.0 75 52 5.2 9.2 1.2 29 28 Dec 9.5 -2.5 79 52 4.3 7.3 0.8 31 29 Total 521 457 Av /m 21.3 5.8 66 75 6.7 15.6 2.8 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 4.Station: Farah

. Altitude: 660 mast Latitude: 32.21 Longitude 62.09 Years of records: 11 Month ' T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 15.9 0.8 65 121 6.9 11.6 1.7 18 17 Feb 18.1 3.6 65 130 6.9 13.9 2.3 24 23 Mar 23.8 8.6 65 156 7.5 17.5 3.5 13 13 Apr 28.7 12.8 59 121 8.2 20.9 4.3 8 8 May 35.0 17.1 49 121 10.7 25.7 5.9 2 2 Jun 40.4 22.0 38 121 11.6 27.3 6.9 0 0 Jul 42.3 24.3 38 164 10.9 26.0 7.8 0 0 Aug 40.7 21.2 44 112 11.1 25.2 6.6 0 0 Sep 36.0 16.3 45 147 10.4 22.0 5.9 0 0 Oct 30.2 10.0 51 121 9.2 17.4 4.0 0 0 Nov 22.8 2.7 56 95 7.8 13.1 2.4 3 3 Dec 17.4 -0.3 58 86 6.8 10.9 1.6 9 9 Total 77 75 Av /m 29.2 11.6 52 124 9.0 19.3 4.4 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 5.Station: Ghazni Altitude: 2183 mast Latitude: 33.32 Longitude 68.25 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 1.6 -10.7 75 251 5.6 10.0 1.1 41 38 Feb 3.9 -8.1 77 251 6.7 13.3 1.4 45 42 Mar 11.1 -1.1 70 268 7.7 17.5 2.4 67 60 Apr 17.1 3.5 67 259 8.4 20.9 3.6 60 54 May 23.1 7.2 57 294 9.4 23.7 5.2 24 23 Jun 28.8 11.7 48 276 11.5 27.2 6.6 2 2 Jul 30.8 14.5 54 276 11.2 26.4 6.7 14 14 Aug 30.3 13.9 47 285 11.2 25.3 6.7 1 1 Sep 26.8 8.0 44 276 10.7 22.2 5.7 0 0 Oct 19.9 1.9 54 268 8.9 16.8 3.8 1 1 Nov 12.2 3.1 66 242 8.3 13.2 2.2 11 11 Dec 5.3 7.5 68 251 6.9 10.5 1.4 26 25 Total 292 271 Av /m 17.6 4.3 60 266 8.8 18.9 3.9 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 6.Station: Ghelmin Altitude: 2070 masl Latitude: 34.53 Longitude65.18 Years of records: 6 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 2.0 -12.7 75 86 4.8 8.9 0.9 33 31 Feb 4.9 -7.6 75 95 4.4 10.5 1.0 30 29 Mar 10.1 -0.5 75 86 5.2 14.1 1.7 44 41 Apr 16.3 3.1 70 147 6.2 17.7 2.8 50 46 May 21.6 5.0 64 138 9.1 23.3 4.2 20 19 Jun 27.1 7.1 55 147 11.3 26.8 5.4 0 0 Jul 28.9 8.7 56 173 11.6 26.9 5.8 2 2 Aug 29.2 7.2 55 138 10.9 24.6 5.2 0 0 Sep 25.1 2.5 58 95 9.4 20.2 3.8 0 0 Oct 19.6 -0.5 64 104 7.2 14.4 2.5 8 8 Nov 12.3 -5.0 75 112 5.9 10.4 1.5 7 2 Dec 6.4 -8.4 72 86 5.1 8.6 1.0 28 27 Total 222 205 Av /m 16.9 0.0 66 117 7.6 17.2 3.0 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 7.Station: Herat Altitude: 964 masl Latitude: 34.13 Lonoitude 63.13 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 10.4 -2.9 76 199 4.3 8.6 1.4 45 42 Feb 13.2 0.0 75 225 4.4 10.6 1.9 35 33 Mar 18.6 4.2 67 276 5.2 14.2 3.1 48 44 Apr 23.6 8.3 70 233 5.6 16.8 3.8 32 30 May 29.0 13.2 53 242 9.3 23.5 5.9 8 8 Jun 34.6 18.3 44 294 11.4 27.0 8.0 0 0 Jul 36.4 21.2 39 397 1.7 27.1 9.7 0 0 Aug 35.2 19.1 37 363 11.3 25.3 8.9 0 0 Sep 31.4 13.2 45 251 10.4 21.6 6.3 0 0 Oct 25.4 6.9 54 199 8.0 15.5 4.0 1 1 Nov 17.4 0.6 66 164 6.0 10.7 2.2 9 9 Dec 12.4 -2.0 73 164 4.4 8.1 1.5 33 31 Total 241 198 Av /m 24.0 8.3 58 251 7.7 17.4 4.7 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 8.Station: Jabul Saraj Altitude: 1630 masl Latitude: 35.08 Lonoitude 69.15 Years of records: 10 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 5.9 -0.2 59 112 5.8 9.8 1.1 52 48 Feb 6.8 0.7 66 147 5.9 12.0 1.5 86 74 Mar 14.1 5.8 54 233 6.4 15.5 2.8 109 90 Apr 18.2 10.2 52 199 7.1 18.9 3.7 142 110 May 23.8 14.8 42 276 9.9 24.3 5.8 35 33 Jun 29.3 20.8 28 320 11.5 27.1 8.0 1 1 Jul 31.4 23.2 27 363 11.4 26.7 8.9 3 3 Aug 28.8 21.9 26 320 10.8 24.4 7.8 1 1 Sep 27.7 18.3 25 242 10.0 20.9 6.1 3 3 Oct 22.5 12.7 36 164 8.2 15.5 3.7 9 9 Nov 15.2 5.9 40 147 7.3 11.7 2.3 22 21 Dec 8.5 0.7 53 95 5.6 9.0 1.2 36 34 Total 499 427 Av /m 19.3 11.2 42 218 8.3 18.0 4.4 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 9.Station: Jalalabad Altitude: 580 msal Latitude: 34.26 Longitude70.28 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 16.0 2.6 67 78 6.2 10.3 1.3 19 18 Feb 18.6 6.0 61 86 6.6 12.9 1.9 22 21 Mar 22.9 10.9 70 86 6.7 16.1 2.7 36 34 Apr 27.4 15.0 69 95 7.1 19.0 3.7 33 31 May 34.0 19.2 56 112 9.1 23.3 5.3 18 17 Jun 40.6 24.8 43 104 11.0 26.4 6.6 1 1 Jul 39.8 27.1 53 104 10.7 25.6 6.6 6 6 Aug 38.3 26.7 59 78 9.7 23.0 5.7 2 2 Sep 35.5 22.0 59 60 9.5 20.4 4.5 3 3 Oct 30.4 14.7 63 69 8.6 16.1 3.2 7 7 Nov 22.9 6.5 72 86 7.1 11.7 2.1 8 8 Dec 17.2 2.9 69 69 6.2 9.7 1.3 16 16 Total 171 164 Av /m 28.6 14.9 62 85 8.2 17.9 3.7 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 10. Station: Kabul Altitude: 1791 masl Latitude: 34.33 Longitude 69.13 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 5.5 -7.4 73 112 5.6 9.7 1.0 37 35 Feb 6.8 -4.8 70 112 6.4 12.8 1.3 59 53 Mar 13.2 1.4 71 156 6.3 15.5 2.2 67 60 Apr 18.3 5.5 70 147 7.4 19.3 3.2 78 68 May 23.8 8.6 60 199 9.8 24.3 4.8 21 20 Jun 29.5 12.1 49 207 11.6 27.2 6.3 0 0 Jul 32.2 14.8 50 225 11.3 26.5 6.7 6 6 Aug 32.1 14.0 50 156 11.0 24.9 5.8 0 0 Sep 28.8 9.2 54 130 9.9 20,9 4.5 2 2 Oct 22.8 4.0 56 104 9.0 16.6 3.0 3 3 Nov 14.8 -1.2 66 112 7.8 12.4 1.8 11 11 Dec 8.5 -5.1 69 104 6.2 9.7 1.1 19 18 Total 303 276 Av /m 19.7 4.2 62 147 8.5 18.3 3.5 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 11. Station: Qandahar Altitude: 1010 masl Latitude: 31.3 Longitude65.61 Years of records: 8 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 13.2 0.1 56 259 6.5 11.5 2.4 51 47 Feb 15.9 3.1 60 233 6.2 13.3 2.6 35 33 Mar 22.9 7.5 51 190 7.9 18.3 3.9 31 29 Apr 27.6 12.2 47 199 7.8 20.4 5.5 12 12 May 33.9 15.5 32 199 11.5 26.9 7.1 1 1 Jun 39.0 19.2 27 164 12.5 28.7 7.7 0 0 Jul 40.4 22.7 25 173 11.6 27.2 7.9 2 2 Aug 38.6 20.0 23 147 11.4 25.9 7.0 0 0 Sep 34.1 13.6 24 147 10.7 22.7 5.9 0 0 Oct 28.5 8.8 32 147 9.9 18.5 4.4 2 2 Nov 21.9 3.3 40 147 8.7 14.3 3.0 6 6 Dec 15.8 0.3 51 1'90 7.8 12.0 2.4 18 17 Total 158 149 Av /m 27.6 10.5 39 183 9.4 20.0 4.9 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 12. Station: Karizimir Altitude: 1905 mast Latitude: 34.38 Longitude 69.03 Years of records: 13 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 4.6 -7.1 64 86 6.4 10.4 1.0 44 41 Feb 6.4 -5.1 67 86 6.5 12.9 1.3 60 54 Mar 12.6 0.6 69 95 6.3 15.5 2.0 99 83 Apr 17.0 4.6 72 104 7.5 19.5 2.9 121 98 May 22.9 7.1 63 112 9.4 23.7 4.2 31 29 Jun 28.5 10.4 53 104 11.0 26.4 5.2 3 3 Jul 30.8 13.1 50 121 10.8 25.9 5.6 7 7 Aug 30.8 12.5 49 86 10.6 24.3 4.9 1 1 Sep 27.2 8.8 49 86 9.8 20.7 4.0 3 3 Oct 21.4 3.8 53 86 8.9 16.4 2.7 7 7 Nov 13.7 -1.4 56 86 7.3 11.9 1.6 27 26 Dec 7.8 -4.9 59 78 6.2 9.6 1.1 30 29 Total 433 381 Av /m 18.6 3.5 59 94 8.4 18.1 3.0 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 13. Station: Khost Altitude: 1146 masl Latitude: 33.21 Longitude69.57 Years of records: 8 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 13.4 -1.1 61 130 7.3 11.7 1.6 15 15 Feb 14.8 1.9 66 138 6.8 13.5 2.0 39 37 Mar 19.6 6.5 66 147 7.5 17.3 2.9 55 50 Apr 23.9 10.1 63 147 7.2 19.3 3.8 76 67 May 29.7 14.2 54 138 9.4 23.7 5.2 40 37 Jun 35.3 20.0 54 147 9.8 24.7 6.1 17 17 Jul 33.9 21.9 64 164 8.3 22.2 5.7 82 71 Aug 32.8 21.4 65 130 8.1 20.8 5.1 52 48 Sep 30.8 16.7 63 147 8.9 19.9 4.7 33 31 Oct 26.2 11.1 57 138 8.8 16.7 3.6 7 7 Nov 19.9 3.4 60 147 8.0 12.9 2.5 10 10 Dec 14.8 -0.5 60 138 6.5 10.3 1.8 22 21 Total 448 411 Av /m 24.6 10.5 61 142 8.0 17.8 3.8 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 14. Station: Kunduz Altitude:433 masl Latitude: 36.4 Lonoitude68.55 Years of records:12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 7.3 -2.4 84 121 3.4 7.2 0.8 39 37 Feb 10.6 0.9 82 147 4.5 10.1 1.2 55 50 Mar 16.1 5.7 82 147 5.0 13.4 1.9 75 66 Apr 22.2 10.9 80 156 6.4 17.7 3.0 67 60 May 29.6 14.9 65 156 8.8 22.6 4.9 41 38 Jun 37.1 20.5 36 173 10.6 25.7 7.1 0 0 Jul 38.7 23.1 35 190 10.7 25.5 7.7 2 2 Aug 37.0 21.4 35 181 10.6 23.9 7.1 0 0 Sep 31.8 15.9 38 173 9.8 20.3 5.6 0 0 Oct 24.2 9.9 52 156 7.1 13.8 3.4 8 8 Nov 15.5 3.5 69 121 5.8 9.9 1.7 26 25 Dec 9.5 -1.0 83 121 3.7 7.0 0.9 36 34 Total 349 320 Av /m 23.3 10.3 62 153 7.2 16.4 3.8 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 15. Station: Lal Altitude:2800 masl Latitude: 34.3 Lonoitude66.18 Years of records: 6 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan -5.4 -21.4 98 95 5.4 9.6 0.6 24 23 Feb -2.3 -15.9 91 112 4.9 11.2 0.8 44 41 Mar 3.5 -8.0 85 121 6.2 15.4 1.4 43 40 Apr 9.7 -1.7 82 130 6.5 18.1 2.2 68 61 May 16.0 0.9 72 130 9.7 24.1 3.6 37 35 Jun 22.3 3.0 73 104 11.9 27.7 4.6 4 4 Jul 25.2 4.8 70 121 12.0 27.5 5.0 0 0 Aug 24.9 3.4 66 104 11.5 25.6 4.6 0 0 Sep 20.7 -1.9 65 95 10.9 22.2 3.6 0 0 Oct 13.9 -3.9 69 112 8.6 16.1 2.3 16 16 Nov 6.3 -8.9 75 86 7.2 11.8 1.2 25 24 Dec 2.3 -14.9 79 78 5.8 9.3 0.8 21 20 Total 282 264 Av /m 11.4 -5.4 77 97 8.4 18.2 2.6 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 16. Station: Maimana Altitude: 815 masl Latitude: 35.55 Longitude 64.45 Years of records:11 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 8.8 -1.9 82 156 4.2 8.1 1.0 48 44 Feb 10.2 3.0 73 164 4.4 10.2 1.4 56 51 Mar 14.0 5.6 75 164 5.2 13.9 2.1 90 77 Apr 19.9 8.8 76 164 5.6 16.7 2.9 68 61 May 26.8 12.1 66 164 9.3 23.4 4.8 34 32 Jun 33.6 15.3 48 164 11.5 27.1 6.5 2 2 Jul 35.4 17.6 45 164 11.8 27.1 6.9 1 1 Aug 34.1 16.2 42 164 11.3 25.1 6.4 0 0 Sep 29.5 11.8 44 156 10.4 21.2 5.0 0 0 Oct 21.9 6.8 54 173 8.0 15.0 3.3 10 10 Nov 15.3 3.0 66 164 5.9 10.2 1.9 28 27 Dec 10.6 -0.4 77 173 4.3 7.6 1.2 35 33 Total 372 338 Av /m 21.7 8.2 62 164 7.6 17.1 3.6 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Table 17. Station: Mazar -i- Sharif Altitude:378 masl Latitude: 36.42 Lonoitude 67.12 Years of records: 12 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 9.1 -2.0 82 147 3.7 7.5 1.0 26 25 Feb 11.8 0.5 86 199 4.4 10.0 1.3 33 31 Mar 16.6 5.2 80 225 4.6 13.0 2.2 40 37 Apr 23.7 10.9 72 173 6.1 17.3 3.4 33 31 May 30.8 16.2 53 181 9.8 24.0 5.7 12 12 Jun 36.7 22.1 34 225 8.4 22.5 7.5 2 2 Jul 38.6 25.5 30 251 11.4 26.5 9.0 0 0 Aug 37.1 23.7 28 216 10.8 24.3 7.9 0 0 Sep 31.8 16.9 33 156 9.5 19.9 5.5 0 0 Oct 24.5 9.1 48 164 7.6 14.4 3.6 5 5 Nov 15.9 2.6 67 147 5.5 9.6 1.9 16 16 Dec 10.5 -0.7 78 147 4.8 7.8 1.1 23 22 Total 190 181 Av /m 23.9 10.8 58 186 7.2 16.4 4.2 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul1981

Table 18. Station: Qadis Altitude: 1280 mast Latitude: 34.48 Longitude 63.25 Years of records: Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 7.0 -2.6 63 302 4.3 8.5 1.7 46 43 Feb 6.9 -1.2 68 181 4.4 10.5 1.4 39 37 Mar 14.0 3.5 67 173 5.2 14.1 2.2 66 59 Apr 18.1 7.7 67 147 5.6 16.8 3.0 48 44 May 23.2 10.0 68 104 9.3 23.5 4.1 28 27 Jun 28.9 12.8 49 130 11.5 27.0 5.6 0 0 Jul 30.4 14.6 47 147 11.7 27.1 6.0 1 1 Aug 29.9 14.9 36 156 11.3 25.2 5.8 0 0 Sep 25.4 10.0 39 147 10.4 21.5 4.6 2 2 Oct 19.9 6.2 54 130 8.0 15.4 2.8 23 22 Nov 14.7 2.8 57 130 6.0 10.5 1.8 22 21 Dec 11.3 1.5 58 251 4.4 8.0 1.9 48 44 Total 323 300 Av /m 19.1 6.7 56 166 7.6 17.3 3.4 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

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Table 19.Station: Sherberghan Altitude:360 masl Latitude: 36.4 Longitude65.43 Years of records: 8 Month T max T min Relative Wind SunshineRadiation ETO P96 Pe96 deg C deg C hum % km /day hrs /day mj /m d mm /d mm mm Jan 7.3 -1.5 79 207 0.8 6.7 1.1 38 36 Feb 10.1 1.0 79 225 4.5 10.1 1.4 39 37 Mar 15.7 5.9 76 225 4.7 13.1 2.2 41 38 Apr 22.1 10.5 72 181 6.0 17.1 3.3 33 31 May 30.5 14.2 50 190 9.6 23.8 5.8 7 7 Jun 36.3 18.9 41 173 11.9 27.5 7.2 0 0 Jul 37.8 21.5 40 173 12.1 27.5 7.5 0 0 Aug 37.0 19.7 36 164 11.5 25.2 6.9 0 0 Sep 31.4 14.6 42 164 9.6 20.1 5.3 0 0 Oct 23.6 10.4 49 173 6.8 13.6 3.5 12 12 Nov 16.7 5.1 63 164 6.0 10.0 2.0 15 15 Dec 9.1 1.4 75 190 3.9 7.1 1.2 29 28 Total 214 204 Av /m 23.1 10.1 58 186 7.5 - 16.8 3.9 Source: Department of Meteorology, Department of Transport and Tourism Kabul 1981

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report ANNEX 3.

THE WATER LAW ISSUED IN 1981

Irrigation and Water Resources Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 3. Page 1

THE WATER LAW ISSUED IN 1981

Chapter One

General Provisions Article One

This law has been enacted based on the values enshrined in the Basic Principlesof the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan with a view to effectively using water to meet the needs of the people and the national economy, conserve the sources and reasonably utilising the water resources and preserving the rights of the users.

Article Two

Water belongs to the people and is preserved by the government.

Article Three

Water sources comprise the following:

1. Rivers,streams,canals,marshes, drainage outlets,reservoirs and other overground sources. 2. Springs, tube wells, regular wells and other underground sources. 3. Glaciers.

Article Four

Water resources can be used by enterprises, government agencies, joint public and private ventures, cooperatives, social organisations and by the nationals of the People's Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.

Article Five

Water can be used, in the light of this law and according to national and historical traditions, to meet the needs for drinking, living and other requirements of the people in agriculture, industry, public services, energy, transport, etc.

In using water, priority is given to water for drinking and other living requirements.

Article Six

Use of water shall be free of charge.

Article Seven

Water installations such as irrigation systems, tube wells, regular wells, water pipes, water -pumps and other facilities can be owned by the government, cooperatives or private enterprises and allowed to be purchased or sold.

Article Eight

Owners of irrigation systems can levy charges on water users in order to meet the maintenance cost of their installations whose amount is to be determined according to

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local customs agreed upon between the owners and the users to be confirmed by the Local Government Organs.

Repairs and clearing of the installations,if carried out by the users, can be taken proportionately into account when commuting the charges.

Article Nine

The rights of the users shall be protected by law.In case the right of a user is usurped or curbed, he shall be compensated for it according to law.

Chapter Two

Article Ten

Computation of water reserves, preparing annual plans to develop and expand irrigation on a national level, devising plans for distribution of water among users, designing a water balance and drawing maps for the complex use and water conservation, control and distribution and a reasonable use of water shall be carried out by the Ministry of Water and Electricity of the Republic of Afghanistan.

Article Eleven

The Ministry of Water and Electricity shall create and equip with technical equipment, if necessary, the irrigation systems and offices of construction and installations of irrigation tobuild, improve and repair irrigation systems and installationsin the provinces according to law.

Based on Article 7 of Decree No. 8 of the Revolutionary Council Concerning Land, the costs of improvements and repairs of irrigation systems shall be paid for according to loan contracts with the Agricultural Development Bank upon application by individual farmers or cooperatives under favourable terms.

Article Twelve

Matters related to public irrigation systems shall be organised by the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

And those pertaining to irrigation installations and system whose maintenance costs are paid for by individual farmers, cooperatives and farmers' unions shall be organised through farmers' committees chosen by farmers themselves headed by the local chief water supervises or his assistant.

Article Thirteen

Craftsmen,merchants,industrialplants,publicservicesinstitutionsandother agencies shall utilise water according to permits from the related organs of the Ministry of Water and Electricity in which the objectives and conditions of use shall be specified.

Use of water without such specifications shall be prohibited.

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Article Fourteen

In order to distribute water on a just and equitable basis, the chief water supervisor or his assistants or the representatives of water users shall submit, through approved forms, their application for the water they shall need and report back about the amount so used.

Article Fifteen

Designing and building constructions and installations beside sources of water such as the river banks, water reservoirs and public canals and likewise sinking deep and other types of wells using water -pumps shall be permissible only by the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

Article Sixteen

In the case of a drought or inclement weather affecting water resources or under extraordinary circumstances resulting in water scarcity, the Ministry of Water and Electricity can, in agreement with the Local Government Organs, restrict the use of water providing that this shall not reduce the amount of drinking water.

Chapter Three

Use of Water in Agriculture

Article Seventeen

According to Article 6 of Decree No. 8 of the Revolutionary Council Concerning Land, the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform shall fix the annual capacity of water on a national level and accordingly determine the water rights of each "jerib ", i.e. half an acre.

Article Eighteen

Water needed for irrigation is distributed according to official documents confirmed by water rights, taking into account the local practice.

Article Nineteen

Water shall flow into public irrigation systems under the supervision of the Office to Organise Irrigation Systems based on agreement between the Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform Ministries.

Article Twenty

Water running into irrigation systems whose maintenance costsare paid for by the farmers, cooperatives and unions of farmers is distributed by farmers' committees headed by the chief water supervisor or one of his assistants in turns fixed by the general assembly of water users.

Article Twenty -One

The chief water supervisor shall settle all disputes in connection with water rights and water distribution on behalf of water users. The chief water supervisors shall

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 3.Page 4

cooperate with organs of the Ministriesof Water and Electricity and Agricultureand Land Reform with respect to technicalmatters and report about theirperformance to the assemblies of water users.

Article Twenty -Two

The chief water supervisors remunerationshall be paid for by water users.

In case the chief water supervisor andhis assistant discharge their dutiesdiligently and honestly and actively cooperatewith the Ministry of Water and Electricityin connection with irrigation, they shall be rewardedby the latter.

Article Twenty -Three

The meeting of the users to collectively settleall the disputes from water distribution shall be held by the chief water supervisor orhis assistant at least once a month.

Article Twenty -Four

The general assembly of water users usingwater from irrigation systems shall settle matters related to water distribution ingeneral assemblies held by the chief water supervisor or his assistant at least twice a year.

The general assembly shall be participatedby a representative of the Local Government Organ to settle the following matters: and members of the committees 1. Elect the chief water supervisor, his assistants of farmers for a definite period. 2. Fix the remuneration of the chief watersupervisor. 3. Review and confirm the proposals of thechief water supervisor about water to be distributed among the users for irrigation. 4. Shall determine the volume of allcollective works with respect to clearing, repairing and improving the irrigation systemsand fix the deadlines for each piece of work. constructions 5. Certify contracts with various organisations regarding improvement and repair of irrigations systemsand water installations. 6. Certify applications for credits from theAgricultural Development Bank in connection with improvement and repairer irrigationsystems. 7. Consider explanations furnished by the chiefwater supervises or his assistant about water distribution, the statement ofaccounts for the credit obtained from the Agricultural Development Bank and theresults of the collective work on irrigation systems. 8. Review other matters which could be resolvedcollectively.

Article Twenty -Five

The government encourages the developmentand expansion of irrigation.

To encourage farmers who build irrigationinstallations and water their dry -cropping lands on their own shall pay land taxes for15 years payable for dry- cropping areas, computable from the first year during which thedry- cropping land is brought under irrigation.In the case of converting the dry- croppinglands to irrigated ones, the surplus from the ceiling fixed for land owns shipshall not be sequestered from cooperatives and farmers.

Irrigation and Water Resources Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 3. Page 5

Chapter Four

Article Twenty -Six

Water for drinking and other domestic purposes can be obtained from sources whose quality conform to the specifications determined by the Ministry of Public Health.

Article Twenty -Seven

Organisations and offices making available to the people water for drinking and domestic purposes through concentrated water -supply systemsshallregularly supervise the sanitary status of the sources of water.In case the quality of water deteriorates, the matter shall be immediately reported to the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

Article Twenty -Eight

Those who use water for industrial purposes shall be obliged to observe the plans and norms about water consumption approved by the authorities concerned.

Article Twenty -Nine

Water used to generate energy can be utilised in agriculture, industry, public services and transportation to meet the multipurpose public demand for water.

Article Thirty

Streams, canals and other sources of water fit for ferrying can be used according to regulations concerning exploitation of water for transport.

Article Thirty -One

The transport of timber by water is permissible according to rules after obtaining permit from the Water and Electricity Ministry.

Article Thirty -Two

Water needed for fire engines could be obtained from all sources as much as required.

Chapter Five

Article Thirty -Three

In order to prevent from pollution of water sources, the Ministry of Water and Electricity in cooperation with those of Public Health and Agriculture and Land Reform shall adopt the necessary measures which are to be observed by all concerned.

Article Thirty -Four

It is strictly prohibited to pollute water sources with industrial waste waters and those from public service utilities.

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Article Thirty -Five

Those using water for industrial or domestic purposes are obliged toobserve the rules of the organs of the Ministries of Water and Electricity and PublicHealth regarding the purification of waste waters. They shall be permitted to mix suchpurified water with that used by the public after this process.

Article Thirty -Six

In order to conserve the level of water sources above and under theground to be used by the people through water -supply systems, the Local GovernmentOrgans in cooperation with the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Public Healthdetermine sanitary areas and the matter is brought to the attention of the public.

Article Thirty -Seven

Control on the implementation of measures adopted by the authorities concerned about water is exercised by the Ministry Water and Electricity and the water quality by the Ministry of Public Health.

Article Thirty -Eight

The Emergency Preparedness Department of the Council of Ministers and the Committee to Combat Disasters are to prevent from the grave consequences of flooding, land slides, floods and other unpredictable phenomena by adopting the necessary measures.

Under such circumstances, the above organs can restrict the water rights of water users before overcomingof the effects of these disasters.

Chapter Six

Settlement of Disputes and Responsibilities

Article Thirty -Nine

Dispute between farmers and others stemming from water distribution and use in agriculture are settled by the chief water supervisor in the presence of both parties.In case the parties do not agree to the decision make by the chief watersupervisor or his assistant, the matter is referred to the Farmers' Committee.

Article Forty

Disputes arising from the use of water among cooperatives, state farms, industrial plants, public service organisations, crafts -men, merchants, etc. shall be settled by the Local Government Organs.

1. Disputes among water users in one particular "woloswali" shall be settled by the Local Government Organ of the same.

Disputes among water users in various "woloswalis" shall be settled by the provincial organs of the Ministry of Water and Electricity in agreement with the Provincial Local Government Organs.

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Article Forty -One

A person who misuses the water rights of another shall pay compensationto the person so damaged.

Article Forty -Two

A person who purposely destroys or damages water installations built based on the provisions of this law shall be liable to punishment according to law.

Chapter Seven

Article Forty -Three

Computing the utilisation of water sources, the development and expansion of water - supply system, use of water for agricultural and non -agricultural purposes, water conservation, maintenance oh water installation and water -supply and irrigation systems shall be organised through special regulations not contrary to the provisions of this law.

Article Forty -Four

This law shall come into effect after publication in the Official Gazette and thereafter paragraph 2 of Article 5 and Article 24 of the 8th Decree of the Revolutionary Council on land and the provisions of other laws running counter tothis one shall be considered null and void.

REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE USE OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE

Chapter One

General Provision

Article One

These regulators were enacted according to Article 43 of the Water Law with a view to using water in agriculture.

Article Two

Water needed for agriculture shall be made available to users based on the plan for use of water and likewise the valid documents on land ownershipand water rights in accordance with local practice.

Article Three

Use of water according to a plan shall ensure equitable distribution thereof to users and effective utilisation of irrigable lands.

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Article Four

The following terms connote the following meanings in these regulations:

1. "Use of Water" means water utilisation by a person deserving water for the purposes of agriculture. 2. "Irrigation system" means the complex of irrigation installations to meet the needs of farmers, cooperatives, state farms and users in connection with irrigation. 3. "Irrigation Regime" means the aggregate irrigation specifications and technology consisting of irrigation frequency specifying the irrigation times, period, amounts and norms. 4. "Irrigation Norm" means the necessary amount of water needed for one "jerib" ie, half an acre under irrigation for raising certain crops in one irrigation.

Chapter Two

Water Distribution Article Five

A person can use water for irrigation whose water rights pertaining to a specific area under irrigation are recorded in his documents concerned, based on local practice.

Article Six

The amount of water needed for irrigation shall be determined according to the area under cultivation, the kind of crop, the irrigation regime, the water rights documents, the local practice and the amount of water in its source.

Article Seven

Water shall be used in irrigation system based on plans for use and distribution of water from the same system approved by the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform.

Article Eight

Irrigation norm for the crops shall be prepared and approved by the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform.

In the case of absence of such approved norms, those commensurate with local practices shall be used.

Article Nine

During drought years,the organs of theMinistryof Water andElectricityin cooperation wilt the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform and in participation of the chief water supervises and his assistants shall adopted the necessary measures on time about the redistribution of waters taking into account the priority of certain crops.

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Article Ten

In case the irrigation system begins to exploit a new source of water, new documents are prepared to record the water rights of farmers with lands under irrigation by the system from the same source.

The changes so brought about are also registered in the Land Tax Register.

Article Eleven

Should the dry- cropping lands be converted into irrigated ones as a result of building irrigation systems paid for by cooperatives and farmers, this shall not affect the areas owned by cooperatives and farmers.

Based on the conditions provided in Paragraph 1 of this Article, the cooperatives and farmers will enjoy land tax concessions under Article 25 of the Water Law.

Article Twelve

Dry cropping or fallow lands can use the existing irrigation system when there is available in the system some surplus water certified by the organs of the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform.

Article Thirteen

Flour mills operated by water and non -agricultural organisations can get the water they need from the main or subsidiary canals under the following conditions:

1. If there exists in the canal some surplus water. 2. If the lands under irrigation and the residential areas are not affected. 3. If the water for drinking is not polluted and its quality not changed. 4. Special permits shall be necessary from the organs of the Ministry of Water and Electricity in agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform.

Article Fourteen

In case the headworks of an irrigation system in a certain province are fed by a source whose water is needed for the same province, the water shall be distributed according to a plan drawn by the provincial organ of the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

Article Fifteen

In case the source of water is used by two or more provinces, its water is distributed through the Ministry of Water and Electricityin agreement with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform based on plans prepared for water use by each province.

Article Sixteen

Disputes arising from use of water among the water users shall be settled according to Articles 39 and 40 of the Water Law.

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Chapter Three

Management of Irrigation Systems

Article Seventeen

While the irrigation system is maintained by the organs of the Ministryof Water and Electricity, the management and supervision of water reservoirstogether with their annexes, the main canals and their installations,the distribution dykes for irrigation shall be the duty of the Irrigation Department concerned.

Article Eighteen

Repair and improvement of the irrigation system and promotion ofagricultural affairs in the areas under the same irrigation system shall be carried out and the areasto be irrigated shall be taken into account when drawing the plans for water use.

Article Nineteen

Canals and their installations located lower than the water distribution shallbe included in the land ownership using the same dyke for irrigation supervisedby the chief water supervisor or his assistant.

Article Twenty

The plan for use of water in areas under the irrigation system shall be preparedby the irrigation technician or assistant water distribution supervisor according to the rules approved by the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and LandReform, taking into account the area under cultivation, the irrigation norm, the types of crops and other factors affecting the use of water, with the help of LocalGovernment Organs and the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

Article Twenty -One

The provincial irrigation organs shall prepare and submit to the office of theprovincial government one month ahead of the irrigation season for approval the general water distribution plan according to the rules approved by the Ministry of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform, taking into account the amount of water flowing into the water sources.

Article Twenty -Two

The water distribution plan from the irrigation system shall include the areas under and the amount and norm of irrigation and such likes for a span of three to five years. However, minor changes are permissible in this plan.

Article Twenty -Three

The main duties of the provincial irrigation organs of the Water and Electricity Ministry are as follows:

1. Study and survey water sources and supervise the same. 2. Determine the right of using water from irrigation systems. 3. Draw annual plans for use of water.

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4. Supervise the effective utilisation of water from the water sources or irrigation installations. 5. Determine the volume of work and prepare the plans for the participation of land users in collective work in connection with the irrigation system concerned. 6. Organise collective work to combat floods and other unpredictable phenomena in cooperation with the Emergency Preparedness Department of the Council of Ministers. 7. Control the management of the provincial irrigation system. 8. Adopt measures to develop irrigation. 9. Participate in the election of the chief water supervisor and his assistant for the irrigation system whose maintenance costs are paid for by the water users.

Article Twenty -Four

The main functions of the provincial organs of the Agriculture and Land Reform Ministry are:

1. Implement the irrigation regime and plans for watering the crops according to modern technology. 2. Help in effective utilisation of water needed for irrigation. 3. Assist in the activities of assistant water distribution supervisors in connection with water distribution to lands belonging to state farms, cooperatives and farmers based on their water rights whose maintenance costs are paid for by the water users. 4. Submit proposals to the authorised organs about redistribution of water needed to irrigate the areas under cultivation in case of unpredictable phenomena such as drought, earthquake, etc. 5. Prepare the documents concerned for the settling of disputes arising from use of water between individual water users and state farms. 6. Cooperate in preparing the water distribution plans with the local organs of the Ministry of Water and Electricity. 7. Cooperate in the activity to prepare the irrigation and drainage systems for the irrigation season and maintaining the installations concerned.

Article Twenty -Five

The irrigation departments shall guide the activity of the public irrigation systems, carry out matters related to water conservation, bringing water from the headwords to the areas under irrigation according to the plan for use of water, rendering to water users technical assistance in utilising water installations.

Article Twenty -Six

Maintenance of irrigation systems paid for by farmers, cooperatives and other water users shall be the duty of the farmers' committees elected at the general assembly of water users under the guidance of the chief water supervisor or his assistant.

Article Twenty -Seven

The general assembly of irrigation system users shall be held at least twice a year with the participation of Local Government Organs to settle the following matters:

1. Elect the chief water supervisor and members of the farmers' committees for a set period.

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2. Fix the remuneration of the chief water supervisor and those of hisassistants. 3. Review and certify the proposals of the chief water supervisor or those ofhis assistants regarding the distribution of water among the users duringirrigation season. 4. Identify all types of collective works including clearing, repairing and improving the irrigation systems, the period in which such pieces of work are carried out and the volume of work done by each water user. 5. Certify the contracts with organisations repairingor constructingirrigation systems or installations. 6. Certify the application for credit from the Agriculture Development Bank for repairing or improving the irrigation system. 7. Consider the report of the chief water supervisor or that of his assistant regarding activities concerning water distribution and consumption, the credit obtained from the Agricultural Development Bank and the results of collective work. 8. Review other matters to be settled collectively.

Article Twenty -Eight

The chief water supervisor and representatives of water users shall submit to the local organ of the Ministry of Water and Electricity the application for the waterneeded in special forms indicating the period for which the water is required.The chief water supervisor and his assistant showing special ability in preparing this application from shall be appreciated by the Ministry of Water and Electricity.

Article Twenty -Nine

The chief water supervisor and his assistant will cooperate with the organs of the Ministries of Water and Electricity and Agriculture and Land Reform on technical matters with respect to systems maintained on the expense of water users.

The irrigation activities of state farms shall be guided by their technicians.

Article Thirty -One

The assistant chief water supervisors are responsible before the water users for carrying out all technical instructions issued to them by their chiefs.

The chief supervisor and his assistants shall report to the general assembly of water users.

Chapter Four

Maintenance and Improvement of Irrigation Systems

Article Thirty -Two

Farmers, cooperatives, state farms and other water users are obliged to carry out pieces of work in connection with repairing, maintaining, supervising, improvement and developing the existing irrigation systems they are utilising.

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Article Thirty -Three

Repairing and improving the existing irrigation systems according to Article 7 of Decree No. 8 of the Revolutionary Council Concerning Land shall be carried out as follows:

1. Cooperatives, state farms, farmers and other water users utilising water from the same irrigationsystem shallsend throughlocalagricultureofficestheir applications to the provincial Agriculture Department. 2. The Provincial Irrigation System is obliged to study or revise the application on site and in case no surveying or designing would be necessary, allow the repair or improvement and advise on technical 3. In case it would be necessary to survey and design, the Provincial Irrigation Department of the Water and Electricity Ministry and let the applicant know about this. 4. Cooperatives, state farms, farmers and other water users can build physically the irrigation installations according to the approved designs.In case this would not be possible for them, they can entry into contracts with construction companies. 5. The costs of surveying and designing, construction, repair and improvement of irrigation systems shall be paid for from the credit obtained from the Agriculture Development Bank.

Article Thirty -Four

In case repairs in the areas under irrigation would not entail designing and other water users are not damaged, the local technical agricultural official shall make a decision in this respect.

Article Thirty -Five

Water users are obliged to repair and activate before the irrigation season all the main and subsidiary canals and collecting and drainage systems.

Article Thirty -Six

Users of common irrigation systems are obliged to participateinthe repairing, improving, rebuilding, maintaining and clearing the irrigation systems proportionately to their water rights.

Article Thirty -seven

Irrigation systems maintained by the government according to the decisions of authorised organs shall be repaired, improved or rebuilt on the expense of the government.

Article Thirty -Eight

It is prohibited to allow water to flow into irrigation systems not yet repaired or ready for this purpose.

Article Thirty -Nine

These regulations shall come into effect after publication in the Official Gazette.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report ANNEX 4.

ACTIVE AND INACTIVE IRRIGATED LAND IN 1992

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 4. Page 1

ACTIVE AND INACTIVE IRRIGATED LAND IN 1992

The data and maps in this annex were copied from the Afghanistan Landcover Survey prepared by Development Alternatives Inc. and Earth Satellite Corporation in 1993.

Table 1 summarises the assessed irrigated areas as active and inactive and shows the inactive area as a percentage of the total irrigated area. The provinces are ranked in terms of the proportion of total area inactive.It is important to remember that the data is from 1992 and reflects the significant impact of the civil war on many rural areas during the years 1988 to 1992.In the period from 1992 to 1996, significant improvements have been made in many areas in terms of restoring the operational performance of irrigation systems.

Table 1. Summary of land which was Irrigated (active) and non -irrigated (inactive) in 1992a) Province Active InactiveTotal Irrigated % inactive Rank* Badakhshan ** - 32,407 - - Badghis 40,333 11,131 51,464 22 8 Baghlan 94,371 14,559 108,930 13 13 Balkh 158,766 35,148 193,914 18 11 Bamyan 54,732 4,205 58,937 7 14 Farah 137,837 89,006 226,843 39 4 Faryab 125,466 22,148 147,614 15 12 Ghazni 147,037 63,061 210,098 30 5 Ghor 120,739 0 120,739 0 21 Helmand 201,229 29,990 231,219 13 13 Herat 176,299 66,495 242,794 27 7 Jawzjan 224,006 61,922 285,928 22 8 Kabul 54,334 2,781 57,115 5 16 Kapisa 40,647 0 40,647 0 21 Konar 16,814 3,462 20,276 17 11 Kunduz 147,475 4,555 152,030 3 17 Laghman 26,838 0 26,838 0 21 Logar 30,922 6,184 37,106 17 11 Nangarhar 80,923 19,087 100,010 19 9 Nimroz 43,097 1,158 44,255 3 17 Oruzgan 133,364 390 133,754 0.3 20 Paktia 48,344 52,895 101,239 52 2 Paktika 49,919 76,167 126,086 60 1 Parwan 46,969 2,746 49,715 6 15 Qandahar 152,341 119,090 271,431 44 3 Samangan 33,706 13,453 47,159 29 6 Takhar 80,188 679 80,867 0.8 19 Wardak 78,710 676 79,386 0.9 18 Zabul 62,210 17,938 80,148 22 8 Total 2,607,616 718,926 3,358,949 22 - (rounded) 2.61 mill 0.72 mill 3.36 millone fifth inactive ranking of provinces according to extent of inactive irrigated agriculture (provinces with more than one quarter of inactive irrigated agriculture are listed in bold figures) ** no figures available, (in April 1996 extensive damages to irrigated fields by floods)

The pages which follow report the land use data as published in the Afghanistan Landcover Survey prepared by Development Alternatives Inc. and Earth Satellite Corporation in 1993. Each province is shown with a locator map and the Iandcover data in hectares.The provinces are ranked in alphabetical order.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report Irrigation and Water Resources Annex 4. Page 2

AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER BAGHLAN BAGHLAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

94,370.7 Active Irrigated Agriculture

14,559. Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

188,355.5 Rainfed Agriculture

3,244.1 Barren

288,594.1 Forest, Shrub

674.2 Water

0 Densely Settled

973,020.2 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

176,636.2 Snow

1,739,454.4 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

11.20101711704 ;

Locator Diagram,-

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER BALKH BALKH

Landcover Area in Hectares

158,766.2 Active Irrigated Agriculture

35,147.8 InactiveIrrigated Agriculture

340,911.9 Rainfed Agriculture

117,946.3 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

20,177.7 Water

2,030.3 Densely Settled

559,138 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

1,871.3 Snow

1,235,989.5 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram j

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BAMYAN AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER BAMYAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

54,732.4 Active Irrigated Agriculture

4,204.6 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

2,009.1 Rainfed Agriculture

7,597.9 Barren

98,078.9 Forest, Shrub

2,519.1 Water

0 Densely Settled

1,504,224.7 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

3,647.2 Clouds

91,715.7 Snow

1 ,768,729.6 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram, -

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER FARAH FARAH

Landcover Area in Hectares

137,837.5 Active Irrigated Agriculture

89,065.6 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

1,890.4 Rainfed Agriculture

28,838.4 Barren

214.3 Forest, Shrub

61,378.5 Water

1,219.8 Densely Settled

5,552,800 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

768.1 Clouds

0 Snow

5,874,012.6 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram,-

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FARYAB AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER FARYAB

Landcover Area in Hectares

125,465.6 Active Irrigated Agriculture

22,148.2 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

571,600.4 Rainfed Agriculture

3,069.8 Barren

1,854.4 Forest, Shrub

1,255.5 Water

741.3 Densely Settled

1,384,138.4 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

o Clouds

0 Snow

2,110, 273.6 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER GHAZNI GHAZNI

Landcover Area inHectares

147,037.5 Active irrigated Agriculture

63,060.8 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

11,117.3 RainfedAgriculture

23,189.9 Barren

6,691 Forest, Shrub

24,202.7 Water

572 Densely Settled

1,850,696.9 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

28,455 Snow

2,155,023.1 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Development Alternatives, Inc [DAI] Earth Satellite Corporation1993

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AFGHANISTAN LANOCOVER GHOR GHOR

Landcover Area in Hectares

120,739.2 Active Irrigated Agriculture

0 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

6,705 Rainfed Agricutture

0 Barren

6,457.2 Forest, Shrub

0 Water

0 Densely Settled

3,791,516.5 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

3,599 Snow

3,929,016.9 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram,-

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER HELMAND HELMAND

Landcover Area inHectares

201,228.8 Active Irrigated Agriculture

29,990.2 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

16,289.5 Rainfed Agriculture

1,546,200 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

4,027.1 Water

143.5 Densely Settled

4,451,748.3 Rangeland, Wetlands,Other

340.4 Clouds

0 Snow

6,249,967.8 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

1146011321N gg. ell:19an n-1MAINCRIcw

CI ICY MI Sf Locator Diagram,

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HERAT AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER HERAT

Landcover Area in Hectares

176,299.1 Active Irrigated Agriculture

66,495.1 Inactive ,Irrigated Agriculture

139,054.9 Rainfed Agriculture

43,721.6 Barren

15,429.4 Forest, Shrub

22,085.5 Water

1,054.7 Densely Settled

3,782,122.4 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

324 Clouds

0 Snow

4,246,586.7 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

DevelopmentAlternatives,Inc.[DAI] Earth Satellite Corporation 1993

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JAWZJAN AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER JAWZJAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

224,006.2 Active irrigated Agriculture

61,922 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

295,863.2 Rainfed Agriculture

3,565.3 Barren

1,908.3 Forest, Shrub

16,544.3 Water

1,457.3 Densely Settled

2,043,908 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

7,799.8 Snow

2,856,974.4 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

DevelopmentAlternatives,Inc.[DAI] Earth Satellite Corporation1993

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER KABUL KABUL

Landcover Area in Hectares

54,333.6 Active Irrigated Agriculture

2,781.1 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

303.9 Rainfed Agriculture

4,290.4 Barren

32,553.3 Forest, Shrub

1,910.6 Water

12,483.4 Densely Settled

332,769.2 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

D Clouds

1,157.6 Snow

442,583.1 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram,,

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER KAPISA KAPISA

Landcover Area in Hectares

40,647.3 Active Irrigated Agriculture

0 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

1,060.8 Rainfed Agriculture

227.6 Barren

194,016.8 Forest, Shrub

1,363.4 Water

0 Densely Settled

159,664.6 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

145,933.6 Snow

542,914.1 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

41:1111:1M 7-2SICID0417.14

,r,....'" \ n rA *,..\/'?-VT- J f __.- ^/il. ,

Locator Diagram,

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KONAR AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER KONAR

Landcover Area in Hectares

16,814.5 Active Irrigated Agriculture

3,462.1 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

3,467.2 Rainfed Agriculture

1,696.4 Barren

454,816.1 Forest, Shrub

2,736.7 Water

49.3 Densely Settled

280,907.3 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

254,380.6 Snow

1,018,330.2 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

Locator Diagram

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER KUNDUZ KUNDUZ

Landcover Area in Hectares

147,474.7 Active Irrigated Agriculture

4,555.1 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

104,400.1 Rainfed Agriculture

1,256.8 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

12,727.5 Water

1,915.6 Densely Settled

538,284.1 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

0 Snow

810,613.9 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

MIGAZDIN n.1201,391741

01, 010 00

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LAGHMAN AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER LAGHMAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

26,837.6 Active Irrigated Agriculture

0 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

0 Rainfed Agriculture

6,970.7 Barren

254,528 Forest, Shrub

1,916.1 Water

0 Densely Settled

287,998.4 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

123,567 Snow

701,817.8 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

341120.. TLIMADalgtlei

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LOGAR AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER LOGAR

Landcover Area in Hectares

30,922.4 Active Irrigated Agriculture

6,184 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

2,666.2 Rainfed Agriculture

5,154.8 Barren

45,897.5 Forest, Shrub

0 Water

0 Densely Settled

357,485.3 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

1,574.7 Snow

449,884.9 Total

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER NANGARHAR NANGARHAR

Landcover Area in Hectares

80,923.2 Active Irrigated Agriculture

19,087.1 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

0 Rainfed Agriculture

1,376.9 Barren

156,455.4 Forest, Shrub

7,217.6 Water

253.8 Densely Settled

470,304 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

17,677.6 Snow

753,29:x.6 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

70:121::,11.4 1T-1302INISTAN

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER NIMROZ NIMROZ

Landcover Area in Hectares

43,097.1 Active Irrigated Agriculture

1,158.3 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

0 Rainfed Agriculture

861,332.3 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

123,291.2 Water

0 Densely Settled

3,152,305.6 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

0 Snow

4,181,184.5 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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ORUZGAN AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER ORUZGAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

113,364.1 Active Irrigated Agriculture

390 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

0 Rainfed Agriculture

2,986 Barren

8,996.6 Forest, Shrub

6,259.5 Water

0 Densely Settled

2,649,874.2 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

70,021.5 Snow

2,851,891.9 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER PAKTIA PAKTIA

Landcover Area in Hectares

48,344.5 Active Irrigated Agriculture

52,895.1 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

0 Rainfed Agriculture

4,629.8 Barren

339,224.8 Forest, Shrub

939.3 Water

119.2 Densely Settled

504,220.1 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

1,341.4 Snow

951,714.2 Total

Prepared for Agricuttural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER PAKT1KA PAKTIKA

Landcover Area in Hectares

49,919.1 Active Irrigated Agriculture

76,167 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

2,792.4 Rainfed Agriculture

17,925 Barren

71,593.9 Forest, Shrub

3,801.6 Water

0 Densely Settled

1,694,819.4 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

0 Snow

1,917,018.4 Total

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PARWAN AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER PARWAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

46,969.4 Active Irrigated Agriculture

2,746 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

38 Rainfed Agriculture

1,984.5 Barren

181,617.1 Forest, Shrub

327.6 Water

1,950.3 Densely Settled

316,181.3 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

44,806.7 Snow

596,620.9 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER QANDAHAR QANDAHAR

Landcover Area in Hectares

152,340.6 Active irrigated Agriculture

119,090 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

66,110 Rainfed Agricutture

2,306,596.3 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

7,942.5 Water

1,619 Densely Settled

2,291,738.6 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

0 Snow

4,945,437 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER SAMANGAN SAMANGAN

Landcover Area in Hectares

33,705.9 Active Irrigated Agriculture

13,453.1 inactive Irrigated Agriculture

284,981.8 Rainfed Agriculture

90,067.4 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

8,211.4 Water

852.1 Densely Settled

1,252,974 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

60,268.7 Snow

1,744,514.4 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

,43:01P4

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TAKHAR AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER TAKHAR

Landcover Area in Hectares

80,187.8 Active Irrigated Agriculture

678.5 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

402,744.2 Rainfed Agriculture

0 Barren

37,386.1 Forest, Shrub

3,241 Water

734.6 Densely Settled

550,348.5 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

152,999.1 Snow

1,228,319.8 Total

Prepared for Agricuftural Sector Support Project

'7.47:3131iN T.1Z1CDffiWI

Os MO IISM

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER WARDAK WARDAK

Landcover Area in Hectares

78,709.7 Active Irrigated Agriculture

675.5 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

1,128.5 Rainfed Agriculture

2,262 Barren

135,036.6 Forest, Shrub

170.6 Water

0 Densely Settled

767,756.7 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

1,905.2 Snow

987,644.8 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

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AFGHANISTAN LANDCOVER ZABUL ZABUL

Landcover Area inHectares

62,209.6 Active Irrigated Agriculture

17,937.8 Inactive Irrigated Agriculture

48,640.2 Rainfed Agriculture

4,889.3 Barren

0 Forest, Shrub

1,150 Water

0 Densely Settled

1,621,667 Rangeland, Wetlands, Other

0 Clouds

û Snow

1.756,493.9 Total

Prepared for Agricultural Sector Support Project

-2111ECSJV- ZSarrEDIN 11171342.01SINN

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Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy irrigation and Water Resources Report ANNEX 5.

MAPS OF AFGHANISTAN

CONTENTS

Map 1.Administartive Boundaries

Map 2.Principal Roads

Map 3.Topography

Map 4.Mean Annual Precipitation

Map 5.River Basins

A(ghanisrtcn Agricultural Strategy Irrigation and Water Resources Report Water Resources And Irrigation Report. Annex 5. Map 1.

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS 50 0 ao eo I 20 kn 16 Promotion of Agriculture Rehabilitation and Development Programme SCALE

MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION

Drown :Mohammad Ashraf Qodiri Dote: 23 / 09 / 96 Water Resources And Irrigation Report. Annex 5. Map 5

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

K444L Programme for the Rehabilitation DgMAN O 50 100 aAVro1zIRE of Afghanistan Agriculture \--:, ,.;.'... SCALE (KM.) RIVER BASINS

TRACE : M . A.OADIRI FROM: TCP /AF9 / 4552 DATE :09 / 05 / 96 TCP/AFG/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Olaf Thieme PhD

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome

July 1996 CONTENTS

Page

1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 1

2. INTRODUCTION 4

3. RESOURCES FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT 6 3.1 Animal Numbers 6 3.2 Genetic Resources of Livestock 7 3.2.1 Cattle 7 3.2.2 Sheep 8 3.2.3 Goats 9 3.2.4 Horses, Donkeys and Camels 10 3.2.5 Poultry 11 3.3 Livestock Production Systems 11 3.3.1 Village cattle production 11 3.3.2 Small ruminant production by villagers 13 3.3.3 Sheep production with Karakuls 15 3.3.4 Nomadic production systems 16 3.4 Fodder and Animal Feeds 18 3.5 Animal Health Services and Extension 19 4. CONSTRAINTS TO LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT 21 4.1 Nutrition 21 4.2 Animal Health 22 4.3 Animal Breeding and Management 23 4.4 Staff for Livestock Development 24 5. ISSUES IN LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT 25 5.1 Production and Demand for Livestock Products 25 5.2 Intensification of the Production Systems 26 5.3 Development of Fodder Production 28 5.4 Nomadic Livestock Production 29 5.5 Privatisation of Animal Health Services 30 5.6 Role of Women for Development of Livestock Production 32 6. OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 33 7. REFERENCES 37

ANNEX 1. Information collected during the mission about livestock production systems in Afghanistan

ANNEX 2. Photographs related to livestock production in Afghanistan Page LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Livestock Numbers in Afghanistan 1967 -1995 (`000) 6 Table 2. Estimated LivestockProduction in Afghanistan 25

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Distribution of nomadic tents duringsummer and winter (after Grötzbach, 1990) 17

ABBREVIATIONS AHPIM Animal Health and ProductionImprovement Module ASA Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan BVW Basic Veterinary Worker HLDC Herat Livestock DevelopmentCorporation NGO Non Governmental Organization PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal VFU Veterinary Field Unit 1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

.01 Reference documents about livestock production were reviewed and major livestock producing regions of Afghanistan visited to prepare proposals for the medium -term development of the livestock sector.

.02 No exact informationisavailable about livestock numbers in Afghanistan, but estimates using recent headcount data from nearly all provinces indicate that numbers have reached almost pre -war levels. The animal numbers are estimated at about 3.7 million cattle, 22 million sheep, 9.0 million goats, 370,000 horses, 1 million donkeys and 280,000 camels. About 32 percent of the small ruminants and more than 50 percent of the horses and camels are kept by nomadic livestock owners.

.03 Oxen are still the most important source of farm power and for the majority of farmers cows provide an essential part of the subsistence requirements of dairy products. Feeding and management of cattlestill follow traditional lines, which include in many areas substantial efforts to produce enough fodder for winter feeding. The Kunari and Kandahari breeds are known as the best milkers, but few data are available about the performance of these or other local cattle. Many visited farmers showed a strong interest to intensify milk production from cattle and to keep better cows. Farmers in eastern Afghanistan have a priority for better milk supply to their families, but in the northern provinces sale of dairy products is already common.

.04 Most of the small ruminants are kept in mobile production systems with regular movements between winter and summer grazing areas.Ten sheep breeds have been described in Afghanistan which are mainly kept for mutton production, but together with goats produce almost as much milk as cows. The wool from all sheep is of coarse quality, while many goats produce in addition to hair a fine undercoat of cashmere wool.Performance of sheep and goats are very much dependent on weather and grazing conditions, but in normal years levels of fertility, growth and losses seem to be acceptable.

.05 In the northern provinces about five million Karakul sheep produce in a highly specialized production system astrakhan pelts for export. The war and low demand for pelts brought the industry into a crisis, but it seems that Karakul flocks are now fast recovering. Afghanistan is still among the biggest producers of astrakhan pelts and the demand and good prices paid during this year were encouraging for the farmers to continue.In addition to pelts, mutton production from Karakuls has become important as well and survey results indicate that flock owners may have increased the level of feeding and management.

.06 The contribution of nomadic and semi -nomadic systems to livestock production was significant before the war and the production systems were among the best studied in Afghanistan. Many Kuchis lost their animals and had to leave the country during the war and the following periods of insecurity, but information collected during this mission indicate that nomadic production is still important and that the number of families involved and the management of flocks may be similar to the pre -war situation. The creationor re- establishment of guaranteed grazingrightsin combination with the opportunity to acquire agricultural land may have the greatest influence on the stabilization of these mobile pastoral system.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report 2

.07 Livestock production in Afghanistan largely depends on grazing, but supplementary feeding with hay, straw and concentrates is necessary and importantespecially during winter. Own estimates indicate that total available roughagemay be the main limiting factor for increase of production. Farmers add protein rich feed to theration, but deficiency during winter may occur as well as of phosphorus for cattlein some areas.Substantial improvements in animal nutrition through additional mobility of livestock and better use of available agricultural by- productsseem less likely, but this could come from increased production of foddercrops or larger amounts of byproducts. Fodder crops were important in the past and itseems that they have now resumed their role in the farming systems. The testing and introductionof new or improved varieties of known fodder crops should have therefore higha priority.

.08 Internal parasites as well as anthrax, blackleg, sheeppox and enterotoxemia are thought to be import health problems but despitemany animal health projects only little knowledge is available about their real incidence.Veterinary services are provided by an effective system of Veterinary Field Units in 244districts all over the country. There are difficulties to provide good quality anthelminticand other veterinary drugs, but many livestock ownersmay also still use traditional medicines. Privatisation of the veterinary services is progressing, but thereare risks that full implementation of that approach under present conditionsmay reduce the service to few fields which are financially attractive for the staff.

.09 The perspective for the medium -term developmentis,that higher domestic consumption will increase the demand for livestock productsand that this will requires an intensification of the production systems.It is assumed that livestock owners are interested to raise livestock production and that theycan be motivated to invest inintensification through increased use of fodder and feed,veterinary services and better genetic material.Technical assistance would be required to accelerate the change and experiences frompre -war development projects should be used for effective planning and implementation.

.10 One of the most critical problem for livestock developmentis the shortage of trained staff.The veterinary and agricultural faculties should thereforere- opened at first opportunity. The technical knowledge of most available staffhas become obsolete and refresher courses on practical aspects of livestockproduction are needed. Training of staff in other disciplines like poultry productionand extension techniques is also recommended.

.11 The project AFG /93/004 should takea leading and executingrolefor the development of livestock production, but the lack ofgood information about the production systems and proven innovationsare an important reasons which will impede the effective implementation ofnecessary development programmes. The teams established under the AHPIMprogramme should help to fill these gaps of knowledge. They should be transformed into permanentfield investigation groups with an increased role for collecting and analyzingproduction data from selected key farmers in five different regions. The ultimate aim ofthese activities is to provide basic informationfor the planning and execution of largerscale extension campaigns.Intensive use of mass media would probablya good solution to bring later extension messages to the attention ofa large audience.

.12 The development of improved fodder production techniques,of optimum strategies for supplementary feeding of sheep during winter,of strategies for optimum combinationofpelt and mutton productioninKarakulflocks and ofcattle crossbreeding concepts are important issues for developmentwhich need detailed

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report -3

investigations. Because the necessary applied research and field trials could to be done cheaper and equally efficient directly with selected livestock owners itis recommended not to re- establishment or create Government farms for research or livestock production. The execution of field experiments should be included to the responsibilities of the field investigation teams, but additional training and probably more staff is required to carry out this task.

.13 The development and support of diagnostic laboratories for disease investigation seems fully justified, but careful planning and supervision is needed to ensure active performance.It seems important that good cooperation is established between the laboratories and Veterinary Field Units.

.14 New opportunities should be sought toincrease theactivities and financial independence of staff at the Veterinary FieldUnits. The creation of artificial insemination services for cows and of sheep dips along the main migration routes are important service needs and it should be tested, whether they could be provided as commercial service by suitable VFUs.

.15 Women are in integral part of most livestock production systems in Afghanistan and the selling of eggs and dairy products provides them with cash income and increases their independence.Development of dairy and poultry productionis therefore at the same time an enhancement of the role of women. Itis likely that better training in production techniques is important but more information is needed about what women themselves consider important to learn or change.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report -4

2. INTRODUCTION

Livestock was always a very important component ofthe agricultural productionin Afghanistan.Cattle were essential to provide oxen for cultivation of landand to supply settled smallholders with milk and dairy products.Small ruminants provided food and the most important source of income for nomadic and semi -nomadicpastoralist. Sheep were also very important in the settled livestock productionsystems of the northern provinces were they produced meat, astrakhan pelts and provided wool for exportand manufacture of carpets. The contribution of those products to thepre -war export revenues was about 20 percent (Grötzbach, 1990).Most livestock development efforts during thepre -war period were concentrated on the improvement of animal health and scientificstudies were mainly carried out to investigate pastoral system.The livestock production systems of small farmers on the other hand gained little attention and almostno development efforts.

In the 1970's attractive meat prices andprospects for export caused an intensification of the sheep production systems in north Afghanistan(Barfield, 1981) and the creation ofa large scale livestock development project in westernAfghanistan under the Herat Livestock Development Corporation. The manyyears of war and civil unrest caused termination of all development efforts, the destruction of mostGovernment facilities and heavy losses of humans and livestock. After the withdraw of theSoviet Union troops UNDP and FAO again started to support the livestock sector with the mainemphasis on the rehabilitation of the animal health services. Since 1989 a basic animalhealth care system was established with the help of three projects.The Action Plan For Immediate Rehabilitation(UNDP, 1993) proposed to continue with the creation and supportof Veterinary Field Units (VFU) and to implement projects on fodder and feed production,a household poultry package and pastoral systems studies.

Good progress has been made with the implementationof the animal health packages and some results are available from the support of fodder and poultryproduction.It is now time to plan the next steps and make proposals fora medium -term development of the livestock sector. The project TCP /AFG/4552was designed to develop such proposals for the agriculturalsector and the reportingofficer was responsible to cover the livestock production aspects of the project. The missionwas carried out from 15 April until 21 June 1996 and the full Terms of Referenceare given in the Annex 1.

To collect information about the recentsituation of livestock production selectedregions in Afghanistan were visited with the assistanceof staff from AFG /93/004 (for detailssee itinerary in Annex 2).Except from the unsafe areas in centralAfghanistan and the remote regions in the eastern mountains all importantlivestock producing areas were visited and theinformation collectedfromfarmers, nomads andotherresourcepersonsare summarized in the Annex 3.A selected number of photographs fromthe field visits is included to this report in Annex 4.Important reference documentswere collected in Pakistan, from FAO HQ and from librarieson the home country of the consultant.The results from a literature search on livestock production in Afghanistan in the CABdatabases are given in the Annex 5.

There were several official holidays during the period of the missionwhich, together with a complicated UN procedure for securityclearances and the schedule of the UNplanes reduced the available time for field visits.In agreement with the lead consultantit was decided not to visit the Kabul area to meet representatives of the officialGovernment. Local representatives of the agriculturaldepartment were however met in thenorthern region as well as representatives from therelevant Non Government Organizations (NGO) in Peshawar and Quetta.A meeting was held with staff fromAFG /93/004 to discuss

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report -5 conclusions from the field visits and proposals for future development.Within the scope and schedule of this mission no subjects and trainees couldbe identified for staff training and in agreement with the lead consultant this subject was notcovered during this mission.

The organization and I like to express my sincere gratitude to all staff from AFG/93/004. execution of the field trips would not have been possible withouttheir great help. The Chief Technical Adviser of the project Mr. Terence Baker, the NationalManager Dr.Mehraban, Dr. Nasseri and Dr.Osmani and several other staff members provided the greatest amount of assistance and their hospitality made this mission a veryremarkable experience. Safi, Dr.Rahmani and Dr.Shir Shah I also very much appreciate the assistance of Dr. who accompanied me during the field trips and who didtheir very best to get me all necessary information. Despite the difficult timeswhich Afghanistan is passing, I always felt safe and comfortable in their presence.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report 6

3. RESOURCES FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

3.1 ANIMAL NUMBERS

The latest agricultural censuson livestock numbers was carried out in 1967 and laterofficial pre -war data have been extrapolated from thatinformation.Large animal numbers were lost during the years of war, both throughdirect effects of the war and because farmers were forced to sell their livestock for slaughter.Reports of the Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan (ASA) suggest that these lossesamounted to at least 40 -50 percent of all draft oxen, 67 percent of all small ruminants and 70percent of the Karakul sheep. Own estimates based on the ASA survey from 1991 and on results from a headcount carriedout by the project AFG /93/004 in 1995 indicatethat the livestock population has beenbuilt up and recovered substantially since theend of the war.The estimated numbers for the different livestock categories andyears are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Livestock Numbers in Afghanistan1967 -1995 (`000) Resident Kuchis Farmers 19671 19811 19912 19953 19953 Cattle 3633 3750 4049 3495 198 Sheep 21455 18900 18688 15504 6508 Goats 3187 2900 5458 3472 Horses 403 400 245 167 200 Donkeys 1328 1300 1131 872 147 Camels 299 265 80 101 176 Source: 1. Central Statistics Office: AfghanAgriculture in Figures (1978); Statistical Year Book 1360 (1983); (cited after Grötzbach, 1990) 2. Own estimates using data from: TheSwedish Committee for Afghanistan, The Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan, 14thReport, 1991 Survey 3. Own estimates using data from the headcount1995, organized by AFG /93/004

The figures from the headcount allow only a rough estimate of thetotal population but they are the best information which is available at the moment. Including the animalsowned by the Kuchis there appear to bea livestock population of 3.69 million cattle,30.94 million small ruminants, 0.36 million horses, 1 million donkeys and 0.28 millioncamels in Afghanistan. The data from the headcount indicate, that the cattle numbershave reached almost pre -war level and one can assume that the improvement inthe supply of oxen reported for the period until 1991 (ASA,1992) has continued since then.

The estimates for the total numberof small ruminantsare higher than the official pre -war figures.This is in conflict with information from most interviewed livestockowners in all visited regions who claimed that they keep fewer animals thanbefore the war.Also according to information from farmersthe unsatisfactory security situationin some areas, especially in the northern provinces still is an important reason whichprevents them from building up their flock size.

Cattle numbers used to becomparatively even distributedover the country with some higher concentration in Ghor, Bamyan and Uruzgan in the Centreand Ghazni, Paktya, Nangarhar and Konar provinces in east Afghanistan (Grötzbach, 1990).The ASA results from the 1991 Survey basically confirm these older information butalso show a higher concentration of cattle in Jawzjan, Balkh, Kunduz, Takhar and Badakhshanprovinces (ASA, 1992). The headcount survey from 1995 (Table 1) indicates, thatnomadic livestock owners keep about 5 percent of all cattle,the majority in the eastern provincesof Kapisa, Logar, Parwan and Nangarhar.

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The highest concentration of small ruminants owned by resident farmers and the largest flock sizes are found in the northern provinces Badghis, Faryab, Jawzjan, Balkh and Samangan (ASA, 1992) which correspond with information from the pre -war period (Grötzbach, 1990). Sheep are the dominating small ruminants in nearly all areas with goats having a larger importance or outnumbering sheep in the eastern provinces of Paktia, Laghman, Konar, Kapisa, Logar and Nangarhar. The higher importance of goats in those areas is caused by the mountainous terrain and the fodder resources in the forest areas of those provinces. According to the headcount data about 32 percent of the small ruminants are being kept by Kuchis. A similar proportion is cited by Cossins (1994) for the pre -war period.It also appears that more than 50 percent of the horses and camels in Afghanistan are kept by nomadic livestock owners.

3.2 GENETIC RESOURCES OF LIVESTOCK

Very little scientific work has been done to describe the livestock breeds of Afghanistan and their production traits.The limited available information has been mainly collected from state farms or through short term surveys.

3.2.1 Cattle

The cattle kept in the different ecological regions of Afghanistan show a large variation of phenotypical appearance. They have either small or no humps and show a wide range of colours, predominantly brown and black. The body weight of the cattle which determines the level of draught performance is also quite variable. The smallest cattle are kept in the area of the eastern mountains and in Badakshan.For cattle from Badakshan Bouy and Dasniere (1994) estimated an average body weight of 190 kg.Larger framed cattle are kept around Herat (Plate 2), in northern Afghanistan (Plate 3) and in the Qandahar area (Dupree, 1980).

The Kunari and Kandahari (Plate 1) types of cows are known to be among the best milkers of local cattle in Afghanistan, and Emal (1982) provided estimates of lactation yields for those two types of 900 -1100 kg and 1000 -2000 kg, respectively.Similar information were given by farmers from the two areas which were interviewed during this mission ( 8 kg peak yield for Konari and 9 -15 kg for Kandahari).From own survey information and other sources (Keshtiar et al.,1969; Nicollet, 1972; ASA, 1993; Barker and Rahmani, 1994; Halimi, 1995) the lactation milk yield for local cows can be estimated as 500 -1000 kg for poor to average conditions, and as 1000 -1500 kg with good management.

Little is known about the fertility performance of local cattle.For two villages in Ghazni, Barker and Rahmani (1994) calculated calving intervals of 12 and 14 months, and Emal (1982) reported a calving interval of 15 months for Kandahari cows.Seasonal calving is common for most cattle in Afghanistan which causes that cows which get not pregnant during the mating season remain open until the next year.For similar type of cattle and conditions of management in Central Anatolia, Thieme (1993) found an average age at first calving of 3.5 years and a calving rate of 80 percent (equivalent to 15 months calving interval).The information received from the farmers during this mission indicate a similar performance.

Before the war, exotic cattle were kept at Government farms at Kabul, Jalalabad and Lashkar Gah and bulls produced on these farms were given to farmers for crossbreeding. The Government farms were looted during the war and the cattle taken to private farms. AroundKabul,Mazar- i- Sharif,Baghlan andprobably some otherplacesartificial insemination was carried out with semen from exotic breeds, and the station at Mazar -i-

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Sharif is still providing services with fresh semen collected from an elevenyears old Friesian bull. Crossbreeding activities were also part of the Paktia Regional Development Projectat Khost. Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey breeds were used for crossbreeding with the local cattle and traces of these activities can be found in the cattle population of allareas. A farmer from Andkhoy who had purchased a Friesian bull from Kabul in the early 1970'swas still keeping a grandson of that bull and was claiming that a few hundred crossbredcows in Andkhoy were the progeny of his bulls.The Afghan Development Agency, a NGO has recently distributed 18 Brown Swiss bulls in the Qandahar, Zabul and Uruzganprovinces. These bulls were purchased from villages in the Helmand province andare the progeny of the cows from the Government farm at Lashkar Gah. Many refugees returning from Pakistan have brought Friesian or Friesian type cows to Afghanistan (Plate4), and traders are also selling Friesian cows from Pakistan on livestock markets inside Afghanistan (pers obs., 1996; Halimi, 1995).There were also reports that Friesian type cattle had been brought by refugees from Tajikistan to the northern provinces.

Because no objective performance data are available at the moment only observationsfrom farmers can be used to evaluate the benefits of exotic cattleor crossbred under village conditions. Inallvisited areas farmers were therefore interviewed about this subject. Judging from their comments, the information given about performance andmanagement and the condition of the cattleit appears that exotic cows, especially Friesianare very popular and can be kept successfully under village conditions inAfghanistan.

Water buffaloes have only regional importance around Kabul and Jalalabadand Yak in the Pamirs of the Wakhan. The Yak are used for milk production andcastrated males as pack and riding animals (Shahrani, 1979).

3.2.2Sheep

The sheep breeds of Afghanistan have been described in detailby Yalçin (1979).The information given by Yalçin for eight breeds, six of whichare fat -tailed (Karakul, Ghiljai, Baluchi, Gadik, Hazaragie and Kandahari) and twoare fat -rumped (Arabi and Turki) is summarized below.

The Karakul has the largest populationamong the sheep breeds and is kept in the northern provinces from Badghis to Takhar, with the highest concentrationin Balkh, Jawzjan and Faryab. The Karakul is a very hardy sheep which is well adaptedto the dry and hot climatic conditions of northern Afghanistan (Plate 5). Turkmenare the main Karakul breeders who often keep flocks of thousand ewes ormore. Karakul sheep have a body weight of 40 -45 kg and are primarily kept for astrakhan pelt production.The wool of the adult ewes is usually dark grey and used locally for the production ofcarpets (Plates 20 and 21).

The Ghiljai is the second most important sheep breedand is raised in the southern provinces of Ghazni, Paktia, Zabul and Qandahar. The Ghiljaihas a medium body size and a body weight of 35 -45 kg. The fleece of the Ghiljai is usually white butcoloured animals also occur (Plates 6 and 7). The wool of this breed is ofa mixed coarse -wool type.

The Arabi is the third most important sheep breed. Itis found in nearly all northern provinces, but also in Kabul and the provinces north ofKabul. The Arabi is a large- framed sheep of 45 -50 kg body weight with a good mutton conformationand fattening ability. The majority of Arabi sheep are black witha characteristic white stripe along the forehead (Plate 8) but brown and white Arabi also occur. The wool of theArabi is of poor quality.

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The Turki sheep is mainly raised in the northeastern provinces of Badakshan, Takhar, Kunduz and Baghlan. The Turki has a brown coat which resembles that of wild sheep and the small amounts of poor quality wool have no commercial value (Plate 27).It has a large body size and body weights of 50 -55 kg. The Turki is a meat type sheep with good mutton conformation. Large numbers of the breed have been taken by refugees to Pakistan where it is known under the name of Afghani.

There is a white coloured breed of medium -size in the western provinces which is called Kandahari, Farahi or Herati according to the provinces of origin. This breed is said to be a good forager and makes efficient use of poor rangelands and desert-like areas. The body weight of ewes is in the range of 32 -35 kg and the wool is among the best qualities for carpet production in Afghanistan.It seems that this breed is identical with the Gadic breed reported by McArthur (1980).McArthur surveyed sixteen flocks in different areas of Herat province and found weaning rates of about 75 percent, a growth rate until eight months of age of 136 gramme for male lambs and a wool production of 1.7 kg /ewe.

The Baluchi breed is kept in the Nimroz province and southern parts of Helmand and Qandahar and also exists in the neighbouring regions of Pakistan and Iran.Like the Kandahari it is well adapted to the arid range and desert areas and produces good quality carpet wool. The Baluchi is a medium -sized sheep with average body weights of 34 -36 kg

The Hazaragie breed is kept in the mountainous region of central Afghanistan. The region is characterized by good summer pastures but a scarcity of feed during winter when sheep have to be kept inside.The Hazaragie sheep is of small to medium size and the body weights of ewes is reported to be 28 -35 kg. The colour of the wool is reddish -brown which reduces its value for carpet manufacture.

The smallest breed, both by size and population is the Gadik which is being kept in Badakshan and parts of the eastern mountains.Ewes of the Gadik breed have a body weight of 25 -28 kg, but are said to produce two lambing per year (Bouy and Dasniere, 1994). The Gadic produces the finest among the Afghan wools.

In the 1950's different type of Merino breeds were imported and crossbreeding with local sheep initiated on some state farms (Yalçin, 1979), but apparently no efforts were made to test those breeds under field conditions.

3.2.3Goats

A brief description of Afghan goat breeds has been given by Demirüren (1958).Nearly 80 percent of the goat population is made up of Vatani or Native Black goats which are also called Tajiki, Kabuli or Kandahari. They are of small body size and grow under the very long coarse hair cashmere or "down ", which is an undercoat of fine fibres (Plate 9).The Khalej and Khor goat breeds mentioned by McArthur et al.(1979) for the Herat province are probably of the same type. A second distinct breed of large goats with small heads on long necks is called Asmari.It is bicoloured with white face and body and black neck and shoulders.Apart from these information apparently no study has been undertaken to describe the characteristics and performances of goats in the different areas of Afghanistan in detail.

Goats are usually kept in combined flocks, where sheep are the dominating species, but in some areas goats make up the majority in the flocks.McArthur et al.(1979) and Glatzer and Casimir (1983) studied large numbers of flocks in western Afghanistan and found an almost equal number of sheep and goats in the flocks and similar conditions are reported

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from Kapisa (ASA, 1993). Small ruminant flocks with a large proportionor majority of goats were seen during this mission in Dara -e -Nur district of Nangarhar, Shari Safa district of Zabul and Char Bolak district of Balkh (Plate 10), i.e.in very different areas. Goats utilize alternative feed sources and are used to lead the combined flocks. According to information from farmers in the visited areas goats have higher twinning rates but also higher abortion rates and losses after birth than sheep. Glatzer and Casimir (1983) founda lower reproductive rate for goats than for sheep (71.5% v. 81.4 %).

In addition to meat, goats produce milk, hair and wool.They are normally shorn once a year in late spring and the hair is used for making ropes or the black tents of the Kuchis. Some interviewed farmers in Balkh stated that they never shear their goats. McArthuret al. (1979) found 0.5 kg of hair production per breeding female and Glatzer andCasimir (1983) of 0.78 kg per goat. A farmer from Aqcha (Jawzjan) reportedaverage hair production of 0.75 kg, but this included also the cashmere component of the fleece.In Afghanistan down fibre are separated from the hair after shearing by hand, either by theflock owners or by workers employed by the wool dealers.The cashmere fibre is mainly collected in the western and northwestern areas.It is also grown by goats raised in the high Pamirareas (SHAHRANI, 1979), but no information is available about its utilization. Brownseems to be the dominant colour of cashmere wool from Afghanistan.Demirüren (1958) found a fibre fineness of 16.6mm and fibre length of 68mm which is within the trade preference (MILLAR, 1986).Efforts by Mercy Corps International (a NGO) to introduce combing ofthe cashmere before shearing were not successful with farmers in theQandahar province, because flock owners found this procedure not convenient andappropriate for their conditions (pers. comm. T. Brown, 1996).

All cashmere wool from Afghanistan is marketed through Heratby only three dealers and the total yearly amount is said to be 250 tons. Payment is madeaccording to the proportion of hair fibre in the wool and the price per kilogram for goodquality was up to US$25 (pers. comm. 1996).Farmers seemed to be well aware of the current marketprices and the quality observed on the Herat market in June 1996was rather free from hair (Plate 10).

3.2.4Horses, Donkeys and Camels

Horses, donkeys and camels still play an important roleas pack or riding animals.The knowledge about different types or breeds and their performanceis, however also limited. According to Dupree (1980) the largest horsesare found in the Herat region and the highly prized Waziri horses are raised in Ghazni and Katawaz(Paktika). The northern provinces are the most important area for horse breeding. Horses in thatarea are of small size with height at withers in Badakshan of only 1 -1.2m (Bouy and Dasniere, 1994) and they can carry loads up to 90 kg (Dupree, 1980).For the popular play of Buzkashi prestige horses are kept everywhere in the north of Afghanistan and high pricesare paid for such horses. They are among the best horses in the world both powerfuland robust, fast and supple and since the eighth century the celebrated thoroughbredArab horses have all come from this region (Michaud and Michaud, 1978). A large tradeof horses from Afghanistan to Pakistan is taking place and during the visit to thewestern provinces several caravans of horses were seen on their way to Pakistan.

Donkeys are of great importance allover Afghanistan. They vary in size and colour, and the best breed is said to be raised in Qandahar(Dupree, 1980). Very large donkeys, the size of a small horse, are also bred in Qataghan inthe north, which are very popular in Badakshan (Barfield, 1981). The height at withers of thosedonkeys is given by Bouy and Dasniere (1994) with 1.3 m.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report The majority of camels are of the one -humped dromedary type, which can carry loads up to 140 kg in the mountains and 180 kg in the plains (Dupree, 1980). They are mainly kept and used by Kuchis, but also rented out to sedentary farmers. Some Bactrian camels arekept in Badakshan and Wakhan which can carry loads up to 270 kg and produce a highlyvalued wool (Michaud andf Michaud, 1978).

3.2.5Poultry

According to the headcount data there are about 11 million birds in Afghanistan which are kept for poultry production.They are mainly chicken but also ducks and turkeys.The majority of birds are from local breeds such as Sabwari, Kulangi and Khasaki, which have an average liveweight of 1.5 -2.0 kg and were said to producebetween 30 and 90 eggs (COSSINS, 1994).After the war Fayoumi chicks have been distributed by several NGOs with priority in the eastern provinces. The Fayoumi breed had a successful record as multipurpose bird for improving village type poultry production in Pakistan and was thought tobe the best option for improving that production system in Afghanistan as well. Apparently no performance data are available from the Fayoumi in Afghanistan but several farmers which were interviewed during this mission seemed to be pleased with theperformance of the breed. For a larger flock (900 hens) of Fayoumi visited in Wardak the yearly egg production was estimated at about 80, but the management of the farm appeared tobe suboptimal. Problems and high losses from Gumboro disease have been recently reported for Fayoumi birds and NGOs which carry out development programmes are in search for an alternative to the Fayoumi breed.

3.3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

3.3.1 Village cattle production

Inallregions of Afghanistan cattle are very important tocultivate land and for milk production.In 1991 a national average of 82 percent of farmers (who had any cattle at all) owned an average of 4 cattle.The proportion of farmers owning their own oxen in the same year was 70 percent, with 46 percent of the farmers owning two or more(ASA, 1992).

Oxen are the traditional source of farm power, but tractors are becoming more widely used and replace animal draught power. A survey of farming systems in seven districts from different regions showed a clear regional difference in the relative use of oxen and tractors for cultivation.Although few farmers own their own tractor at the moment already 87 percent and 94 percent of all surveyed farms in Quara Bag (Ghazni) and Nad Ali (Helmand) districts, respectively were using tractors for cultivation, compared to Mehterlam (Laghman) and Maydan Shar (Wardak) districts where tractor use was almost non existing (ASA, 1993). As can be expected, the same survey showed that the use of tractors was more common on bigger farms.Like in other countries of the region with similar agricultural conditions, the intensification of crop production and the more easy availability of tractors and fuel will further decrease the importance of cattle for farm power, while at the same time the already important function of cattle for milk production will further increase.

Even the smallest and poorest farmers keep at least one cow to provide their subsistence requirements for dairy products but many farmers have more than one cow, and this is a common pattern all over the country (ASA, 1993). In all the areasvisited during this mission farmers showed a strong interest to increase milk production from cattle.Compared to small ruminants cattle have important benefits for milk production, especially for small farmers. Few numbers of cattle are easier to manage than sheep or goats, cattle have a longer lactation length and less seasonality of production and they remain in the villages during the whole year, thus allowing the supply of fresh milk and dairy products to the whole

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 12 - family.Because of the common system of management, many sheep and goats onthe other hand move during the lactation period to summer pastures far from thevillages, thus preventing the supply of fresh dairy products especially to women and children.

There are interesting regional differences behind the intentions of the farmers toincrease milk production.In the Pashtun areas of eastern and southern Afghanistan priority is for increasing self sufficiency because it is considered shameful to sell fresh dairy productslike milk, yoghurt or buttermilk and hardly anybody is doing this. Any surplus of theseproducts is freely distributed to relatives or other needy people, but butter, cheese and qurutis being sold (ASA, 1993; pers.com., 1996).In the Nejrab district (Kapisa) the importance of cheese making is such thatitled farmers to develop an autumn calving system in preference over the more usual spring calving.This gives the advantage of having the peak yield in winter when it is the best cheese making weather and when prices for cheese are higher (ASA, 1993).In the northern provinces there are no taboos about selling dairy products, even among ethnic Pashtuns, and a good demand for dairy products on the urban market is a strong incentive to increase commercial milk production (Plates 19 -21).

There are also regional differences in the management of the cattle.In the eastern provinces from Nangarhar in the north to Qandahar in the southmilking cows are usually kept within the compounds (Plate 4), where they are hand fed and watered (Barker and Rahmani, 1994; pers. obs. 1996).In summer dry cows, young stock and male cattle are often taken to the hills for grazing where they are managed on a communal basis (Bouy and Dasniere, 1994; Barker and Rahmani, 1994; Halimi, 1995).The extreme overgrowth of hoofs of many cows seen in the Ghazni, Wardak and Zabol provinces however, indicates that many of these cows never go out for grazing. The situation is different in the northern provinces and the Herat area, where communal grazing of cattle, including cows, is the common practice (Plates 2 and 3).In some areas like Nuristan (Edelberg and Jones, 1979) and the Hazarajat (Denizot et al. 1977) cattle herds are moved to high pastures for the production of cheese and butter during summer.

During the summer and spring seasons, fresh lucerne and /or clover (shaftal or berseem) is given to the stall -fed cows several times during the day and in those areas where cows go out for grazing in the evening at the homesteads. Important sources of winter feeding for cattle all over Afghanistan are cereal straw, hay from grasses or legumes and maize stalks. Other sources of roughage,like leaves in Badakshan or camelthorn in the northern Turkestan plains, have only regional importance. Great efforts are made to collect enough fodder especially in those areas with a long winter period like Badakshan or the Hazarajat and large stacks of hay are stored on top of the cattle houses (Centlivres and Centlivres- Demont, 1977). Very often wheat straw is mixed with legume hay before feeding.Bouy and Dasniere (1994) calculated for villages in Badakshan an average availability of one ton of straw and 200 kg of legume hay per animal unit (300 kg), which was sufficient for the indoor feeding period of about 110 days. On the other hand information collected from farmers in Ghazni (Annex 3) and from Qandahar (ASA, 1993) show, that many farmers have to purchase straw and /or hay to provide sufficient roughage to their cattle during winter. Milking cows and working oxen usually also receive during winter a supplementation with concentrates like cotton seed cake, maize or barley grain.Information about the daily amount offered range from 250 - 400 g in Ghazni and Khost (Barker and Rahmani, 1994; Halimi, 1995) to 1.8 kg in Sar -i -Pol and 2.5 kg in Balkh (Pers obs. 1996; ASA, 1993).

In communal village herds, cows and bulls are herded together and natural matings from any available bull takes place on the pastures.This system provides the greatest chance for the cows to become pregnant but also eliminates an efficient way of selection for performance.Problems to find breeding bulls for mating arise where farmers keep their cows at the homestead, and where the maintenance of a bull is too expensive for small

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 13 - farmers.Although some owners of bulls charge a fee for mating, this practice is not popular.Farmers from the eastern region who have been as refugees in Pakistan know artificial insemination and many asked whether the possibility exist to establish such a service. The Animal Health & Livestock Project has recently provided containers for storage of frozen semen in liquid nitrogen to two paravets in Jalalabad and Khost. The paravets are independently purchasing frozen semen of exotic cattle and liquid nitrogen from Pakistan and charge, depending on the place of insemination, a fee of Pak Rupees 50 -100, which leaves a profit of about 15 Rupees. There seems to be a big demand from the farmers for this service, but procurement of nitrogen and semen is not easy and no results about conception rates are yet available.

During winter and in some areas during the hottest hours of the day during summer, cattle are housed inside. The types of byres in the different regions are variable with respect to availability of space and quality of ventilation and lightning. Unhygienic conditions seem to be more a problem of cattle houses in the eastern regions of Afghanistan.Manure is carefully collected and used either as fertilizer or for burning (Plate 4).Normally cows are milked twice daily, but in the eastern region where cows remain in the compounds during the day, up to six times (Barker and Rahmani, 1994, pers.obs., 1996).It is a well known fact that frequent milking increases milk production, but the practice of the farmers did not appear to be a planned operational procedure rather than undertakings to supply the immediate needs of the household.It seems that in general sufficient amounts of colostrum and milk are given to the calves.

The castration of bulls is still being done by traditional methods, but a review of the registers showed that for many Veterinary Field Units castration by burdizzo method is already one of the main activities.Information about age at castration range from one year in Ghazni to 4- 5 years in Badakshan (Barker and Rahmani, 1994; Bouy and Dasniere, 1994).

Depending on the financial needs of the farmers male surplus cattle are sold at the age of one year or more.Usually farmers sell the cattle to traders who bring them to the bigger market places. A large number of cattle from the important cattle raising areas in central Afghanistan are sold through the markets of Ghazni, Khost and Spin Buldak to Pakistan. Sale of cattle is an important source of income for farmers from many areas including the remote parts of Badakhshan (Sharani, 1979; Afghanaid, 1995).

3.3.2 Small ruminant production by villagers

About two third of the small ruminants in Afghanistan are owned by villagers (Table 1), but in general ownership of sheep and goats for this group of people is less common than of cattle. On a national average only 57 percent of the farmers kept small ruminants in 1991 and by far the largest majority between one and twenty five animals (ASA, 1992).Bigger flocks are rare except in the north with the largest average flock sizes in the Faryab and Jowzjan provinces.The situation of the large Karakul flocks in those provinces will be explained separately (see 3.3.3).

The management of small ruminants owned by villagers varies with the region, but shows common characteristics as well.Sheep and goats are usually herded together and both depend on grazing for the largest part of the year.In the high Pamirs of the Wakhan these combined flocks make a formidable team for exploiting a wide range of pastures under both the worst and the best range conditions. During summer extensive damage to the range is avoided because sheep are good followers to the quickly moving goats and during heavy snowfalls in winter the sheep lead the flock and expose the dried grass by pawing the snow (Sharani, 1979).Large owner may employ their own shepherd, or family members take

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their own sheep and goats out for grazing (Plate 7), but normally the smallruminants of villagers are herded in joint flocks.

An interesting cooperative grazing system called palae, which includesthe cooperative production of dairy products and the common use of grazing rights for differentpastures in different years has evolved in Nuristan (Edelberg and Jones, 1979). Thegreat majority of flocks move out of the hotter lowland areas in the earlysummer to reach the better grazing areas and cooler weather of the highlands, and most flocks return to the lowlandsnot before the beginning of autumn (Yalçin, 1979).In Badakshan and Nuristan small ruminants are not allowed to remain in the villages or the lowlands until the time of harvest ofthe crops (Bouy and Dasniere, 1994). Data on body weight changes during theyear from Herat show, that those flock which do not migrateare in the poorest condition (McArthur, 1980). Important summer grazing areas are in the Ghor and Ghazni provincesand the Dasht-i-lsh and Dasht -i -Shewa pastures in Badakhshan province (Afghanaid,1995).

During spring and summer adult animals andyoung stock are kept in different flocks and the rams are separated from theewes until the mating season which start between October and November. Several interviewed farmers in differentareas reported a ratio of one ram to 100 ewes which seems very low for mating, but correspondswith earlier information given by Yalçin (1979).In the Herat province McArthur et al.(1979) found a ration of one ram to 60 ewes and farmers in the northern provinces reported theuse one ram /buck to mate 20 -30 females (Annex 3; Sharani, 1979).

During winter most small ruminants of villagersare housed during the night and during bad weather. Hay, straw, leaves, different local types ofroughage and concentrates are given as supplementary feeding during this period.In Nuristan the most important roughage for goats are leaves from the evergreen oak trees (edelbergand Jones, 1979).The actual amount of feed given and the length of the feedingperiod depend on the region and the weather conditions. A supplementation ofconcentrates with 200 -450 grammes of maize or barley for two months seems to be acommon practice (Annex 3; ASA, 1993) and McArthur (1980) found that the local practice of giving theseconcentrates before lambing only to weak animals was more economical than the supplyto the whole flock.

Yalçin (1979) reported birth rates of 60 -80percent and a twinning rate of 0 -5 percent. However, except from the data collected by McArthur(1980) in western Afghanistan (see above) there seem to be no exact informationavailable on this subject.Although only indicative, the information collected from small tomedium size farmers during this mission all show birth rates above 90 percent and lowlosses until weaning (Annex 3).McArthur (1980) and Sharani (1979) report mortalityrates for lambs of 8.1 percent and 10 -15 percent, respectively but also pointed out, that heavylosses of lambs and kids may occur due to severe weather conditions.Especially in the northern areas witha long winter the birth season coincides with the poorest nutritional supply of the smallruminants which may also cause high losses (Bouy and Dasniere, 1994).

Milking of sheep and goats starts early abouttwo days after birth and continues for about four months.Normally lambs are allowed to suck during thesame period twice daily, and great care is taken to ensure that they receivesufficient amounts.The milk is partly consumed fresh, but mainly converted intodairy products. Estimates for daily milk production range from 250 -300gramme in Khost and Paktìa (Halimi,1995; Annex 3,111)to 100 -500 gramme in Herat (Barker andHalimi, 1995) and for the yearly productionper sheep from 1.4 kg of ghee and 1.8 kg of Qurutin Herat (McArthur et al., 1979) toas high as 4 kg of ghee and 4 -5 kg of Qurut in Helmand(ASA, 1993).

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Sheep are shorn either once or twice a year and goats only once. The annual greasywool production of ewes is 0.5 -2.0 kg, which is partly traded and partly used fordomestic purposes. Especially Turki sheep in the north easthave a high growth rate (Sharani, 1979; pers obs., 1996) but good growth performance during summergrazing has also been found in lambs from Herat (McArthur, 1980). Surplus males which are not needed formating are usually castrated in the first year.Many owners of small flocks slaughter the lambs in autumn for the production of dried mutton and animals are only sold in caseof urgent need for cash. Because of the higher fat content of the meat, sheep are preferred to goatsfor slaughter.Bigger flock owners in the northern areas sell lambs after weaning, which are then further fattened in small units of 5 -10 lambs until autumn or for the religious holidays (Annex 3,IX). Fattening of young lambs in small numbers is also an activity done by women and several woman buying lambs could be seenduring a visit to the livestock market at Mazar- i- Sharif in June 1996.

3.3.3 Sheep production with Karakuls

The astrakhan pelt production from Karakul sheep is a highly specialized form of sheep production mainly done by villagers.It started to become an important business after the 1920's when Turkmen refugees from the Central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union fled with their Karakul flocks to Afghanistan (Grötzbach, 1990).In the 1950's, Afghanistan controlled the major astrakhan markets but later lost share due to lack of proper marketing and management and breeding of the Karakul flocks. To remedy this situation the Afghan Karakul Institute was established in 1966 with the main focus on processing and marketing aspects (Cossins, 1994).The institute developed a sorting and grading system at its premises in Kabul, provided an extension service to Karakul flock- owners, acted as a pressure and advisory group for the Karakul industry and advisedAfghan export traders how to market their pelts overseas (Yalçin, 1979).

The work of the institute helped to establish the leading role of Afghan Karakul breeders for grey pelts on the international markets which made up 70 percentof the whole pelt production in the late 1970's. At the same time Government sheep breeding farms for the production and distribution of improved Karakul rams were established at Sheberghan, Mazar -i- Sharif and Baghlan. With the beginning of the war these support services came to an end and they are no longer available. Although Government flocks atSheberghan and Mazar -i- Sharif still exist, their management is poor and they seem to have no influence on the flocks of the private farmers.

From the headcount data one can estimate that there are about five million Karakul sheep in the northern provinces, which would mean about one third of the sheep owned by villagers and thus the same proportion from this breed as before the war (Yalçin, 1979). Obviously the Karakul flocks have recovered and an increase of flock size of 20 -25 percent during the last two years was reported for the Jawzjan district (pers. com. 1996). The good capability of the Karakuls to produce meat and wool under very extreme climatic and ecological conditions has obviously helped to survive those years when due to war and lack of demand on the international markets pelt production was of lesser importance. Information collected from Karakul breeders during this mission indicate, that at least for the main Karakul producing areas crossbreeding with other breeds is not happening at a large scale.

Karakul flocks are usually larger than the other sheep flocks which are owned by villagers. The average flock size in the Faryab and Jowzjan provinces, the main Karakul producing areas, were found to be 110 and 93.9 sheep, respectively (ASA, 1992) and there are many flocks consisting of a few hundred ewes. Natural pasture in one of the driest parts of the country are the main source of feeding for the Karakul flocks, using different pastures in

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 16 -

different seasons. Owners from all the interviewed flocks (Annex3) reported the supply of additional feeding with hay and concentrates during winteror scarcity periods, which is different to information given by Yalçin (1979) who found that feedingof grain and hay to Karakul sheep was practiced on an extremely limited scale.The surveyed flocks were selected by chance and one can assume that the informationabout the feeding practices are representative for the visited areas, however it is not clear whether themore intensive management was always practiced or is a recent development.

For the production of astrakhan pelts Karakul lambs haveto be slaughtered before the second day after birth, and owners therefore remain withtheir flocks during the lambing period to decide whether to rear or to pelta lamb. According to Yalçin (1997) 95 percent of the male lambs and surplus femaleswere pelted in the 1970's.With an estimated production of 450,000 astrakhan pelts in 1996 (pers.corn. 1996) the average percentage is nowadays probably not higher than 25 percent.In 1996 all interviewed farmers pelteda high percentage of their lambs (Annex 3), but thiswas a new development because the pelt prices offer this year (Afs 80,000- 100,000) were very attractive. Traders differentiate more than fifty different grades of astrakhan pelts by colourand shape of curl.Except for the black colour, Afghan breeders still produce the bestquality brought to the international markets. This years production was expected to be 300,000pelts of grey, 100,000 black, 20,000 natural brown and 40- 45,000sur- coloured pelts, in which wool fibres have black roots and grey or golden tips.According to dealers in Mazar- i- Sharif and Sheberghanthis composition of colours and the quality of the Afghanpelts fully suit the requirements at the international markets at Frankfurt, Copenhagen andHelsinki.

With an increasing demand for meat, Karakulfarmers have started to recognized that rearing lambs for mutton can bemore profitable than pelting the lambs, but the security situation and the need for cash in spring are still importantreasons which favour pelting.It is also possible that the available pasturesare not sufficient to allow for the raising of large numbers of additional lambs.

Karakul wool is important for the traditionalcarpet industry in the Faryab and Jowzjan provinces. The sheep are shorn in spring and, if theyare in good condition, a second time in autumn. The annual wool productionper ewe is about 1 -1.8 kg of coarse wool, which is either exported or handspun to makeyarn for the local carpet production (Plate 23). Karakul ewes are also milked and especially for thesmaller flocks the sale of dairy products is an important additional income. At thebeginning of lactation the yield can beas high as one litre and the ewes are milked three times during that period(Annex 3) but normal lactation yields are 40 -45 kg ( Yalçin, 1979).In the surveyed flocks the amount ofmoney used for health care was extremely low andexcept from anthrax, farmers reportedno major disease problems.

3.3.4 Nomadic production systems

Nomadic and semi -nomadic production systemsare still an important part of the small ruminant production in Afghanistan. The vertical styleof nomadism in Afghanistan isa fairly new process which developed in the second half of thenineteenth century (Balland, 1988a), probably reached its greatest importanceat the beginning of the 20th century and was already rapidly declining since the 1960's in thepre -war period (Grötzbach, 1990). The nomadic census from 1978 counted 370 -390,000true nomads and 500- 620,000 semi- nomads, the majority of about 80 percent being Pashtunsplus smaller numbers of Beluch, Brahui, Arabs, Gujars and Aimaq (Balland, 1988b).Based on the nomadic census from 1978 the distribution of tents by district insummer and winter is shown in Figure 1.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 17 -

B = Bámyán Ch = Chaghcharán G = Ghazni H = Herát K = Kábul Ku= Kunduz M = Mazár-i-Sharif N = Dasht-i-Náwar

DISTRIBUTION OF NOMADS DURING WINTER

I [ .,.----- 100 200 km r--~ BADAKH tir¡" .'_ L. t-:Ma Ku ` SHANI. ( ^ .. Baghlá.vn5, /&\ `;L \N J Y- C

BADGHÌS'-':' --\-HAZL1RAJlaTJ,- . ..o Tents per 100 km' CHOR / r 7 670 ;a ...<10 :Ghazni [ 10 -20 --.t 270 r==== - / '100 Ku = Kunduz During winter 1...... ,¡¡,...- L = Lashkargáh REGISTAN;t in Pakistan Ma = Mazár-i-Sharif (numb, of tents) M = Maymana S = Sheberghán _._ Provinciel border !

Figure 1.Distributionof nomadic tents duringsummer and winter (after Grötzbach, 1990)

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 18 -

True nomads who live in tents during the whole year were concentrated in the western and southern parts of the country between Paktia in the east and Faryab in the north, while semi -nomads who live in houses during winter, in the northeast between Jowzjan and Nangarhar. There are no detailed information yet available about the influence of the war on the numbers of nomads and their way of living, especially from the important summer grazing areas in the Hazarajat and Ghor. The nomadic pastoralist are however, stillvery visible and large numbers of tents were seen in May 1996 in the Herat province andon the traditional migratory route of the Kuchis from Qandahar to Ghazni.According to the livestock headcount data collected in 1995 by AFG /93/004 there are about 61,000 Kuchi families which, assuming an average family size of six (Glatzer and Casimir, 1983), would indicate a similar number of Kuchis in Afghanistan as reported by the 1978census.

The nomadic pastoral systems are probably among the best described livestock production systems in Afghanistan.Before the war studies have been carried out by Glatzer (1977), McArthur et al.(1979) and Glatzer and Casimir (1983) in the west, Stevens (1964), Balland and Kieffer (1976), Balland and Benoist (1982) in the south and Barfield (1981), Sharani (1979) and Balikçi (1990) in the north of Afghanistan. A summary of the information from some of these studies has been prepared by Cossins (1994).

Comparing the pre -war studies with the information collected during this mission (Annex 3) it seems that the management of the flocks is very similar to thepre -war period, although movement into, and use of the grazing land in the Hazara areas appears to be rather limited at the moment. Fertility is an important indicator of the success ofa production system and the information about lambing rates from the earlier studies mentioned above and the Kuchis interviewed during this mission show good results between 80 and 90 percent anda low lamb mortality, although disastrous losses were reported from bothsources.All the interviewed Kuchis in the south -eastern areas were using anthelmintic to drench their animals, mainly twice in spring and autumn and reports from paravets about good business with selling drugs confirmed that this is a common practice which developed during thelast fifteen years.The visited flock in the Herat province however, only irregularly treat their animals against internal parasites and some had tried vaccination for the first time.

The settling down of Kuchis due to lack of transport animals, the small flock sizes andthe need to sell lambs at an early age to get cash for important purchasesare observations which probably indicate remaining negative effects of thewar period. On the other hand, although aware of the potential risks of land mines none of the questioned Kuchisseemed to be concerned about it, or changed their usual movements.

3.4FODDER AND ANIMAL FEEDS

Livestock production in Afghanistan largely depends on grazing, but only about40 percent of the area is suitable for grazing during winter (Yalçin, 1979).In higher elevations and mountains with low temperatures and long snow cover indoor feeding ispracticed during winter for all livestock and in the uplands and northern Afghanistan for largeruminants only. In the warmer areas of south and east Afghanistan all livestock remainoutside during the whole year.Supplementary feeding with fresh fodder crops, hay from pasturesor fodder crops, agricultural byproducts and concentrates during periods of scarcityor important production is however common in all areas.

It has been estimated that only 12 percent of all Afghanistan could beused for cultivation and nearly 84 percent or about 547,000 km2 are pasture land.However, some of the best pastures especiallyinnorth and northeast Afghanistan have been convertedinto agricultural land (Grötzbach, 1990). Large areas of pasture landwere also ploughed during the last five years by commanders in the Jowzjan province.It is said that the yields from

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 19 - that land become unattractive after the second year andvaluable pastureisbeing destroyed (pers. com., 1996).

Very few investigations have been carried out to estimate the dry matter productionof the grazing land.From different pasture areas in the Herat province McArthur et al.(1979) found a dry matter growth of 0.41 to 1.04 tons per ha. The crude protein percentagesof these pastures varied in the middle of winter from 5 to 20 percent and theauthors concluded that the stocking rates were approaching carrying capacity (0.49 to1.25 ewe equivalents per ha). The dry matter production from another area in western Afghanistan was estimated by Casimir et al.(1980) at 0.5 tons per ha, but only 23 -32 percent was consumed by the nomad economy. The crude protein content of the three main species from these pastures was between 12 and 18 percent in spring.In Khost the dry matter production from different pasture types was estimated by Volk (1972) at 0.5 to 5 tons per ha, with the higher production on pastures used by nomads for winter grazing. The average crude protein of plants collected in autumn from these pastures was 11.1 percent.Results of dry matter production from other areas cited by the same author were 0.5 -1.2 tons for Khwaja Qachay (Maimana), 0.6 -1.0 tons for Dasht -e -Laily and 0.8 -1.0 tons for Bay -Saqal (Baghlan).

The level of productivity of the pastures significantly varies between areas and from one year to another. Assuming an average dry matter productivityof 700 kg /ha /year and a 50 percentutilization,thetotal amount of dry matter available from the grasslandin Afghanistan can be estimated at about 19 million tons. With the composition of crops and yields as in the pre -war period another 3.5 million tons of roughage from agricultural byproducts, mainly cereal straw can be utilized for livestock production.

Fodder crops are a traditional part of most farming systems in Afghanistan and were seen during the field visits of the mission in all areas.The most important fodder crops are lucerne (Medicago sativa), shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) and in the hotter areas of eastern Afghanistan berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum).All three fodder crops are mainly fed to large ruminants.Berseem is given fresh and lucerne and shaftal both fresh and as hay (Plate 12).Lucerne is also sold to other farmers both fresh (Plate 13) and as hay (Annex 3).It is grown as a perennial grown, but length of utilization varies between areas from two years (Annex 3, IX) to 7 -8 years (ASA, 1993).Shaftal is planted as a second crop and mainly harvested in late spring.For the Ghazni province hay yields from four cuts of lucerne were reported as 7 -9 tons /ha and from shaftal as 2.5 -3.5 tons /ha (ASA, 1993).In some areas up to 10 percent of the cultivated land was under fodder cropsin the pre -war era (GRÖTZBACH, 1990), and it seems that after the war fodderproduction has again resumed an important place in the farming system. Assuming that fodder crops are grown on 5 percent of the arable land at least 1 million tons of hay equivalent areproduced.

No detailed information are available about the present amount of concentrates used for feeding of livestock. With the composition of crops and yields as in the late 1970's the total available amount would be about 500,000 tons per year.

3.5ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICES AND EXTENSION

In the pre -war period efforts to improve the animal health services were a major component of livestock development activities by the Government, FAO and bilateral aid agencies. The activities included the establishment of a Veterinary Faculty at Kabul, veterinary clinics in major centres, a network of veterinary laboratories and vaccine production.Before the establishment of the Faculty, veterinarians were trained abroad, in the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Iran and India.The profession of veterinarian was however, rather

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 20 -

unpopular among the educated classes (pers. com. 1996) and it seems that in general interaction of the veterinarians with the livestock owners was rather limited.

During the war many facilities were destroyed and the Government veterinary service is not existing anymore. Several NGOs started to provide veterinary services to refugeecamps in Pakistan during this period and cross- border operationswere later includedintheir programmes. The staff for these activities were partly veterinarians but mainly paravets which were either trained by NGOs in short training coursesor recruited from the former Government staff. The main services were free vaccinations and simple treatment of sick and injured animals.In 1989 UNDP /OPS began supporting these NGO operations and concentrated on setting -up of veterinary clinics in the eastern provinces whichwere later called Veterinary Field Units (VFUs). The VFUs were staffed with veterinariansor paravets, paid by the programme, and supported by several Basic Veterinary Workers(BVW) who receive technical support but no salaries. The OPSprogramme was merged in 1994 with another FAO veterinary project in northern Afghanistan and is since then beingexecuted as "Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004)".

In 1996 the VFU programme was implemented through twelve partners (mainlyNGOs and a few Veterinary Committees) in 244 districts allover the country. There is a staff of about 1600 persons involved, and the objective is to develop the VFUs intoindependent private veterinary clinics (Plate 15).Implementation of vaccination programmes, deworming and treatment of sick animals are the main activities for which targetsare set for each implementing partner. As a new policy, farmers have topay the staff for these services, but extra to the income from the livestock owners staffare also paid a remuneration from the project which is structured according to the situation of each VFU infour grades.Staff in the lowest grade receive a full salary and in the highestone only a compensation for the services provided to the project.In addition to this programme some NGOs operatea similar basic animal health care system from other funding than the FAOproject.

Procurement and sale of medicines has been regardedas part of the business of running a VFU, but it is obvious from visits to many VFUs that this is notan easy task. Some of the VFUs have a well equipped store with all important drugs, andthey display them for sale in their office in a very nice way (Plate 16) while others have to offeralmost nothing. Vaccines are procured and distributed through the project AFG /93/004, but the supply ofdrugs has to be independently organized by each VFU. Presently thereisno well established distribution system and veterinary drugs, whichare sold in some areas in pharmacies as well, are coming to Afghanistan mainly from Pakistan, but alsofrom Iran, India and various European countries (pers.obs., 1996). Large numbers of herbal drugs from Pakistanare sold, which are cheap and packed in boxes resemblingthose of well known international brands, but their quality and efficacy is doubtful. An NGOfrom Quetta is selling drugs to VFUs in Qandahar and two otherswere planning to establish a wholesale shop at Ghazni and Khost, but major problems with the supply of qualityveterinary drugs were especially reported from the northern provinces.

There is a veterinary laboratory at Mazar- i- Sharif andsmall facilities exist at Khost and Jalalabad. Except from a parasitological study whichis carried out at Mazar, the present amount of diagnostic work seems to be rather limited. Microscopeswhich had been given by an NGO to some of the VFUs have obviouslynever been used. At the moment, the only known extension activities covering aspects of livestockproduction are training courses in poultry production. They are carried out formen and women in different regions and by various NGOs and include instructions on theuse of simple kerosene incubators and the supply of fertilized eggs to start chicken production.No information was found about the type and results of pre -war extension activities carriedout by international and bilateral aid projects.

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4. CONSTRAINTS TO LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

4.1 NUTRITION

Shortage of feed and poor nutrition during winter hasbeen mentioned in several reports (Yalçin, 1979; Afghanaid, 1995; Leyland, 1994) as one ofthe main problems for livestock production in Afghanistan and recent surveys with sedentaryfarmers (Barker and Rahmani, 1994; Halimi, 1995) have confirmed that this view is sharedby the farmers themselves.

A rough estimate of the dry matter supply to livestock canbe calculated from the information given in Table 1 and in paragraph 3.4.With about 7.5 million livestock units (LSU) kept in Afghanistan and the availability of 23.5 million tonsof roughage the average available amount of dry matter per LSU and year is about3.1 tons.This amount is equivalent to a daily supply of about 7 kg for cows and 850 grammefor small ruminants.In addition concentrates are available up to the amount of 55 kg percattle and 6.5 kg per small ruminant.Assuming that goats will normally receive only small amounts or no concentrate the available proportion for sheep can be estimated at10 kg and this amount is very close to what farmers from different areasreported as feeding practice (Annex 3).

Even if the animal numbers are slightly overestimated andnot all feed resources fully considered it becomes very clear that the available amounts offodder are a limiting factor for production. The feeding problem is thus first of all a matterof quantitative supply which is further aggravated by large regional and seasonal differences.Mobility of the livestock is one important strategy to deal with these aspectsand fodder production from agricultural land another. From the available information it can be assumedthat the present livestock systems already make full use of the opportunities from mobility,and that agricultural by-. products are largely utilized.There is therefore good reason to believe that a further substantial increase of feed production has to come from extraproduction from the arable land, either directly from fodder crops or, through increase of productionof other field crops and larger availability of agricultural byproducts.

A third option is the importation of feed, which is tested byAFG /93/004 with the supply of urea -molasses blocks from Pakistan. The blocks are a good source of feed and experiments with farmers in villages of Ghazni have shownpositive results, butitis questionable whether the livestock production should be promoted atthis stage of development on the basis of imports. Even in Pakistan with a goodpotential for utilization, the production of blocks is developing very slowly and it isdoubtful, whether the problems of logistics of large scale production in Pakistan and distribution toAfghanistan could be solved during the next years.

Very little information other than general statements are availablefrom Afghanistan about the quality of feeds and their content of essential nutrients.With the common feeding system a deficiency of protein especially during winter is possiblehowever, the extent is not clear because farmers also include feed with a higher protein contentinto the ration.For example, many cattle are fed legumes either fresh or as hay and the useof cotton seed cake for sheep is widespread during winter in the northern provinces.Cotton seed cake is probably also fed to cattle (Bouy and Dasniere,1994) and in those areas where it is not produced, because farmers from as far east as Ghazni reportedthat it was available and used. Both, feeding of legumes and cotton seed cake have a positiveeffect on the supply with protein.In the studies cited above (see 3.4) the protein content in the grasses was found satisfactory but more information is needed from different partsof the country.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 22 -

Basically nothing is known about the supply of livestock with essential minerals. Afarmer from Andkhoy reported that during some periods of the year sheep are intentionallygrazed on pastures which are known to have high content of certainminerals, although no details were explained.In the Khost, Paktia, Ghazni and Wardak provinces many farmers and veterinary staff reported loss of appetite and consumption of abnormal material by cattle, which would indicate a deficiency of phosphorus.In fact during May, when those provinces were visited it was the most important health problem.

For an increase of production the improvement of nutrition is essential and probably will have the greatest impact. With the aim to identify the most important constraints in nutrition highpriority should be given to study the feeding systemsindifferent regions of Afghanistan. By drawing on the experiences from countries with similar natural conditions and, based on fodder and feeds which can be produced by the farmers themselves or which are locally available, strategies for a sustainable improvement of nutrition should be tested at the same time.

4.2 ANIMAL HEALTH

The Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme (AFG /93/004) and its preceding projects have brought animal health services to the farmers' level in many areas.During this mission many VFUs were visited and the overall impression is, that most of the staff are active and trying hard to serve the farmers' needs.However, the diseases and problems targeted for priority attention have been mainly selected on the basis of subjective information and opinion. With the ongoing privatisation of the VFUs those problems where maximum profit can be made by the sale of drugs have started to receive greatest attention.

Despite the fact that many animal health projects were implemented during the past decades in Afghanistan, COSSINS (1994) concluded that the best information about animal health problems can still be found in the FAO reports from the 1950's. Control of parasites was obviously always considered as the biggest problem which is also reflectedby the topics of the few published scientific articles from Afghanistan (Annex 5). The old reports and recent interviews with farmers and veterinarians indicate that fascioliasis might be the biggest problem of internal parasitism, but systematic investigation of the parasitic load and its impacts on production has only recently started by the project AFG /93/004 in the Balkh province. Such type of investigations are extremely important for the development of cost effective drenching programmes.

Control of external parasites was also thought to be an important problem and several development projects constructed communal dips, but none of which is used by farmers anymore. The site of a former dip, which was situated on one of the main migratory roads to the Shewa pastures, was visited at Khat -i -Yan near Taloqan (Plate 29).Until 1979 all flocks which were passing between April and June were dipped, if necessary by force of soldiers, and shepherds met at the site of the former dip still remembered this practices. The shepherds also showed several sheep with mange and confirmed that this is still an important health problem.

In the past as well as today anthrax, blackleg, sheep pox and enterotoxemia were thought to be the diseases which cause significant losses of livestock, although the incidence has never been supported by objective data. The vaccinations against these diseases are an important part of the activities by AFG /93/004 and all interviewed farmers were asked about their experiences with the diseases and the vaccinations.It seems that anthrax occurs in almost all areas and it was most frequently reported, while the others were mentioned but not described as a big problem by the interviewed farmers. For sheep and goat farmers in the western areas the biggest problem in spring 1996 appeared to be "Tabakh" which is

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 23 - normally the local name for foot and mouth disease,but it was not clear whether the described cases were FMD indeed.For goats contagious caprine pleuropneumonia was reported as an important problem.

Of those interviewed livestock owners who hadtheir animals vaccinated hardly any knew the type of vaccination and several even did not knowthe reason for vaccination at all.It is clear that lack of communication between farmers andveterinary staff about this important subject is a common problem and not restricted tocertain areas or individuals.Making vaccinations a regular part of the livestock management,for which farmers are also expected to pay for, requires convincing arguments by theveterinary staff and a positive impact of the vaccinations. In discussions during a training course at Khost paravets indicated that they need assistance in that respect and thatthey are no convinced about the quality of the vaccines as well.

The knowledge about the extent of metabolic diseasesis even less than about infectious diseases and a recently started regular analysis of the treatmentregisters from selected VFUs is a good first step to get more information aboutthis aspect.

The problems with the availability of drugs and the lackof knowledge about their quality and efficacy has already been mentioned above (see paragraph3.5).It is very likely that many livestock owners still use traditional methods of treatmentfor animal diseases like those which have been described by Davis et al.(1995) for Kuchis. This would also explain the common use and acceptability of herbalmedicines from Pakistan.Before developing a strategy which only relies on imported drugs it seemsworthwhile to investigate to what extent the veterinary staff is aware of traditional methodsand if, and how they can become part of the services from the VFUs.

4.3 ANIMAL BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT

The variability of the Afghan livestock breeds is describedin the paragraph 3.2. Differences in body size and type traits are obvious, but very littleis known about differences between the breeds with respect to other performance traits like fertility,milk production or resistance to diseases. With the exception of pelt type of Karakulsheep even nothing at all is known about phenotypic and genetic variability within the differentlivestock breeds. There is no doubt that the type and performance of the different breedsindicate the natural conditions and the production systems of their main area of breeding.However, livestock breeds are also formed by their owners and it is interesting to see thatthe distribution of sheep breeds is similar to the distribution of the different ethnic groupsin Afghanistan.

The role of animal breeding activities is basically to providethe best animals for the present or those environmental conditionswhich can be expected in the foreseeable future. Animal breeding can assist a development process by providing moreefficient animals for an available production system or new genetic material to utilizeimproved environmental conditions.All livestock species and poultry can be improved throughbreeding, either by selecting the best animals from within a given population or bycrossbreeding with other local or exotic breeds. The main difference between these threemethods is the speed of change which can be achieved.

It can be assumed that the medium -term development processof livestock production in Afghanistan will require both an increase of efficiency and theadaptation of the genetic material to improved management and feeding conditions.Currently there are serious constraints which restrict the implementation of a planned breedimprovement programme. First of all, there is no knowledge about the productive capacityof the more important livestock breeds under different management and feeding conditions andserious efforts

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 24 -

should be made to start collecting such data as soonas possible. The second important problem is the lack of organizational structures through whicha breed improvement programme could be implemented.

The fields with a priority for genetic improvementare probably the development of astrakhan pelts, the breeding of better cows for dairy production and the creationof a semi - intensive poultry industry. Breeding activities to improve Karakul sheephave a tradition in the country.Although the former Government structures no longer exista development programme can be based on a significant number of knowledgeable farmers.There are also many farmers who are interested to invest in dairy productionwith improved cows and in poultry production. An important handicap for the developmentof these sectors are the lack of suitable breeding bulls (and /or artificial insemination)and of good hens for egg production.It is difficult for the individual farmer to solve these problemsand founding a system of support services for breed improvement would be ofgreat benefit. The VFUs are an opportunity to develop this system on a private basis.

From the published reports and interviews carried out duringthis mission it appears that in general the management practices of the specialized livestockowners are appropriate and suitable for a further intensification of the production system.The only surprising exception is the often mentioned proportion of one breedingram for mating of 100 ewes.Great efforts are made to provide special feeding to therams but even if they are able to serve that many ewes it is a risky practice because the future ofthe flocks will depend on the progeny of only very few males.It is not clear why many stock owners restrict the number of rams to that extent and it could be worthwhileto study the reasons and the impact on fertility rates.Little is known about the management practices of settledfarmers but they seem to be quite variable. Poor ventilation of cattle sheds and completelack of necessary hoof trimming of cows were some of the observed problems.

4.4STAFF FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

Availability of staff well trained in animal husbandryor veterinary affairs and familiar with the local conditions is an extremely important prerequisitefor the introduction of innovations in livestock production. Most of the qualified veterinary staffispresently recruited by AFG /93/004. The technical knowledge of the field staff isvery variable but important shortcomings have been identified.A newly published manual on animal healthwas recently distributed to all field staff which, together withrefresher courses, should help the staff to deal with the more common animal healthproblems. Support to VFU staff in dealing with less common or new problems howeverseems to be less efficient at the moment which is understandable considering the difficult situationof transport and communication. The lack of communications skills of many VFU staffmembers and experience in dealing with livestock owners have already been identifiedas an important constraint to full privatisation.

While a reasonable number of staff is available forveterinary field services there are hardly any qualified Afghans available for laboratory workor for research on animal health. There was a department for animal husbandry at the Kabul AgriculturalFaculty but it seems that the graduates from that faculty hardly, ifever were directly involved in development work with livestock owners. Onlyone former graduate from the animal husbandry department was met during this mission at the Al station in Mazar- i- Sharif andit is not known how many persons with that qualification are still available in Afghanistan.It is however very clear that nearly all persons qualified in animal productionand veterinary affairs have been cut off for many years from the international knowledge and developmentsand even a lot of the published material on Afghanistan will not be availablein the country or known. The urgent establishment of a cadre of qualifiedstaff for livestock development isof extreme importance and should therefore start before all otherfurther development efforts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 25 -

5. ISSUES IN LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

5.1 PRODUCTION AND DEMAND FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS

No recent statistical data are available about the production and consumption oflivestock productsinAfghanistan. Based on the animal numbers from Table1,assumed performance data and on information collected during this mission efforts have been made to calculate the total livestock production in Afghanistan. However, it goes withoutsaying that the figures presented in Table 2 are only approximate.

Table 2. Estimated Livestock Production in Afghanistan Product Unit Amount Basis of Calculation Source Milk Production - Cows milk tonnes 680,0001 million cows 75 % calving rate 850 kg milk production - Sheep and goat milk tonnes 620,00019.5 million females 80 % fertility rate 40 kg milk production Total milk tonnes 1,300,000 Meat Production - Beef tonnes 42,750450,000 cattle average production 95 kg - Mutton tonnes 104,0006,500,000 sheep average production 16 kg Total meat tonnes 146,750 Egg production million 3507 million birds, av production 50 eggs Wool production tonnes 33,0001.5 kg /sheep Hair production tonnes 4,4650.5 kg /goat Cashmere production tonnes 250 pers. comm. 1996 Astrakhan pelts no. 450,000pers. comm. 1996

The total milk production was estimated at 1.3 million tons which is produced by a nearly equal share from cows and small ruminants. The largest proportion of the milk is converted into dairy products and all is consumed in the country.It is not known which proportion of the dairy production is marketed, but sale of dairy products is common in most parts of the country.

The numbers of slaughtered animal in Table 2 have been calculated from the estimated sale of hides to Pakistan.All hides brought to the markets are sold to Pakistan but smaller numbers of hides from slaughter in rural areas may be utilized locally or wasted. Itis therefore possible that the number of animals slaughtered and the total meat production given in Table 2 slightly underestimate the real figures. The largest part of the total meat production is from small ruminants and only about 30 percent is from cattle. With respect to meat for sale, mutton probably has an even greater share which was nearly 95 percent at the big municipal slaughterhouse at Herat (Plate 17 -18).In addition to local slaughter, probably about 20,000 cattle and 180,000 small ruminants are sold from Afghanistan to Pakistan and Iran (pers.corn., 1996). The figures from Table 2 indicate an off -take rate of 12 percent for cattle and 21 percent for small ruminants. The comparatively low off -take rate for small ruminants may show that livestock owners are in the process of building up their flock sizes and restrict slaughter to young male animals.It is not easy to estimate the present production from poultry, but it is probably not more than 5,000 tons of meat and 350 million eggs.

The production of animal fibre from Afghanistan is estimated at 33,000 tons of wool, 4,465 tons of hair and 250 tons of cashmere.While all the hair is probably used locally all

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cashmere wool is sold to the international markets. Annuallyabout 1,000 tons of wool from Afghanistan are brought through Karachi to the internationalmarkets (ANJUM, 1995), but a much larger amount of wool is probably also processedin Pakistan.There are no more facilities for mechanized spinning of wool in Afghanistanand a lot of the yarn for carpet production is therefore imported (Plate 22). Some of theimported yarn is called "Belgian Wool ", but the origin is most likely Pakistan and notBelgium, the finer qualities probably made from New Zealand wool.

Out of the 450,000 astrakhan pelts produced in 1996,dealers were expecting to sell 350- 400,000 pelts on the international markets. Thewhole trade is organized by about ten dealers who also have their own tanning facilities inMazar- i- Sharif and Sherberghan (Plates 25 -27). The dealers receive orders from the mainmarkets in Europe in autumn before the lambing season and buy the pelts from thefarmers in spring on cash payment.After processing the pelts are being sold the nextautumn by auction at Frankfurt, Helsinki and Copenhagen. Farmers showed great satisfaction with the cashpayment which was obviously different from the marketing practices ofthe Karakul Institute before the war.

Itis clear that except for animal fibre andastrakhan pelts by far the largest majority of livestock products is consumed within the country.In the future there will be trade of animals for slaughter to the neighbouring countriesbut it is expected that an increase of demand from domestic consumption will havemore importance for the medium -term development.The extra demand for livestock productswill very much depend on the development of the country and the economic growth.However, considering the great importance of livestock products in the diet ofthe Afghans and assuming an increase of purchasing power of the average people thereseems to be a good scope to sell a larger amount of livestock products.

Because there is good demandon the world markets and only few producers itseems that any extra production of cashmere from Afghanistan shouldbe easy to sell.It is much more difficult to predict the future demand forastrakhan pelts.The colour varieties produced from Afghan Karakuls have a clear advantageon the international markets and for the years to come it should be possible to sell at least 500,000pelts annually. Any additional demand would be beneficial for the sheepproducers in the northern provinces butthe development of alternative production system withKarakul sheep could be worthwhile.

5.2 INTENSIFICATION OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

From the situation described in thepreceding paragraphs one has to conclude,that an increase of livestock production inAfghanistan would require an intensificationof the production systems. With respect to sheep productiona number of initiatives and development programmes were startedbefore the war, and the experiences gainedcan help to plan the future.

Barfield (1981) has described in detail howattractive prices for sheep causeda change of the production systems in Qataghanand how increasing amounts of capitalwere invested to improve the care of sheep. The aspects of maintaining flocks in good conditionduring winter and minimizing herd losses becamevery important, while milk production from sheep lost its relative importance. Migrationof whole families ended and cheapwage labour made it fèasible to hire shepherds to care for the flocks. Flock owners built sheep barns forwinter housing, the feeding of cotton by- productsbecame a common practice and sheepowners who owned private pastures harvestedhay for winter feeding instead of using themfor grazing during spring.

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During the 1970's the FAO /UNDP Project No. 210 (Training and Demonstration in Animal Health and Animal Husbandry) had a pilot programme in the area and it is possible that it made a significant contribution to these developments. Discussions with sheep owners in Qataghan during this mission showed that the strong commercial interestin sheep production is still alive and that it is mainly the security situation which keep the flock owners from increasing flock sizes and start intensification again.While the past development of commercial ranching in northeast Afghanistan had positive effects on production it also had important social consequences.The more important ones were that urban investors entered the pastoral economy, the social status of women declined significantly and the gap between rich and poor farmers became wider (Barfield, 1981).

The support and development programmes for Karakul sheep production which were carried out in the past have already been described in the paragraph 3.3.3. A major change for the Karakul sheep production system in Afghanistan was the growing utilization of the breed for mutton production, a development which also happened during the last decade in other Karakul breeding areas of the world (Villinger, 1992).If Karakul ewes rear their lamb under feeding conditions which are typical for the breed, the body weight and fertility of the ewes may be negatively influenced (Martins and Peters, 1992).It is possible that the lower animal numbers and stocking rates during the years of war allowed to change the Karakul sheep production system towards a rearing of lambs without negative effects on the overall performance. However, if the ewe numbers reach pre -war levels it is questionable whether a larger proportion of the lambs can be reared on the availablegrassland, without additional production of fodder.The information about feeding received from the Karakul farmers during this mission showed a higher level of supplementary feeding than reported earlier which may already indicate a new level of intensification. To guide the future development of sheep production in northern Afghanistan it would be important to find suitable strategies which make optimum use of the opportunities of Karakul to produce either pelts or lambs. Such investigations could be carried out by working directly with interested farmers and there seems no need to invest in the re- establishment or development of remaining Government farms with Karakul sheep.

Probably the most ambitious development project for livestock before the war was the Herat Livestock Development Corporation (HLDC) which intended to achieve a "rationalization" of pastoralismin western Afghanistan. The programme included the development of economic cooperatives, quality control, extension activities in fodder production and animal health and the establishment of a slaughterhouse to export frozen meat to Iran. The construction of the slaughterhouse was completed, but it operated only for a short period before it was looted during the first years of the war. The building and other main structures like the generators are still in place, in reasonable condition and could probably renovated. There is also still an office of the HLDC at Herat with former staff, all the old files and plenty of wrecked equipment.

The few systematic studies about sheep production in Afghanistan have been carried out within the frame of the HLDC (see reports by McArthur) but it seems that little progress was made in organizing the sheep owners and that the project was already in crisis when it collapsed in 1979 (Grötzbach, 1990).Judging from Tavakolian's (1984) comments, the complete lack of participation of the potential beneficiaries in the planning and executing of the project was probably a major factor for its failure.It seems that finishing male lambs for slaughter isstill, and will again become an important aspect of livestock production in Afghanistan and the Herat province is well placed for such an activity (see distribution of nomads in Figure 1).Even if the use of a large scale slaughterhouse and the export of frozen mutton to Iran might not be appropriate anymore it could be a good idea to study the experiences from the HLDC in more detail.

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There may be an opportunity to increase milk production from sheep andgoats by better feeding and higher fertility rates, but the total increase from small ruminants islimited by their low genetic capacity and the priority of milk supply to lambs. A substantial increaseof total milk production would require the intensification of the milk productionsystems with cows. Before the war small numbers of exotic cattle from Government farmswere used for crossbreeding but the efforts to promote commercial milk production had obviouslyno great impact.The demand for products from the few small dairy plants at Kabul,Baghlan, Jalalabad and Laskar Gah remained low and the urban population preferredto buy cheap dairy products from the nomads or from settled farmers (Grötzbach, 1990).

It seems that the situation has changed since then, andmany farmers have learned the opportunities and benefits of planned milk production withcows during their stay as refugees in Pakistan.There may be regional differences between farmers ineastern Afghanistan who have a priority for better milk supply to their familiesand those in the north who want to sell dairy products.However, farmers inall visited areas showed strong interest to increase milk production with cows and asked forassistance and technical advise. From countries with similar ecological conditions enoughexperiences are available about the technical aspects of development of dairyproduction which could be directly tested in Afghanistan.

The introduction of crossbreeding or even exoticcows and the selection of a suitable exotic breed have often been a matter of intensive discussion. Althoughbetter management and feeding may help to fully utilized the genetic potential oflocal cows, very often farmers can only be motivated to make that step if it is combined with theintroduction of another type of animal.Jersey cattle may seem to be the best option fora crossbreeding programme because of their small body size and high butterfatcontent.However, given the option farmers prefer to choose Friesian in Afghanistan (pers.obs., 1996) as well as in many other countries. Considering their success under similarconditions and the easy availability of bulls and semen, Friesian cattlemay also be the best choice for crossbreeding in Afghanistan.

In the pre -war era poultry productionwas mainly promoted through the Beni Hissar Government farm near Kabul.In addition to the free -range village systemothers were developing before the war, but are not existinganymore. These included semi -intensive egg production with medium size flocks and large scale commercialoperators who imported chicks from abroad (Cossins, 1994).Efforts have recently been made by NGOsand AFG /93/004 to promote many small scaleunits which produce chicken with kerosene incubators. Although this approach is appropriate under thepresent conditionsitwill probably remain only a temporary event.It can be assumed that ones the security situation and infrastructure permits, specialized commercialoperators will establish parent flocks and produce chicken at a large scale.The availability of well trained staff and probablyfeed supplies will be the major problems for theestablishment of such operations. For the time being the most useful assistance for thesubsequent creation of a commercial poultry production is probably the training of qualifiedstaff.

5.3 DEVELOPMENT OF FODDER PRODUCTION

The production of fodder from agricultural landwas a traditional part of the pre -war farming systems in Afghanistan and with traditional methodsand local seeds farmers havenow resumed production. Apart from general knowledgeabout the main crops (paragraph 3.4), very little is known about the availability of different varieties,their performance and about agronomic practices of the farmer in differentareas. The collecting of such information and the screening of foddervarieties and ecotypeswas recommended by the Rehabilitation Strategy (UNDP, 1993) but no majorprogress has been made in that respect.Probably

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 29 - neither the Integrated Crop and Food Production Programme (AFG /94/002) northe Livestock Production and Health Programme (AFG /93/004) had the suitable staff orfelt the full responsibility to cover aspects of fodder production.

A review of the local fodder production practices is still needed and should beinitiated as soon as possible. Because fodder is normally used forfeeding on the same farm and not for selling it seems that the Livestock Programme would be the correct place to deal with those aspects. A review about the availability of fodder trees in eastern Afghanistan and their use inlivestock feeding began during the period of this mission which can be considered a start of those efforts.

Suitable land and water willalways be limiting factors for agricultural productionin Afghanistan and the promotion of fodder crops will be in competition with other field crops. The individual farmer makes the final decision about the scale of fodder crop production, but it is also critical that the importance of fodder crops for the development of livestock production is duly considered in the formulation of development programmes for field crops. At the moment efforts to increase the yield on the land already used for fodder production may have the greatest need.This could be achieved by the use of better varieties of existing crops, improved husbandry, strategic use of fertilizers where profitable and after testing by an introduction of a wider range of fodder crops (Suttie, 1996).

The testing of a new variety of lucerne, shaftal and berseem had started at four different sites this year. The experiment was carried out at Jalalabad and Khost by NGOs on rented land and at Herat and Mazar- i- Sharif by staff from AFG /94/002 on Government land.First reports indicate that the new berseem variety from Pakistan had a significantly higher yield than the local variety, but the imported lucerne looked poor atallfour sites. The management of the crops especially on the Government farms was probably not optimum. The testing of different varieties of established fodder crops should continue butitis worthwhile to consider if the next testing could be done directly on farmers' land.This would also allow to combine the fodder trials with feeding trial, using the farmer's own livestock. The main production and greatest need of fodder for cows is during summer and oxen need to be in good condition for the spring cultivation, but the sufficientfodder supply during late winter is thought to be the biggest problem.In addition to the shortage of production due to limited land and water it would be also important to know whether other reasons like the lack of labour during hay making or poorconservation techniques contribute to the deficiency in winter.

There could also be scope for testing of new types of fodder crops in Afghanistan. Such activities would however require more work and the appointment of staff fully committed to this assignment. Experimental trials with broad -leaved multi -cut oats have shown promising results in some areas of Pakistan which are similar to Afghanistan.First results from multi - cut oats tested by Mercy Corps International in the Qandahar area are encouraging. Other work on increased fodder production should probably include maize and the testing of high yielding turnip varieties. Once adapted varieties are positively identified the production of seed could probably be organized on private land inside Afghanistan.Before the war lucerne seed from the Ghazni province was exported to Iran (Grötzbach, 1990) and there is the chance that lucerne seed production for export will again become an attractive business.

5.4NOMADIC LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

During the last 40 years nomadic and semi -nomadic livestock production systems in Afghanistan have been influenced by a number of negative events.Some of the best pastures were lost due to change into agricultural land and many tribes had to find new

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winter pastures and change their migratoryroutes after the closure of the Afghan- Pakistan border in 1961. After disastroús' losses ofanimals during the drought in 1971/72 thecrisis of nomadism probably reached a critical point in 1978 when nearly 50 percent of theKuchis in east Afghanistan had to workas agricultural labour to make a living (Balland, 1988b). During the war of the 1980's and thefollowing periods of insecuritymany Kuchis, like the settled population, lost their animals and hadto leave the country.There are indications that larger numbers of Kuchis havenow resumed their former style of living (see paragraph 3.3.4).

Nomadic pastoralists are specialized market-oriented producers who produce little fortheir own immediate consumption, but have to buy theseproducts or exchange them for their own. As they are very much dependenton the terms of trade and the rates of commodity exchange, nomads are also very sensitive to changes in other sectors of theeconomy (Glatzer and Casimir, 1983).The nomadic pastoral systemsare one option to make efficient use of the alternate fodderresources on the summer and winter pastures, but transhumant systems which combineseasonal movements of livestock witha settled style of living have also been successfully operated in Afghanistan (Barfield, 1981;Edelberg and Jones, 1979; Denizot et al.1977).

During the last decades only fewefforts were made by Governmentinstitutions to include Kuchis into development projects. Although survey results from westernAfghanistan showed that large proportions ofsemi -nomadic and nomadicgroups were interested in owning and cultivating agricultural land (McArthur et al., 1979), settlementprogrammes as part of the Helmand -Arghandab project or the HLDC projectwere not successful.It was probably more the way in whichGovernment programmeswere implemented and the resistance against establishing closercontacts with other ethnicgroups which caused protest by the Kuchi population(Tavakolian, 1984), rather than theaspects of settlement itself. The relationships between thenomadic and the sedentary populationare manifold and ranged in the past fromclose symbioses toopen hostility (Balland, 1988a). security to use grazing lands The and the free access to waterwas obviously always an important issue for the Kuchis (McArthur et al., 1979).In the future, the creationor re- establishment of guaranteed grazingrights in combination with theopportunity to acquire agricultural land may have thegreatest influence on the stabilizationof mobile pastoral system.

Animal diseases have been thought to be among the biggestmanagement problems of nomadic flocks. McArthur et al. (1979) reported that Kuchis inwestern Afghanistan would receive veterinary treatments very well and that they were willing topay for this service, while interestingly Tavakolian (1984) found for the samearea the complete opposite. More recently Leyland (1994) reportedthat livestock owners froma project area in the Zabol province were interested in animalhealth care and willing topay for veterinary drugs, and this was also the impression from interviews with Kuchis duringthis mission.It seems that the vaccination and treatmentof nomadic flocks isa potential which is only partly utilized the VFUs at the moment. by The activities could also includenew approaches like the offer of facilities for dipping. Because Kuchis havea greater knowledge about animal than sedentary farmers they diseases could be more critical and thework more difficult at the beginning, but the large animal numbers are a good opportunityfor the VFUs to increase their income.

5.5 PRIVATISATION OF ANIMAL HEALTHSERVICES It is planned to fully privatize the Veterinary Field Unitswhich were established underthe Animal Health and LivestockProduction Programme (AFG /93/004). way have been: Three steps on this

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The gradual introduction of fees for all services provided by the VFUs.Livestock owners now have to pay the veterinary staff for allkind of assistance like drugs, vaccines and vaccination. The amount of fees is only agreed betweenthe livestock owner and the veterinary staff and not controlledby the project.

2. The reduction of the salary paid to the staff by the project under the assumption that an increasing amount of income will be directly earnedfrom the livestock owners.

3. Plans to hand over or sell premises and equipment of the VFUs to individual staff.

The idea of a private veterinary service was completely new in Afghanistan, both to the livestock owners and the technical staff.From the discussions during this missionit appears that most of the staff from the VFUs have accepted the conceptand started to appreciate the opportunities of earning extra money. Detailed information about the share of the income directly owned from the farmers was only being collected by the project during the period of this mission, butit seems that for active veterinariansit can be substantial.As can be expected, the livestock owners are still more critical about the introduction of charges.Nevertheless the amount of activities carried out by the VFUs indicate that many farmers consider it worth to pay.

The up to date experiences clearly show the feasibility of a private animal health service in Afghanistan.It is however, also important to consider whether under the present conditions this system will fully serve the needs of the country and the livestock owners. With nearly a monopoly intheir districtsit would be very difficult to control the activities and the performance of fully privatized VFUs. At the moment livestock owners are only prepared to pay for medicines and vaccinations but not for any other services.Maximizing income consequently requires to maximize the sale of medicines and itisnot surprising that discussions about the supply and sale of drugs rank very high among the veterinary staff. The sale and administration of anthelmintic has probably already reached the greatest importance among allservices provided by the VFUs.One has to expect that fully independent VFUs would even more concentrate on only few profitable aspects of animal health care and the implementation of new concepts like the strategic use of anthelmintics or even vaccinations may not be among the attractive ones. Althoughthe need of reduced financial assistance to the VFUs is fully considered, it seems that for the time being a comprehensive service to the livestock owners should have higher priority than the commercial interest of each VFU.

The lack of sufficient information about the animal disease situation in Afghanistan has already been mentioned. An urgent action would be needed to improve this situation and it seems that with the present staff of AFG /93/004 and the structure of the VFUs much more information could be collected than is done at the moment.If the better staff is however lost through an early privatisation of their VFUs there is great risk that the collecting of detailed animal disease information cannot be done.

Currently the linkages between the separate VFUs are established through the regional offices of the project and the NGOs as implementing partners. At least on a provincial level such linkages would also be required for the privatized VFUs to ensure a coordination of their activities, the procurement of vaccines and perhaps medicines and the organization of refresher training. Without external assistance it seems less likely that most of the present NGOs can continue to play a coordinating role and itis not clear whether Government institutions can perform this functionin the near future. The creation of veterinary associations or committee may be a better solution and the savings from the collective procurement of medicines could be used to cover the running cost of these associations.

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5.6 ROLE OF WOMEN FOR DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

The role of women for livestock production in Afghanistan has often been described as very important, but more detailed information have only been published for nomad women. Women are usually involved in milking of all kind of livestock, processing of dairy products, feeding and care of young stock and poultry and processing of wool.Very often women have the main responsible for these activities (Glatzer, 1977; Tavakolian, 1984), but an interesting difference in the share of activities can be found in Nuristan.In Nuristan only men milk livestock and prepare dairy products, while women are responsible for work on the field (Edelberg and Jones, 1979). The milking of small ruminants exclusively by men was also reported by Ferdinand (1969) for nomads in east Afghanistan.Barfield (1981) found that women of Arab nomads in north eastern Afghanistan had the full responsibility for setting up the camps, milking, processing of milk and making of felts.In sharp contrast to the nomadic women those of settled farmers remain within their compounds all the time, but their contribution to the management of livestock is most likely very similar to that of the nomadic women.

The influence of an intensification of livestock production on the role of women has been described by Barfield (1981) and Tavakolian (1984).In Qataghan the commercialization of pastoralism had direct negative impacts on Arab nomad women.While they had an important role in the traditional system of pastoralism for milking and processing of dairy products, the processing of milk was abandoned in the commercial system because cash value of sheep was most important. Women stopped participatinginthe seasonal movements with the flocks and considerably lost in status (Barfield, 1981). The women of the Sheikhanzai nomads in western Afghanistan expected a similar loss of control over resourcesiftheir families had taken part in the programmes of the Herat Livestock Development Corporation. According to Tavakolian (1984) their resistance to these programmes was an important reason for the failure of the HLDC.

Recent efforts to include women in the development process of livestock production were mainly in the field of poultry production, but also included the training of 26 female BVWs by staff from AFG /93/004.Several NGOs have trained village women in poultry production and provided them with kerosene incubators and a first stock of fertile egg for the production of chicken.In the training courses organized by the Swedish Committee (a NGO) male relatives participate during important days because it was said that women find it sometimes difficult to understand the subject of training (pers. corn. 1996). Nevertheless, it has been said that the programmes are successful and achieve their objectives but it was not possible to verify this during the mission.

The selling of eggs and dairy products by village women was reported in several interviews with farmers in the northern provinces and seems to be common practice.Dealers are coming to the houses and buy the products directly from the women.The income is exclusively at the disposal of the women.It seems that for the time to come both the support of village poultry production and the intensification of milk production with cows offer good chances for women to increase their income from sales and their independence. The competition from commercial producers around urban centres may later reduce the importance of small scale egg production by women, but this is unlikely for milk production. In addition to training of women in better management of poultry and cows the assistance to produce and /or procure feed and fodder may have the greatest need. Without knowledge of what women themselves consider important to learn or change no other gender specific proposals for development are made at this stage.However,itis suggested that the decision for a development activity should also include a consideration of the possible effects on the role of women.

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6. OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The political situation in Afghanistan is still very insecure which makes arealistic medium - term planning of livestock production development a very difficult task. Thecomplete lack of governmental structures for the promotion of livestock production is aserious problem, but this also offers the opportunity to develop new concepts. Political stability andpersonal security will be important contributions to any concept of livestock development. The presence of a functional national Government would be agreat benefit, butitis not essential for the promotion of livestock development which could also be planned and implemented on a regional basis. As the basis for medium -term development it is assumed that:

1. The great importance of livestock products in the diet of the Afghans will cause that any economic growth and general development of the countrywill increase the demand for livestock products.

2. Livestock owners are interested to raise livestock production, both for higher self consumption and for sale. They can be motivated to invest in the intensification of livestock production and the marketing of extra products could be organized through the presently available channels.

3. Except for a few animal products like wool and astrakhan pelts the increased production will be consumed for the time to come within the country.

4. In some areas and for some species an increase of the livestock population may be possible and necessary, but a substantial part of the higher production will have to come from a higher productivity.

5. Farmers have established forms of management and feeding which were suitable in the past, but need change in the future. Technical assistance would be required to accelerate that change.

6. An intensification of the production will require an increased use of inputs like fodder and feed, veterinary services and better genetic material.

The effective implementation of development programmes for livestock production requires a good knowledge of the predominant local production conditions, a set of proven innovations, tested under the same or similar conditions and acadre of well trained and motivated staff.

It is evident from the review of the literature and the description of resources for livestock development in Chapter 3 that there are many shortcomings in fulfilling these requirements. Only to mention the more important weaknesses, there is only very broad knowledge about the productive potential of the different species and breeds, about the production and use of fodder and feeds and about the incidence of important diseases and parasites. As the first step for development, efforts should be made to fill these gaps of knowledge.

The most critical problem for livestock development is probably the shortage of trained staff especially at the under -graduate level.Serious efforts should be made to re -open the faculties at first opportunity and information about the urgent needs of equipment and availability or need for teaching staff should be collected as soon as possible. There may be many livestock graduates who never had a chance to complete their education or to

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 34 - work in their profession, but even those who had full training before the warhave a knowledge which has become obsolete.It is therefore strongly recommended to arrange refresher courses for these two groups.The courses should cover mainly practical aspects of livestock production and a period between six and twelve months maybe sufficient.It would be ideal to organize these refresher courses within the country, and the possibility of job offers for the successful participants would surely help to get good trainees.It seems, that with the long break in activities there is risk that a lot of unpublished knowledge about pre -war efforts in livestock development like that about the HLDC and a number of bilateral aid projects is being lost. The collecting of such information would help in the future and could be done as preparation for the refresher courses.Of course the same also applies for the published information some of which is reviewedin this report and by COSSINS (1994).

Normally it would be the responsibility of the Government extension service to collect information about the livestock production systems, but even under more optimistic assumptions it will probably take years to fully re- establish the service. Some of the NGOs are effective in implementing the Animal Health Project but there arefew indications that they could become creative for the development of livestock production.The project AFG /93 /004 on the other hand has recruited most of the qualified technical staff from Afghanistan,it has a reasonable good infrastructure with staff and equipment in five regional offices and it has the experiences to execute field programmes.It seems that the project is at the moment the only institutions which could take a leading and executing role for the development of livestock production.

The investigation of livestock farming systems studies and data collection was already included into the objectives of AFG /93/004, but only few activities were possible because no cost sharing funds were available.Although development activities are not eligible for funding in countries without a National Government, it seems that the creation of essential knowledge for later development efforts is a good strategy and an important investment for the future even under such conditions.Only few PRAs were carried out by the Health Project and the studies on fodder from trees and on the importance of parasites in the northern provinces have already been mentioned.As part of the Animal Health and Production Improvement Module, AHPIM (TCP /AFG/4553) a group of veterinarians and livestock production specialists, one team of two for each of the five regions of the project, is being trained for one year in PRA methods. The main purpose is to help farmers identify production constraints and, while working with the farmers, to find solutions.It is also later planned to use this group for training of staff from VFUs to improve their skillsin communicating with the livestock owners.

It is recommended that the five groups established under AHPIM should be developed into permanent field investigation teams working under and from the five regional offices. Transport and some basic equipment will be required, but the operational cost for the investigation teams will be low at the initial stage.Within easy reach about 20 -30 livestock owners should be selected to work with the teams for at least two years; a longer period would be better. Arrangements should be made which allow that each farmer could be visited at least once a month and under no circumstances should they be selected in such remote places as done for the urea -molasses block trials in Ghazni. To ease the later activities great care is required to select the proper experimental farmers, which should include some with cattle and others with small ruminant, but priority should be given to settled farmers who produce livestock products for sale.It will be inevitable to assist and advise these farmers on all aspects of livestock production, but the main objectives of the work should be to collect information for the later planning and execution of large scale extension campaigns. Information will be needed about characteristics and problems of the

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 35 - present production systems but also about reactions to proposed newtechniques and interventions. The activities of the investigation teams should include the collecting butalso the analysis of production data and, as already proposed in the AHPIM mainemphasis should be given to key indicators like fertility and mortality.Analysis of collected data should be a permanent process and not postponed until the end of datarecording. Additional staff, if possible with some training in agricultural economics, may be requiredfor that purpose.

At a later stage of development the number of staff in the regional investigation teamscould be increased to cover more or other aspects of extension work and the activitiesof the different teams should be combined and coordinated through a national extension network. Instead of recruiting large numbers of extension workers financial constraints may necessitate an intensive use of mass media for the spread of extension messages. The popular BBC Drama programme for Afghanistan is a good example how effectiveradio can be used for this purpose.Once important extension messages are available the preparation of radio or even video programmes could be also organized on the regional level.

Except for the Kabul University the re- establishment or creation of Government farms for livestock production is not recommended. For the years to come there will bemainly need for applied research and field trials to adapt already tested technologies tothe conditions in Afghanistan.It is possible to carry out such type of experiments cheaper and equally efficient by working directly with selected livestock owners.Normally no great risk should be involved for the participating farmers, but for those experiments where the outcome is uncertain arrangement could be made for the case of losses by the livestock owner.It seems only logic to combine execution of field experiments with the activities of the investigation teams, but the present qualification and training through AHPIM is probably not sufficient to enable the already recruited staff to perform all these duties. Technical assistance through on the job training by an experienced extensionist would be the fastest and probably most efficient way to acquire those qualifications. Important topics which are critical for the development of livestock production and which need priority for field investigations are the following:

Testing of new or improved fodder varieties and their production techniques including their use for cattle feeding.

Development of strategies for optimum supplementary feeding of sheep during winter.

Development of optimum strategies for Karakul flocks to combine astrakhan pelt and mutton production.

Testing of the productive performance of crossbred dairy cows.

It will be necessary to seek assistance and cooperation from field crop specialists for the first topic, but the other three can be covered by experienced livestock specialists.

The development and support of the already planned diagnostic laboratories for disease investigation is considered fully justified. Itis however a matter of serious concern that those laboratories did not produce the necessaryinformation about disease incidence when they were fully functional in the pre -war period, and provision is needed to prevent that this will happen again.It seems unlikely that the laboratories could charge for their service in the next future or that livestock owners will frequently demand assistance. One way to stimulate activities is probably to link allocation of funds to the performance of

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 36 - the duties in the past. Active performance will requires cooperationof the laboratories with the VFUs which should be coordinated by more active regionaloffices of AFG /93/004.In addition to the investigation of the more common diseases a study ofthe efficiency of herbal drugs and other traditional medicines could be an interesting subject.

It seems that under the present conditions and for the immediatefuture full privatisation of the VFUs is not the best solution.This position however, does not exclude efforts to increase the financial independence of the VFU staff. A good opportunityis perhaps to offer more artificial insemination services for cows. The VFUs would needtraining of their staff and probably during the initial phase assistance in procuring equipment, semenand liquid nitrogen, but the service should be established completely on commercialconditions from the very beginning.If suitable locations are selected the results of the crossbreeding programme could be monitored by the field experiments suggestedabove. The operation of dips at strategic places could be another possible service of some of the VFUs, andthe location visited in the Takhar province during this mission could be used to test whetherthis is a viable proposal.The regular availability of animal medicines is important for the operation of the VFUs. To reduce the time and efforts which the staff is spending at the moment on procurement, the development of a distribution system is needed. Ratherthan to develop this system by the Health Project it is suggested to motivate business -peoplefor that job.

An effective stimulation of the poultry industry requires the establishment of commercial units for chicken production.The project AFG /93/004 has already given assistance to private persons to support such activities in Helmand and Herat and was planning it for Mazar- i- Sharif. The main reason why big commercial operators have not yet come into the business is most likely the great risk of losses. An important factor for success in poultry production is well trained staff which is difficult to find in Afghanistan. Organization of good trainingcourses onpoultryproductionistherefore recommended tostimulatethe development of that industry.

Afghanistan is producing a huge amount of hides and skins but has no facilities for the processing of these products, and the same is largely true for wool.Support for the development of relevant industries may benefit the country but not necessarily the individuals farmers.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 37 -

7. REFERENCES

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Anjum, M.S. 1995 Survey Report on Wool Marketing in Pakistan, Report prepared for the Sheep & Wool Project, PAK/88/032

ASA 1992 Fourteenth Report, 1991 Survey, The Agricultural Survey of Afghanistan, Peshawar 1992.

ASA 1993 Farming Systems in Afghanistan, Summary, The Agricultural SurveyofAfghanistan, FifteenthReport, Part VIII, Peshawar, 1993.

Balland, D. 1988bLe déclincontemporaindunomadismpastoralen Afghanistan. in:Grötzbach(ed.)Neue Beiträgezur Afghanistanforschung Bd. 6

Balland, D; Benoist, A. 1982 Nomades et semi -nomades Baluç d'Afghanistan. Revue Géographique de l'Est 22 (1 -2), 117 -144

Balland, D; Kieffer, C.M 1979 Nomadisme etsécheresse en Afghanistan: l'exemple des nomades Pastun du Dat- e- N _wor. in: Pastoral Production and Society, Cambridge, Paris, 75 -90

Barfield, T.J. 1981 TheCentral Asian Arabsof Afghanistan - Pastoral nomadism in transition, University of Texas Press, Austin

Barker, T.J; Rahmani 1994 Village survey -Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Ghazni - Jaghatu district

Barker, T.J; Halimi 1995 Village survey II - Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Herat - Zinda Jan district

Barus, V., Amin, A., Blazek, K., Moravec, F. 1976 Nematodes parasitizing domestic ruminants in Afghanistan.Folia Parasitologica, 23:3, 207- 216

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Bouy, M; Dasniere, J.1994 Typologies des villages et pratiques d'élevage dans le Badakhshan (nord -est de l'Afghanistan). RevueElev. Méd. Vét. Pays Trop. 47 (2), 245 -256

Casimir, M; Winter, R.P; Glatzer, B. 1980 Nomadism andremotesensing:animal husbandry and the sagebrush community in a nomad winter area in western Afghanistan, Journal of AridEnvironments 3, 231 -254

Centlivres, P.; Centlivres -Demont M. 1977 Chemins d'Eté , Chemin d'Hiver entre Darwaz et Qataghan, Afghanistan Journal 4(4), 155 -163

Cerny, V., Daniel, M., Amin, A., Olejnicek, J.1977 To the Knowledge of ticks of domestic animals in Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica. 24:1, 81 -84

Cossins, N. 1994 A review of the livestock production systems of Afghanistan, Report prepared for the Animal Health and Production Division of FAO, Rome, 62 p.

Davis,Diana,K.;Karimullah Quraishi; Sherman,D.;Sollod,A.;Stem,C. (1995) Ethnoveterinary medicine in Afghanistan: An overview of indigenous animal health care among Pashtun Koochi nomads. Journal of Arid Environments 31,483 -500

Demirüren, A.S. 1958 Report to the Government of Afghanistan on sheep and wool improvement, Appendix II: A sample sheep and wool survey of Afghanistan, FAO Report No 853, FAO Rome

Denizot, F.; Haider, H.; de Planhol, X. 1977 Peuplement et mise valeur de la vallée de Golak (Afghanistan central) Revue Géographique de l'Est 17 (1 -2), 53 -71

Dupree, L. 1980 Afghanistan, 2nd edn. Princeton University Press

Edelberg, L.; Jones, S.1979 Nuristan, Akademische Druck -undVerlagsanstalt Graz, Austria

Emal, M.J. 1982 Performanceevaluationof crossbreddairycattlein Afghanistan, M.A. Thesis (cited after Cossins, 1994)

Engashev, V.G. 1986 Helminthologicalsituation in northern provinces of Afghanistan. Byulleten' Vsesoyuznogo Instituta Gel'mintologii. K.I. Skryabina. No. 44, 17 -21

Ferdinand, K. 1969 Nomadism in Afghanistan-With an appendix on milk products. in: Földes, L. (ed.)Viehwirtschaftund Hirtenkultur, Akademiaì Kiado, Budapest, Hungary

Filippova, N.A. 1983 Redescription of Dermacentor raskemensis Pomerantzev,1946(Ixodidae) - representativeofthe mountain fauna of the southern regions of the USSR and neighbouring territories. Parazitologiya, 17:4, 283 -292

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report - 39 -

Glatzer, B. 1977 Nomaden von Gharjistan, Beiträge zur Südasienforschung, Bd 22, Wiesbaden, Germany

Glatzer, B. Casimir , M.J. 1983 Herds and Households among Pashtun pastoral nomads: Limits of growth, Ethnology 22(4), 307 -325

Grötzbach, E. 1990 Afghanistan,Wissenschaftliche LänderkundeBd. 37, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, Germany

Hakemi, M.Z. 1988 Sheep husbandry in Afghanistan.Proceedings, VI World Conference on Animal production. 655. Finnish Animal Breeding Associations, Helsinki, Finland

Halimi, M. 1995 Village survey - Livestock production, Animal Health and Livestock Production Programme in Afghanistan (AFG /93/004), Paktia - Jaji Maidan district

Keshtiar, G.A.; First, K.J.; Thompson, R.C. 1969 A dairy survey of thirteen provinces in Afghanistan, Technical Bulletin No 13, Kabul University, Fac of Agric., 31 p. (cited after Grötzbach, 1990)

Kirsch, R., Miller, W.M. 1982 Worm load and anthelmintictreatmentof sheepin Afghanistan. World Animal Review. No.44, 19 -23

Kotrla, B., Blazek, K. Amin, A.1976 Trematodes of domestic ruminants of Afghanistan and their role in pathology.Folia Parasitologica, 23:3, 217- 220

Kyozojed, V.,Blazek, K., Amin, A. 1976 Incidence of toxoplasmosis in domestic animalsin Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica. 23;3, 273 -275

Leyland, T. 1994 Planning a community animal health care programme in Afghanistan. RRA Notes 20, 47 -51

Martins, C.; Peters, K.J. 1992 Alternative use of Karakul sheep for pelt and Iamb production in Botswana. I. Reproduction and growth performance, Small Ruminant Research 9, 1 -10

McArthur, I.D; Sarwar Sayad and Maqsood Nawin. 1979. Rangeland livestockproduction in western Afghanistan, Journal of Arid Environments 2, 163- 179

McArthur, I. D. 1980 Pre -lambing supplementation of Gadic ewes in western Afghanistan. J. Agric. Sci. 95(1), 39 -45

Michaud, R.; Michaud, S. 1978 Caravans to Tartary, Thames and Hudson, London

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Millar, P. 1986 The performance of cashmere goats, Animal Breeding Abstracts 54(3), 181 -199

Minar, J., Olejnicek, J., Amin, A. 1977 On someOestridae,Hypodermatidaeand Hippoboscidae (Diptera) from Afghanistan. Folia Parasitologica, 24:1, 92 -93

Nicollet, S. 1972 L'élevage dans la province Afghane de Caboul, Thèse, Ecole Nationale Véterinaire d'alfort, 120 p. (citedafter Grötzbach, 1990)

Rako, A., Cizek, J. 1980 Idejni program razvoja ovcarstva u provinciji Kandahar (Afghanistan). (Improvementprogrammeforsheep breedingintheKandahar provinceof Afghanistan). Stocarstvo. 34:9 -10, 383 -388

Shahrani, M.N.M. 1979 The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan,Universityof Washington Press, Seattle and London

Stevens, I.M. 1965 Kochilivestockoperationsin theHelmand valley, Afghanistan,in:Steven,I.M.;Tarzi,K.;Economics of agricultural production in Helmand Valley, Report of the Helmand Valley Development Project, 81 -88

Suttie, J.M. 1996 Agricultural rehabilitation in Afghanistan - Report of a TSS -2 funded technical support mission,FAO, AGPC, Rome March 1996

Tavakolian, B. 1984 Women and socioeconomic change among Sheikhanzai nomads of western Afghanistan, Middle East Journal 38(3), 433 -453

Thieme, O. 1993 Reproductiveand growthperformanceoflocaland European x local crosses inCentral Anatolian villages, Thesis University of Göttingen, Germany

UNDP 1993 AfghanistanRehabilitation Strategy,ActionPlanFor ImmediateRehabilitation,VolumeIV:Agricultureand Irrigation

Valiev, U.V. 1975 Metody soderzhaniya karakul'skikh ovets v Afghanistane. (Karakul sheep breeding in Afghanistan). Ovtsevodstvo. No.10, 35 -37

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Valiev, U.V. 1975 Selektsiyaserykhkarakul'skikhovetsv Afghanistane. (Breeding grey karakul sheep in Afghanistan).Problemy

genetiki I selektsii v karakulevodstve.Materialy pervogo vsesoyuznogo simpoziuma po genetike karakul'skikh ovets. 75 -78. Alma -Ata, USSR

Villinger, O. 1992 Pelzgewinnung in heißen Trockengebieten-Persianer - Lammfelle vom Karakulschaf, Entwicklung + Ländlicher Raum 5/92, 19 -22

Volk, O.H. 1972 Grundlagen und Empfehlungen für eine Perspektivplanung zum Regionalen Entwicklungsvorhaben Paktia /Afghanistan. Bd.6: Viehweiden und ihre Ökologie, PTP (Planungsteam Paktia)

Yalçin, B.C. 1979 The sheep breeds of Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey, Rome, Italy; FAO, 115 p.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report ANNEX 1.

INFORMATION COLLECTED DURING THE MISSION ABOUT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report CONTENTS

1. Information about livestock production in Nangarhar Province 1

2. Livestock production system of a settled Kuchi tribe in Khost 1

3. Information about sheep production from the Paktia and Wardak provinces 2

4. Management of Kuchi flocks from Qandahar Province 3

5. Livestock production in Ghazni Province. Information from farmers in the Jaghatu, Gilan and Moqor districts 4

6. Management of a second Kuchi flock from Qandahar Province 5

7. Livestock production in the Qandahar Province. Information from farmers in the Panjwai and Arghandab districts 6

8. Information from Kuchi flocks in Herat province 6

9. Livestock production systems in the Baghlan Province. Information from farmers in the Pul -e- Khumri and Dahana -e -Ghori districts 7

10. Information about sheep production from a farmer in the Kunduz Province 8

11. Livestock production in Balkh Province. Information from farmers of the Khoja Galuqin village 9

12. Present system and development of livestock production. A Case Study from Andkhoy 9

13. Economics of Karakul Production - A Case Study from Andkhoy 10

14. Livestock Production in Sar -e -Pol, A Case Story from the village Merza -w -Lang 12

15. Livestock Production in Sar -e -Pol, Second Case Story from the Central District 13

16. Small Ruminant Production in Jowzjan, A Case Study from the Aqchah district 14

Weights and Measures

1 Seer 7 kg (in the Qandahar area 1 seer = 4.5 kg) 1 Jerib 0.2 ha 1 US$ = Afghanis(Afs)10- 15,000,There wasa largedifference between the exchange rate of the US$ to the Afghani from the beginning to the end of the survey.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 1

1. INFORMATION ABOUT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN NANGARHARPROVINCE

24 April 1996

A farmer was met at the veterinary clinic of the Shewa districtand interviewed about management and performance of his cattle.The farmer owned three cows which all had calved recently. The cows remain indoors or in the garden all the year and arefed on fresh shaftal and weeds during summer and straw and limited amounts of concentratesduring winter. For mating the farmer used a bull which was brought to the villagefor slaughter by a neighbour. The cows are milked twice a day and the present daily milkproduction from the three cows is 26 litres. The maximum production of a cow from onemilking was given as 6 litres.

A second farmer from Shewa explained a system of cooperationbetween Kuchis and sedentarised producers.About 15 families buy weak, but pregnant ewes which cannot make the walk to the summer pastures from the Kuchi flocks. The interviewed personhad purchased 60 ewes for which the Kuchis give him a pregnancy guarantee.If a ewe is not pregnant, the Kuchis have to compensate after their return in winter.Until the time of interview the farmer had lost two of the ewes, but had already received 55lambs and was expecting five more. The ewes and lambs only graze on common land andthe farmer is investing no money in fodder. He is selling the sheep in Shewa to a butcher forslaughter. The purchase price of the ewes was Afs 250,000 each, which will be paid in autumnand partly in the form of wheat.The farmer will sell each ewe and lamb for more than Afs 350,000.

A farmer from a village in the mountainous area of the Dara -e -Nur district gaveinformation about livestock production in his area. The majority of farmers from the village had only recently returned from Pakistan. Each family keeps at least five cattle and on the average 20 -30 goats, but the flock size used to be considerably larger before the farmersfled their village. The mating season of the goats is August/September and kidding consequentlyin January/February. The farmer in question owned 70 goats which had produced 60 kids. There were 20 abortions and 15 -20 twin births. For two months after kidding the milk is left to the kids and for another two months the goats are milked, interestingly bythe men and not women. The milk of the goats is made into cheese. During most of the year the goats are fed on grazing, but during winter they also receive driedweeds and hay, but no concentrates.The surplus male kids are usually sold before winter.According to the farmers the main disease problems are FMD, sheep pox and mange.Staff from the veterinary clinic had recently vaccinated the animals of the village against anthrax.The interviewed farmers however, were sceptical about the results and were neither aware of the reason for vaccination nor the type of vaccine.

2. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEM OF A SETTLED KUCHI TRIBE IN KHOST

6 May 1996

A group of Kuchis was met and interviewed in the Shamal District of Khost province. The tribe used to graze their animals in the Khost area during winter and moved to Logar during summer. Many families of the tribe had lost their transport animals during the warand as they can no longer move to the summer pastures, they have settled in the winter pasture area four years ago. Another important change caused by the war isthe shift which many families made from sheep to cattle production. There were 60 families in the camp owning about 600 cows.About 15 -20 of the families still keep 10- 15,000 small ruminants and continue their former movement to the summer pastures. They had left 20 -30 days ago for Logar which they normally reach after 15 days of walking and will return in September.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 2

The number of cattle kept per family varies from one to 100, but several farmers have about 50. The only nutrition of the cattle is grazing on the grassland and they do not receive any supplementary feeding. The best grazing conditions are in early spring and early autumn, the worst in summer and winter.Male cattle are sold at the age of two to three years depending on the needs of the families for cash. The main health problems of the cattle are ticks and blackquarter. Last year one farmer lost four of his 40 cattle from blackquarter, mainly young ones. A Basic Veterinary Worker (BVW) had recently established contacts with the tribe, was offering his services and was present during the interview.

The herd composition of one farmer was 10 male cattle, 20 cows, 20 young female cattle. Eight of the cows had calved recently and five were pregnant.It appears that the fertility of this herd is poor, but cows are maintained even if they do not get pregnant every year.

The mating season of the sheep is during September /October on the winter pastures. The rams receive supplementary feed during the mating season, but not the ewes at any stage during the whole year. The lambing period starts mid February and lasts for about 40 days. Lambs are immediately separated from the ewes and milking starts from the third day after lambing. The milking period continues until weaning of the lambs at 3.5 months. The total daily milk production of one flock with 150 ewes was given as 40 litres (about 250 gram daily per ewe). About one third of the male lambs are kept until the age of one year, the others are sold after weaning. However, richer families may sell their lambs at a higher age. Sheep are shorn once a year in April /May and the price of the wool of mixed colour was Afs 20,000 for 7 kg.

The approximate fertility of a flock of a selected farmer with about 150 ewes and 150 goats can be calculated as follows: There were 80 lambs and 40 kids in the flock, 28 of the female sheep were hoggets, 30 of the ewes and 60 of the goats aborted or lost their lambs or kids and 20 of the ewes were barren. On the basis of these figures one can calculate a weaning rate of 65 percent for sheep and 35 percent for goats, assuming an age structure of the goat flock similar to the sheep flock. The very poor fertility of the goats from this flock was mainly caused by the high rate of abortions.It is not clear whether these results are typical for the area.

3. INFORMATION ABOUT SHEEP PRODUCTION FROM THE PAKTIA AND WARDAK PROVINCES

7 May & 9 May 1996

The owner of a sheep flock was interviewed near Gardez in Paktia province. He is keeping his flock of Ghiljai sheep in the Khost area during winter but moves to Gardez in summer where he owns and cultivates land.There were 65 adult female sheep in the flock (including 26 hoggets) and 45 lambs. Five ewes gave birth to twins, two ewes were barren and two lambs had died. The flock had been grazing on fallow land for 1.5 months near the house of the owner. Milking of the ewes starts immediately after birth and continues for four months until weaning. The lambs are led to their mothers for suckling twice a day, in the morning and evening, and the ewes are milked at noon. The average amount of milk from the ewes was given as 0.3 kg. The interviewed person is selling no dairy products and his male lambs during winter in the Khost area.The price for those lambs was Afs 130- 140,000 in 1995. He had sold his wool last year for Afs 5,500 per 7kg. The flock is not regularly drenched against worms, but was vaccinated last autumn.Although he paid a vaccination fee, the flock owner did not know at all why and against what disease his flock was vaccinated.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 3

The owner of a Kuchi flock coming from the winter pastures in the Di Khan district of Pakistan was interviewed in the Jaghatu district of Wardak. The flock left Pakistan 50 days ago and was planning to reach the summer pasture during the next day where theywill stay for two to three months.Before departure, the flock was drenched against worms with Nilzan which the flock owner purchased in Pakistan. The flock will also be drenched when the animals have returned to Pakistan in autumn and treated against liver fluke. The Kuchi had tried different anthelmintics, but always buys from the same pharmacy in Pakistan. Four years ago he also tried vaccination, but sees no benefit in doing it again. According to the flock owner there are more animals and poorer pastures in the area where his animals graze and he is not afraid of mines.

Lambing of the sheep takes place on their way, and the lambs are transported during the first 3 -6 days on camels. The flock had a size of 160 ewes, 60 female hoggets, 27 male hoggets, 40 goats, 120 lambs and 40 kids. There were 21 ewes in the flock which did not lamb, four produced twins and 25 lambs had died since birth.These figures suggest a weaning rate of 75 percent.

4. MANAGEMENT OF KUCHI FLOCKS FROM QANDAHAR PROVINCE

9 -10 May 1996

A flock owner from Qandahar was interviewed on his summer pasture in the Jaghatu district, Wardak province. The flock had arrived eight days ago after a trek of about three months and will stay between four and five months. The family of the flock owner consisted of four persons and they owned 30 sheep and seven camels. The interviewed Kuchi is rather poor and his brother has to work as shepherd in a bigger flock which was part of the same camp. The contract as a shepherd is for one year and ends at weaning time, but he normally changes his employer every year.The salary is paid as one out twenty female lambs plus one out of six male lambs weaned from the flock.He was expecting 12 male lambs and two or three females.

In the same area a herd of 120 camels was grazed by two shepherds.The camels belonged to 10 families who had come from the Qandahar province and who had recruited the shepherds. The shepherds let the camels graze during the day and return them to their owners in the evening. The yearly salary they receive is 45 lambs.

Two other owners of Kuchi flocks were interviewed near Nani, Ghazni province. The flocks were also on their move from Qandahar province to their summer pastures in Ghazni and had only four more days to walk to reach their summer place where they will remain for three months.

1st Flock:

The flock consisted of 50 sheep and 20 goats which had produced 44 lambs and 17 kids and only one lamb had died since birth. The owner is expecting losses in autumn when the flock will return to the winter pastures (parasites ?).For about 40 days from mid -December until mid -January,i.e.during late pregnancy and early lactation the animals receive supplementary feeding of concentrates.In 1995 he purchased 630 kg of maize grain which was equivalent to a daily amount of 50 grams. Milking of the ewes starts immediately after lambing and continues for four months. The ewes are milked once a day and the present total daily production of the flock was 10 kg (200 grams per animal).Weaning, the beginning of the mating season and shearing takes place on the summer pastures. The average wool production of the ewes is 2.5 kg. The biggest problem of the flock is disease. The owner started drenching in 1979 and is continuing since then twice yearly, at the end of

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 4 autumn and in spring, but he knows that there are problems with the qualityof the drenches on the market. The prices in the Ghazni animal market aresatisfactory and he is selling his animals there, not in bulk but whenever he is in need of cash. There is no influence ofthe presence of mines in the area on his movements and the managementof the flock.

2nd Flock:

The second flock owner is camping together with the first one on their way to the summer pastures. The flock consists of 80 sheep (including 30 female hoggets), 10 goat (including three young), 40 lambs and 10 kids. There were two or three barren ewes in the flock but no barren goats. One ewe and one goat had produced twins and nolamb or kid had died since birth. The year before the flock had experienced high lamb mortality from diarrhoea and 30 sheep died from sheep pox. Another family member lost all his 200 sheep during a snow storm and is now working as shepherd. The flock ownerwould like to increase his flock size, but finds it difficult to accomplish this with starting from a small flock.

5. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN GHAZNI PROVINCE. INFORMATION FROM FARMERS IN THE JAGHATU, GILAN AND MOQOR DISTRICTS

8 May & 10 May 1996

Information from Deh Alidad and Mirak Villages, Jaghatu

An intensive survey of these villages was carried out by BARKER & RAHMANI (1994) and the information given below are supplementary to that survey.

As growth of the pastures starts only in May and many farmers finish their stocks of straw in March, seven out of 21 farmers from Deh Alidad have to purchase straw or lucerne hay from neighbours or other villages. The cost per 7kg in spring 1996 were Afs 2000 for straw and Afs 5000 for lucerne hay. Two questioned farmers purchased 250 kg and 1200 kg straw, respectively. Four families in the village purchase cotton seed cake (Afs 16,000 per 7kg) and give about 0.5 kg per day to cattle.All farmers from the two villages have used urea -molasses blocks provided by the project (60 kg each farmer)and showed great satisfaction with the results. The farmers in Mirak also tested the use of urea treated straw and observed positive changes in their animals. Animals in Mirak were vaccinated last year, but farmers "don't know what vaccination is good for ".If animals get sick they still use local methods of treatment like ground onions, pepper and buttermilk against fever.

Farmer from Gilan:

The farmer is from a village in the Gilan district near the town of Moqor. He owns 25 sheep and one cow. The sheep flock consists of nine ewes (of which seven lambed, two twins and two are pregnant), seven males and nine lambs. The cow calved last year and is now eight months pregnant. He is just producing enough livestock products for his family needs and is selling none.He is growing lucerne on 1000 m2 and gets three cuts.The wheat straw from his own land is sufficient to feed his animals for only four months and he is therefore buying straw for feeding. Out of the 70 families from his village, only 10 families produce enough straw to feed their animals. The cost of straw and lucerne hay per 7kg is Afs 1000 and Afs 5000, respectively.There are two or three farmers in the village which can sell straw or lucerne hay.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 5

1st Farmer from Moqor:

The farmer is from the Azad village of Moqor district which has a population of 80 families. He has a family of 10 members and owns 10 sheep, one cow, one calf and one donkey. The sheep flock consists of five ewes all of which had lambed, three rams and two hoggets. The milk production of his cow is about two litres per day. He owns only one jerib of land and is not cultivating any fodder. About 50 percent of the farmers from his village are in a similar position.He provides labour to cultivate 20 jeribs in another village and gets one eighth of the grain yield and a share of the straw, but he sometimes also has to buy straw.

2nd Farmer from Moqor:

This farmer is from the same village as the first one. He keeps four rams, two cows and two young female cattle. The cows are not pregnant but are lactating since the last calving a year ago. He is growing lucerne on one jerib of land.His family has 12 members and he considers the production of livestock products sufficient for his family. When his animals are sick he sometimes uses Oxytetracycline which he calls "vaccine ".

6. MANAGEMENT OF A SECOND KUCHI FLOCK FROM QANDAHAR PROVINCE

11 May 1996

Two brothers who manage their flocks together were interviewed near Qalat in Kabul province.The flock owners have their winter grazing areas in Qandahar and move their flocks in summer to the Moqor district of Ghazni province. The flock size of the first brother was 90 sheep and 10 goats of which 80 sheep lambed and 50 of the lambs survived. The second brother owned 100 sheep and 20 goats and of the 85 lambs born, 15 had died. From the lamb crop of the previous year (n = 130) he lost 12 lambs after weaning and 15 sheep died from anthrax.The biggest problem at the time of visit was FMD which is affecting their flock every other year. They regularly buy drugs for drenching against liver fluke and worms but find it difficult to find the proper one among the drugs on the market. They estimate their total yearly cost of drugs for each flock at Afs 2,000,000.

Supplementary feed is purchased in autumn and winter. On their way back to Qandahar they buy tree leaves which cost last year Afs 1,000,000 per flock.For winter feeding they purchase maize and hay.The amounts of maize purchased in 1995 were 2250 kg and 3150 kg for the two flocks, respectively. The amounts of hay purchased in 1995 were 2250 kg and the equivalent of Afs 300,000 kg for the two flocks, respectively. The total amount of supplementary feeding per animal and season is thus about 25 kg concentrates and 24 kg of roughage. The Kuchis have hired shepherds who receive as salary: Afs 700,000 in cash, free food, 25 percent of the wool, one out of 20 weaned female lambs and one out of six weaned male lambs.

The products for sale are live animals and wool. On average each ewe produces 2.5 kg of wool which they expected to sell at Afs 23- 25,000 per 4.5 kg.The interviewed Kuchis collect only small amounts of milk from their sheep and do not sell any dairy products. The 100 animals of the first brother have a yearly production of about 22.5 kg of butter.

The management practices of the two flocks have not changed substantially since the prewar times and although all family members are afraid of mines their presence has little influence on the management and grazing of the two flocks.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 6

7. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN THE QANDAHAR PROVINCE. INFORMATION FROM FARMERS IN THE PANJWAI AND ARGHANDAB DISTRICTS

13 May 1996

1st Farmer:

This farmer was from the Sakhan village of the Panjwai district. There are 30 families in the village which are all related to each other. The main agricultural activity is growing grapes and only 10 of the families keep few animals. The farmer keeps two cows and ten ewes which have all lambed and no lambs have died. The animals are fed on fresh and dried lucerne which the farmer grows on three jeribs of land. The fodder production is sufficient and only in some years he has to buy lucerne from outside. From mid December until mid February the sheep flock receive supplementation of about 10 kg of maize per day (1 kg per animal) .He is also feeding maize stalks and wheat straw from his own land. Last year he sold maize stalks worth of Afs 500,000.Out of the total production of 18 tonnes of raisins from this village about 1300 -1800 kg are of poor quality and are sold as animal feed to Kuchis for Afs 23,000 per seer (4.5 kg). The farmer lost two sheep last year "which were not eating" and he sometimes buys drugs against liver fluke or "weakness" of the animals. No animals were ever vaccinated in his village. The production from his animals is sufficient for all family members, who consume buttermilk every day and even surplus production is freely distributed among those families without animals.

2nd Farmer:

This farmer is from a village with 60 families in the Arghandab district.Each family keeps three to five cattle and five to ten sheep and goats. The cows are of the local Qandahari breed and as there is no bull for mating in the village, the farmers have to go to another village for service. The owner of the bull is charging Afs 23,000 per mating from about half of the farmers, while the other farmers receive this service free. Problems sometimes occur when the owner of the bull refuses to provide this service at all.

The farmer is keeping two cows of which one had calved 15 -20 days ago and is now giving 9 kg of milk per day. The cow is in the'second lactation and a paravet had treated it one day ago for mastitis. The performance of a second cow is lower.He is feeding his cows with lucerne and weeds from vineyards.

8. INFORMATION FROM KUCHI FLOCKS IN HERAT PROVINCE

27 May 1996

A camp of Kuchi flocks was visited near Zendah Jan. The flock owners only move within the district and have permanent houses were they stay in winter, but no land for cultivation. No exact information was given by the interviewed flock owner about animal numbers but he uses two rams for mating 200 ewes and claimed that usually only few ewes remain barren (1 -2) and few lambs die after birth.During the mating season he isgiving supplementary feeding to the rams of lucerne and about 1 kg of barley grain. During winter ewes are fed with purchased lucerne hay, straw and for about one month with 200 -300 gram of barley.For the goats in his flock (about 20) he is also buying mulberry leaves which cost him 500,000 Afs in 1995.

The Kuchi had his flock recently vaccinated on his own request, most likely against sheep pox, but was not sure about the type of vaccine. He lost few animals from anthrax last year but was not aware of the possibilities to vaccinate against this disease.If animals are

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1, Page 7 seriously sick, even with anthrax, they are slaughtered and eaten no matter what the disease is.An interesting argument against too many vaccinations by the interviewed person was that no sheep will die and we'll have no meat to eat".No regular drenching of the flock is carried out and the last time it was done two years ago.

A second flock owner from another camp with similar management and movements reported about his experiences with the anthrax vaccination which he had done for the first time 25 days ago. He was very worried because the ewes gave no milk for three days, but the situation is all right now. A BVW from the VFU had only recently started to establish contacts with the Kuchis at this camp by doing the vaccination and the Kuchis were still suspicious about the results.

9. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE BAGHLAN PROVINCE. INFORMATION FROM FARMERS IN THE PUL -E- KHUMRI AND DAHANA -E -GHORI DISTRICTS

31 May 1996

Three farmers were interviewed about their practicesinlivestock production and the influences of war and the present security situation on these practices.

1st Farmer:

The farmer is from the Alikhel village of Pul -e- Khumri district. He owns 15 jeribs of land, 15 sheep and two cows. Before the war he owned 800 sheep but had to sell them like many others in his village at a very cheap rate about 15 years ago.He left his village as a refugee to Pakistan and has returned only three years ago. Sheep production in the village was very popular and there used to be about 3000 ewes compared to 300 ewesnowadays. The grazing lands of the village have now been largely occupied by Hazara tribes.The farmer said that he learned in Pakistan how to improve the management of his livestock, which means that he is now giving more feed, better health care and he has constructed a better shed for his animals. He is now especially interested to increase dairy production for sale and would like to keep six cows. According to him many other farmers have similar ideas. During winter he is feeding his cows with straw, barley and cotton seed cake. He is also growing lucerne and shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) and prefers shaftal because of its higher yield which he gets from seven cuts. Lucerne is planted in August after wheat and kept for only two years because rats multiply in the crop.Shaftal is planted in March. He was giving urea fertiliser to both legumes and was surprised to hear that this is a wrong practice.

2nd Farmer:

This farmer is from the same village, but which he did not leave during the war. He owns 5- 6 jeribs of land, 40 sheep and three cows. Before the war he had 1000 sheep but which he had to sell for the same reasons as the first farmer. He is watching what kind of innovations his neighbours who returned from Pakistan are testing and may follow them. During winter he is feeding his livestock with wheat straw. legume straw and 700 kg each of barley and cotton seed cake. He prefers Arabi sheep to Turki sheep because of their wool production which he utilises for making felts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 8

3rd Farmer:

This farmer is from the Qurshan village of Dahana -e -Ghoro district.He keeps 100 ewes and has just recently sold another 100 ewes because of security problems. Keeping animals is risky because the Government is not guaranteeing security and commanders are taking animals away at their will. He has invested the money from the sold sheep in a shop at Pul -e- Khumri.Before the war he kept 400 sheep, twenty male cattle, six camels and three cows. His sheep are looked after by a shepherd who receives as salary one out of six weaned lambs, a monthly salary of Afs 100,000, food, one pair of shoes and all the wool. The farmer is using only one ram for mating of all his ewes and claimed not to know the fertility of his flock. He needs money in June and is therefore selling the lambs at this time. Other farmers from his area buy the lambs and fatten them in small units of 5 -10 lambs for another few months. They are then sold and slaughtered for production of dried mutton (Landi) or for sacrificial purposes.The farmer is keeping crossbred sheep of Turki and Arabi. The advantage of the Arabi is their wool which helps to withstand the cold winters and the Turki are in good demand because of their bigger size and meat production. The farmer finds production of sheep meat very profitable and would like to increase production if situation would permit.

10. INFORMATION ABOUT SHEEP PRODUCTION FROM A FARMER IN THE KUNDUZ PROVINCE

31 May 1996

A farmer from a village near Kunduz, who was harvesting his wheat was met by chance and interviewed about the management of his livestock. He had been in Pakistan for nine years and some of his family members were still living there. The farmer was cultivating 80 ha of land and was thus among the big land owners of the area. On his return to Afghanistan the farmer brought 16 cows from Peshawar but these were only used for milk production for the family.For the cows he was growing shaftal on three jeribs of land and lucerne on one jerib. He has sufficient amounts of straw which has a value for selling of Afs 20,000 per 70 kg but he is given the surplus away for free.

The farmer was maintaining a flock of Turki sheep with 150 ewes and 70 hoggets. He was praising the Turki for their good body size, high growth rate and large fat -tail. The information given about fertility of the flock were unclear, because the farmer mentioned on the one hand that all ewes lambed while on the other hand the number of lambs born was only 100. Five ewes had produced twins and ten lambs had died. There was only one ram available for the flock and the lambing period stretches over 30 -40 days. The ewes are not being milked by the flock owner's family members but probably to some extent by the shepherds. The farmer was planning to sell 50 of the lambs in Kunduz, 15 days after the interview.The lambs would then weight 21 -22 kg and fetch a price of Afs 250 -300,000. During summer the flock is taken to the high pastures by two shepherd who receive a salary of Afs 200,000 per month and one tenth of the weaned lambs.During winter the ewes receive supplementary feeding with barley, wheat and wheat flour. The main disease problems of the flock are anthrax and liver fluke. The farmer was planning to have his flock vaccinated against anthrax after 15 days.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 9

11. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN BALKH PROVINCE. INFORMATION FROM FARMERS OF THE KHOJA GALUQIN VILLAGE

2 June 1996

1st Farmer:

The farmer owns 150 Karakul sheep (in the extended family there are 300 ewesand 20 cattle), including 60 hoggets, which produced 100 lambs during the last season.There were only 2 -3 barren ewes in the flock and about 10percent of the ewes produced twins. He slaughtered 70 lambs for pelt production, which included also females, andis maintaining the other 30 lambs. He sold 40 grey pelts (Afs 100,000 each) and 30 brown pelts (Afs 80- 90,000 each). With additional cost of Afs 50- 60,000 the lambs could besold at 3 -4 months of age with a rate of Afs 200,000. The reason why he is slaughteringthe lambs for pelt production is the need for cash to buy seed and fertiliser and thesecurity situation which may cause a loss of the lambs before selling.

A shepherd is looking after the flock, but the family helps during the lambing season.The ewes which do not rear lambs are milked, during the first daysthree times and they produce about one litre of milk during this period.Milking continues for about two months.During late pregnancy the flock is supplemented by 14 kg of cotton seed cake and lucerne hay ad libitum and he finds barley grain too expensive to use.The farmer maintains seven breeding rams because he considers a ratio of 4 rams: 100 ewes as optimum. The criteria for selecting rams are colour, body size and a small tail.Unlike many other farmers he is not considering crossbreeding of the Karakul with another breed.In the last year the flock was vaccinated against anthrax and he is planning vaccinationfor this year as well but complained about charges.

2nd: Farmer:

This farmer keeps 70 sheep and five local cows (40 cows, three oxen, 10 young stock are kept by the extended family).All five cows have calved during this spring and the calves are alive.Heifers are mated in the third year. He is feeding about 224 kg of concentrates (cotton seed cake and home grown barley) during four months in winter and lucerne from about two jeribs of land during summer. Every week during three months of the year he sells butter and chaka (a type of fresh cheese) to Mazar- i- Sharif.Within four days the five cows produce 3 kg of butter of which half is sold. The farmerhas no preferences either for sheep or cattle but his cash income is higher from sheep.

12. PRESENT SYSTEM AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION. A CASE STUDY FROM ANDKHOY

3 June 1996

The farmer Haji Youldash is keeping a Karakul flock of 1100 animals, five cows (three lactating) and four bulls. Before the war he worked as paravet on a Government dairy farm at Kabul and has experience in carrying out artificial insemination.He is planning to establish beef fattening and commercial dairy production and a shed for beef fattening is under construction.Haji Youldash owns 100 ha land of which one third is cultivated every year.He has a tractor and combine harvester and appears to be among the richest and influential farmers in Andkhoy. An addition to his agricultural activities he is marketing and dyeing wool and yarn and is trading handwoven carpets.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 10

Sheep Production System

The sheep flock of Haji Youldash consist of Karakul sheep only. This year he has sold 250 pelts and was still keeping 320 lambs (40 ram lambs). There are 120 female hoggets in the flock and twenty of the ewes did not lamb during the last season. He has sold pelts from grey (65 per cent) and black (35 per cent) lambs, but no brown. "Keeping of sheep which produce lambs with brown wool is more difficult and is therefore limited although brown pelts fetch a higher price ".The lambing season of the flock is in March and lasts 20 -25 days.All lambs with a good pelt are slaughtered during the first two days, the remaining male lambs kept until weaning in June or,if they are in good condition and the security situation permits, longer.In June the sheep are shorn, vaccinated against anthrax and the pasture is changed.If grazing is not sufficient, as is the case during this year, the flock is fed supplementary cereal straw and alfalfa.Minerals are also provided or the flock is grazed on plants which are known to have high content of certain minerals (It was not possible to get more details about this practice during the interview).

If the sheep are in good body condition they will be shorn a second time before the mating season in autumn. Mating starts depending on the temperature and feeding situation in mid September and continues for one month.Great care is taken to relieve all unnecessary stress from the animals during this period. There are thirty rams which are being used for mating.With the beginning of the winter the flock is vaccinated against sheep pox and supplementary feeding is started.All efforts are made to provide good nutrition during the last phase of pregnancy in winter. Pregnant ewes are separated from the barren ewes and hoggets and depending on the available grazing up to 400 grams (200 gram morning, 200 gram evening) of barley, wheat or cottonseed cake are given to each ewe for a period of 70 -90 days.During the lambing period tjie farmer and his family remain with the flock all time to identify lambs with good pelts. He has a mobile dip produced by Cooper, UK and claims to use it regularly, but has not made it available to his neighbours.Haji Youldash is planning to increase his flock size.

Cattle Production

Haji Youldash also has many ideas about intensifying cattle production. He considers increasing fodder production as his first priority and the availability of technical advise and credit facilities as very important for further development of dairy production. There is obviously a good demand for quality breeding bulls in Andkhoy and Haji Youldash is planning to establish a private Al service with fresh semen.He is already keeping a Friesian type bull brought from Tajikistan. An important reason for him to consider Al is that he could charge for it, while other farmers would be reluctant to pay for natural service. According to Haji Youldash there is a good demand for beef in Andkhoy and he is also planning to test the feasibility of beef fattening. He has plans to open his own butcher shop and to store the carcasses in a cooling room which he already started to built.

13. ECONOMICS OF KARAKUL PRODUCTION - A CASE STUDY FROM ANDKHOY

3 June 1996

The farmer is keeping a Karakul flock of 1500 animals, including 1000 ewes and 25 rams. He is managing this flock by employing five shepherds.Family labour is used during the lambingperiod. The main basisof feedingisgrazing onnaturalpastures and supplementation with hay and camelthorn (Alhagicamelorum) collected from the pastures and stored for winter feeding.Barley or cottonseed cake is fed with an amount of approximately 50 kg /year /ram and 10 kg /year /ewe. During the last season 750 lambs were

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock ProductionAnnex1. Page 11 born out of which 500 were slaughtered for pelt production and 250were kept.The fertility of the flock is thus about 75 percent.

FLOCK OPERATING COSTS

1. Labour Total Shepherds salary ( 5 persons @ Afs 100,000 each month) 6,000,000 Wheat flour for shepherds (1750 kilogramme @ Afs 2000) 3,500,000 Rice for shepherds ( 420 kilogramme © Afs 3,000) 1,260,000 Ghee for shepherds ( 84 kilogramme @ Afs 15,000) 1,260,000 Tea for shepherds ( 24 kilogramme @ Afs 10,000) 240,000 Other food items 1,200,000 Barley for camels (15) and dogs of shepherds ( 2,520 kilogramme © Afs 1,500) 3,780,000 Barley for donkeys and horses (2,520 kilogramme @ Afs 1,500) 3,780,000 Casual labour for collecting of hay (20 workers for 15 days © Afs 10,000) 3,000,000 Total Labour Cost 24,020,000 (41.4 %) 2, Feed Barley or Cottonseed cake (12,000 kilogramme @ Afs 1,500) 18,000,000 (31.0 %) 3. Health Care Vaccination 200,000 General Treatment 250,000 Total 450,000 (0.8 %) 4. Other Costs Diesel for tractor (400 1 Afs 4,000) 1,600,000 Petrol for car (400 1 @ Afs 5,000) 2,000,000 Loss of animals (60 @ Afs 200,000) 12,000,000 Total 15,600,000 (26.9 %) Total Cost of Flock 58,070,000 US$ 3,870

INCOME OF FLOCK Sale of pelts ( 500 pelts © 100,000 Afs) 50,000,000 (50.2 %) Sale of lambs and old ewes (200 animals @ 150,000 Afs) 30,000,000 (30.1 %) Sale of wool (2100 kilogramme © 8,570 Afs) 18,375,000 (18.4 %) Sale of meat from lambs (500 @ 7,000 Afs) 350,000 (0.4 %) Sale of ghee (35 kilogramme @ 25,000 Afs) 875,000 (0.8 %) Total Income of Flock 99,600,000 US$ 6,640 Net Income of Flock 41,530,000 US$ 2,768

Net income per ewe kept 41,530 US$ 2.77

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 12

14. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN SAR- E -POL, A CASE STORY FROM THEVILLAGE MERZA -W -LANG

4 June 1996

Ghulam Sakki is a Hazara who keeps about 900 sheep, 100 goats and30 cattle.The farmer is thus among the big livestock owners in the centre district of Sar- i-Pol.Including the workers living with the family there are 40 persons at his household.With respect to size of sheep flocks there are about 150 farmers with 20 -50 sheep, 40 -50farmers with 200- 400 sheep and 30 big flock owners with more than 1000 sheep.

Cattle Production System

The cattle herd consists of 20 females above one year, of which four are lactating, two calves, four bulls and four oxen. The age at first calving is said to be three to four years. Cows which do not get pregnant are sold. Two of the cows are in the second andthird months of lactation, respectively.Their present daily production is given by the farmer as 15 -16 litres each.During three months in summer the cows are maintained mainly on grazing, but receive also always fresh lucerne during the night. Lucerne is also dried as hay and fed during seven months of the year in combination with straw, barley and cottonseed cake. Mixed hay /straw (one part hay, two parts straw) is fed twice a day and concentrates once a day.Lactating cows receive about 1.8 kilogrammes of concentrates per day, dry animals half that amount.

The farmer is selling qurut and ghee. The amount of qurut sold last year was 40-50 seer (280 -350 kg), but which included the share of two months production from sheep and goats. The value of the sold qurut was about Afs 1,800,000 (Afs 40,000 /seer).The family is mainly consuming yoghurt and only 1 -2 seer of qurut are kept for home consumption. In years with good fodder on the pastures he is selling 20 seers(140 kg) of ghee, in normal years about 10 -15 seer (70 -105 kg) and about the same amountis being kept for home consumption. In 1995 the value of ghee was Afs 80,000 per seer.

Sheep Production System

The sheep flock consist of 75 percent Karakul and 25 percent Arabi sheep. There was a good demand for pelts this year and he has slaughter all male Karakul lambs which were about one third of all his lambs.In June he is still keeping the other lambs and their time of selling will depend on how much money he will earn from the sale of wheat. The selling price for good quality grey pelts was about Afs 100,000 and for black pelts only half that amount. From the end of October until the end of April the flock grazes near the village. Lambing starts in late March and lasts about two months.During the lambing season the flock grazes close to the house and one family member is always with the flock. During the other periods the flock is grazed by shepherds, after lambing until October in the mountains about 12 hours walk from the village.

Mating starts while the flocks are still in the mountains and the farmer is using 10 rams only. During mating time Karakul and Arabi sheep are kept separated and they are not crossed with each other.By keeping a certain amount of Arabi the farmer is reducing the risk of lower income due to low pelt prices.For winter feeding, hay from different grasses is collected from the natural pastures. Concentrates are fed for three months in harsh winters and two months during normal winters. The amount given is about 200 grams per day for hoggets and 450 grams for ewes. For the past three years the farmer is shearing only once a year during April /May.The rams receive supplementary feeding of concentrates from June to October of about 1 kg per day.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 13

FLOCK OPERATING COSTS

The farmer is employing three shepherds, two stay with the flock and one is responsible for contacts with the village and supply of food. The shepherds don't receive cash payment, but instead one out of ten weaned lambs.For every 100 Karakul pelts sold, they also receive Afs 10,000. The farmer also supplies wheat flour, tea, sugar and clothes for the shepherds and feed for dogs and donkeys. The total cost during this year can be roughly calculated as follows.

1. Labour Amount Value of lambs given to shepherds (35 lambs @ Afs 100,000) 3,500,000 Value of skins given (1.8 x Afs 100,000) 180,000 Wheat flour for shepherds and dogs 13,650 kilogramme © Afs2,000)7,300,000 Barley for two donkeysf 650 kilogramme @ Afs 1,500) 975,000 Other food for shepherds (Afs 100,000 /month) 1,200,000 Clothes for shepherds 300,000 Total Labour Cost 13,455,000 (19.3 %) 2. Feed Barley or Cottonseed cake (28,000 programmes @ Afs 1,500) 42,000,000 Collecting of Hay 2,000,000 Total feed cost 44,000,000(63.1 %) 3. Health Care Vaccination 100,000 General Treatment 200,000 Total 300,000 (0.4 %) 4. Other Costs Loss and slaughter of animals (100 @ Afs 200,000) 12,000,000(17.2 %) Total Cost of Flock 69,755,000 US$ 4,650

INCOME OF FLOCK Sale of pelts 15,000,000(50.2%) Sale of lambs and old ewes (200 animals @ Afs 150,000) 30,000,000(30.1 %) Sale and use of wool for kilims (225 seer @ 40,000 Afs) 9,000,000(18.4%) Sale and home consumption of lambs 3,000,000 (0.4%) Total Income of Flock 62,000,000 US$ 4,133 Net Income of Flock -7,755,000 -US$ 517

15. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN SAR- E -POL, SECOND CASE STORY FROM THE CENTRAL DISTRICT

4 June 1996

Kader Khan keeps about 200 sheep, 30 goats and 3 cows and six oxen.He owns 250 jeribs (50 ha) land, of which 50 percent is cultivated annually. The sheep flock consists of 40 -50 Karakul and 150 Arabi.His father used to keep 500 sheep and he is planning to increase the flock size as well.As the demand for meat is high at the moment, he has changed from Karakul to Arabi.He says that the further development of his flock will depend on the markets for the different products.He has observed that Karakul x Arabi crossbred have a higher growth rate than both of their parents. The prices for sheep of the

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1, Page 14 different categories in Sar -e -Pol are said by him to be Karakul (Afs 150,000),Arabi (Afs 180,000) and crossbred (Afs 200,000) .It was not clear whether these differences are due to different body weights.He is not planning to use crossbred rams for mating.Kader Khan has sold this year 15 pelts and 40 lambs (Afs 100,000 per pelt).

The fertility performance of the sheep flock was as follows: 10 of his ewes did not lamb, six aborted, and he got two lambs from hoggets. The flock is grazed by two shepherds near the village all the year and not taken to the mountains.In summer they graze stubble. The shepherds receive one out of ten weaned lambs as salary, plus food and clothes. Sheep are shorn once in spring and the wool is used for manufacture ofkilims. Every year he sells two kilims worth Afs 1.5 million and keeps the other kilims for family use. During winter the flock is fed hay and straw from vetches, rice and wheat.Concentrates are only fed to hoggets, weak animals and during cold weather. The total amount of concentrates used for the flock per year is 15 seer barley and 15 seer cottonseed cake (210 kg).Annually about 25 -30 sheep leave the flock for various reasons (losses, use by shepherds, wolves ?, commanders, mullahs). Veterinary costs are estimated at Afs 200,000 /year.

16. SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION IN JOWZJAN, A CASE STUDY FROM THE AQCHAH DISTRICT

5 June 1996

The farmer Bay Murad is keeping about 250 small ruminants, two milking cows (sold some cows last year), 4 oxen, five yearlings, two calves and three donkeys.There are twenty family members and the farmer is not employing labour.

The Small Ruminant Production System

The main source of feeding during spring and summer is grazing, but as the quality of the grazing land was poor during this year the farmer was feeding some grain at the beginning of June. During summer the flock graze stubble and in autumn supplementation starts with indoor feeding during the night. The supplementary feed consists of hay collected from the pastures, camelthorn and cereal and vetch straw. Weak animals also receive barley and cottonseed cake. According to the experiences of the farmer good feeding during autumn increases the chance of the sheep to survive the winter months. Farmers in this area are harvesting the camelthorn either from their own land or purchase it from others.If sold, payment is either on a weight basis for harvested thorns or based on the land size and growth of the shrub.This year, the farmer paid Afs 1 million for the right to harvest camelthorn from 50 jeribs (US$6.50 /ha).In addition to the roughage he is feeding during four months in winter 4,200 kilogramme of barley and some amounts of cottonseed cake. There are four rams in the flock which receive fom June until the start of the mating season in autumn between 250 grams and 500 grams barley per day and are fed barley ad libitum during the mating season.

It is tradition in this area to keep goats with the sheep flocks as well. The farmer owned 40 adult female goats, two bucks, four castrated males and fifteen kids.During the last birth season seven of the goats aborted, five gave twins and eight kids died after birth.

Only ten sheep in the flock are Arabi, the others are from the Karakul breed.During this year there were no barren ewes in the sheep flock and no losses of lambs. Because prices for astrakhan pelts were favourable this year he sold 40 skins (mainly from male lambs, but also some females). Sixty lambs including some males are still with the flock.Fifty percent of the ewes and the goats are milked producing at the time of the interview about 15 kg milk per day (200 gram per ewe). The milk is converted into curd and about one half is sold on

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 1. Page 15 the market (Afs 800,000- 900,000 /year) and the other half is used at home. The production of ghee is not sufficient for the family and they have to purchase about 35 kg per year (Afs 20,000 or US$1.40 each).Every year Bay Murad sells about fifty sheep and goats and fifteen more animals are slaughtered, given away or die. The wool and hair from the goats is partly sold and partly used for the family.This year he sold wool worth of Afs 800,000 (US$53) and 35 kilogramme of hair mixed with cashmere worth of Afs 650,000 (US$43). The cashmere wool is separated from the hair by old women who are employed by the wool dealers.

Bay Murad sees a good future in keeping Karakul sheep. "This year the income from sale of pelts was higher than last year, Karakul are very suitable for wool production and the lambs have a good growth rate ".Karakul sheep allow him to keep a balance between pelt and lamb production according to the market needs and he will continue keeping these sheep. This view is also shared by the other farmers he knows.

APPROXIMATE ANNUAL INCOME (Afs) FROM SHEEP /GOAT FLOCK BAY MURAD

Sale of pelts (40 @ 85,000 Afs) 3,400,000 (23.9 %) Sale of lambs and old ewes (50 animals @ Afs 150,000) 7,500,000 (52.8 %) Sale of wool and hair 1,450,000 (10.2 %) Sale of dairy products 850,000 (6.0 %) Sale of manure 1,000,000 (7.0 %) Total Income of Flock 14,200,000

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report ANNEX 2.

PHOTOGRAPHS RELATED TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report CONTENTS

Page

Plate1. Local type cow from Arghandab District, Qandahar 1 Plate 2. Village herd of local cows near Pashtun Zargun, Herat 1 Plate3. Herd of local cattle on pasture near Balkh 2 Plate4. Friesian cow imported from Pakistan at a village of Jahagtu District, Wardak 2 Plate 5. Watering of Karakul sheep flocks near Andkhoy 3 Plate 6. Large Kuchi flock near Ghazni (this flock moves to the Di Khan area, Pakistan during winter) 3 Plate 7. Smallholder sheep flock near Ghazni (in the background large fields of lucerne) 4 Plate 8. Smallholder flock of Arabi sheep near PuI -i- Khumri 4 Plate 9. A goat with large amount of down fibre in the fleece 5 Plate 10. Sale of Cashmere wool at the Herat market 5 Plate 11. A mixed flock with large proportion of goats at Char Bolak District, Balkh 5 Plate 12. Hay making from shaftal near Pashtun Zargun 6 Plate 13. Sale of lucerne at Andkhoy 6 Plate 14. Camelthorn (Aihagi camelorum) is an important source of feeding for ruminants in the northern provinces during winter 6 Plate 15. Veterinary Field Unit at Mazarkhel (Paktia) 7 Plate 16. Display of drugs at Veterinary Field Unit Mazarkhel 7 Plate 17. Slaughterhouse at Herat 8 Plate 18. Bicycles are the common form of transport for sheep carcasses from the slaughterhouse to the centre of Herat 8 Plate 19. Fresh cheese ay the market of Mazar- i- Sharif 9 Plate 20. Qurut for sale at the market of Mazar- i- Sharif 9 Plate 21. Chaka brought from villages for sale to Talogan, Takhar Province 9 Plate 22. Imported carpet yarn for sale at Andkhoy 10 Plate 23. Locally spun carpet yarn for sale at Andkhoy 10 Plate 24. The carpet market at Andkhoy 10 Plate 25 -26.Processing of Karakul skins at Sherberghan 11 Plate 27. Drying of the Karakul skins after tanning 11 Plate 28. On its way to the high pastures of Shewa, Badakhshan a flock of Turki sheep is resting near a former dip 12 Plate 29. Remains of the sheep dip constructed by an FAO project 12

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 1

Plate 1. Local type cow from Arghandab District, Qandahar

Plate 2. Village herd of local cows near Pashtun Zargun, Herat

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 2

Plate 3 Herd of local cattle on pasture near Balkh

Plate 4. Friesian cow imported from Pakistan at a village of Jahagtu District, Wardak

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 3

Plate 5. Watering of Karakul sheep flocks near Andkhoy

Plate 6. Large Kuchi flock near Ghazni (this flock moves to the Di Khan area, Pakistan during winter)

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 4

Plate 7. Smallholder sheep flock near Ghazni (in the background large fields of lucerne)

Plate 8. Smallholder flock of Arabi sheep near Pul -i- Khumri

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 5

Plate9. A goat with large amount of Plate 10. Sale of Cashmere wool down fibre in the fleece at the Herat market

Plate 11. A mixed flock with large proportion of goats at Char Bolak District, Balkh

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 6

Plate 12. Hay making from shaftal Plate 13. Sale of lucerne at Andkhoy near Pashtun Zargun

Plate 14. Camelthorn (Aihagi camelorum) is an important source of feeding for ruminants in the northern provinces during winter

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 7

Plate 15. Veterinary Field Unit at Mazarkhel (Paktia)

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Plate 16. Display of drugs at Veterinary Field Unit Mazarkhel

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 8

Plate 17. Slaughterhouse at Herat

Plate 18. Bicycles are the common form of transport for sheep carcasses from the slaughterhouse to the centre ofHerat

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 9

Plate 19. Fresh cheese ay the market Plate 20. Qurut for sale at the market of Mazar -i- Sharif of Mazar -i- Sharif

Plate 21. Chaka brought from villages for sale to Talogan, Takhar Province

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 10

Plate 22 Imported carpet yarn for Plate 20. Locall spun carpet yarn sale at Andkhoy for sale at Andkhoy

Plate 24 The carpet market at Andkhoy

Livestock Production Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 11

Plate 25 -26. Processing of Karakul skins at Sherberghan

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Plate 27. Drying of the Karakul skins after tanning

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Livestock Production Report Livestock Production Annex 2. Page 12

Plate 28. On its way to the high pastures of Shewa, Badakhshan a flock of Turki sheep is resting near aformer dip

Plate 29. Remains of the sheep dip constructed by anFAO project in the 1970s

Livestock Production Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy TC P/AF G/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

FORESTRY AND AGROFORESTRY

Steven Newman PhD

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome

November 1996 CONTENTS

SUMMARY 1

1. INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 Background and Objectives 3 1.1.1 General background to UN natural resource activities 3 1.1.2 The programme of UNDP 4 1.1.3 Current FAO Activities 5 1.1.4 The Agricultural Strategy. 5 1.1.5 The forestry component 5 1.2 Interpretation of Terms of Reference 6

1.3 Methodology and Scope of the Report 8 1.3.1 Definitions 8 1.3.2 Methodology 9 1.3.3 Scope of report 10

2. MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 11

2.1 Review of the Forestry Sector 11 2,1.1 Introduction 11 2.1.2 Afghanistan and its Forest Resource 11 2.1.3 Agroforestry 15 2.1.4 Forest Policy and Law 21 2.1.5 Government Forest Administration and Institutions 21 2.1.6 Forest Management and Protection 21 2.1.7 Forest Utilisation and Industry 21 2.1.8 Trade and Marketing 21 2.1.9 Employment 22 2.1.10 Education and Training 23 2.1.11 Research and Extension 23 2.1.12 International Cooperation 23 2.1.13 Current performance and future role of NGOs 25 2.2 Relevant Forestry Research and Development 26 2.2.1 Computer literature review 27 2.2.2 Pakistan Institute of Forestry 28 2.2.3 Poplar industry in Pakistan 28 2.2.4 Suggestions based upon previous knowledge 30

2.3 A Strategy Framework 31 2.3.1 Introduction 31 2.3.2 Guiding Principles 31 2.3.3 Interventions 31 2.3.4 Delivery 32 2.3.5 Prioritization 32 2.4 General Conclusions 33 2.4.1 Woodlands 33 2.4.2 The Forest sector 33 2.4.3 Agroforestry 34 2.4.4 NGOs 34 2.4.5 Sources of expertise and assistance 35 2.4.6 A strategy for forestry and agroforestry 35 3. RECOMMENDATIONS 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Additions to existing FAO programs 37 3.2.1 AFG /93/004 Animal Health and Livestock 37 3.2.2 AFG /94/002 Integrated Crop and food Production 38 3.3 New "Projects" 40 4. BIBLIOGRAPHY 41

ANNEX 1.Project Outlines 1. Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas 2. Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees 3. Poplar properties and processing 4. Afforestation in non -irrigated lands, including rangeland 5. Joint Forest Management 6. National Forest Programme

ANNEX 2. Fellows trained in forestry by FAO in the 1980s

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1Extent of woodland types in Afghanistan 13 Table 2 Extent of woodland in Afghanistan by province and its estimated reduction 14 Table 3 Interventions require on fruit and nut trees as part of agroforestry optimisation 17 Table 4 The economic significance of improvements in the precocity of fruit and nut trees 18 Table 5 The economic significance of improvements in rotation periods 19 Table 6 Prices for various weights and sizes of timber 22 Table 7 Areas and cropping of NADA farms 24 Table 8 Profiles of the three main forestry and agroforestry NGOs 26 Table 9 Type of references on Pakistan Agroforestry 27 Table 10 Key institutions working on Pakistan agroforestry 27 Table 11 Key Pakistan Agroforestry species for irrigated, arid and semi arid lands 27 Table 12 Priority values for the suggested interventions 32 Table 13 Financial Summary of Proposed Projects 40

ABBREVIATIONS

HVIS Helmand Valley Irrigation Scheme IUFRO International Union of Forest Research Organisations JFM Joint Forest Management NADA Nangarhar Agricultural Development Authority NFP National Forest Programme PIF Pakistan Institute of Forestry ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Peter Sloane and Bernhard Schelhas of the FAO agricultural strategy team for numerous constructive discussions on forestry and agroforestry in relation to land use.

I acknowledge the warm hospitality and technical support given to me by Hans Brink, Terence Barker, Jean Michel Arnault and the officestaffof the FAO Afghanistan programmes.

Thank you to Mr Khaurin for his guidance in Afghanistan and his considerable wisdom on forestry matters.

Many useful insights on Afghanistan were gained from conversations with Nancy Hatch Dupree I was very impressed by the research hospitality and helpful guidance of Dr Saddiqui, Dr Raza- ul -haq and Mr Yasin at PIF

I would like to thank BioDiversity International Ltd for granting me leave of absence in order to carry out this assignment.

FinallyI would like to praise the staff of MADERA for their hospitality in Afghanistan and their willingness to assist me at all times during my mission. SUMMARY

The report was produced as part of a consultancy over the period 3/10/96 to 8/11/96. A total of only five days were spent in Afghanistan due to security reasons. Experience was gained in over 5 provinces.Consultations with Afghanistan specialists based in Pakistan from development projects, research organisations and NGOs contributed greatly to the work. The overall conclusions are that Afghanistan has:

1. Limited up to date information on the current status and future potential of forestry and agroforestry The last sector review was carried out ten years ago.

A serious timber deficiency: For fuel, construction and fruit packaging

3. Forest biodiversity in a crisis situation:1 estimate the 1979 figure of "legal" forest of 1,880,000 ha to be reduced to about 368000 ha of intact forest today.

4. Sophisticated indigenous agroforestry based upon fast growing timber and high value fruit and nut trees.Of particular importance are trees that can improve soil fertility, fodder quality and improve microclimate for crops (e.g. windbreaks). Walnut and mulberry are and will be the most important multipurpose trees for cash and survival in

Afghanistan .

5. Enormous economic potential from wood based industry using agroforestry species in irrigated peri -urban areas: Poplar appears to be the most appropriate species.

Any proposed intervention should contribute to an overall strategic objective of:

To increase the profitability of Afghan tree based businesses in a manner cognisant of the needs of social equity and economic development, in a way that contributes to the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity.

I would recommend that: Existing FAO programmes should include activities on:

1. The suitability of fodder supplements from various agroforestry trees eg Carob, honey locust, false acacia, mulberry and perennial pigeon pea

2. The possible role of trees animal linked agroforestry in maintaining and enhancing soil fertility in situations where access to quality artificial fertiliser is limited.

3. Irrigated poplar site x genotype trials at nucleus nurseries over a range of elevations

4. Training needs assessment and course design for; Farmers, nurserymen and NGOs on agroforestry, Farmers, and NGOs on JFM, Male and female entrepreneurs on micro scale forest and woodland industry and NGOs on project cycle management skills and approaches A one month training needs assessment and course design consultancy will be required for each of these proposed activities.

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A $10m five year programme is required to fund projects outlined in order ofpriority on:

1. Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees

2. Poplar properties and processing

3. Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas

4. Joint forest management.(Technically assisted community management of deodar and pistachio)

5. National Forest Programme

6. Afforestation in non irrigated lands including range

Further project formulation will be required.The projects should be part of an integrated rural development containing animal and crop production activities rather than part of a separate "forestry" programme.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report 3

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The consultancy was undertaken in order to give a forestry/agroforestry dimension to the strategy for agricultural rehabilitation and development in Afghanistan. The terms of reference are given in Appendix 4.1.The consultancy was carried out over the period 3/10/96 to 1/11/96 (see itinerary in Appendix 4.3).Most of the work was carried out in Pakistan with visits to Afghanistan limited to five days in the East (Nangrahar and Kunar) and one day in the West (Herat) due to security reasons.Numerous flights allowed for rapid aerial surveys of forest cover.Visits to Kabul were not possible and it was learned that it was highly likely that there were no existing trials or documents available in the capital due to war damage. H H Khaurin (former General President of the Forest and Range Dept. in the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform.) was employed as a local consultant for the firstpart of the mission.Very few up to date documents on Afghan forestry and agroforestry are available (see Appendix 4.2 and bibliography volume).

1.1.1 General background to UN natural resource activities

The most recent document that approximates to an indicative strategy for Afghanistan is UN (1996), the biennial strategy note. The document notes that::

1. There is an ongoing war in the country

2. The government is dysfunctional

3. The economy is crippled

4. 10 million mines cover 530 km2 and kill 10 people every day

5. There are no telecommunications or stable energy supplies and many roads have been destroyed

There are no banking systems

7 There is a shortage of skilled personnel yet entrepreneurial skills are high

8. Encouragement for the return of 8 million displaced peoples /expatriates is needed

9. The country is ranked 170th in the Human Development Index In alistof 174 countries in the world contained in the 1995 Human Development Report. (This reflects appalling health, literacy and socioeconomic conditions.)

10. Afghanistan is probably the largest producer of opium in the world

11. There are high rates of deforestation desertification and loss of biodiversity.

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Principal issues and priority actions arising from this are:

1. Creation of an environment conducive to good governance and socialstability

2. Human Rights

3. Food security

4. Demining

5. Drug Control

6. Social services recovery

7. Rural Recovery

8. Urban Recovery

Any strategy for the provision of assistance to the "forestry sector"should therefore recognise the importance of:

1. Regional and local activities carried out in a manner cognisant of the role of an emerging government forestry department and national forest laws

2. The role of trees and "forest lands" in assuring food security

3. Possible impacts of "forestry" interventions on drug control

4. The role of trees and "forest lands" in rural recovery

5. The role of urban forestry and "forest industry" in urban recovery

1.1.2The programme of UNDP UNDP's rehabilitation programme for Afghanistan includes the following components applied from regional centres:

1. Animal health and livestock (Current programme managed by FAO is AFG /93/004)

2. Integrated Crop and Food Production (Current programme managed by FAO is AFG /94/002)

3. Rural development (Engineering)

4. Housing and shelter

5. Disabled

The UNDP Afghanistan rehabilitation strategy: Action plan for immediate rehabilitation document includes the following strategic principles:

1. The importance of the private sector

2. Popular participation

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report 5

3. User pays

4. NGOs as providers of technical assistance

1.1.3Current FAO Activities

The two current (2 year rolling contract) FAO programmes are:

1. AFG /93/004 Animal Health and Livestock

2. AFG /94/002 Integrated Crop and food Production

Both have subprograms which have obvious linkages to forestry and agroforestry such as tree fodder and silvopastoral systems (as part of livestock production)in the former and silvohorticultural systems (as part of horticultural rehabilitation) in the latter.The strategic importance of these links will be dealt with in later sections of this report.

1.1.4The Agricultural Strategy.

The FAO programmes are moving from a emergency (refugee) problem to one of longer term development. It was thought appropriate toinitiatea strategic study so the effectiveness of existing and future interventions could be enhanced.

TCP /AFG/4552 has a project purpose of "To provide a framework for the delivery of assistance to the agricultural sectorinAfghanistan withparticular reference to the development of productivity on along term environmentally and economically sustainable basis."

1.1.5The forestry component

Forestry and agroforestry are vital components of the strategy.The project document states that output 4 will be "A review of the forestry sector with particular reference to on farm and peri urban wood production but also dealing insofar as is possible with the status of natural woodlands which because of access and security problems will mainly be from remote -sensing data."

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1.2 INTERPRETATION OF TERMS OF REFERENCE

Comments on the terms of reference are given initalics. I have indicated points of emphasis by the use of bold type.

Terms of Reference

Under the operational direction of the Division of Operations (TCO -1) of FAO, the technical supervision of FORO, and the overall supervision and guidance of the team leader, and working in close collaboration with FAOR, with relevant FAO projects in Afghanistan, as well as with national institutions and specialists and the project team, the consultant will be responsible for the forestry related aspect of the project's work.He /she will provide the project's review of the forestry sector, with particular reference to agroforestry and peri -urban forestry but where feasible also to natural woodlands.He /she will draft related elements of the strategy framework and, as requested, of the project's terminal report. More specifically, the consultant will under take the following duties:

Review of the whole forestry sector required (within the constraints of a one month input). Agroforestry, peri urban forestry and natural woodlands not defined

1. Visit selected farm sites and institutions within Afghanistan to review the forestry sector,concentrating on on -farmforestry/agroforestry andperi -urbanforestry. Special attention is to be paid to collecting information essential to the mission's task and to studying relevant reference documents and materials supplied by FAO and national sources.

Total time in Afghanistan was approximately six days.Only active institutions are NGOs.

2. Visit the Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, to gather information on research carried out at PFI which is relevant to Afghanistan.

The work should be assessed in relation to Pakistan and other relevant work in India, China and elsewhere

3. Pay particular attention to the medium -term aspects of sustainable agroforestry and

peri -urban forestry development , and insofar as possible, using remote -sensing data, examine the status of the natural woodlands. Advise on the future strategy for assistance to the development of Afghanistan's forestry sector.

Medium term in forestry approximates to ten years.Air photos if available would be more useful than remote sensing in assessing the status of natural woodlands.

4. Draft relevant elements of a strategy framework for development of forestry (concentrating on on -farm forestry /agroforestry and peri -urban forestry), input and skills delivery. Discuss the conclusions and recommendations with other interested parties as well as national institutions and specialists before finalisation.

Interested parties are assumed to be donors, project personnel and NGOs.These were invited to a terminal workshop.

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5. Draft project or project documents as necessary.

Should read programme or project documents?

Present to FAO within two weeks of completion of the mission a technical report, including elements of the strategy frameworks paper, findings and recommendations forforestry,particularlyagroforestryandperi -urbanforestry, andany programme and project documents prepared by the consultant which will form annexes of the report.The reports and documents will be presented in five hard copies as well as on diskettes compatible with FAO work -processing equipment (WordPerfect 5.1).

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1.3 METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT

Many donors and UN agencies are involved in integrated development.This development can take place in a rural or urban setting."Trees" have a role in both.Unfortunately the nature and degree of specialisation in Northern /Western knowledge andinstitutions with respect to "trees"i.e. forestry, agronomy and horticulture often precludes judicious integrated development.

Afghanistan perhaps more than many countries relies and willrely on "trees" that are ecologically and economically integrated in the rural and peri -urban landscape.

It is vitally important to have clear definitions of the terms and professionalresponsibilities within the development of "tree" based land use systems.

1.3.1 Definitions

Forest or woodland A forest to most people, is a natural or man modified, dense (normally more than 100stems per hectare) stand of trees often of many species of many ages.The definition of forest land in Afghanistan as in many countries has been based on legal ownership criteriai.e.a euphemism for state land. This leads to the situation where forest land includes areas with less than 1 tree per hectare.

Plantation A stand of trees of a single age planted by man for a variety of purposes, usuallyin a uniform density and special arrangement.

Forest industry Adding value on logs removed from forests (only sustainable in less then 1 per centof the worlds forests) or plantations by processing in sawmills and factories.

Woodland industry Adding value on timber products by managing the trees to produce products in or close to the woodland /forest. Involves such practices as coppice pollarding and processing of unseasoned timber.

Peri urban forestry The management of natural /semi -natural forest and or plantations at the periphery of major urban centres.

Agroforestry The most useful definition of agroforestry is probably that used by The International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF):.

"Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management unit as agricultural crops and /or animals, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economic interactions between the different components."

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The key word for many researchers in the definition is "ecological ".True agroforestry systems have been designed or acknowledged as having beneficial ecological interactions, manifested in an improvement in yield (output per unit area) resource use efficiency (output per unit input, e.g.fertiliser, water etc.) or environment, (soil stabilisation, wildlife etc.). Agroforestry is of central relevance in Afghanistan being the predominant form of land use /agricultural landscape

The key subtypes of agroforestry are:

silvoarable; predominantly timber trees intercropped with arable crops

silvopastoral predominantly timber /fodder trees with pasture and or range

environmental:strips blocks, or belts of trees at the edge of fields /gardens for microclimate modification (animals and or crops) and or soil protection /improvement

orchard intercropping: involves a horticultural component

home gardens

Social forestry Any forestry with a socially defined beneficiary

Community forestry Community forestry is a term tha is used to describe the participation of communities in the management and use of forest resources. Related approaches include social forestry, farm forestry and joint forest management. Community forestry programmes build upon both local people's and technicians' knowledge and use participatory approaches to help enable local people and their organisational structures address their own goals and concerns through improved access, use and management of trees and forest resources. Community forestry is not a separate type of forestry, but is an element in forestry planning and management.

Joint forest management An agreement and or contract between a forest owner (usually a government) and a manager (usually a local community) t3.2Methodology

Methods employed are

Literature review

Site visits

Consultations

Elementary spread sheet bioeconomic analysis

A full itinerary is given in section 4.3

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1.3.3Scope of report

The structure of the report follows FAO guidelines.

The emphasis reflects relevance in as much as the key analytical question is "whatis the role of trees in rural development in a war ravaged country" The actual emphasis is onself help on agricultural land using virtually archaeological remnants of governmentand industrial infrastructure. Agroforestry and NGOs predominate.

Discussions with FAO staff, the TCP team, NGOs and other interested parties led to a strategy for interventions on forestry and or agroforestry strategy on the followingland classifications:

Farmers land irrigated non irrigated home garden

"Government" land "Range" "Forest" "Project"

In addition a strategy for institutional strengthening of The private sector, NGOs, and any emerging government was also developed.

Interventions are prioritized on the basis of a number of factors including realism impact and sustainability.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report 2. MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

2.1 REVIEW OF THE FORESTRY SECTOR

2.1.1 Introduction

Information in this section is largely based on historic data (mostly from Khaurin, 1990 which in turn was based upon the sector review by Tandon 1988) augmented by short missions and consultations to investigate the status of natural woodlands, the efficacy of NGOs in forestry development and the present status and future potential for agroforestry.

2.1.2 Afghanistan and its Forest Resource

Afghanistan has an area of 65.22 million hectares and a 1996 population estimated at 15m. No figures exist on the rural urban split in population and estimates vary from 15 per cent to 35 per cent urban. Great mountain ranges (Pamir and Hindu Kush) divide the country with a high area of plains in the north, a mountainous central area, mountains and foot hills in the east and south east and lowlands to the south and west.

According to DAI /Earthsat (1993) only 10 per cent of the land area is agricultural.Half of this is rainfed and half is irrigated.Rainfall is low and uncertain with an annual maximum of 1000 mm inthe mountainous East and a low of 50 mm inthe Western desert. Temperatures can reach over 35 degrees centigrade during the summer in low lying areas.

Based upon historical data (1979) on state land 1.9 million hectares were under forest cover representing 2.9 per cent of total land (Khaurin, 1990).

Natural woodlands: ecology The following ecological account is taken from Berding (1996).

There is evidence to suggest that the natural vegetation of large parts of Afghanistan was originally woodland and forest. The present steppes have resulted from the cutting of wood by man and the grazing and browsing of domestic animals over millennia, indicating that trends in resource depletion started long before the conflicts prevailing since 1979.

Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of forests;

Broad leaved forests: mainly oak trees; between 1300 and 2200 m; provides fire wood, charcoal and fodder for livestock; effective for soil and water conservation.

Needle leaved forests: made of conifers like cedar, pine, fir and spruce; between 2000 and 3000 m; good quality wood used for construction and furniture; effective for erosion control.

The description below of the different forest belts is based on "Ministry of Planning, 1992 ".

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Central Mountains and Northern Mountains and Foothills zones

Below 2000 m: On the slopes of the Hindu Kush (HK), below2000 m, open Pistacia woodlands are heavily used and badly degraded.The southern slopes of the HK are characterized by 4 -6 m high Pistacia atlantica.To the north of the HK on the extensive loess hills and plains between 600 and 1600 m woodlands ofPistacia vera with some Amygdalis bucharica and in the northwest Cercis griffithii are characteristic.

2000 - 3000 m: Above this zone and in areas with more than 400 mm ofprecipitation, a 2.5- 6 m high Amygdalis (almond) community is dominant.The upper part ofthe forest belt on the northern slopes of the HK is formed by an open mixed woodlanddominated by Juniperus excelsa. The Pistacia vera and Juniperus excelsa woodlands are heavily exploited for charcoal production and fuelwood.

Eastern Mountains and Southern Mountains and Foothills (Paktia provincein particular) zones

1200 - 2000 m: Oak (Quercus baloot) dominates the forest, with other species like almonds (Amygdalis kuramica) and pistachios (Pistacia khinjuk). These areas are heavily used for fodder, fruits and fuelwood and large forested areas have been destroyed to provide fuel for Kabul and Qandahar.

2200 - 2500 m: The forest belt is a 5 -12 m high pine (Pinus gerardina) woodland with stands of birch (Betula).

2500 - 3100 m: Cedar (Cedrus deodara) forest; depending on soil and climate the cedars may be up to 50 m high and form a very dense forest. Large partsof the forest have been exploited and replaced by a stable Artemisia community. Logging throughout forests of the eastern provinces has increased steadily, reaching even the western parts of Nuristan.

3100 - 3300 m: In the humid areas the upper belt of the forest, up to an altitude of 3300 m, is formed by a 20 -25 m high Picea smithiana and Abies webbiana forest and in the drier areas by a 10 m high Juniperus servaschanica and J. semiglobosa woodland.Most areas have been cut for fuelwood and mature stands are rare.

Natural woodlands: extent The type and extent of natural woodlands is given in table 2.1 below. No details are given on the quality of woodlands in 1979 so I have assumed that this was the "legal extent"i.e. Government owned land.

My figure for 1996 is a very crude guesstimate of "actual forest" i.e. areas of greater than 20 per cent canopy cover of trees of at least 2m in height. This is not the definition used by FAO, where a 10 per cent canopy cover is regarded as forest land.This choice of 20 per cent cover is based upon limited consultations and observations. Many of the woodlands were cleared of trees in the East yet regeneration of scrub vegetation was encouraging due to depopulation and reduced grazing pressure.In these situations erosion risks may have been overstated. There is no doubt however that the biodiversity and timber value of these woodlands have been seriously degraded due to unsustainable harvesting. In Oak ( Quercus baloot) areas by the poor for firewood, and in Cedar (Cedrus deodar) areas by elites for cash.

Table 2.2 gives a provincial breakdown of changes in forest cover. The table is taken from the report of Berding (1996) who used data from a 1993 remote sensing survey.I would

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support the data in this table in that the most important provinces for cedar forest today are Konar Paktia Logar and Nangarhar and or pistachio Baghlan and Badakhshan

The legal extent of forest lands in the country is 2.8 per cent. 1993 Remote sensing which includes degraded forest gives 2.0 per cent. My guesstimate for the amount of intact closed canopy woodland is 0.5 per cent (and rapidly declining). Remotesensing gives 942 kha or 1.4 per cent for this.I am convinced that this is a severe overestimate as remote sensing cannot discriminate between closed forest and closed orchards or scrub in most cases.It became abundantly clear that Afghanistan is severely deficient in timber resources for fuel construction and packaging for horticulture.

Table 1Extent of woodland types in Afghanistan 1 Woodland type Main species Representative 1979 1993 1996 provinces area area * area '000 remote '000 ha sensing ha '000 ha Evergreen Cedrus deodora, Pinus The East and South 1300 130 coniferous wallichiana, P. gerardiana, East ie Kunar, Kapisa, Picea smithiana, Abies Nangarhar, Laghman, spectabilira and Cupressus Paktia and Logar spp Non fruit Quercus baloot, Q. Nangrahar, Kunar, 130 13 bearing semicarpifolia, Q. deletata, Paktia and Laghman deciduous 0/ea cuspidata, Reptonia broad- leaved baxifolia, Pistacia khinjak and Cersis spp Fruit bearing Pistachio vera The North and West 450 225 deciduous Badakshan, Takhar, broad- leaved Kunduz, Baghlan, Samangan, Balkh, Jowzjan, Faryab, Badghis, and Herat 6a- Closed 942 368 cover natural forest 6b -Open cover 258 natural forest 6c- Degraded 117 forest high shrub Total forest 1880 1316 368 % of total land 2.8 2.0 0.5 area Note: Legal extent in 1979, Data from 1993 FAO remote sensing (Latham pers coram) and * my guesstimates for 1996 of closed cover forest based on 20 per cent canopy cover.

Rangelands According to the DAI /Earthsat land cover and land use report (March 1993), rangeland occupies 70 per cent of the country.It is therefore the most important land form in the country.Readers are referred to the report by Berding (1996) for more details. Shrub genera such as Acantholimon, Acanthophyllum, Artemisia,Astragalus and Ephedra predominate rather than isolated trees. These shrubs play a vital role in conserving soil and associated grassland vegetation.They are being uprooted and removed for fuel by the local and nomadic populace.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report - 14 -

In the past, rangelands were under the control of the forest department.This is not appropriate at a technical level as the key skills required for range management relate to grazing control and management systems.Range control should be with the livestock department of any emerging government structure.

Degraded rangelands appear to be the only large land areas available for the establishment of woodlots for firewood.It is highly unlikely that irrigated land would ever be used for this purpose.Trials should be established in suitable areas using appropriate species e.g. Eucalyptus. Suitable areas would be near rural settlements on range of low biodiversity and pasture value. The productivity of any trials on afforestation should be compared with that of fenced areas where regeneration of natural woody vegetationisallowed. Village communities assisted by an appropriate NGO would be the ideal group for this work. A paper by Hassanyar (1977) gives a useful classification of the arid and semi arid range types in Afghanistan and suggests a method for revegetation using seeds within mulch seed beds.

Table 2 Extent of woodland in Afghanistan by province and its estimated reduction Province Area ** (ha) Forests* % ** Forest /shrub ** % ** Reduction (ha) 1967/68 (ha) 1989/90 Badakhshan 4376867 90000 2.1 247186 5.6 Badghis 2158837 149560 6.9 37131 1.7 75 Baghlan 1739454 87540 5 288594 16.6 Balkh 1235990 70900 5.7 0 0 100 Bamyan 1768730 3200 0.2 98079 5.5 Farah 5874013 20060 0.3 214 0.004 99 Faryab 2110274 76680 3.6 1854 0.09 98 Ghazni 2155023 29000 1.3 6691 0.3 77 Ghor 3929017 22440 0.6 6457 0.16 71 Helmand 6249968 5580 0.09 0 0 100

Herat 4246587 41640 1 15429 0.4 63 Jawzjan 2656974 28700 1.1 1908 0.07 93 Kabul 442583 200 0.05 32553 7.4 Kapisa * ** 551914 2320 0.4 194017 35.1 Konar 1018330 308400 30.3 454816 44.7 Kunduz 810614 34940 4.3 0 0 100 Laghman 701818 57680 8.2 254528 36.3 Logar 449885 3140 0.7 45898 10.2 Nangarhar 753296 134860 17.9 156455 20.8 Nimroz 4181185 9720 0.2 0 0 100 Oruzgan 2851892 78040 2.7 8997 0.3 88 Paktia 951714 537260 56.5 339225 35.6 37 Paktika * * ** 1917018 0 0 71594 3.7 Parwan * ** 596621 2320 0.4 181617 30.4 Qandahar 4945437 5600 0.1 0 0 100 Samangan 1744514 137700 7.9 0 100 Takhar 1228320 49700 4 37386 3 25 Wardak 987645 40 0 135037 13.7 Zabul**** 1756494 0 0 Total 64391014 1987220 2615666 Forest areas published by Ministry of Planning , 1978 ** Forest /shrub areas determined by DAI /Earthsat, 1993 Provincial areas determined by DAI /Earthsat, 1993, Percentage areas based on DAI /Earthsat provincial areas The 1967/68 forest area is given for Parwan & Kapisa;An arbitrary 50 per cent has been allocated to each of the two provinces Paktika and Zabul provinces are not included in the 1967/68 forest area list

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Biodiversity A review of nature conservationis given inBerding (1996). He has suggested a environmental survey as part of the formulation of a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). A assessment of forest biodiversity should be a central component of this rather than carrying it as part of a National Forest Programme (NFP) process (see later).

Plantations The timber plantations established by the former govt., assisted by donor funding have all been destroyed.Some plantations have been established by the NGO, MADERA (see later). Establishment of further large scale timber and or environmental protection plantations should be put on hold until a full sector review as part of a NFP activity is carried out.

Peri -urban forestry and agroforestry Peri urban areas offer high potential for agroforestry and forestry products in economic terms due to the proximity of a large captive market for fruits,nuts, construction and packaging timber and firewood. Many vegetable leaf crops actually give enhanced yields under moderate shade. Agroforestry systems with horticultural crops such as tree fruit and nuts intercropped with vegetables can yield considerable profits in the peri urban areas.

2.1.3 Agroforestry

Agriculture and horticulture in Afghanistan takes place in an agroforestry landscape. The most important current forms of indigenous agroforestry in Afghanistan are:

silvoarable; predominantly poplar or mulberry trees planted along field boundaries or irrigation channels in irrigated arable crops (mainly wheat)

environmental; blocks, or belts of trees at the edge of fields /gardens for microclimate

modification for humans and animals.This is termed "dehra" . Some crop wind breaks have been established. Poplar is the preferred species.

orchard intercropping; involves a the growing of vegetables or crops in fruit or nut orchards. Afghanistan is probably one of the most important countries in the world for this practice

home gardens; It is traditional to plant fruit and nut trees within the compound in a setting of vegetables spices, herbs and flowers.

Agroforestry practices can be improved by selecting appropriate species combinations and optimising genotypes, management and the spatial and temporal configuration of the system. Much of the optimization can be carried out with farmers on farmers fields. A good generalization when working with farmers is that they will first ask for fruit and nut trees and will tolerate timber trees if they give a fast return (less than 5 years) and do not affect the yield of the adjacent agricultural activity.

Some concepts in agroforestry are still unproved and will require research in the context of Afghan agriculture or horticulture. Experiments could be set up on farmer fields or on land adjacent to nucleus nurseries.All work would be enhanced by literature and modelling studies.Interventions can also be subdivided in terms of work on components (trees) and systems. The following interventions in order of priority are briefly outlined below and will be further elaborated in later sections:

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Interventions with emphasis on irrigated fields or gardens Component interventions: Trees

The most important trees in economic terms in Afghanistan agroforestry are fruit and nut trees. Table 2.3 overleaf shows the key species with suggested action. Afghanistan has a unique heritage in terms of these trees.The characterization and preservation of key varieties is urgently required.Leaf phenology is a vital characteristic in the optimisation of agroforestry and should be recorded. A short leaf are duration or a late /early leafing variety can minimize interference effects on an understorey. A columnar as opposed to parasol form will also minimize interference. Many fruit trees e.g. walnut and mulberry can produce valuable timber in addition to fruit.

Normally timber is physiologically competitive to fruit yield.It may however be possible to produce good butt logs and fruit by topworking of mulberry. There are over 5 species of mulberry in Afghanistan. The most important are Morus nigra and M. alba. A key variety is Shatoot.The economic potential of shatoot could be greatly enhanced by the use of dwarfing rootstock which would improve precocity and reduce picking costs.Table 2.4 shows the economic importance of precocity.Discount rates illustrate the opportunity cost of time preference rather than reflect investment interest. A discount rate of 15 per cent may be indicative of Afghanistan. By reducing the onset of economic yield from year 10 to year 5, a 101 per cent improvement in NPV is obtained (table 2.4).If reduced to year 3 the improvement is 166 per cent.

The next most important category of trees in economic terms will be those whose presence could improve the yield of adjacent crops or animals. Windbreaks as single or multiple rows could dramatically improve crop yield if the correct species are used in the correct positions. Fast growing species are preferred. Eucalyptus may be appropriate if used as a timber belt in large schemes.It has a high demand for water and can have allelopathic effects however. Perhaps a more appropriate (if most wind damage occur when poplar is in leaf) and acceptable multiple use species would be poplar. Poplar leaves can make good fodder and compost. Most poplar in Afghanistan is reputed to be Populus nigra. This is suitable to higher elevation areas and is an ideal construction /tool handle timber.It does not appear to have insect and or disease problems and is propagated by cuttings.The form of black poplar is so good that one assumes that clones have been selected by farmers over the years. A typical rotation would be greater than 10 years..

Some Populus deltoides can be observed in irrigated areas and will produce useful timber for fruit boxes which are very important in Afghanistan and can be produced as part of a cottage industry. Ultimately (where industry is possible) the timber is most useful for artifacts and matches. I also observed its use for bed making (stretchers not legs). Improved deltoides clones in India and Pakistan have a rotation of 5 years.Poplar is appropriate for intercropping in arable fields as it has a short leaf area duration.

The most efficient treein terms of growth per unit land /time /water inagroforestryis Paulownia.A programme for the development of poplar and Paulownia agroforestry is outlined in a later section. The economic importance of short rotation forestry in terms of percentage improvements in NPV is illustrated in table 2.5 in a similar model approach as was carried out for fruit tree precocity.The same level of advantages occur i.e. by reducing the rotation from year 10 to year 5, a 101 per cent improvement in NPV is obtained (table 2.5).If reduced to year 3 the improvement is 166 per cent.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report Common name Priority Table 3 Interventionsof knownNumber require on fruit and nut trees as part of aaroforestry optimisation improvement Precocity improvement Yield improvement Form Other comments Mulberry 1 albanigra andvarieties 10 feasible minor feasible yes required yes winterdiversity.Afghanistan energy (protein if seed) food. It has considerable local importanceis as a dried probably the world leader Silk production to in genetic Walnut 1 1 major yes yes workingbe investigated) be used to Woodimprove properties timber? excellent. Should top 1 fromgrown seed avoidancegrafting.Precocity Many can and be fruitlocal brought quality seedling down characteristics trees from haveyear 15excellent to year frost3 by AlmondApricot 1 15 8 minorminor no yes processingOf prime economic required importance importance.for sliced and fresh Appropriate or groundand dried product. small scale GrapeAppleePomegranat 32 5548 5 majorminor no yes no yesno diversity.AfghanistanOf prime economic importance as fresh and dried is probably the world leader in genetic Pear 3 21 major yes yes product CherryPlumQuince 3 1 major yes yesyes Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report - 18 -

The use of trees in silvoarable systems as providers ofnitrogen is still a subject of research. Many tree can fix nitrogen and can be coppiced to providenitrogen rich mulch or compost material.The problem is the labour required to coppice the treesand handle the bulky cuttings. Vigorous coppiced trees can also be very competitivewith adjacent crops. Leguminous herbaceous crops as part of crop rotation orundersown "dredge corn" mixtures may be more appropriate. nts in the precocity of fruit and nut trees - -- 5% Discount rate 10% Discount rate 15% Discount rate Year 10 Year 5 Year 3 Year 10 Year 5 Year 3 Year 10 Year 5 Year 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 £160.67 £205.05 £226.07 £72.21 £116.30 £140.72 £35.59 £71.58 £94.66 0 28% 41% 0 61% 95% 0 101% 166%

Note: Economic returns modeled as NPV at different test discount rates. Test years for the onset of economic yield are 10, 5 and 3 years. The productivelife of the tree is modeled at 20 years. Improvements in NPV are expressed as percentages.

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Table 5 The economic significance of improvements in rotation periods 5% Discount rate 10% Discount rate 15% Discount rate Year 10 Year 5 Year 3 Year 10Year 5 Year 3 Year 10Year 5 Year 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 20 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 20 £12.28 £15.67 £17.28 £7.71 £12.42 £15.03 £4.94 £9.94 £13.15 0 28% 41% 0 61% 95% 0 101% 166%

Note: Economic returns modeled as NPV at different test discount rates. Interest periods are 10, 5 and 3 years. Improvements in NPV are expressed as percentages.

The use of trees in silvoarable or silvopastoral systems as providers of fodder is also a possibility.Readers are referred to Khaurin (1996) for a full annotated list of Afghan trees and shrubs that produce edible material of some fodder value. According to Barker (pers. comm) there is a general shortage of fodder for ruminants over the period December to April. Straw is the main rescue over this period and is nutritionally poor. Tree fodder should be seen as a supplement.Molasses are the "ideal" supplement, so the question is: Are trees a feasible alternative?

Most of the trees that produce the greatest quantity of leaves are deciduous and produce the bulk of leaves in November. They also translocate nutrients from the leaves before abscission. Exceptions to this are poplar species moved into cooler areas than their centre of origin or certain alders e.g. Alnus nitida or A. nepalensis These loose nutrient rich green leaves.. The nutritive value of leaves can only be conserved by ensilage, a new technique (not feasible ?) in Afghanistan.Many trees produce sugary seed pods.These have a higher protein content and have a similar chemical composition to molasses.They also store better (without ensilage). Key species would be:

1. Ceratonia siliqua (Carob or "St Johns bread ") a slow growing tree tolerant of arid/semi- arid conditions. Not present in Afghanistan and of unknown tolerance to frosts.

2. Gleditsia triacanthos (Honey locust) a faster growing legume. Present in Afghanistan and frost hardy

3. Robinia pseudoacacia (False acacia or black locust) a fast growing legume with less sugary pods with good firewood properties. Present in Afghanistan and frost hardy

Pods of these species should be evaluated as a fodder supplement.

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Component interventions: Crops

Considerable yield improvements are possiblein agroforestry if appropriate understorey crop species or varieties are used.Crops were the leaf is the economic part are ideal in shade conditions. Shade tolerant varieties can beselected using simple trials with shade frames. The use of a nitrogen fixing understorey mayimprove the nitrogen economy of the system.

System interventions: Silvoarable

The main system to be optimized is poplar or paulowniaagroforestry in irrigated wheat lands. In order to obtain trees of bole diameter 30 cm within5 years it will be essential to have a minimum final within row spacing of 5m.It will also be necessary to use 3m barbatelles (Entire transplants of poplar). Framers will always try toplant trees closer. This should not be allowed unless poles are required or that thinningis envisaged.

Farmers will always prefer boundary planting to plantingwithin the field.There is no problem with this, indeed for field sizes smaller than 0.1ha it is possible to get more trees on the boundary than by using a5m x 5m block planting within the field.For larger fields the following spatial arrangements are recommended: 5m x10m and 5m x 15m. These will give 200 and 133 stems per hectare respectively and willnot affect understorey wheat yield. The 5m x 15m systems should be adopted if maximalyieldis required from a shade sensitive summer crop.

Farmers in India Pakistan and China using these poplarsystems have noted that yield increase in cereals is possible due to microclimate modification.In vegetable intercropping systems, ripening has been delayed with a result of higherprice being obtained.

System interventions: Orchard intercropping

Invariably the orchard tree crop is the most valuable componentin the system, so no modifications to tree density are suggested.Changes in rectangularity however may prolong the period for intercropping.

System interventions: Home gardens

No novel interventions suggested only the supply of goodquality trees and shrubs through improved nurseries.

Interventions with emphasis on range System interventions: Silvopastoral

Trees can be incorporated into pasture lands at low density (< 100 stems perha) with negligible effect on understorey yield.Fodder or timber trees may be used.Fencing or individual tree protection is required.This is rarely economic. A product called WOBRA, recently developed by Braun pharmaceuticals in Germany mayprovide a solution for sheep or goat systems. 3m tree sets are coatedwith WOBRA and inserted into 1 m deep holes, made with a stake. WOBRA is simply coarse sand suspended in a nontoxic weatherproof gum. The treatment lasts for 5 years in temperateconditions.

Paddock systems can increase productivity

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Salt bush and sea buckthorn may also have economic potential

System interventions: Environmental

Windbreak and timberbelt technology is well understood and does not require any novel or special interventions.

2.1.4Forest Policy and Law This will need to be reviewed and updated in order to take into account the current economic environmental and social conditions.Of particular importance should be the provision of joint forest management contracts and donor funded food for work schemes for emergency environmental forestry interventions.

2.1.5Government Forest Administration and Institutions

This can start from a small nucleus of staff involved mainly on forest and forest industry survey. Extension of manpower and depts should await the outcome of a full NFP exercise.

2.1.6Forest Management and Protection

The plan for this should be carried out within the context of an overall land use plan.Of central importance will be the role of forests in soil, water and biodiversity conservation.In the short to medium term the main strategy should be the provision of assistance for judicious joint forest management. This could occur in two areas; the cedar forests of the east, and the pistachio forests of the west

2.1.7Forest Utilisation and Industry

Long term planning will be required.In the short termitis obvious that provision of fuelwood, construction timber and packing materials for fruit should have highest priority. Donors should seriously consider the WIMCO model of afforestation. (See paper on Indian agroforestry in the bibliography).In the short to medium term the strategy should be the provision of technical assistance for enhancing woodworking skills and the production of marketable artifacts at the level of cottage industry.Of particular relevance are poplar products such as fruit boxes, tool handles and bed components.Poplar for fruit boxes is cut using primitive bandsaws with a conversion efficiency of less than 30 per cent.Knife or peeler technology could increase this to over90per cent if this was considered economic.

2.1.8 Trade and Marketing

A full trade and marketing survey is required in order to assess internal and external markets.The price figures in table2.6were obtained in one day in Jelalabad by Mr Khaurin.The absolute figures should be viewed with caution due to the limited time for cross checking, however relative figures may be more reliable.In Jelalabad there are over 500wood markets. Over280tonnes of timber are sold and20truck loads delivered per day.

The most surprising finding was the high price for small poplar poles with$129and$159 per cubic metre being paid for5cm and 3 cm diameters respectively. This may explain why farmers tend to boundary plant poplar at spacings less than one metre apart. Itis not unrealistic to expect irrigated deltoides to grow at 3m height, 3 cm diameter,20cubic metres per hectare per year at optimum spacing. At$159this represents a gross return of $3180 per ha per year for an annual coppicing system.

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The Taliban appeared to have recently relaxed control on the movementof sawn timber. During the course of the mission in the East of the country, on anygiven road it was possible to see 100 trucks of deodar in a day. The deodar had the dimensionsof railway sleepers and appeared to have been moved from a store (it was not freshlycut). Assuming 30 cubic metres per truck, a standing volume of 90 cubic metres and aharvest/sawmill efficiency of 20 per cent, one truck represents 1.5 ha of logged forest. Assumingfive main exit roads to Pakistan with the same volume of traffic, this represents 750ha of forest per day.If this rate continued with fresh cut timber and my figure of 130000 ha of remaining forest is correct then Deodar forest would disappear after 173 days! With a priceof $510 per cubic metre in Jelalabad, it is not surprising that currenttrade is brisk.I would assume the price in Pakistan to be at least double this given the "road barrier tax" effect.

Table 6 Prices for various weights and sizes of timber Timber DiameterLength Volume Price Price Price (m) (m) (m3) (Afs) ($US) ($US m3) Poles Poplar (deltoides) 0.18 4.00.101736180000 9.62 94.51 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.17 4.00.090746100000 5.34 58.87 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.12 4.00.045216 35000 1.87 41.35 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.10 4.0 0.0314 30000 1.60 51.04 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.07 4.00.015386 20000 1.07 69.44 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.05 4.0 0.00785 19000 1.01 129.29 from Peshawar Poplar (deltoides) 0.03 4.00.002826 8000 0.43 151.22 from Peshawar Planks Width (m) Depth (m) Blue pine from Pachir 0.3 2.3 0.16300000 16.03 145.16 forest Abies from Wazir 0.3 2.3 0.16200000 10.68 96.77 forest Deodar from Kunar 0.3 2:3 0.161053000 56.25 509.51 Firewood Weight Weight Density (Soers) (tonne) Oak (baloot) bought 1 0.007 0.8 4000 0.21 38.16 Oak (baloot) sold 1 0.007 0.8 3500 0.19 33.39 Mulberry bought 1 0.007 0.6 3500 0.19 44.52 Mulberry sold 1 0.007 0.6 3000 0.16 38.16 Note: Prices and weights obtained in Jelalabad on 13/10/96. (Density values are estimates, 1US$=18720 Afs, 1 Soer = 7kg.) The oak and mulberry originated from Chaperhar, Shenwar, Pachir, Laghman, Kunar and Dara -e- Noor.

2.1.9Employment

Forestry and forest industry has the potential to be a major employer.The people of Afghanistan have extremely good entrepreneurial skills.Consideration should be given in developing the private sector in protection and investment forestry.

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2.1.10 Education and Training

Training and education in the govt.sector should be carried out as part of a manpower assessment. Training and extension on agroforestry for farmers should be a priority. Courses on forestry agroforestry and forest/woodland industry for NGOs should be supported.

2.1.11 Research and Extension

Agroforestry and protection forestry research appear to be the most relevant areas.If these are carried out profitably on a large scale by NGOs and the private sector, diffusion will be automatic.I do not see a forestry or agroforestry extension service as a priority.

2.1.12 International Cooperation

Old capital projects Two old projects with potential for agroforestry development are the US funded Helmand ValleyIrrigationScheme (HVIS) and theRussianassistedNangahar Agricultural Development Authority (NADA). Both represent huge capital investments that have ended up in a decrepit state requiring cost benefit. analysis before any major rejuvenation is possible.

HVIS This scheme was funded to the level of several hundred million dollars and gives irrigation to many millions of hectares. The irrigated land may be seen as a potential resource for wheat or vegetable based silvoarable systems with poplar. This should be part of the cost benefit analysis proposed by Klemm (1996)

NADA Mr Khaurin visited the technical vice president of the project, a Mr Sajeed Habiburrahman on 14/10/96. The following is an extract from the meeting notes.

The project was involved with four components:

1 Irrigation

2. Mechanized farms

3. Workshops

4. Olive factory

The project began in 1961. The main source of irrigation is the Darwatta Canal which has a carrying capacity of 50 cubic metres of water per second, enough for 31000 ha. Itis currently used to supply 11000 ha of NADA farming, 14000 ha of private farming, and 6000 ha of Hesarshi refugee camp. Annual cleaning of the canal is required. Table 2.7 shows the nature of the farms and the potential area for agroforestry interventions.

The olive are planted at a spacing of 5.5m x 7.0m. This gives a density of 260 trees per ha. They were planted in 1963 using 0/ea cuspidata rootstock (from Khost and Kunar) and O /ea europea scions of the varieties (USSR) Gamlic, Azerbahayee, Avalic, Chinlic, Civelan, Hamady and Chimvalic. The first two varieties were planted for oil, the rest for conserves.

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Oil percentage was 18 -25 per cent.Yield per tree is approximately 35 -200 kg per tree, if fertilised.

Table 7 Areas and cropping of NADA farms Farm Total area Olive Citrus Nurseries Remainder ha ha ha ha ha Hadar 4400 600 25 0 3775 Chaparhar 2700 600 0 0 2100 Ghazi Abad 3062 700 350 40 1972 Bati Coot 1715 700 0 0 1015 Totals 11877 2600 375 40 8862

It may be possible to improve the profitability of olive and citrus plantations by making them into silvopastoral systems using sown pasture mixtures and grazing on a paddock system. Grazing would not preclude access for pruning fertiliser or spray application.This would yield a total of 2975 ha of grazing land. Some form of tree protection may be necessary.

The production capacity of the olive factory is 8000 tonnes per year with oil and conserve divided half and half. The whole olive rejuvenation (land plus factory requires a cost benefit

analysis with and without agroforestry . In the meantime small scale silvopastoral trials could be established under contract with local grazers.

The 40 ha of nurseries may be a useful resource for agroforestry or the horticulture programme. The remaining 8862 ha of irrigated land may be seen as a potential resource for wheat or vegetable based silvoarable systems with poplar.

Findings from previous technical assistance Poplar

UNDP (1986) summarizes work on forestry carried out at GuzergahForestry Extension Centre near kabul.5ha of 40 exotic poplar clones were establishedwith 50 000 plants propagated per year. 12 Fellows were trained.

May (1979) commented on the great genetic diversity of poplars foundin Afghanistan with members of sections, Leuce, Aigeiros, Turanga and Leucoides present.This bodes well for improvement and propagation of local clones.

FAO (1992) concluded that 85 per cent of Afghanistan's population live in rural areas and that 50 per cent of the countries poplar was marketed in Kabul. Poplar trials were established at Guzergah, Jangel -e- Martaz, and Deh Murad khan farms in 1988.These should be assessed. Two varieties of nigra were named; Rimah and Arar.The former performed the best in trials.Nilah was a named clone of P alba. A useful project staff list was given in the document. This is reproduced in Appendix 4.5. These people should be traced and consulted in further project preparation work. Many now work for MADERA and if not could be traced via their colleagues.Ailanthus glanolosa, Robinia pseudoacacia, Catalpa bignoides, Fraxinus floribunda Cercis griffithii and Eleagnus angustifolia were all promotedintreeplanting programmesinun- irrrigatedareas. Tolay (1986)also recommended these trees along with Ulmus and Prunus.

The poplar manual by Tandon (1984) should be updated with modern nursery techniques, boundary and agroforestry planting schemes and the use of the latest interamericana clones. The clonal trials and populetums evaluated by Tolay (1986) should also be assessed.

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The status of the saw milling and chipboard industry around Kabulshould be evaluated and compared to the report by Anon (1985)

Range

Hassanyar (1995) working in Balk province suggested improvedmanagement of range using Haloxylon ammdendron and Caligonum turkestanicum

Larrson (1978) Stressed the high biodiversity importance of the Ephedra steppein the Ajar valley.

Unirrigated land

Afghanaid (1995) recommended planting of Ailanthus glanolosa, Robinia pseudoacacia, Catalpa bignoides anf Fraxinus floribunda. These species were also suggested byAustin (1994) who added that Pinus nigra and P helepensis should be used in higher elevations.

UNDP (1991) proposed species matching to various agroecological zones.Of particular note is the dune stabilisation work in Balkh and Nimroz using Eleagnus and Ulmusspecies.

Joint Forest Management

Many of the suggestions contained in the reports of Roetzer (1977) and Bostanoglu(1977) on forestry management and sawmilling in the KunarNuristan region may be relevant, albeit on a smaller scale for joint forest management of deodar.

The future The most relevant forestry and agroforestry experience appears to be locatedinIndia, Pakistan and China.International projects should promote linkages. Of central relevance areinternationalinitiatives on poplar. Informationof globalforestry research and development initiatives can be obtained from IUFRO.

2.1.13 Current performance and future role of NGOs

Consultations with FAO project staff and others lead to the conclusion that the three most active NGOs in Afghanistan in the area of forestry and agroforestry are; MADERA, SERVE and IRC.The work of MADERA was evaluated by studying reports,visiting several nurseries in the field and consulting local staff.The other NGOs were evaluated by consultations with senior staff in Pakistan and studying reports.

ACBAR (1996) gives organizational profiles for all humanitarian agencies working for Afghans. A summary of relevant data on the three NGOs was given in table 2.8

Key findings were:

1. None were familiar with appropriate measures of effectiveness in agroforestry

2. All had a competence in agricultural development

3. All had a competence in fruit/forest nursery management and that his competence had been greatly enhanced through contracted work with J M Arnault of AFG /94/02.

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4. MADERA had a unique competence and current project experience in afforestation and joint forest management.

5. MADERA had many staff that were formerly senior members of the Afghanistan Forest Dept.

6. MADERA had used former got land for the projects with a view to future integration with emerging government structures.

7. MADERA could carry out contracts for the development of joint forest management

8. All could respond to tender opportunities for agroforestry development.

Table 8 Profiles of the three main forestry and agroforestry NGOs NGO 1995 Budget Allocation to Allocation Total Total Key provinces US $million agriculture to forestry staff technical for agriculture projects projects staff or forestry MADERA 3.1 31% 4% 415 231 Laghman Kunar (Nuristan)(Herat and Wardak in 1996) SERVE 0.8 15% 0% 275 14 Nangarhar IRC 5.7 18 0% 1438 1020 Logar Paktia Pakteka Source: ACBAR 1996

2.2 RELEVANT FORESTRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Given the findings of previous sectionsitis clear that the most relevant research to Afghanistan in the areas of forestry and agroforestry are:

1. Commercial fruit and nut tree improvement in the context of agroforestry

2. Agroforestry involving poplar

3. Poplar improvement

4. Other fast growing trees for irrigated areas e.g. Paulownia and Willow

5. Agroforestry for arid and semi arid areas

6. Trees for arid and semi arid lands

The methods used for this section were:

1. Computer literature review of agroforestry in Pakistan

2. Visit to Pakistan Institute of Forestry

3. Reflection on previous experience in India, China and elsewhere

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2.2.1 Computer literature review

A computer literature review was undertaken on TREECD (records 1939 -19960 using the key words AGROFORESTRY AND AFGHANISTAN OR PAKISTAN. The resulting printout of 173 references with full abstracts is given in the bibliography volume.

The total number of record for Afghanistan obtained was zero. Table 2.9 shows the nature of the references. Table 2.10 shows the key arid zone species. Table 2.11 shows the key institutes in Pakistan.

Table 9 Type of references on Pakistan Agroforestry Topic Percentage General Review 43 Poplar agroforestry 5 Salt or aridity tolerant species monograph 26 Mountain lands 10 Fodder 1 Economics 5 Pathology or chemistry 10

Table 10 Key institutions working on Pakistan agroforestry Institution Percentage of references Pakistan Institute of Forestry 30 University of Karachi 10 Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Livestock 5 Forestry Research Institute Dehra Duhn India 5 Forestry Depts, Punjab, NWFP and Faisalabad 10 ICIMOD Kathmandu Nepal 10 Atomic Energy Agricultural Research Centre 5 Tandojam Winrock International c/o Min. of forestry 5 Pakistan Agricultural Research Centre 5 Arid Zone Research Institute Quetta 5 University of agriculture Faisalabad 10

Table 11 Key Pakistan Agroforestry species for irrigated, arid and semi arid lands Irrigated Semi -arid Arid Populus deltoides Melia aziderach Eucalyptus camaldulensis Paulownia fortunei Robinia pseudoacacia Prosopis cineraria P. tormentosa Morus alba P. juliflora P. elongata Dalbergia sisso Acacia modesta P. australis Phoenix sylvestris A nilotica P. forgesii Platanus orientalis A.tortillis Salix tetrasperma Ficus palmata A. lebbek Bamboos Faidherbia albida Tamarix aphylla T.articulate Tecomella undulata Ziziphus mauritiana (fruit) Z. Jujuba (fruit) Reptonia boxifolia (shrub) Cenchus ciliarus (shrub) Celtis australis (shrub) Atriplex canescens (shrub)

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Most of the papers are general reviews.The most economically attractive system in Pakistan is Poplar agroforestry.This is the only practice taken up by the private sector. Key deltoides clones are the "1" series of SC origin such as 163151 and 1214. Between row spacing should be at least 10 metres to allow full intercropping overthe rotation of 5 years. The use of barbatelles gives a one year advantage over cuttings.There are many trees that can be grown in arid areas but the most promisingeconomically are Eucalyptus camaldulensis Prosopis cineraria and Zizyphus spp.

The Pakistan Institute of Forestry is the lead institute.It has an HQ at Peshawar and many regional centres.It as the national remit for forestry research. The current director is Dr Khalid M Saddiqui. PIF are very impressed with the growth and characteristics of Paulownia fortunei.

2.2.2Pakistan Institute of Forestry

PIF is a centre of excellence for research and training services. They candesign and run tailor made course on any aspect of forestry or agroforestry.They have run courses on nursery techniques for Afghan refugees.

They are particularly proud of their work on poplar agroforestry which is now widelyadopted by the private sector (manly the match industries) They have also has successwith Eucalyptus and are now investigating Paulownia.Paulownia has a very short leaf area duration and comes into leaf during the heading stage of wheat.I measured the DBH of a six year old specimen of P fortunei and it was 36cm ie 6cm dia increment per year!Root cuttings grow up to 5 metres in the first year! This impresses farmers.Artifacts made of Paulownia, a kind of hard balsa are already on sale in Pakistan.

The institute can provide seeds and cuttings of all the species listed in the sectionabove.

They have an extensive library and can organize study tours.

2.2.3Poplar industry in Pakistan

Poplar has traditionally been used for the following products in Pakistan:

1. Matches

2. Fruit boxes

3. Furniture

4. Poles for house building

In other industrially advanced countries, poplar is used for the construction of pallets.This is where containerisation and the use of fork lift trucks is highly developed. This was not thought to be important for Afghanistan in the short term.Paper in Pakistan is not made from wood pulp but from any of the following; bagasse, cotton lintles, waste paper, and wheat or rice straw.

Matches A visit was made to the Mohsin match company, one of five on the Peshawar Industrial Estate in order to identify key features of the industry.The following findings were obtained:

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1 Unlike India the industry is not involved with nurseries and tree production

2. The company buys in deltoides no1 and no 2 (dealers jargon not real clones) logs from middlemen who buy standing trees from farmers

3. 1.5m logs of minimum diameter 14 cm are purchased fresh by weight at 1.6 Rs per Kg. (64 Rs per mound)

4. Most logs in the stack yard had ring widths of around 2.5cm giving a 14cm log an age of approximately 6 years.

5. The factory consumed 8000 tonne of poplar per year.Assuming a typical annual poplar production to be 10 tonne per hectare at the low density of most agroforestry systems in Pakistan, this represents a annual catchment of 800 ha.

6. Unlike India the logs were not soaked prior to treatment.

7. Logs are cut into lengths of 40.64 cm by bandsaw and peeled on a lathe to a core of 6 cm diameter giving 16 per cent "waste" on a 15 cm white log.

8. The following "waste" products are produced by the factory and used by other industries: Cores for box industry, sawdust for special domestic stoves and large scale brick kilns and brown bark, white bark and head offcuts for firewood.

Fruit boxes or crates Visits were made to a number of small scale crate manufacturers around Peshawar. The following findings were obtained:

1. Every fruit has its own kind of crate

2. Many crates are exported to Afghanistan in a flat pack form.

3. Afghans prefer crates made of poplar to other woods.

4. 5 inch poplar logs and match waste are used

5. Pakistani traders prefer Dalbergia, Tamarix, Zizyphus, Morus for larger crates.

6. 1.5 m crates are produced per year for tomatoes alone

7. One sawmill can produce 600 crates per day

8. There are 50 crate sawmills around Peshawar alone.

9. Manning consists of 1skilled operator, 2 skilled laborers, 2 unskilled and one boy. Crates could be made by women in homes and collected.

10. A 2.5 inch band saw cost 40 000 Rs new and requires a 10 000 Rs motor.3 phase installation and connection costs 60 000 Rs.

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Furniture Untreated deltoides furniture was available for sale inPeshawar.It was cheap and light and is the preferred choice of Afghan refugees

Construction poles Untreated deltoides poles were available in Peshawar and areused for refugees houses. Nigra is preferred but is not available in suitable quantities.I would estimate that untreated poplar would last for less than 5 years in termite areas!

2.2.4Suggestions based upon previous knowledge

1. France is foremost in the improvement of walnut. Contact Mr EricGermain of INRA Bordeaux. Key variables are lateness of flowering, male female floweroverlap, lateral bearing and disease resistance.

2. Walnut work in Holland by Dr Bob Wertheim is suitable to areaswith late spring frost and no spray regimes. He is based at the fruit research station inWilhelminadorp.

3. To my knowledge black mulberry has never been an economic cropanywhere in the world except Afghanistan this is due to the problem of transportingthe fresh fruit.I do not know of any relevant research on this species. Whitemulberry is the main food plant of the silk moth so there is considerable research on this aspectof mulberry production in China and India.

4. The leading centre for the commercial development of poplar agroforestryis WIMCO Ltd in Uttar Pradesh India. Dr Chandra is the research adviser and nursery manager. FRI at Dehra Duhn have the largest collection of deltoides in Asia.The key clones of deltoides in India are the "G" clones originating from North America viaAustralia (see bobliography)

5. China is the world leader for selecting insect resistant clones of poplar.Contact Prof. Wang Shiji ant the Chinese Academy of forestry in Beijing.

6. China is the world leader in the development of Paulownia and its usein wheat

agroforestry . contact Prof. Zhu at the Chinese Academy of forestry.

7. There are two institutes in Jodhpur India specializing in arid zone agroforestry;Arid zone forestry Institute part of FRI and CAZRI part ofthe Min.of Ag.Universities in the Punjab and Haryana also have excellent experience.

8. The most successful arid zone afforestation scheme in he world has been carried out in China using sea buckthorn; Hippophae spp.1.3 mha have been established since 1985 producing a feedstock for over 200 factories giving rise to hundreds of products worth many hundreds of millions of dollars.Further information is available from the director of the International centre for research and training on sea buckthorn, 20 Badachu rd Shijingshan District Beijing China 100041, PR China.This efficacy and applicability of the work should be compared to that on saltbush carried out by the Arid zone institute in Quetta.

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2.3 A STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

2.3.1 Introduction

Afghanistan has no effective government.This strategy is a guide for assistance to the country for donor agencies. Itisbased upon very limited factual information and consultation.The period for the strategy is five years.This strategy assumes that no effective government forest administration will be established in the period.If one does occur in that period then resources must be put to into the development of a National Forest Programme with a planning /policy time frame of ten years. The outcomes of the NFP can then be compared tothe recommendations ofthisreport and adjustments made accordingly,

2.3.2Guiding Principles

The role of any forestry strategy is to:

"enhance the judicious continued use and care of trees and shrubs either planted or arising from natural regeneration in a manner cognisant of global human needs.It is axiomatic that this involves the conservation of biodiversity at the levels of genes, species and ecosystems."

Any strategy should be aware of the following factors (not in order of importance) in Afghanistan:

Islamic and tribal tradition and values The level of peace and social order Food security and its requirements of tree mediated soil climate (meso and micro) and water The central position of horticulture in the economy and the concomitant informational and genetic heritage The shortage of productive (irrigated) land The need for self help through high levels of indigenous enterprise The potential of tree based enterprise to provide rural employment and economic growth The crisis of the imminent disappearance of all natural and semi natural woodlands Difficulties and potentials of transit and export Acute shortage of indigenous timber for fuel construction and other uses

2.3.3Interventions

The following programme interventions are suggested. The resulting "projects" are given in italics with acronym.

Improvement or introduction of food producing trees: Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas WALMUL. Improvement or introduction of trees that can improve adjacent crop or animal production: Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees AGFOR

Improvement or introduction of trees and processing systems for packaging of horticultural products: Poplar properties and processing. PPP

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Improvement or introduction of trees that can be used to substitute for and therefore relive pressure on natural and semi natural forests: Afforestation in non irrigatedlands including range. AFOR

Changes in perceived tenancy and or usufruct (with technical assistance) leading to protection and sustainable management of natural or semi natural forests: Joint forest management JFM National Forest Programme: NFP

2.3.4 Delivery

The strategytechnicalassistanceshould bedirect work withleadfarmers and entrepreneurs mediated by NGOs if necessary.It is hoped that by selecting key individuals characterized by innovation and entrepreneurial ability in conspicuous sites, diffusion of new technologies will occur through emulation.Extension services do not appear to be sustainable or appropriate to Afghanistan.

Afghanistan is now the leading producer of opium in the world. The extension of this crop did not occur due to the presence of extension agencies but through share cropping linked to credit.

Sustainabilityisto be attained by the development of inherently profitable systems cognisant of insecurity and local constraints of labour and other agricultural inputs.

Pump priming can be used by food for work and loan interventions linked to profit share.It is legally impossible for UN agencies to be involved in profit share so this is where NGOs can be used id accounting systems are adequate.

2.3.5Prioritization

A matrix approach (table 2.12) was used to give ranking to various factors and identify overall priorities for funding. The variables are self explanatory apart from technical ease. A low score means that on farm research is required.A value of 10 represents the maximum score within a category.

Table 12 Priority values for the suggested interventions "Project" Economic Ecological Technical Cultural Sustain- Urgency Total impact impact ease acceptance ability WALMUL 6 4 7 9 9 8 43 AGFOR 8 4 3 9 9 10 43 PPP 8 4 7 7 9 8 43 AFOR 4 5 3 3 5 5 25 JFM 4 10 7 4 7 10 42 NFP 2 2 6 9 8 2 29

The figures show that all projects are of high priority apart from the NFP and afforestation. The NFP would become highest priority once a stable government has been formed

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2.4 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

2.4.1Woodlands

1. The total area of forest land defined in 1979 as a "legal area" is 1880k ha.This represented 2.8 per cent of the land area.My guesstimate of the current area of closed forest is 368 kha or 0.5 per cent of the land area.

Remote sensing in 1993 gave a total forest area (closed open and high scrub) of 1316 kha or 2 per cent land area.I am concerned that this may be an inflated figure due to the inclusion of closed orchards and scrub.

3. The three major forest types and their legal and (guesstimate) areas in kha are: Cedar forest in the east 1300 (130), Oak forest in the East 130 (13) and Pistachio forest in the West 450 (225).

4. Cedar forest has been unsustainably logged by elites for rapid cash.Oak and pistachio forest has been destroyed by the poor for fuelwood (tops and roots).

5. All natural forests could'disappear within five years if not protected.

6. Scrub regeneration has occurred on depopulated areas so erosion risk may have been overstated in previous reports. Biodiversity loss will have been significant.

7. All forests could be restored in the short and medium term by the action of joint forest management mediated and assisted by NGOs

2.4.2The Forest sector

1. There is a chronic wood deficit in Afghanistan.

2. There is no effective government or forestry department.

3. The only remnants of forest statistics, policy and law date back to 1979.

4. There are no forest plantations or medium to large scale forest industries.

5. The small scale industries are now using imported timber at great cost

6. Rangelands were part of the remit of the forest department and represent the largest land cover in Afghanistan 70 per cent.

7 There is a considerable land area in old government projects such as the Heiman valley and NADA suitable for agroforestry interventions

8. The greatest biological potential for wood production isinirrigated areas. Itis axiomatic that this could only happen through agroforestry interventions due to land pressure.

9 Poplar is the species with greatest potential for small scale wood based industry in Afghanistan, typical products are matches, fruit crates, furniture and construction poles. Fruit crate construction is suitable for women in purdah.

10. There is a need for a National Forest Programme.

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11. The peri urban areas have highest economic potentialfor agroforestry that produces fuelwood timber fruits nuts and vegetables

2.4.3Agroforestry

1. Irrigated agriculture and rurallife takes place in an agroforestry landscape i.e. agroforestry in the form of boundary planting and home gardens isaccepted.

2. There is considerable indigenous knowledge on agroforestry.

3. The agroforestry landscape represents at least 10 per cent ofthe land area.

4. Major interventions in agroforestry improvement required ranked inorder of economic importance are:

Fruit nut/tree improvement; work on walnut and mulberryprecocity and form would have greatest impact. Agroforestry system design for orchards and irrigated arable land withemphasis on microclimate improvement eg poplar windbreaks Tree selection and improvement for the latter. Fast growing tree selection for the production of fruit packingmaterials, tool handles, artifacts and construction timber, poplar being the mostappropriate species. Fast growing tree selection for fuelwood

5. Consumer acceptance studies are required on the suitability of varioustree species e.g. Eucalyptus, Ailanthus, Robinia, Catalpa andFraxinus etc., compared to fuelwood from oak and pistachio.

6. Studies are required on the feasibility of using tree products as foddersupplements as leaf ensilage and or dried sugary pods during critical periods.

7 Technical assistance is required on the potential role of trees in the improvementand or maintenance of soil fertility.

8. Technical assistance is required on the feasibility of protecting regenerated orplanted woody vegetation as part of range management.

2.4.4 NGOs NGOs have the capacity toassist agroforestryafforestation and jointforest management programmes as they have considerable local knowledge and trust.

2. In order to be effective in the forestry and agroforestry sector, NGOs will needtraining in recent advances in joint forest management and agroforestry. A two monthtailor made short course would be sufficient.This could be based at PIFifsuitable technical assistance was provided.

3. Many NGOs have experience in providing emergency relief rather thantechnical assistance. All would benefit from training on project cycle management approaches

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with emphasis on project identification, logical framework development andmonitoring and evaluation skills,

Members of key NGOs should be allowed to participate in FAO project identification and formulation.

5. NGOs should be given output related contracts over realistic timeframes i.e.5 years for forestry and agroforestry.

6. The idea of NGO farmer joint ventures should be promoted and monitored.

2.4.5Sources of expertise and assistance

1. Walnut: INRA in Bordeaux, France and the fruit research station at Wilhelminadorp, Holland.

2. Poplar clonal selection: the poplar research station in Gerardsbergen Belgium, The Forest Research Institute in Dehra Duhn India, The Chinese Academy of Forestry Beijing and PIF.

3. Poplar wheat Agroforestry: WIMCO India, Forest Research Institute in Dehra Duhn India, and PIF.

4. Paulownia wheat Agroforestry: The Chinese Academy of Forestry Beijing and PIF.

5. Arid zone afforestation: There are two institutes in Jodhpur, India specializing in arid zone agroforestry; Arid Zone Forestry Institute part of FRI andCAZRI part of the Ministry of Agriculture.Universities in the Punjab and Haryana also have excellent experience.The most successful arid zone afforestation scheme in the world has been carried out in China using sea buckthorn; Hippophae spp.1.3 mha have been established since 1985 producing a feedstock for over 200 factories giving rise to hundreds of products worth many hundreds of millions of dollars.Further information is available from "The Director of the International centre for research and training on sea buckthorn, 20 Badachu rd Shijingshan District Beijing China100041, PR China." This efficacy and applicability of the wórk should be compared to that on saltbush carried out by the Arid zone institute in Quetta.

6. Agroforestryand JFM Coursedesign,directionandmonitoring:BioDiversity International Ltd UK.

7. Training centre: PIF.

2.4.6 A strategy for forestry and agroforestry

The role of any forestry strategy is to:

Any strategy should be aware of the following factors (not in order of importance) in Afghanistan:

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1. Islamic and tribal tradition and values.

2. The level of peace and social order.

Food security and its requirements of tree mediated soil climate(meso and micro) and water.

4. The central position of horticulture in the economy and theconcomitant informational and genetic heritage.

5. The shortage of productive (irrigated) land.

6. The need for self help through high levels of indigenous enterprise.

The potential of tree based enterprise to provide rural employment andeconomic growth.

8. The crisis of the imminent disappearance of all natural and semi naturalwoodlands.

9. Difficulties and potentials of transit and export.

10. Acute shortage of indigenous timber for fuel construction and other uses

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3. RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Some of the interventions can be started very quickly as part of the two existing FAO programs. These can then feed into the larger projects once they start.

3.2ADDITIONS TO EXISTING FAO PROGRAMS

3.2.1 AFG /93/004 Animal Health and Livestock

Fodder trees for irrigated areas The sub programme on animal production systems has already began to investigate the role of woody perennials in the provision of fodder. A report has been commissioned and a draft produced (Khaurin, 1996).The report gives a long species list of trees and there distribution in Afghanistan that may be used as a fodder source. The next phase should involve investigation of:

1. Nutritional quality

2. Seasonally and storage

3. Yield

4. Land cost

5. Labour cost

Future work should try to produce answers to a series of key questions.

It appears that ruminants are the key livestock group although poultry may be important. Fodder from woody perennials should be viewed as a supplement to be compared to enriched molasses.What is the value of "sugary seeds /pods" compared to leaf material? The following should be used in feeding trials:

1. Cerotonia siliqua (Carob) a slow growing tree tolerant of arid /semi -arid conditions. Not present in Afghanistan and not tolerant of frosts?

2. Gleditisia triacanthos (Honey locust) a faster growing legume. Present in Afghanistan and frost hardy.

3. Robinia pseudoacacia (false acacia) a fast growing legume with less sugary pods with good firewood properties. Present in Afghanistan and frost hardy.

4. Morus spp (Mulberry) a popular tree in Afghanistan grown primarily for human food. Seeded fruit should be investigated.

5. Perennial pigeon pea (contact ICRISAT Hyderabad India)

These could be compared to dry poplar leaves.

Most of the trees that produce the greatest quantity of leaves are deciduous and produce the bulk of leaves in November. They also translocate nutrients from the leaves before

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report - 38 - abscission.Exceptions to this are species moved into cooler areasthan their centre of origin e.g.Populus deltoides or certain alders e.g.Alnus nitida or A nepalensis These loose nutrient rich green leaves. What specieslisted in the fodder tree report have or lose green leaves during the critical period? Thenutritive value of leaves can only be conserved by ensilage, a new technique in Afghanistan.Is ensilage feasible?

What is the yield per tree of selected speciesand what is the optimum spatial arrangement? This includes clumps individual trees andline planting.Does clipping or pruning promote fodder production within a givenspecies?

What is the land cost of a particular species? This is not asimple question to answer as it is a function of the depression of the yields of adjacentcropping systems. A windbreak boundary fence or "Dehra" may not be close to cropping systemsand therefore will not cost any land.If trees are to be planted along irrigation channels next to crops,tall columnar deciduous trees have minimal impact.Fruit and not trees have inherent economic value and would be tolerated on irrigated land. What is thevalue of fruit /nut tree leaves and prunings?

Some trees lose green leaves and pods /fruit/nutsnaturally. The process can be encouraged in small trees by shaking.Mats can be used under the trees for easing collection. In certain areas of India and Nepal, coppicing is carried outfor fodder. Pollarding is useful in areas where livestock roam freely.What is the labour cost of fodder harvesting storage and transport?

Fodder trees and silvopastoral systems for arid lands Trees on nonirrigated and range land must be protected fromlivestockduring establishment. This is not a trivial matter. Fencing may be economicallyacceptable as part of large land restoration projects involving food for workcomponents. On the smaller scale trials should be carried out on the use of thorn shrubs asprotection to tree rows and the use of bark treatments such as WOBRA.

Species selected from those listed in Table 2.10 should beevaluated.

3.2.2 AFG /94/002 Integrated Crop and food Production

Horticulture In anticipation of the start of a walnut and mulberry programme, thesearch for a dwarfing rootstock for mulberry and scions of local promising varieties of walnutcould begin.A strategy for characterizing and conserving fruit/nut plant genetic resourcesincluding walnut and mulberry should also be developed.

In anticipation of the start of a poplar improvement programme, irrigatedpoplar observation trials could be established on or adjacent to existing nucleus nurseries.These should consist of blocks of 4 or 9 trees (depending on available space) of the following:

1. Local Populus deltoides (suitable local clone to be identified and named) 2. Local Populus nigra (suitable local clone to be identified and named) 3. Imported Populus deltoides from Pakistan (An I clone from PIF) 4. Imported Populus deltoides from India (A G clone from FRI Dehra Dune) 5. Imported Populus (interamericana) from Belgium (A unal clone such asBoelare or Beaupre from the Poplar Institute at Gerardsbergen)

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1.2m cuttings should be used.A spacing of 4m should be adopted.Height and DBH growth should be recorded annually.Pruning of the bottom whorl of branches should be done annually after year 3.

The profitability of horticultural agroforestry systems can be greatlyenhanced by the inclusion of an "animal" production component. Two systems of high potentialin terms of markets and cultural acceptance are honey and silk production. A studyshould be carried out to assess the importance of tree species on honey quality. Theefficacy of lopping or collecting leaves from different ages varieties and species of mulberry trees as abyproduct for silk production should be compared against optimised dedicated coppice systems.

In China, carefully managed fish ponds play a crucial integratedroleinsoilfertility maintenance and improvement as part of agroforestry. Examples are many and complex, but of particular merit are the mulberry- silk -fish (MSF) and orchard -fish -duck(OFD) systems. The crucial factors are a drainable pond which allows the collection of nutrient rich compost for application onto the agroforestry system and the use of grass carp as part of polyculture which can feed on cellulosic material. The drainable pond is also vital for fish management. With MSF the silk worms are reared above the pond so that droppings and leaf remains can fall into the pond as fish food. With OFD orchard waste is used as fish food. The presence of fish stimulates the availability of duck food. Duck droppings stimulate the production of fish food. These systems have been used to convert brick pits in areas with no top soil into productive farming systems. Key staff (from both 93/004 and 94/002) should be set on study tours to China to see these systems in action.

Agronomy /Farming systems The impact of incorporating herbaceous legumes (in rotation or as undersown intercrops) into the wheat cropping system should be evaluated at key locations and compared with zero N fertiliser applications. Impact should be assessed in termsof wheat yield increment and labour cost.

The efficacy and practicality of composting in order to improve soilfertility should be investigated,

These activities will set a baseline for the proposed work on the incorporation of material from woody legumes as part of boundary or alley cropping systems to be compared against.

Training needs assessment and course design. Short courses are required for:

1. Farmers, nurserymen and NGOs on agroforestry 2. Farmers, and NGOs on JFM 3. Male and female entrepreneurs on micro scale forest and woodland industry 4. NGOs on project cycle management skills and approaches

A one month training needs assessment and course design consultancy will be required for each of these proposed activities.

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3.3 NEW "PROJECTS"

The "projects" are presented in outline only. Itis clear that agroforestry and forestry interventions can make an enormous impact ofrehabilitation and developmentin Afghanistan. The one month constancy with only 5 days in country experience in no way represents project identification.Project identification should involve detailed joint problem analysis as part of "an analysis of the situation" and should lead to the elaboration of a participatory logical framework with clearly identified actors, beneficiaries assumptions and objectively verifiable indicators. Interested donors should carry out project identification with the project profiles as guides. Some savings could be achieved through integration of the projects with the existing FAO programmes. Indeed due to the interdisciplinary nature of agroforestry and forestry in Afghanistan, the formation of a separate forestry programme should be resisted. I would recommend that the current FAO programmes and the suggested projects should all be integrated into a single rural development programme, with a single programme director and senior staff housed in a single HQ.

Project titles are:

1. Improvement or introduction of food producing trees: Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas WALMUL.

2. Improvement or introduction of trees that can improve adjacent crop or animal production: Agroforestry inirrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees AGFOR

3. Improvement or introduction of trees and processing systems for packaging of horticultural products: Poplar properties and processing. PPP

4. Improvement or introduction of trees that can be used to substitute for and therefore relive pressure on natural and semi natural forests: Afforestation in non irrigated lands including range. AFOR

5. Changes in perceived tenancy and or usufruct (with technical assistance) leading to protection and sustainable management of natural or semi natural forests: Joint forest management JFM

6. National Forest Programme: NFP

Project outlines are presented in Appendix 4.4. Table 3.1 provides a financial summary.

Table 13 Financial Summary of Proposed Projects Project Code Duration Number of Short term Sub contract eg Estimated total years STAs at man months WFP NGO cost including $150k per at $15k total cost $1m 40% contingency year per month $m'

WALMUL 5 1 20 0.3 1.89 AGFOR 5 1 20 0.3 1.89 PPP 3 1 10 0.1 0.98

JFM 5 1 20 0.3 1.89

NFP 1 0 24 0 0.50 AFOR 5 1 20 0.3 1.89 Total 9.04 (6.65) Note: Low priority projects are shaded and the total minus these low prorate projects given in brackets

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4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACBAR 1996 Directory of humanitarian agencies working for Afghans, Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief, Peshawar Pakistan.

Afghanaid 1995 SocialForestryProject(Badakshan) 1995 -96, Project Proposal Peshawar 1995.

Anon 1985 Wood processing industry in Kabul, FAO Asia Pacific Forest Industries Development Group Mission report Kuala Lumpur 7 pages

Arnault J M 1996 Six monthlyprogress report, 1/4/96- 30/9/96, FAO Afghanistan

Austrian Relief Committee 1994 SocialForestryPoplarRejuvenationProject, Project Proposal, April 1994

Berding F R 1996 Land Management, TCP /AFG/4552 Unpublishedreport, FAO 88 pages

Bostanoglu L 1977 Kunar forestry development demonstration, FAO 36 pages

FAO 1992 Strengthening on the Forestry Dept. Afghanistan Phase II, Terminal Report

Klemm W 1996 Irrigation Report, TCP /AFG/4552 Unpublished report, FAO 60 pages

Hassanyar A S 1995 Revegetation of Hairatan Rangeland in N Afghanistan, Pages 1 -5 Proceedings of UNESCO Workshop Silvopastoral systems and arid and semi arid areas CAZRI Jodhpur India December 1995

Hassanyar A S 1977 Restorationofaridandsemiaridecosystems in Afghanistan, Environmental Conservation 4(4): 297 -301

Khaurin H H 1990 TechnicalPaperon ForestPolicyinAfghanistan, FAO /UNDP report Kabul 24 pages Unpublished.

Khaurin H H 1996 Survey and identification of fodder trees and bushes in Afghanistan, AFG /93/004 programme sub project report FTBS /96/01 Unpublished, FAO June 1996 40 pages.

Larrson J Y 1978 Status of Alpine Rangelands in Central Afghanistan with special reference to the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve, Dept. of forestry and range Min of Ag. Kabul 1978

May S 1979 Poplars in Afghanistan, Unasylva 31(124) 29 -32

Roetzer G 1977 Kunar Forest and sawmilling development, FAO project reports (3 in total)

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report - 42 -

Tandon J C 1984 A manualforplantingpoplarinAfghanistan, FAO AFG /82/003 48 pages

Tandon J C 1988 Forest and forestry in Afghanistan A sector review,FAO AFG/86/011

Thieme Olaf 1996 Livestock Production, TCP /AFG/4552 Unpublished report, FAO 50 pages

Tolay U 1986 Consultancy on experimental silviculture, FAO AFG/86/011 64 pages

Pakistan Institute of Forestry 1996 Annual Progress Report 1994 -95, Peshawar 199 pages.

UN 1996 Interim Operational Strategy for the United Nations in Afghanistan for the 1996 -97 Biennium, United Nations 20 pages.

UNDP 1991 Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase II, Kabul 1996

UNDP 1986 Project Document Afghanistan Forestry Project Phase //l, Kabul 1991

UNDCP 1996 Afghanistan Opium Poppy Survey. Main Report September 1996, Regional Office for South West Asia of the United nations Drug Control Programme. 19 pages.

Promotion of Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Programmes Forestry and Agroforestry Report ANNEX 1.

PROJECT PROFILES

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report CONTENTS

Page

3.1 Improvement of walnut and mulberry in irrigated areas 1

3.2 Agroforestry in irrigated areas with poplar and nitrogen fixing trees 2

3.3 Poplar Properties and Processing 3

3.4 Afforestation in Non irrigated lands including Rangeland 4

3.5 Joint Forest Management 5 3.6 National Forest Programme 6

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 1. Page 1

1. IMPROVEMENT OF WALNUT AND MULBERRY IN IRRIGATED AREAS

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase in capital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems. 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family. 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion, food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Assumptions: Market continues for walnut and mulberry Farmers and nurseries accept improved varieties

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 1. Page 2

2. AGROFORESTRY IN IRRIGATED AREAS WITH POPLAR AND NITROGEN FIXING TREES

Cost: $1.89m Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion, food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: Food security and profitability of silvoarable silvopastoral and home garden systems involving poplar and nitrogen fixing trees improved. Poplar is the most valuable fast growing multipurpose tree in Afghanistan.Nigra is an important construction timber whereas deltoides is valuable for small poles and for fruit boxes.Deltoides could eventually be used for match production. The inclusion of fast growing nitrogen fixing trees such as Robinia, Gleditsia, Leucaena and Gliricidia in the correct agroclimatic zone could provide valuable products for sale or farm use and material for improving the organic matter and N content of soils.

Outputs and indicators: 1. Improved varieties (first 3 years growth rate) of poplar characterized and propagated 2. Species site interactions for N fixing trees identified 3. Paulownia compared as a poplar substitute on nucleus nurseries 4. Profitability of 500 nurseries improved by the sale of improved trees 5. 50 windbreaks established and benefits measured 6. Profitability of 50 farms improved by optimized agroforestry.

Location and Activities: 1. Collection and propagation of key material at nucleus nurseries 2. Establishment of private nurseries with associated training 3. Farm economic and biodiversity survey and intervention 4. Investigation of fodder and soil enrichment byproducts 5. Research on optimum agroforestry configurations 6. Assessment of the practicality and efficacy of soil improvement by the use of trees compared to herbaceous methods. 7. Study on the potential for agroforestry on government schemes eg NADA/HVIS 8. Study on agroforestry potential for river island development

Assumptions: 1. N fixing trees produce saleable products 2. Boundary and dehra land sufficient to feed the arable crop with N requirements as alley cropping not thought to be feasible on field sizes less than 0.5 ha. Inputs:One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 1. Page 3

3. POPLAR PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING

Cost: $0.98m

Duration: 3 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Location and Activities: 1 Kabul Jelalabad and Khost 2. Timber technology trials 3. Industry survey

Assumptions: 1. Poplar packing materials more efficient than cardboard 2. Local grown poplar cheaper than imports from Peshawar

Inputs:One STA with consultants involved with woodworker and NGO subcontracts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 1. Page 4

4. AFFORESTATION IN NON IRRIGATED LANDS INCLUDING RANGELAND

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: Sustainable paddock and fodder bank systems established over an area of 1000 ha established. Work in China and India has shown the potential for silvopastoral systems on arid lands. Over 70 per cent of Afghanistan is covered by range and non irrigated arable land.

Location and Activities: 1. Trials of saltbush and Sea buckthorn 2. Inexpensive tree protection trials 3. Individual tree microcatchmnet and mulch technology evaluated

Assumptions: 1. Livestock can be controlled 2. Water is adequate for establishment

Inputs: One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 1. Page 5

5. JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT

Cost: $1.89m

Duration: 5 years

Suggested indicators: 1. Annual increase incapital,profit, no of employees (male and female), on farm biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of children within the extended family 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, incidence of soil erosion food and water shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: 20 community forests sustainably managed under joint forest management contracts linked to sound management plans.

Assumptions: 1. Empowerment of local people politically possible 2. Local people identify with the benefit of sustainable forest management 3. Forest still remain at start of project

Inputs:One STA with consultants involved with farmer and NGO subcontracts.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex1. Page 6

6. NATIONAL FOREST PROGRAMME

Cost: $0.5m

Duration: 1 year the profitability of Afghan treebased Objective: To enable the Govt to increase businesses in a manner cognisantof the needs of social equityand economic development, in a way thatcontributes to the conservation of soil, water and biodiversity.

Suggested indicators: female), on farm 1. Annual increase in capital,profit, no of employees (male and biodiversity and diversity of products. 2. Reduction of family health problems 3. Increase in educational status of childrenwithin the extended family incidence of soil erosion food and water 4. Annual decrease in the use of agrochemicals, shortage. 5. Diffusion of interventions to non target entrepreneurs.

Purpose and Justification: The current status and future management/ useof the tree resources of Afghanistan characterized. No significantly resourcedsystematic attempt on this has been made since 1986 sector review by Tandon (1986).

Outputs and indicators: The output is a plan produced after one yearwith associated policy and strategies augmented by currentstatistics. The approach /team should recognise the central importance of agroforestryinAfghanistan as a productive resource and buffer to unsustainable use of semi natural forest.Tandon (1986) should serve as the baseline document. The plan should comply with the FAO NFPguidelines and contain sections on: 1. Introduction 2. Afghanistan and its Forest Resource including range andbiodiversity 3. Agroforestry current status and future potential 4. Forest Policy; implementation strategy and law 5. Government Forest Administration and Institutions including manpowerrequirements 6. Forest Establishment Management and Protection includinggrant and fiscal structures 7. Forest and agroforestry product utilisation and Industry 8. Trade and Marketing timber and non timber tree products:Internal and export 9. Employment Forestry and agroforestry 10. Education and Training within the public and private sectorforestry and agroforestry 11. Research and Extension forestry and agroforestry andinternational cooperation research (especially Europe China Pakistan and India) 12. International Cooperation. Programme and project identification 13. Current performance and future role of communities private sectorand NGOs 14. General Conclusions

Location and Activities: Centered in Kabul with visits toall provinces.

Assumptions: Stable government and peace.

Inputs:6 person international team supported by relevantnational counterparts.Office and transport support.

Forestry and Agroforestry Report Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy ANNEX 2.

FELLOWSHIPS AND STUDY TOURS

SPONSORED BY FAO FORESTRY PROJECTS 1987 -1991

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 2. Page 1

1. FELLOWSHIPS

Name Course Country Dates

Abdul Ghani Eucalyptus India 10.87 to 01.88 Bashir Ahmad Robinia Improvement Hungary 04.88 to 08.88 M. Aman Arif Greenhouse Techniques Denmark02.88 to 06.88 A. Zahir Yayubi Nursery Management India 10.88 to 04.89 Mohammad Ismail Fast Growing Species India 10.88 to 01.89 Najibullah Poplar Genetics Turkey 02.88 did not return Qutbuldin Burhan Poplar Nursery India 10.88 to 04.89 S. Qasim Hussaini Poplar Diseases Turkey 02.88 to 08.88 Mohammad Akbar Forest Planning India 10.88 to 04.89 Abdullah Qaderdan Poplar Silviculture Turkey 01.89 to 97.89 Abdul Mateen Poplar Silviculture Turkey 01.89 to 04.89 Mohammad Akram Poplar Silviculture Turkey 01.89 to 04.89 Qutbuldin Burhan Poplar Silviculture Turkey 02.90 to 05.90 Mohammad T. MaqsoodPoplar Silviculture and MarketingTurkey 02.90 to 05.90 Abdul Wadood Qarar Poplar Silviculture and MarketingTurkey 03.90 to 07.90 Abdul Zahir Yaqubi Nursery Techniques Turkey 09.90 to 12.90 Abdul Basir Nursery Techniques Turkey 09.90 to 12.90 Shafiqullah Nursery Techniques Turkey 09.90 to 01.91

2 STUDY TOURS

Name Course Country Dates

Group I Mirza Ali Nazim Observation of Training Programmes India 10.87 (15 days)

Group II Research on Forestry Planning India 10.87 (one month) H.H. Khaurin (Team Leader) M. Siddiq Khaksar M. Siddiq Nazari Qamaruldin Bahar Ghulam Farooq Mohammad Hassan Abdul Qadeer

Group III Poplar Nursery India 09.88 (15 days) Ghulam Hassan (Team Leader) Ghulam Rasul Mehrju Assadullah Shamsullah Aseel Gul Saburi

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report Forestry and Agroforestry Annex 2. Page 2

Name Course Country Dates

Group IV Techniques of Nursery Development Yugoslavia 15 to 31.10.88 Mohammed Tahir (Team Leader) Shamsuldin Tamass Mir Wais G.J. Navvaz Ghulam Ghaus Abdul Jabar Zikrullah

Group V Observation of poplar and other Turkey 10.88 (15 days) fast -growing species Abdul R. Azizi (Team Leader) M. Hassan Shadan Mohammad Issa Naik Mohammad M. Hassan Ismati

Group VI Observation of poplar and other Turkey 03.90 (20 days) fast -growing species Mirza Mohammad (Team Leader) M. Aman Tahir Abdul Karim M. Farooq Ayubi Mohammad Yaseen Mohammad Ishaq Ghulam Jailani

Group VII Abdul Rauf Azizi Watershed Management Nepal 10.90 (15 days)

Group VIII Forest Plantations and Community Forestry Turkey 10.91 Ghulam Haider (Team Leader) Abdul Qayum Gulabbuden Mohammad Noor Besmellah Mir Zahid Shah Mohammed Yousof Mohammad Hassan Zadran Abdul Sabor

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Forestry and Agroforestry Report TC P/AF G/4552

AFGHANISTAN

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

EXTENSION AND TRAINING

M Azam Khan PhD

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Islamabad

November 1996 CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1 1.2 Acknowledgements 2

2. FINDINGS 3

2.1 Constraints 3 2.2 Needs 4 2.3 Options for Action 6 2.3.1 Food Security 6 2.3.2 Cash Income Generation 6 2.3.3 Developing Input Supply 6 2.3.4 Developing Agricultural Markets 7 2.3.5 Developing Rural Industry 7 2.4 Resources 8 2.4.1 Provincial Agriculture Departments 8 2.4.2 Non -Governmental Organizations 8 2.4.3 UN Agencies 9 2.4.4 Farmers 10

3. REHABILITATION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 11

3.1 Role of Agricultural Extension 11 3.2 Pre -War Agricultural Extension System 12 3.3 Rehabilitation of Agricultural Extension 13 3.3.1 Immediate Action: Extension Project/Model 14 3.3.2 Medium -Term Action: Organisational Setup 15 3.4 Long Term: Agricultural Extension Development Phase 17 3.4.1 Contents and Objectives 17 3.4.2 Extension Organizational Structure 18 3.5 Implementing Strategy and Methodology 19 4. RECOMMENDATIONS 21

4.1 Technical Capacity Building 21 4.1.1 Short -term Training 21 4.1.2 Long -term Training 22 4.2 Delivering Services 22 4.3 Delivery of Inputs 23 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Time frames for priority actions to achieve overall objectives 5 Table 2. Linkages between overall objectives and target groups for extension activities 5

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1Pre -war Organization Chart of Extension Service 12 Figure 2 Incorporation of Extension Activities into Integrated Crop Project Activities 15 Figure 3. Organizational Set -up During Rehabilitation Phase. 16

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADA Afghan Development Association DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees DCA Dutch Committee for Afghanistan DOT Design of training FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation (of United Nations) FEW Field Extension Worker FFS Farmer's Field School GAF German Afghan Foundation IPM Integrated Pest Management IPs Implementing Partners IRC International Relief Committee ISRA Islamic Relief Agency MADERA Mission d'Aide us Developpment des Economies Rurales MCI Mercy Corps International NAT Needs assessment for training NGO Non -government Organisation NPO Norwegian Project Office NPPP National Project Professional Person NWFP North West Frontier Provincé (of Pakistan) PRB Pamir Reconstruction Bureau QDS Quality Declared Seed SCA Swedish Committee for Afghanistan USAID United States Agency for International Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund UNOPS United Nations Office of Project Services VFU Veterinary Field Unit WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Afghanistan is a land locked country.The most notable feature is the sharp division between the agricultural land and the rest of the country and the relatively small proportion of total land area used for agriculture.Some 75 per cent of total area is harsh, dry mountain and desert used only for low productivity grazing or unutilised. Five percent of the land area covers irrigated valleys that produces about 85 per cent of total agricultural production. The rest of the area is rangeland, rainfed farming and high value forest such as deodar and native pistachio forest. In the 1970's,prior to the war inthe country, Afghanistan had attained self- sufficiency in food and was a significant net exporter of agricultural products especially fruits, vegetables, silk and other agro -based products.

The 17 years of war and struggle of Afghan resistance, first against the foreign invasion followed by an intensive internal conflict between the armed groups and the national government, and in recent years between rival militias, has shattered the country.During this period a large proportion of the population (one third according to some estimates) was displaced and became homeless refugees.Many farming areas were depopulated and most of the highly trained professionals dispersed all over the world, with large migration of these professionals to many western countries.

From the very beginning of the civil war in the country, the world community has been active to provide food and shelter to the refugees through emergency relief.However, it was in 1993 that the United Nations realizing the scale of the problem, launched a program of rehabilitation within Afghanistan to help and encourage people to resettle in their homes. The programme was aimed to bring agricultural land back into production to provide enough food for the people who were returning home from the neighbouring countries like Pakistan and Iran. This required significant efforts in repairing damaged irrigation systems, provision of seed and planting material, and the protection of crops and livestock from diseases, coupled with the provision of other necessary inputs.The delivery of inputs in a country fragmented by the civil war and with practically no national government was a very difficult, if not impossible task.But the UN agencies with the help of a large number of non - government organisations (NGO's) were able to provide technical /organizational leadership and resources. All these programmes were of emergency nature on a short term basis and were aimed at immediate results.

There is no doubt that the approach has worked.Most of the village communities have been re- established and a large portion of the land, previously under cultivation has been brought back into production.Encouraged with the success of these programmes, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has undertaken the task for promotion of agricultural rehabilitation and development programme on the medium -term and long -term basis.

This consultancy on the rehabilitation and development of the extension and training system was undertaken in September- October 1996, as part of an overall strategy for promotionofagriculturalrehabilitation and development programmesinAfghanistan (TCP /AFG/4552). The objectives of the assignment were to collect information for a better understanding of the framework in which an extension and training system could operate, to identify the main constraints hindering agricultural production and the main issues facing the agricultural extension and training system.

The report is based on the consultant's personal observations by visiting various affected places, UN agencies offices at different places in Afghanistan, NGOs, government offices

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -2

(where functioning) and discussion with various government and UN staff and farmers, (individually as well as in groups).Project documents, work plans of NGO's, studies of other consultants and meeting with the previous and retired government servants of the agricultural department proved very helpful in the preparation of this report.

1.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Impossible though it is to adequately acknowledge all who have contributed to the report, the author would like nevertheless, to recognise those who have had a major impact on it.

The first debt of gratitude goes to all professionals and farmers who have been very helpful in providingusefulinformation,expressingtheirviewsandoffering allkindof encouragement and assistance. The author believes that the task would have been difficult without their support. A note of thanks must be recorded for the whole Afghan nation who have remained committed to recovery against all the odds and despite 17 long years of war and instability.

The FAO staff at Qandahar, Herat and Jalalabad were very courteous and helpful in providing not only necessary information, but also the logistics to facilitate travel to the field. The author was especially impressed by the hospitality of Afghan farmers, their interest in the mission and their commitment to the rehabilitation of various institutions for future development.

Sumptuous thanks are due to the staff of the FAO Integrated Crop and Food Production Project in Islamabad and in particular to their programme manager, Mr Hans Brink, for their help and suggestions.The author also wishes to express his appreciation due to FAO Afghanistan officein Islamabad who have been providing assistance when needed. Acknowledgement is also made of the support and assistance from FAO HQ and the CPO, Mr Fintan Scanlan, Dr Kalim Qamar, Senior Officer (Extension) FAO HQ who gave useful suggestions in the initial stages of the work.

Finally contrary to traditions, thanks are also due to colleagues at the University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, especially Shaukat and Azra who through their endurance and patience provided encouragement at all steps of this work.Miss Pakeeza Yousuf spent time and efforts beyond the call of duty in processing and completing the draft report.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -3

2. FINDINGS

The report is based primarily on personal observations and discussion of the consultant with various staff members of the agricultural department, different UN agencies, NGOs and the farmers. Therefore, an understanding of these components, their activities and responses is essential before considering any viable and sustainable system.

2.1 CONSTRAINTS

There are a number of significant practical difficulties in providing extension services to assist in the rehabilitation and development of agriculture in Afghanistan.In short these are seen to be:

.01 Only a small proportion of the land area is used for agricultural production. Much of this landisinisolated pockets along valley floors which resultsinagricultural communities being widely scattered.

.02 The communities are often small and many of those who would benefit most from extension assistance are in remote locations with difficult access.

.03 Irrigated farms are generally small to medium sized, which means that most farmers have limited options for action when faced with the priority need to feed a family.

.04 Only a small proportion of the population is literate, though there is probably a higher degree of awareness of the benefits of high technology production systems than the literacy rate would suggest. This situation constrains the way extension advice can be presented.

.05 The large distances and rugged terrain of Afghanistan make delivering any form of services to the rural community a major task.Many villages are inaccessible by vehicle and can only be reached on foot after many hours of travel.The limited national road network and communication system only connect the principal centres. Developing broad contact with the farming community and supporting a network of extension workers, requires considerable resources of manpower and transport, even if efforts are only limited to those areas where contact is feasible.

.06 Raising productivity through lifting technical standards requires the appropriate inputs to be available to farmers as and when needed. This has always been difficult, even when supported by significant Government effort and subsidised transport, as was previously the case. Currently none of this support is available, so that availability of resources is largely restricted to areas with access to major towns and transport routes.

.07 The 17 years of war have disrupted virtually all rural communities. There has been a substantial loss of personal, community and human capital.Even farmers who are willing and aware of improved technology may lack the resources of capital or labour to implement recommended strategies to raise productivity. As a consequence of the war some of the scarce resources of farm land are unused because of landmines.

.08A major consequence ofthe war has been the lossof a large number of the educated members of the population.This has included many of the experienced agricultural professionals. Some are working in the Afghan agricultural sector through NGOs, but many others have left the country permanently.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -4

.09 Formal Government administration has collapsed through lack of resources and civil disorder.There is now no Government -based extension system, nor is there any mechanism currently available by which one could be established or funded.

.10 The research on which improved productivity is based is now nearly 20 years in the past. Even then, many answers to technical problems were uncertain. Some limited research is currently being undertaken by international agencies, but none will be able to make the research inputs required to further develop or maintainnational agricultural productivity in the medium to long term.

2.2 NEEDS

Before any projects or activities are formulated, for the rehabilitation of Afghan agriculture, it is imperative that the needs of the agriculture sector are identified and priorities are established.Actions to meet these needs can be expressed as objectives and linked to those who are most directly able to take the required actions.The needs can also be prioritised, with the most urgent being addressed in the short -term. Actions to meet the less pressing needs can then be planned for implementation in a progressive manner as time and resources permit. Furthermore, the importance of various factors of production such as land, capital and labour be also assessed and the interplay between various forces be properly streamlined.

The most pressing need for the agriculture sector and for Afghanistan, is food security. Once this is met at the level of the farm household, surplus production can flow on to non- farm households. The next need for the agriculture sector is to increase the output which can be sold for cash.The earnings from this output can be used to generate on -farm employment and to increase working capital to fund the purchase of inputs.It can also be used for investment in productive resources such as tractors or other farm equipment such as threshers or water pumps to upgrade water supplies.

Improving cash incomes will require markets, either domestic or export, where surplus production can be traded.That requires access to the roads and freedom of movement within the country and across the borders.It requires that traders are available, with adequate capital to fund the operation of the markets and that farmers have access to knowledge which will enable them to seek reasonable prices for their output. Surplus production will also create opportunities for local activity in processing this output.This could be inactivities such as food preservation, spinning wool, tanning hides or silk production. Some of these activities could be at household or village level, or more concentrated in a provincial or regional centre.

Before the extension and training activities can be planned, the interventions and support must be linked to those who are best able to take the actions which will produce the priority outcomes. These outcomes could be producing more food or cash crops for sale, generating employment or investment, developing markets or providing inputs. For this, the agricultural sector is divided into farm and non -farm sectors.

The farm sector is seen as having six possible target groups to whom individual support could be provided. Amongst the men these are the landlords, the owner -farmers, tenants or sharecroppers and farm labourers, while amongst the women they are the household managers and the young women and girls.In the non -farm sector the groups identified are market traders, input suppliers, credit suppliers and processors of agricultural outputs. A schematic layout of the linkages between time frames and the priority areas for actions are given in Table 1.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -5

Table 1. Time frames for priority actions to achieve overall objectives Overall objective Short term Medium term Long term 1 -2 yrs 3 -5 yrs > 5 yrs Food Security - Household XXX XXX - National XX XXX Cash Income - employment generation XX XXX XXX - investing generation X XXX XXX Marketing - Local XX XXX XXX - Export X XX XXX Rural Industry - Food preservation XX XXX - Livestock product utilisation XX XXX

None of these groups are mutually exclusive. An owner farmer may also be a landlord, or he may be a tenant of some land additional to his own farm. An owner farmer may also be a market trader, selling produce from other farmers in his village. A market trader may at the same time be a landlord and supplier of inputs or credit.The linkages between the different groups in the agricultural sector and areas where their actions might have most impact are set out in Table 2.The linkages outlined in Table 2 are given a subjective ranking where XXX represents the greatest role or opportunity to influence outputs in that priority area, while X represent the linkage with the smallest role or the least opportunity.

I agie z. unKages petween overall oajectives ana target groups for extension activities Role Food Security Cash income Marketing Rural Industry Houseld National Employ't Invest't Local Export Food L'stock EXTENSION TARGETS Farm sector - Landlord X XX XXX XXX X XXX XXX XXX - Owner farmer XXX X XX XX XXX XX XX XX - Sharecropper /Tenant XXX X X X X X - Labourers XXX X X Women - household managers XXX XX XXX XXX - young women and girls X X X XX XX Non -Farm sector - Market Traders XXX XX XXX XXX XX XX - Local Input Suppliers XXX XXX XX X X - Credit suppliers XX XX XX XX XX XX - Processors XX XX XX XXX XXX TRAINING TARGETS Future farmers - with farm experience XX - without farm experience XX Special groups Landless rural people XXX XX XX Rural Poor XXX XX XXX Ex- combants XX XX XX XX XX XX Disabled family members XX XX

Certain special groups in the farming sector are recognised as appropriate for training. One group is future farmers, young men (and women) of farm families whose capacity to be productive farmers would benefit from better literacy and technical knowledge. These may have grown up on the farm, or have spent their learning years in refugee camps and must now catch up with those who were able to stay on the farm. Other groups who would need special approaches are the landless rural dwellers and the rural poor, who may well be one

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -6 and the same group. There are also ex- combatants returning to rural life after some years, or members of rural families who have been disabled by war or mines, whowith assistance could develop skills which could contribute to the productive base of the family.

2.3 OPTIONS FOR ACTION

2.3.1 Food Security

The immediate need as indicated above is the food security at both the household and at nationallevel. This can be achieved by increased agriculturalproductivity through intensifying agricultural (increased) productivity per unit area,extensifying agriculture (bringing more area under cultivation) and the efficient/economic utilization of the available irrigation water at the farm. The on -farm water management efficiency can help in both the intensive as well as extensive agriculture.

The farmers target groups as indicated in Table 2 have their role /contribution in achieving this objective and this role varies among the groups in achieving each of the objective mentioned above e.g.the owner farmers and share croppers could have relatively more important role towards food security at the local level whereas the landlords could be more effective in contribution not only towards food security at the national level but the group can also be important with regard to the establishment of income generatingactivities, the marketing system especially the international markets and theruralindustrialbase. Similarly, the women household managers could have more important role in food security at the household level and the rural industry where the group can be heavily involved in activities such as food processing and preservation, carpet industry, and other cottage industries related to livestock.

2.3.2Cash Income Generation

In order to have a sustainable agriculturalsector itis essential that income generating activities in the rural areas could be initiated so that it could create more employment opportunities and savings for future investments.The various target groups could have varying important roles in achieving this objective. For example the landlord farmers, due to their relative strong economic base could be more important as compared to the other groups. This activity could also be important for the labourers and for the young generation who would be looking for some immediate reward.

2.3.3Developing Input Supply

No organized system of input supply to the farmers exist at present in Afghanistan.In most cases, farm inputs such as improved seed, fertilizer and plant protection material have been supplied to the farmers by FAO through the NGOs and /or seed production communities.In the past such supplies have been made either free of cost or at highly subsidized prices. Presently, these inputs are being supplied at a price which is somewhat lower than the market price.

Fertilizer is being sold by local traders but the quality as well as quantity of the fertilizer is not guaranteed. The bags of fertilizer in the market do not even carry the brand name and the composition of the fertiliser.In the absence of a central government, there is no measure to control the quality of such inputs because the government is not involved in their import.The same situation prevails in the case of plant protection material. As regards the seed, no such facility is available in the private sector and whatever quality seed is being supplied to the farmer at present is FAO seed production programmes through the farmers seed production community.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -7

In some instances, the local professionals of FAO and NGOs have encouraged some local traders to initiate input supply business.In such cases, the traders have not only become the centre of input supply but are also providing technical advice to their client farmers. The efforts are commendable but the volume of business is far less than the requirements. Since most of these inputs are imported, such supply would be better sustained by a bilateral agreement between national governments.

Delivery of different kinds of inputs should preferably be with the private sector.Historically, Afghans have been good and efficient traders. They have done and are still doing business with their neighbours even during these difficult days. The consultant believes that they will continue doing it in a more efficient way once security and stability prevail in the country. Once the demand is created the Afghan businessmen will ensure the supply of the desired inputs.

In the absence of a national government at present, it could be difficult to import and export the required inputs and the surplus product. Even though, Afghan traders are importing all kinds of fertilizers and other required inputs and this operation will continue without any serious hindrance, but in the absence of the government the quality cannot be ensured and the quantity cannot be guaranteed. To overcome the difficulties of import especially in the absence of a government the role can be given to the NGOs. The NGOs can function as quasi -commercial agencies and the UN can assist in the import of such inputs as seed, fertilizer, insecticides etc.In the meantime, some local traders can be mobilized and trained to handle these inputs. A number of such traders have already been identified and are not only supplying the necessary inputs but are also serving as centres for advice to the farming community.

2.3.4Developing Agricultural Markets

Any increased agricultural productivity has to be geared towards well established markets and effective links between the producers and these markets.These markets are to be established at the local level for the exchange of goods and services as well as at the international level so that the high value crops and surplus food could be exported to earn some hard currency which could be channelled into the development process. Here again the landlords and the owner farmers have a relatively more important role than the other target groups because they would be in a position to produce surplus food and cash crops for exchange and export. The women household managers could also play an important role in this aspect because of their involvement in the rural industrial activities.

2.3.5Developing Rural Industry

In order to have a viable agriculturalsystem and to stem the rural urban migration,itis essential that the rural industrial sector be improved.This sector will not only provide job opportunities for the rural youth and women but will also help in converting the local output into valuable products.In this particular activity, again the landlords, the owner farmers and the women household managers have more important roles because these groups cannot only invest in the establishment of the rural industry but can also provide the raw material and skilled labour force for further working and development of the industry.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report -8

2.4 RESOURCES

2.4.1 Provincial Agriculture Departments

Efforts to provide assistance to the agricultural sector in Afghanistan have been made over a period of 40 years with changing emphasis depending on the varying national and international circumstances.Starting from the 1950's, the efforts were directed towards achieving the goals of increasing agricultural production through improving agricultural technology, through large scale development schemes and developing national forest resources and management.

Early efforts were directed towards improvement of irrigation systems, soil fertility and forest resources. Large scale mechanized farms were created in the public sector with the help of various UN agencies as well as other international donors particularly the USAID.In the later part of the development phase, most of the assistance came from the Soviet Block and was aimed at developing the government land into large scale state farms.Large irrigation networks based on dams on a number of rivers, were created to support the farm productivity. During this period the agricultural extension system had a major thrust in increasing the farm productivity and making the country largely a self- sufficient state with some export of farm products.

At present the provincial Agricultural Departments are virtually non -existant. Staff members are often unpaid for months and do not regularly attend their offices. The situation varies between provinces, with some such as Herat, Balkh (Mazar -i- Sharif) and Nangarhar (Jalalabad) making some effort to continue providing nominal services. However they have few resources and little incentive to try.

2.4.2Non -Governmental Organizations

National and international NGOs have been working in Afghanistan since the early 1980s, particularly dealing with the refugee problem. Activity increased significantly after 1988 and many stillremain implementing emergency relief programmes in the country. These programmes have mostly been sponsored by the international community, bilateral donors and the UN agencies. Most NGOs operate their own programmes in specific technical or geographic areas. They also act as implementing agents for programmes sponsored by bilateral donors and UN agencies. In the agricultural sector they implement programmes on behalf of FAO and some other UN agencies. Among the NGOs working in the agricultural sector are Afghanaid, Afghan Development Association(ADA),Danish Committee (DACAAR), Dutch Committee (DCA), German /Afghan Foundation (GAF),International Rescue Committee(IRC),IslamicRelief Agency(ISRA),MADERA, Mercy Corps International (MCI), Norwegian Project Office (NPO /RRAA), Pamir Reconstruction Bureau (PRB), SERVE and Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA).

In the agricultural sector the NGOs have tended to specialise in particular activities or particular regions. The activities include implementation of the quality declared seed (QDS) production programme, the integrated pest management (IPM) projects and overseeing the operation of veterinary field units (VFUs). Many have been involved in the major efforts to restore functioning irrigation schemes and in the course of this work they have developed significant engineering capability.Many of the same agencies also implement community programmes in human health and basic education and improved village water supply. There is no doubt that they have gained sufficient experience to form a base from which more formally organised extension activities could be developed.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report 9

2.4.3UN Agencies

Almost all members of the UN family have been active in Afghanistan since the break of war. The key agencies of the UN family, UNDP, UNHCR, FAO, WFP, WHO, and UNICEF have provided technical and organizational leadership and resources, while the on- ground delivery was largely implemented by the NGOs. The UNOPS has been involved in repairing damaged localirrigation systems andindeveloping community participationinthe maintenance and operation of these irrigation systems. Thisis a good example of community participation, though the progress has been slow in relation to the scale of the problem.

FAO is undertaking a number of programmes with the help WFP and in collaboration with different NGOs as Implementing Partners (IPs).The seed multiplication programme is implemented in several areas where selected seed is distributed to a group of farmers organized into community -based units for the production of QDS. The seed and fertilizer is distributed free and the production process is supervised by well qualified /trained national professionals throughout the production period. The produce is purchased back by paying 1.25 kilograms of food grains for every one kilogram of quality seed. The programme is supported by WFP under its "Food for Work Programme ".The seed so collected is then sold to other farmers at a 10 per cent premium to the local market price.The funds generated by this activity are kept in a revolving fund managed by a special purpose committee. The management committee is utilising these funds to purchase specialised seed production equipment, such as seed cleaners, elevators etc. They are also building a large seed store in Herat and seed laboratories in Mazar- i- Sharif and Herat for regular determination of seed quality. Other small laboratories may follow as funds permit.

A further FAO /WFP joint activity implemented by some NGOs is the fruit tree nursery establishment programme.In 1996, 81 new nurseries were established and support was continued to 23 second year nurseries, while 49 NGO operated nurseries were privatised.It is considered that this network of 150 nurseries throughout the country could produce 2.25 million budded fruit tree saplings /year which would be sufficient to replant 35,000 jeribs (7000 ha) per year.This would rehabilitate orchards for about 20,000 farm families. The mission visited nurseries at Sarkari Bagh near Qandahar and another in Laghman Province. Fruit production in Afghanistan is a very profitable industry.Despite unstable and insecure conditions, due to war, farmers are exporting fruit/vegetables, especially grapes and pomegranates, to places as far as Quetta, Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad in Pakistan and to the Gulf States. The opportunity to derive cash income and export revenue is important both for the farmers and for the country as a whole.

Another important programme being implemented by FAO in collaboration with NGOs is the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) plant protection programme. The programme has been organized around farmers field schools (FFSs), a concept successfully triedinthe Philippines, Indonesia and some other South Asian countries.

There is considerable scope to develop further coordination among various UN agencies in their extension activities.Most agencies or projects are developing the extension activities on a stand -alone basis.This suggests that an opportunity exists to look at what benefits might be obtained from coordinating efforts in developing extension activities and the training of extension workers.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report 2.4.4Farmers

Even though 17 years of civil war has shattered the country and has displaced millions of people from their homes, a large majority of Afghan farmers are back at their farms, busy in rehabilitation of their homes and land.By nature Afghans are a tough people and with assistance from outside they will resettle their farm businesses. The consultant observed that despite the poor economic conditions of the farmers due to prolonged war and instability, most of the farmers are willing to adopt new technology subject to its availability at affordable price.It seems that with their will and determination, they will be able to stand on their own feet in a very short period of time.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report 3. REHABILITATION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

3.1 ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Agriculture and livestock play a vital role in the national economy of Afghanistan.The statistics indicate that prior to the war, almost 85 per cent of the rural population was directly or indirectly involved in agriculture. About 60 per cent of foreign exchange was obtained from the export of agricultural products primarily fruits, vegetables and livestock byproducts such as sheepskins and carpets. However, the 17 years war in Afghanistan left nearly five million people homeless and displaced within and outside the country. Even though, since with the fallof the Najibullah government in1992, many Afghan families have been repatriated, with their homes almost damaged and local economy shattered these families are facing serious hardships inresettling and restarting their farm operations. Itis estimated that about 60 per cent of the agricultural and irrigation systems have been destroyed and this has created major constraints in the process of agricultural rehabilitation and development.

To facilitate the rehabilitation process a number of agencies have been working to increase agricultural productivity and improve the living conditions of the rural community. The main focus has been placed on improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation system in various parts of the country. The results of these rehabilitation programmes and relative peace and security has created favourable conditions for the return of refugees to their homes. This necessitate a well balanced strategy and methodology that could prove useful in finding appropriate solutions to problems and overcome obstacles /constraints that hinder agricultural development in the country.

It is obvious that the development strategy and methodology geared towards achievement of a sustained agricultural development require systematic, well planned and coordinated programmes /activities in various sectors of agriculture such as research, extension, training institutions, NGO's and other concerned With the sound agricultural development in the country.This is because the agriculture development, having a wide spectrum, is beyond the scope and nature of any single organization.All these organizations play their respective roles but in order to have efficient fulfilment of the task a coordinated approach on the part of each organization could be a prerequisite and underlying phenomenon.

Agricultural extension /training system in one of the most important aspect of agricultural development because it places emphasis on the development of human resource which is the key player in any development strategy. Without the education and development of the farmer, agriculture development is very difficult, if not impossible.It has been on the basis of this fact and understanding that the agricultural extension system has been established in almost every country of the world. The increase and efficient productivity in agriculture has only been achieved with efficient and effective extension services.The case study from India, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia are examples of successful agricultural extension services from the developing part of the world.

The agricultural extension service not only serves as a bridge between the research institutions where the technology in being generated and the farming community for whom this technology is directed but also helps in educating farmers thus changing their attitude and behaviour for a sustainable developmental process.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 12 -

3.2 PRE -WAR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SYSTEM

The agricultural extension system in Afghanistan before war was relatively tall rather than a broad based field organization as shown in Figure 1.

At the national level, it was headed by General President of Agriculture Extension, while at the provincial level,it had a General Director of Agriculture as well as a Director of Agriculture Extension.It had a District Extension Supervisor (district level) and several village level extension workers.In addition to these various levels, specialized departments dealing with various crops such as cereals, fruits, vegetable, industrial crops etc. were also provided at the national or the central government level.

Figure 1Pre -war Organization Chart of Extension Service

Minister of Agriculture

Deputy Minister of Deputy Minister of Livestock Agriculture

Department of Documentation and Public Relations General President of Agricultural Extension and Development Board of Agric. Documentation Extension and and Public Development Relations

Department of Department of Department of Department of Cereal Crops Horticulture & Programme Industrial Crops Vegetables Planning

Provincial General Director of Agriculture

Provincial Director of Agricultural Extension

District Supervisor of Agric. Extension

Village level Extension Worker

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 13 -

While it is difficult to generalize about the effectiveness of this organizational structure, it is evident that it had a long chain of communication with the field extension workers reporting to extension supervisor, who in turn was responsible to the Provincial Director to the Provincial General Director of Agriculture and to the General President of Agriculture and so on up the line. The planning and decision making level being at the central level it seems thatit would take a considerable time before the decision was made and was finally communicated to the field level where it was to be implemented.

There was no system of feedback from the field level for proper planning and decision making.It is reported that the extension workers were also assigned non -agricultural tasks such as the sale and distribution of inputs and other emergency tasks.In the absence of systematic planning and monitoring procedures, the impact of extension activities was difficult to realize. Lack of adequate facilities, poor housing, low salaries and other related problems, all contributed to the poor performance of the extension services.Extension workers were responsible for a large geographical area and were given multi -purpose roles involving rural development, the provision of farm inputs, and the collection of agricultural statistics.In such a situation, not only the performance of extension activities but the assigned task of the extension worker became much more difficult if not impossible.

The inadequate trainingfacilities and the training of extension personnel were other constraints hindering the extension system. The pre -service training was mostly theoretical and of little use in helping extension personnel to successfully undertake their duties and responsibilities.In addition, the subsequent in- service training, including refresher courses, were not systematic, well -planned, or task oriented. The links between research, extension and teaching institutions were not very clear or well -defined, if not missing altogether. As separate departments in the Ministry of Agriculture, the research and teaching institutions had been no direct line of administrationand technical relationship with the extension service.

As a consequence, the extension service had very limited scientific recommendations to convey to farming community, and the research system was left without adequate feedback on the farmer's problems and thus did not prove that useful to meeting farmer's needs and problems.In these circumstances, the extension workers carried out only a small range of extension activities and the limited contact with research meant that there were few tangible results at the field -level in improving the level of agricultural production.

3.3 REHABILITATION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

The Agricultural extension service is one of the most important components of agricultural development programmes because it places emphasis on the development of human resources, a key player in any developmental strategy.Presently, there is no agricultural extension service in the country.Due to prolonged war and uncertain conditions many people have left and are either out of the country or doing some odd jobs in- country. A few officials (Director of Agriculture) at the provincial level are available at some places but they too, have lost the necessary vigour and motivation due to prolonged idleness.

The NGOs are involved in some extension work but their efforts are limited to provision of some material and advice concerning plant protection and animal health. Systemic training programmes for farmers do not exist as such.The agricultural vocational schools for training of para professionals who were mostly employed as field extension workers in the agriculture department are closed and most of the teaching staff are not available.In some cases, these facilities are being used for some other purpose, entirely different from any agriculture activities.

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Well organized and properly trained extension personnel are always required on the part of the national. the provincial and the district level to successfully meet the changing needs of the agriculture sector. Ideally the entire agricultural extension organization and the programmes urgently needed for agricultural development would berehabilitated and developed at the outset.However, in view of the current financial and human resource constraints, the rehabilitation and development may take some time, pending the availability of adequate resources to meet the growing needs and ever changing challenges facing the agricultural extension.If the rehabilitation process is to succeed, the complicated problems and obstacles hindering the agricultural development must be adequately dealt with.

The main task of the rehabilitation phase is to help increase agricultural productivity through increased use of improved seed, chemical fertilizer, and plant protection measures. In order to achieve this target, the emphasis must be placed on the following:

i. Provisions must be made for timely and adequate supply of farm inputs at a proper place approachable by the farm families.

ii. Training of farmers, especially the young farmers, in the scientific use of farm inputs such as proper amount of seed, amount and time of application of fertilizer, time and use of irrigation water, doses of insecticides and the related aspects.

iii. Establishing close linkages with the Regional Agricultural Research Stations for obtaining update information.

iv. Providing the research stations with problem situationsinthe field so that the problems confronting the farm community could be researched and possible solutions identified.

v. An information feedback mechanism from extension workers to the programme planning policy framework aimed at highlighting incentives to the farmer.

vi. Assisting in the establishment of an effective and efficient marketing channels for both the inputs and the farm products.

3.3.1Immediate Action: Extension Project/Model

FAO is already implementing programmes in seed production, crop improvement, plant protection, and horticultural services with the help of national project professional persons (NPPPs) and the farming community. These programmes are already integrated into one overall project and could be easily linked to an effective extension /training system.With provision of one extra professional (NPPP in the field of extension) and some extension workers, a project for provision of extension services could be established within the integrated crop project. For this purpose, the country could be divided into regions depending upon the ecological conditions, soil type, crops grown, irrigation facilities, and other related factors and a small integrated project could be implemented in each region. This integrated approach should involve professionals in various fields related to agriculture and should work with the farmers' community through extension system. A tentative sketch of this approach is detailed in Figure 2.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 15 -

Figure 2 Incorporation of Extension Activities into Integrated Crop Project Activities

REGIONAL COORDINATOR STA

NPPP CROP NPPP SEED NPPP PLANT NPPP HORTI NPPP ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT PRODUCTION PROTECTION -CULTURE HUSBANDRY

NPPP EXTENSION

F.E.W F.E.W F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E W.

FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS FARMERS COMMUNITY COMMUNITY COMMUNITY COMMUNITY COMMUNITY

FAO has already done a commendable job in seed production, crop improvement, plant protection andfruit production and has accumulated considerable in- country practical production experience.Using this experience as the base, the various activities already being undertaken by the FAO could be integrated into the model shown in Figure 2, with the addition of an NPPP Extension and some field extension workers (FEW).The existing project STAs would become the regional coordinators /STA for integrated projectsin different regions.The system could be organized around the farming community and become an instrument of change through transfer of improved /appropriate technology.

After stability has been established in the country with a national government, the model can be spread over the whole country and may be taken up by the government. Except any international expert (which should be kept to the least possible minimum), the salary structure of these professionals should be compatible to the Afghan situation so that after the expiry of the projects the government can easily take up the project without any financial constraints.This approach may work with more efficiency and with less cost because the overhead of NGOs could be saved.The consultant was aware of a strong commitment among the Afghan professionals for the welfare and development of their country.

3.3.2Medium -Term Action: Organisational Setup

Considering the nature and scope of the previous agricultural extension system and it current virtual disappearance, it is obvious that the rehabilitation of the previous system may not help to effectively cope with the many and increasingly complicated problems of Afghan agriculture.Financial constraints and lack of adequately trained manpower mean that it is unlikely that there will be a country wide extension system in the medium term.At this stage, the approach with the greatest chance of a cost effective impact would be to support and strengthen field -level extension activities in some selected districts of each province.If this model is successful, it could be replicated to other parts of the country after the national government has been properly established and adequate financial resources have been generated. The proposed organizational structure has a broad base at the field and district level with technical and administration direction from the Regional Director of Agricultural Extension. The layout is given in Figure 3 on the next page.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 16-

Figure 3. Organizational Set -up During Rehabilitation Phase.

Regional Director of Agriculture

Subject Regional Matter Research Specialist Station

District Level Extension Supervisor

Cereal Crops Horticulture Farm Plant Programme Specialist & Vegetable Machinery Protection Planning Specialist Specialist Specialist

Farmers' NGOs Association

Field Field Field Field Field Fied Extension Extension Extension Extension Extension Extension Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker (F.E.W.) F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E.W.

The following are the main features of the proposed organizational structure. i. It has a single line of command. The channels of communication could be very clear and well defined and the sphere of responsibilities in respect of all personnel well understood. ii. The linkages between research, extension and teaching institutions could be very clear and effective and may lead to close coordination and collaboration at the national and the implementation level. iii. The relationship between extension and research can effectively be maintained at all levels. iv. The subject matter specialists with extension and research scientists at Regional Agricultural Research Stations could enjoy both horizontal and vertical cooperation. The subject matter specialists in close technical contact with research stations will be responsible for training extension workers and farmers and will provide the up -to -date information. v. The field extension staff can provide the research scientists with the feedback information on farmers problems through the subject matter specialists for further research and investigation.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 17 - vi. The district level extension supervisor will be responsible to facilitate the training of field staff and farmers and could work as a facilitator.

Staff Training

The field extension staff need adequate and continuous training for the efficient and effective accomplishment of their task.For this purpose, the job description of each job warrants the inclusion of performance requirements and this should be used as the basis for recruitment, in- service and long -term training.A systematic and comprehensive staff training plan, responsive to the technical needs, should be developed and implemented on regular basis. Furthermore, the farmer's training programme needs special attention.This training could be both on -site in the farming environment as well as at some specialized training institutes.

The field staff carrying the essential and the most challenging activities, need to be involved inall aspects of rurallife. This requires enhancing the level of understanding of rural traditions, way of living and art of working with people.

Supply of Farm Inputs

Farm inputs,particularly improved seeds,fruit saplings, chemical fertilizers and crop protection chemicals, would be necessary prerequisitefor increased productivity of available land.In view of limited purchasing power of most of the Afghan farmers,itis recommended that the provision of these inputs to farmer should be based on a reasonable subsidized price. The international community, the government and the NGO's are to help farmers to have access to farm supplies not only at reasonable price but at proper place and time for their proper utilization.

3.4 LONG TERM: AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEVELOPMENT PHASE

Agricultural development is a process where by the farming community takes control over decisions that affect the productivity of agricultural sector and their economic and social life. Agricultural development is not just the process of improving plants, livestock, irrigation systems and other physical and financial aspects related to agriculture but the development of farmers to be masters of their destiny in the achievement of justice, liberation, self reliance and economic empowerment.

In this context, agricultural development in Afghanistan begins with the development of farmers in handling farms and community decisions concerning the best scientific use of available resources. The target, therefore should be to reach as many farmers as possible in the shortest possible time period.Therefore, the phase of agricultural development should have the capacity to effectively tackle not only the farm problems but the community at large, in order to achieve genuine agricultural development which is not only tangible but cost effective as well.In the beginning this phase will overlap the rehabilitation phase.

3.4.1 Contents and Objectives

Increase in the level of the farm productivity in cereal, horticulture, vegetable and industrial crops.This cannot be achieved only with increased use of improved farm inputs, but must also be accompanied by a comprehensive and a systematic training for extension workers so that they can effectively assist the farming community to raise their standard of knowledge and performance.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 18 -

ii. Introduction of large as well as small -scale farm mechanization.With increasing problems of shortage of labour, especially the farm labour, a farmmechanization program both for the large and small farms could beundertaken. Chinese technology could be worth trying in this respect. iii. Organization of regular training programmes for farmers, to educate them notonly on the modern concepts of agriculture, but also on the community life.The linkages between farm productivity and population growth could become a central themefor such training program. These programmes could be at the farm level, at the training institutes and on the research stations depending upon the contents, the season and the crops involved. iv. Extensive use of mass -media especially the pictorial material supported with radio and other such devices. v. Organization of rural communities into the farmer's clubs.Small groups of farmers (between 20 -30) may be organized in each village and the group should be utilized as a discussion group dealing with various problems of thecommunity including agriculture. Thiswillencourage thelocalparticipationinthe extension and development activities and could further lead to the formation of farmers cooperatives dealing with farm inputs /supplies and the sale of outputs. The farmers cooperatives in the Indian Punjab could be a successful example in this respect.This will further facilitate in training and organization of the farmers in taking effective control of decision and their environment.

3.4.2Extension Organizational Structure

The organizational structure of the extension system in the development phase is outlined in Figure 4 on the next page.It is based on the modification of the organizational structure made for the rehabilitation phase.The structure is not only to cover all districts in the province but also many phases of programmes dealing with agricultural and community life. The main features of this organizational structure is to ensure a single direct line of command and close linkages between the research, extension, training institutes, NGO's and the farming community at all levels of organizational hierarchy. The system will help to bridge the gap between the prevailing agricultural practices in the field and research findings. This relationship could further facilitate in tuning the research efforts towards the need of the farmers and extending appropriate research findings for the benefits of the farming community.

At the national level, the extension and research system would be coordinated through a board of experts, representing each organization.This will help in the development of mutually congruent research and extension policies and programmes to be communicated to the field level.The effective coordination of the activities is generally realized through close working relationship between the subject matter specialists at all levels and the research scientists working at Regional Research Stations.This arrangement will provide the extension worker with modern research findings through the subject matter specialists as well as through the regular training courses offered at various levelsduring the year. The field activities of the extension workers closely supported and supervised by the district management will be regularly reported to the regional administration.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 19 -

Organizational Chart - Development Phase

Minister of

I Agriculture and Livestock CENTRAL Deputy Deputy LEVEL Minister of Minister of Agriculture Livestock

Director General Agriculture REGIONAL Regional Regional LEVEL Director of Director of Agricultural Research Extension

Subject Matter Specialist

District Extension Supervisor DISTRICT NGOs Subject LEVEL Matter Specialist

F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E.W. F.E.W.

3.5 IMPLEMENTING STRATEGY AND METHODOLOGY

In the development process four major components (partners) have been identified viz Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN (FAO), the Government of Afghanistan (GOA), the Non -government organization (NGO's) and the farming community (FC).The proposed activities of these partners and their inter -relationship are summarized below:

FAO Improved /appropriate technology., adaptive research, financial support, training.

GOA Manpower (human resources), local natural resources, support services.

NGO's Delivery of inputs, training and extension activities.

FCs: Local resources, community organisations, farmers cooperatives, training.

FAO would provide technical support and assist in identifying improved or appropriate technology available elsewhere. It would later provide financial support for adaptive research during the rehabilitation phase. FAO would also assist in the provision of short- term and long -term training for the extension personnel.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 20 -

The Government of Afghanistan with weak financial position at present will be there to provide the manpower (some -what trained) and other local resources available with the government for effective implementation of the rehabilitation and development programme which should be launched over a period of 2 -3 years and 6 -7 years respectively. Itis assumed that the existing marketing system, before it is completely rehabilitated, may not be in a position to make arrangements for supply /delivery of necessary farm inputs.This role could be assigned to the NGO's who have been in the field, particularly over the last eight years and have developed reasonable contact and confidence with the farmers. These NGO's could identify local traders for this purpose for a sustainable system.The NGO's could also be involved in the training programmes for the extension workers as well as the farmers pending the establishment of regular training institutes in the country.

The key factor in the development process is the Afghan farmer himself, who will not only benefit from the programme, but also the success of the program depends upon his attitude in the long run. Therefore, the training of the farmers, especially the young farmers, should be given top priority.The relationship between these four important players of the development process should be on the basis of a two way communication whereby the teaching and learning should take place simultaneously.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 21 -

4. RECOMMENDATIONS

InAfghanistan, almostallthe services which are normally elsewhere provided by government, are currently being provided by the international community, particularly the UN family either directly or through the NGOs. The future of agriculture, with respect to the supply of all kinds of inputs and the extension /training system which is essential for proper and efficient use of inputs, must be considered in the light of the present situation in the country in terms of security, stability and availability of trained manpower. The delivery of required inputs should be normally undertaken by the private sector with some assistance from the international community and the NGOs.However, the training and extension service are to be provided by some international agency or the NGOs at least during the medium term period.

The recommendations are grouped under the headings of, technical capacity building, the delivery of inputs and the provision of extension services.

4.1 TECHNICAL CAPACITY BUILDING

In Afghanistan there are practically no functional government technical services. In the developing world, such services do not exist in the private sector and it may take a century before these services could be provided in this way. This is not only because of the poor economies of these countries and lack of education and awareness on the part of the public at large, but also due to the fact that the government in the developing countries have always tried to keep a tight control on these services. The realistic approach is therefore to consider the capacity building of technical services be planned on the government and /or the semi -government side.

There are adequate number of trained personnel availablein the country. Different universities in the country have been functioning and have produced graduates and paraprofessionals in different disciplines of agriculture and other technical subjects.These graduates are either presently employed with international UN agencies, with the NGOs or involved in some private business. A number of such professionals are unemployed and waiting for peace to return to their country. The mission had a chance to meet several of such professionals.

This corps of professionals,with some short term training to refresh their knowledge and work attitude, could be usefully engaged in carrying out the multifarious task of agricultural development in Afghanistan.

4.1.1 Short -term Training

Conduct fresh needs assessment for training (NAT) and formulate fresh design of training (DOT) accordingly. ii. Conduct shortrefresher trainingcoursestoupdate theparticipants onlater development in specific fields of agricultural Such training courses could be arranged at the NWFP Agricultural University Peshawar (Pakistan) and the University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi (Pakistan). iii. Conduct training in various social aspect of community life for boosting the morale of the participants and to enhance motivation and work ethics. The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development Peshawar could be a possible venue to for such training.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report - 22 -

iv. Conduct training in social forestry which has never been done before. This could be undertaken at the Pakistan Forest Research Institute, Peshawar. v. Impact evaluation of various training programmes so conducted.

4.1.2Long -term Training

In order to prepare Afghan professionals for leadership positions in future, some selected individuals should be trained at the MSc and PhD level at some foreign institutions of higher learning in the US and Australia.Alternatively, persons already having such advance degrees from abroad may be sent for short courses (6 -12 Months) in order to create enthusiasm and to refresh their knowledge and skills.The mission believes that as many as 60 -80 professionals will suffice to carry out the task.

As mentioned earlier, the building -up of technical capacity should be geared towards the objective that various technical services are to be provided by the government and short term or medium term programme is eventually taken up by the national Government. In the developing economies, the private sector fails to provide these services to the population at large because this sector tends to focus its efforts on area with economic advantage while the areas with less economic potential are neglected.

4.2 DELIVERING SERVICES

The provision of professional and technical services, at least in the short and medium term, will come from non -governmental agencies pending the establishment of the national government. A number of NGOs have been in operation since the start of war and have provided emergency relief to displaced persons. Over the time, these NGOs have become agents to provide a wide range of social and technical services funded through the bilateral and multilateral agencies.

The UN agencies have also developed some systems of providing services in selected fields such as repairing of traditional irrigation systems, health care, seed multiplication, crop improvement, plant protection,horticulture, and others. All these activities are undertaken by a group of professionals(NPPPs) in association with groups of farmers organized around the concept of village community. Examples of such community activities are seed production committees and rural committees for operation and maintenance of irrigation systems. These activities could be further organized and an integrated approach could be worked out where a number of local professionals could be hired and trained to work with the farmers' communities.

The NGOs presence and experience could be utilized to provide a specific service through one or more NGOs such as quality seed production, plant protection and extension /training services. The reservations with respect to provision of services through NGOs could be that the objective of an NGO could be different than the objective of the donor or the funding agency.It was observed that some of the NGOs were quite inefficient and have simply become instruments of exploitation and money making. This tendency could become even worse over a longer period of time. The benefit of providing these services directly by the UN agency through the farmers' groups are evident because the objective of both the funding agency and the farmers converge and these will be further strengthened over time.

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4.3DELIVERY OF INPUTS

Delivery of different kinds of inputs should preferably be with the private sector.Historically, Afghans have been good and efficient traders. They have done and are still doing business with their neighbours even during these difficult days.It is considered that they will continue doing this in a more efficient way once security and stability prevail in the country. Once the demand is created the Afghan businessmen will ensure the supply of the inputs desired.

At present, in the absence of a national government it could be difficult to import and export the required inputs and the surplus production. However, despite these difficulties, Afghan traders are importing all kinds of fertilizers and other required inputs and these operations will continue without any serious hindrance, though in the absence of the government the quality cannot be ensured and the quantity cannot be guaranteed.To overcome the difficulties of import especially in the absence of a government the role can be given to the NGOs. The NGOs can function as quasi -commercial agencies and the UN can assist in the import of such inputs as seed, fertilizer, insecticides etc.In the meantime, some local traders can be mobilized and trained to handle these inputs.A number of such traders have already been identified and are not only supplying the necessary inputs but are also serving as centres for advice to the farming community.

The Agricultural Extension Service is one of the most important component of agricultural development programme becauseitplaces emphasis on the development of human resources, a key player in any developmental strategy.Presently, there is no agricultural extension service in the country.Due to prolonged war and uncertain conditions many people have left and are either out of the country or doing some odd jobs with in the country. A few officials (director of agricultural) at the provincial level are available at some places but they too, have lost the necessary vigour and motivation due to prolonged idleness.

The NGOs are involved in some extension work but their efforts are limited to provision of some material and advice concerning plant protection and animal health.A systematic training programme for farmers does not exist as such.

The agricultural vocational schools for training of paraprofessionals who were mostly employed as field extension workers in the agriculture department are closed and most of the teaching staff is not available.In some cases, these facilities are being used for some other purpose entirely different from any agriculture activities.

Afghanistan Agricultural Strategy Extension and Training Report