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1 '“Individualism” – a Word Unknown to Our Ancestors' Notes 1 ‘“Individualism” – a Word Unknown to our Ancestors’ 1 Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent: Original Text with English Translation, ed. H. J. Schroeder (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1941), pp. 214–17 and pp. 483–5. 2 Veronese’s trial is published in Philipp Fehl, ‘Veronese and the Inquisition: A Study of the Subject Matter of the So-Called Feast in the House of Levi’, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, ser. VI, 58 (1961): 348–54; English translation in Venice: A Documentary History, ed. David Chambers and Brian Pullan (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), pp. 232–6. 3 David Rosand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, rev. edn 1997), p. 120 is correct to ask that we now call this work The Last Supper – a request that, thus far, has gone unheeded. 4 Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. S. G. C. Middlemore, 2 vols (New York: Harper & Row, 1958); for the original German, I have used Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, ed. Horst Günther (Frankfurt am Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1989). 5 Jacob Burckhardt, Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens (Leipzig: Alfren Kröner, 1927), pp. 932–5. 6 Burckhardt, Civilization of the Renaissance, vol. 1, p. 143 for both citations. 7 Among the more influential works inviting a rethinking of the history of the self – from antiquity to the twentieth century – see Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989). 8 Douglas Biow, Doctors, Ambassadors, Secretaries: Humanism and Professions in Renaissance Italy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 218. 9 Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 256–7. 10 William J. Connell, ‘Introduction’ to his (ed.), Society & Individual in Renaissance Florence (Berkeley: The University of California Press, 2002), p. 6. 11 Louis Adrian Montrose, ‘The Poetics and Politics of Culture’ in New Historicism, ed. Abraham Veeser (New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 21. 12 For an overview of this literature, see my Venice’s Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1993; 2nd edn: Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). On witchcraft and magic, see Ruth Martin, Witchcraft and the Inquisition in Venice, 1550–1650 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989) and Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions: Tales of Magic, Marriage, and Power at the End of the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and, on prophecy, Marion Leathers Kuntz, The Anointment of Dionisio: Prophecy and Politics in Renaissance Italy (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001). 135 136 Notes 13 Joseph de Maistre, ‘Extraits d’une conversation’ in Oeuvres complètes, 14 vols (Lyons: E. Vitte, 1884–1893), vol. 14, p. 286. The conversation from 1820 was reported by Charles de Levau shortly after de Maistre’s death in 1821. 14 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. J. P. Meyer; trans. George Lawrence (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1969), p. 70 and elsewhere. 15 Steven Lukes, Individualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973), p. 17. 16 In his book Individualism, cited in the note above, Lukes offers a short chapter on Burckhardt in which he notes that Burckhardt developed ‘a striking and influential synthesis of French and German meanings of “individualism.”’ (p. 23). 17 See, for example, Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), p. 143: ‘The question is whether an individualism in which the self has become the main form of reality can ever really be sustained.’ 18 J. B. Bullen, The Myth of the Renaissance in Nineteenth-Century Writing (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994). 19 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, trans. Stuart Gilbert (New York: Doubleday, 1955), p. 96. 20 Peter Burke, ‘Representations of the Self from Petrarch to Descartes’ in Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present, ed. Roy Porter (London: Routlege, 1997), pp. 17–28. 21 For a trenchant critique of the Burckhardt’s Renaissance as myth, see Peter Burke, The Renaissance (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1987), pp. 1–5, a topic I also grapple with in ‘The Renaissance Between Myth and History’ in The Renaissance: Italy and Abroad (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 1–23. 22 William James Bouwsma, Jr, ‘The Renaissance and the Drama of Western History’, American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1–15. 23 Lee Patterson, ‘On the Margin: Postmodernism, Ironic History, and Medieval Studies’, Speculum 65 (1990), p. 99. 24 Richard Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953), p. 221. 25 Two contrary assumptions are at work in current scholarship. Roy F. Baumeister, Identity, Culture, Change and the Struggle for the Self (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986) sees inwardness as a new feature of the Renaissance (p. 36), a view reiterated by Robin Kirkpatrick, The European Renaissance, 1400–1600 (London: Longman, 2002), p. 126: ‘So, on the one hand, the early Renaissance – again largely through Petrarch’s example and the resuscitation of Augustinian considerations, invents the notion of the inner self.’ This view is largely Burckhardtian. On the other hand, many scholars have denied the existence of interiority altogether; see, for example, Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body (New York: Methuen, 1984), pp. 31 and 58 and Catharine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy: Identity and Difference in Renaissance Drama (New York: Methuen, 1995), p. 48. 26 On the Renaissance fascination with St. Augustine of Hippo, see Charles Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970); on the interest in Anselm and later ‘scholastic’ philosophers, with special attention to Aquinas, see John D’Amico, Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Notes 137 Humanists and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), pp. 160–7. 27 Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 174–5. 28 On the social function of myth, see the celebrated essay by Bronislaw Malinowski, ‘Myth in Primitive Psychology’ in his Magic, Science and Religion (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954), pp. 93–148 – this essay origi- nally appeared in 1926. I am also indebted in my thinking on the relation of historical narratives to myth to Roland Barthes; see his Mythologies (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1957) and his Michelet par lui-même (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1994). 29 Ironically, Ian Watt’s Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan, Robinson Crusoe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996) embraces the view that the Renaissance was a period of flourishing individualism. 30 For a similar approach to Renaissance identities – one that is equally insis- tent in its claim that many postmodern readings of the Renaissance self are anachronistic – see Katharine Eisaman Maus, Inwardness and Theater in the English Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 26–9 especially. 31 On ‘experience’ see Bernard Lepetit, Les formes de l’expérience: une autre histoire sociale (Paris: A. Michel, 1995). 32 Montaigne, Les essais, ed. Pierre Villey 3 vols (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1924), vol. 2, p. 337; The Complete Essays, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 244. 33 Karl Marx, The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts in The Marx–Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 66–125 and ‘On the Jewish Question’ in the same volume, pp. 26–52. 34 Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id, trans. Joan Rivière and ed. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960) is the locus classicus for Freud’s theory of the self. 35 Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), p. 404. 36 The concept of a relational self is well-developed in object relations theory; see James W. Jones. ‘The Relational Self: Contemporary Psychoanalysis Reconsiders Religion’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 59 (1001): 119–35. Jones exaggerates Freud’s view of the individual as a self-contained system. 37 In addition to the works by Francis Barker and Catharine Belsey cited in n. 25 above, see the writings of Jonathan Goldberg, Jean Howard, Ramie Targoff, and Peter Stallybrass. 38 Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Thomas C. Faulkner et al., 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), vol. I, p. 393; Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, XII, 14.8. On the image of madness in Ariosto, see Albert Russell Ascoli, Ariosto’s Bitter Harmony: Crisis and Evasion in the Italian Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987). 39 Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, vol. I, p. 402. 40 A widely read account of neurology and identity is Oliver Sacks’ The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales (New York: Summit Books, 1985). Neuro-psychologists have a wide variety of views about the 138 Notes relationship of the brain to the development of the self, but all stress the absence of a single unified physiological center of the self-concept and maintain instead that such a function results from complex interactions among different parts of the brain. 41 Caroline Walker Bynum, Metamorphosis and Identity (New York: Zone Books, 2001), p. 188. 2 The Inquisitors’ Questions 1 Massimo Firpo, Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici: il mondo di Lorenzo Lotto tra Riforma e Controriforma (Rome: Laterza, 2001) offers a detailed analysis of Carpan’s role in the evangelical movement in Venice. 2 Józef Grabski, ‘Sul rapporto fra ritratto e simbolo nella ritrattistica del Lotto’ in Lorenzo Lotto: Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi per il V Centenario della Nascita, Asolo, 1980, ed.
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