Notes

1 ‘“Individualism” – a Word Unknown to our Ancestors’

1 Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent: Original Text with English Translation, ed. H. J. Schroeder (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1941), pp. 214–17 and pp. 483–5. 2 Veronese’s trial is published in Philipp Fehl, ‘Veronese and the Inquisition: A Study of the Subject Matter of the So-Called Feast in the House of Levi’, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, ser. VI, 58 (1961): 348–54; English translation in Venice: A Documentary History, ed. David Chambers and Brian Pullan (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), pp. 232–6. 3 David Rosand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, rev. edn 1997), p. 120 is correct to ask that we now call this work The Last Supper – a request that, thus far, has gone unheeded. 4 Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. S. G. C. Middlemore, 2 vols (New York: Harper & Row, 1958); for the original German, I have used Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, ed. Horst Günther (Frankfurt am Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag, 1989). 5 Jacob Burckhardt, Der Cicerone: eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens (Leipzig: Alfren Kröner, 1927), pp. 932–5. 6 Burckhardt, Civilization of the Renaissance, vol. 1, p. 143 for both citations. 7 Among the more influential works inviting a rethinking of the history of the self – from antiquity to the twentieth century – see Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989). 8 Douglas Biow, Doctors, Ambassadors, Secretaries: Humanism and Professions in Renaissance Italy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 218. 9 Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 256–7. 10 William J. Connell, ‘Introduction’ to his (ed.), Society & Individual in Renaissance Florence (Berkeley: The University of California Press, 2002), p. 6. 11 Louis Adrian Montrose, ‘The Poetics and Politics of Culture’ in New Historicism, ed. Abraham Veeser (New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 21. 12 For an overview of this literature, see my Venice’s Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1993; 2nd edn: Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). On witchcraft and magic, see Ruth Martin, Witchcraft and the Inquisition in Venice, 1550–1650 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989) and Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions: Tales of Magic, Marriage, and Power at the End of the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and, on prophecy, Marion Leathers Kuntz, The Anointment of Dionisio: Prophecy and Politics in Renaissance Italy (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001).

135 136 Notes

13 Joseph de Maistre, ‘Extraits d’une conversation’ in Oeuvres complètes, 14 vols (Lyons: E. Vitte, 1884–1893), vol. 14, p. 286. The conversation from 1820 was reported by Charles de Levau shortly after de Maistre’s death in 1821. 14 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. J. P. Meyer; trans. George Lawrence (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1969), p. 70 and elsewhere. 15 Steven Lukes, Individualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1973), p. 17. 16 In his book Individualism, cited in the note above, Lukes offers a short chapter on Burckhardt in which he notes that Burckhardt developed ‘a striking and influential synthesis of French and German meanings of “individualism.”’ (p. 23). 17 See, for example, Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), p. 143: ‘The question is whether an individualism in which the self has become the main form of reality can ever really be sustained.’ 18 J. B. Bullen, The Myth of the Renaissance in Nineteenth-Century Writing (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994). 19 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, trans. Stuart Gilbert (New York: Doubleday, 1955), p. 96. 20 Peter Burke, ‘Representations of the Self from Petrarch to Descartes’ in Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present, ed. Roy Porter (London: Routlege, 1997), pp. 17–28. 21 For a trenchant critique of the Burckhardt’s Renaissance as myth, see Peter Burke, The Renaissance (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1987), pp. 1–5, a topic I also grapple with in ‘The Renaissance Between Myth and History’ in The Renaissance: Italy and Abroad (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 1–23. 22 William James Bouwsma, Jr, ‘The Renaissance and the Drama of Western History’, American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1–15. 23 Lee Patterson, ‘On the Margin: Postmodernism, Ironic History, and Medieval Studies’, Speculum 65 (1990), p. 99. 24 Richard Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953), p. 221. 25 Two contrary assumptions are at work in current scholarship. Roy F. Baumeister, Identity, Culture, Change and the Struggle for the Self (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986) sees inwardness as a new feature of the Renaissance (p. 36), a view reiterated by Robin Kirkpatrick, The European Renaissance, 1400–1600 (London: Longman, 2002), p. 126: ‘So, on the one hand, the early Renaissance – again largely through Petrarch’s example and the resuscitation of Augustinian considerations, invents the notion of the inner self.’ This view is largely Burckhardtian. On the other hand, many scholars have denied the existence of interiority altogether; see, for example, Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body (New York: Methuen, 1984), pp. 31 and 58 and Catharine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy: Identity and Difference in Renaissance Drama (New York: Methuen, 1995), p. 48. 26 On the Renaissance fascination with St. Augustine of Hippo, see Charles Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970); on the interest in Anselm and later ‘scholastic’ philosophers, with special attention to Aquinas, see John D’Amico, Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome: Notes 137

Humanists and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), pp. 160–7. 27 Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, pp. 174–5. 28 On the social function of myth, see the celebrated essay by Bronislaw Malinowski, ‘Myth in Primitive Psychology’ in his Magic, Science and Religion (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1954), pp. 93–148 – this essay origi- nally appeared in 1926. I am also indebted in my thinking on the relation of historical narratives to myth to Roland Barthes; see his Mythologies (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1957) and his Michelet par lui-même (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1994). 29 Ironically, Ian Watt’s Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan, Robinson Crusoe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996) embraces the view that the Renaissance was a period of flourishing individualism. 30 For a similar approach to Renaissance identities – one that is equally insis- tent in its claim that many postmodern readings of the Renaissance self are anachronistic – see Katharine Eisaman Maus, Inwardness and Theater in the English Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 26–9 especially. 31 On ‘experience’ see Bernard Lepetit, Les formes de l’expérience: une autre histoire sociale (Paris: A. Michel, 1995). 32 Montaigne, Les essais, ed. Pierre Villey 3 vols (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1924), vol. 2, p. 337; The Complete Essays, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 244. 33 Karl Marx, The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts in The Marx–Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 66–125 and ‘On the Jewish Question’ in the same volume, pp. 26–52. 34 Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id, trans. Joan Rivière and ed. James Strachey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960) is the locus classicus for Freud’s theory of the self. 35 Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), p. 404. 36 The concept of a relational self is well-developed in object relations theory; see James W. Jones. ‘The Relational Self: Contemporary Psychoanalysis Reconsiders Religion’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 59 (1001): 119–35. Jones exaggerates Freud’s view of the individual as a self-contained system. 37 In addition to the works by Francis Barker and Catharine Belsey cited in n. 25 above, see the writings of Jonathan Goldberg, Jean Howard, Ramie Targoff, and Peter Stallybrass. 38 Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, ed. Thomas C. Faulkner et al., 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), vol. I, p. 393; Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, XII, 14.8. On the image of madness in Ariosto, see Albert Russell Ascoli, Ariosto’s Bitter Harmony: Crisis and Evasion in the Italian Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987). 39 Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, vol. I, p. 402. 40 A widely read account of neurology and identity is Oliver Sacks’ The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales (New York: Summit Books, 1985). Neuro-psychologists have a wide variety of views about the 138 Notes

relationship of the brain to the development of the self, but all stress the absence of a single unified physiological center of the self-concept and maintain instead that such a function results from complex interactions among different parts of the brain. 41 Caroline Walker Bynum, Metamorphosis and Identity (New York: Zone Books, 2001), p. 188.

2 The Inquisitors’ Questions

1 Massimo Firpo, Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici: il mondo di Lorenzo Lotto tra Riforma e Controriforma (Rome: Laterza, 2001) offers a detailed analysis of Carpan’s role in the evangelical movement in Venice. 2 Józef Grabski, ‘Sul rapporto fra ritratto e simbolo nella ritrattistica del Lotto’ in Lorenzo Lotto: Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi per il V Centenario della Nascita, Asolo, 1980, ed. Pietro Zampetti and Vittorio Sgarbi (Venice: Comitato per le celebrazioni lottesche, 1981), pp. 383–92. 3 Directorium inqvisitorum F. Nicolai Eymerici … cvm commentariis Francesci Pegñae (Venice: Apud Marcum Antonium Zalterium, 1595), p. 421. 4 Masini, Sacro arsenale, overo prattica dell’officio della S. Inquisitione ampliata (Genoa: Giuseppe Pavoni, 1625), p. 63. 5 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 29, dossier ‘Bartolomeo Carpan’, testimony of 8 January 1568. 6 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 20, dossier ‘Paolo Gaian’, 29 October 1569. 7 Directorium inqvisitorum, pp. 368–9 and 382–3. 8 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 20, dossier ‘Paolo Gaiano’, testimony of 20 February 1570. 9 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 20, dossier ‘Paolo Gaiano.’ 10 Gianpietro Carafa, ‘De Lutheranorum haeresi reprimenda et eccelesia reformanda est ad Clementem VII’ in Concilium Tridentinum. Diariorum Actorum Epistularum Tractatuum nova collectio, ed. Societas Goerresiana, 13 vols (Freiburg im Breisgaus: Herder, 1929), vol. 12, pp. 67–77. 11 ‘Girolamo Aleandro a Paolo III’ in Nunziature di Venezia, ed. Franco Gaeta (Rome: Istituto Storico per l’età moderna e contemporanea, 1958), vol. 1, p. 289. 12 Cited in Paul Grendler, The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 37. 13 Cited in Nicholas Davidson, ‘Il Sant’Uffizio e la tutela del culto a Venezia nel ‘500’, Studi veneziani n.s. 6 (1982): 89. 14 Carafa, ‘De Lutheranorum haeresi reprimanda’, p. 58. 15 Silvana Seidel Menchi, Erasmo in Italia (Turin: Boringhieri, 1987), p. 122. 16 Andrea Del Col, ‘Due Sonetti inediti di Pier Paolo Vergerio il Giovane’, Ce Fastu: Revista della Società Filologica Friulana 54 (1978): 77. 17 On the repression of the book trade in Venice, see Grendler, The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press. 18 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 39, dossier ‘D’Ochino, Pietro’, especially the testimony of 1 September 1575. 19 On fra Marino da Venezia, see the classic article by Silvana Seidel Menchi, ‘Inquisizione come repressione o inquisizione come mediazione? Una Notes 139

proposta di periodizzazione’, Annuario dell’Isituto storico italiano per l’età moderna e contemporanea 35–36 (1983–84): 54–77. 20 Simonetta Adorni-Braccesi, ‘La Repubblica di Lucca e l’“aborrita” Inquisizione: istituzioni e società’ in L’Inquisizione romana in Italia nell’età moderna: archivi, problemi di metodo e nuove ricerche, ed. Andrea del Col et al. (Rome: Saggi del Ministerio per i beni culturali e ambientali, 1991), pp. 233–62 and her ‘Una Città Infetta:’ La Repubblica di Lucca nella crisi religiosa del Cinquecento (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1994). 21 See Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘Strikes and Salvation at Lyon’ in her Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), pp. 71–94 and Philip Benedict, Rouen During the Wars of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 22 On the social location of heresy in Venice, see my Venice’s Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; 2nd edn Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), Chap. VI especially; on Caravia, see Brian Pullan: Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice: The Social Institutions of a Catholic State, to 1620 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 117–21. 23 The literature on the prestige ranking of occupations in European and American history is extensive, but see especially Michael Katz, ‘Occupational Classification in History’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 3 (1972): 63–88; and Donald J. Treiman, ‘A Standard Occupational Prestige Scale for Use with Historical Data’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7 (1976): 283–304. 24 Alberto Bolognetti, ‘Dello stato et forma delle cose ecclesiastiche nel dominio dei signori venetiani’ in Chiesa e Stato nelle relazioni dei nunci pontifici a Venezia (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1964), p. 278. 25 Ronald F. E. Weissman, ‘Reconstructing Renaissance Sociology: The “Chicago School” and the Study of Renaissance Society’ in Persons in Groups: Social Behavior as Identity Formation in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, ed. Richard C. Trexler (Binghamton: CRTS, 1985), p. 45 and ‘“The Importance of Being Ambiguous”: Social Relations, Individualism, and Identity in Renaissance Florence’ in Susan Zimmerman and Ronald F. E. Weissman, eds, Urban Life in the Renaissance (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989), pp. 269–80. 26 ‘Haeretici sunt qui quod prave sapiunt contumaciter defendunt. Item Augustinus contra Manicheos. Qui in ecclesia Christi morbidum aliquid pravumque sapiunt, si correpti, ut sanum rectumque sapiant, resistunt contumaciter, suaque pestifera et mortifera dogmata emendare nolunt sed defensare persistunt, haeretici sunt.’ Gratian, Decretum, Pars Secunda, Causa XXIV, Quaestio III, C. XXXI. in Patrologia Latina, ed. J.P. Migne (Paris: Apud Garnieri Fratres, 1891), vol. 187, col. 1307. 27 Iacobo Simancas, De Catholicis instutionibus (Rome: In aedibus Populi Romani, 1575), p. 228. 28 Directorium inqvisitorum, p. 319. On the influence of Thomas in Eymeric’s Directorium, see Louis Sala-Molins, ‘Utilisation d’Aristote en droit inquisito- rial’ in Platon et Aristote à la Renaissance: XVIe Colloque international de Tours (Paris: J. Vrin, 1976), pp. 191–9. 140 Notes

29 Katharine Eisaman Maus, Inwardness and the Theater in the English Re- naissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). 30 Directorium inqvisitorum, p. 231. 31 Directorium inqvisitorum, pp. 438–9. 32 Directorium inqvisitorum, pp. 438ff. 33 Masini, Arsenale, p. 46. 34 Masini, Arsenale, p. 63. 35 Lina Bolzoni, The Gallery of Memory: Literacy and Iconographic Models in the Age of the Renaissance, trans. Jeremy Parzen (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 155. 36 Cited in Firpo, Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici: il mondo di Lorenzo Lotto tra Riforma e controriforma, p.152. 37 Robert C. Davis, Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), pp. 83–105 especially. 38 Roberto Zago, I Nicolotti: storia di una communità di pescatori a Venezia nell’età modena (Padua: Aldo Francesci Editore, 1982). The reference to the ‘lingua nicolotta’ is from Firpo, Artisti, gioiellieri, eretici, p. 182 39 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 19, dossier ‘Zanco Giuseppe’, testimony of 8 July 1561. 40 With hindsight we know that Parto’s dissimulation was justified. In the mid-1570s when he momentarily let down his guard, the Inquisition had him arrested, tried, and executed; see ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 37, dossier ‘Parto Girolamo.’ 41 Pier Paolo Vergerio, La historia di M. Francesco Spiera in Biblioteca della Riforma italiana: raccolta di scritti evangelici del seculo XVI (Rome and Florence: Claudiana, 1883), vol. II, pp. 112–22. 42 Leon Battista Alberti, I libri della famiglia, ed. Ruggiero Romano and Alberto Tenenti (Turin: Einaudi, 1969), p. 350; The Family in Renaissance Florence (translation of I libri della famiglia), trans. Renée Neu Watkins (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1969), p. 266. 43 Stanley Chojnacki, Women and Men in Renaissance Venice: Twelve Essays on Patrician Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), pp. 178–89; Martin, Venice’s Hidden Enemies, pp. 170–171; and Dennis Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft: Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice, 1400–1600 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 207–22. 44 Baltasar Castiglione, Il libro del Cortegiano (Turin: UTET, 1964), pp. 236 and 253. 45 Peter Burke, Fortunes of the Courtier: The European Reception of Castiglione’s Cortegiano (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). 46 On Nicodemismo, see Carlo Ginzburg, Il nicodemismo: simulazione e dissimu- lazione religiosa nell’Europa del ‘500 (Turin: Einaudi, 1970). 47 Brian S. Pullan, ‘“A Ship with Two Rudders:” “Righetto Marrano” and the Inquisition in Venice.’ The Historical Journal 20 (1977): 37. 48 Natalie Zemon Davis, The Return of Martin Guerre (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983); on the importance of this case for the history of the self, see Stephen Greenblatt, ‘Psychoanalysis and Renaissance Culture’ in Literary Theory/Literary Texts, eds Patricia Parker and David Quint (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 210–24, though see Notes 141

Davis’s response to Greenblatt’s reading in her ‘On the Lame’, American Historical Review 93 (1988): 602 especially. 49 Directorium inqvisitorum, pp. 430–1. 50 Paolo Toschi, Le origini del teatro italiano (Turin: Einaudi, 1955). 51 Tomaso Garzoni, Piazza universale di tutte le professioni del mondo, ed. Paolo Cherchi and Beatrice Collana, 2 vols (Turin: Einaudi, 1996), vol. 2, pp. 1192–7. 52 Edward Muir, Ritual in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 53 Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier was first published in Italian by the Aldus Press in Venice in 1528; by 1600, it had appeared in some 116 editions, including translations into Spanish, French, English, Latin, German; the English translation by Sir Thomas Hoby appeared in 1561 – on the enormous influence of Castiglione’s book, see Burke, The Fortunes of the Courtier. On the Galateo, which was first published in 1558, see Giovanni della Casa, Galateo: A Renaissance Book on Manners, ed. and trans. Konrad Eisenbichler and Kenneth R. Bartlett (Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 1994), the introduction; and, on Civil Conversation, see the introduction to the most recent Italian edition by Amedeo Quondam: La civil conversazione (Modena: Panini, 1993). 54 Joanna Woods-Marsden, Renaissance Self-Portraiture: The Visual Construction of Identity and the Social Status of the Artist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). 55 Marsilio Ficino, Three Books of Life, ed. and trans. Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark (Binghamton, N.Y.: MRTS, 1989). 56 D. P. Walker, Spiritual and Divine Magic from Ficino to Campanella (London: Warburg Institute, 1958). 57 Anthony Grafton, Cardano’s Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 168, cf. 178. 58 Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘Boundaries and the Sense of Self in Sixteenth- Century France’ in Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought, ed. Thomas C. Heller, Morton Sosna, and David E. Wellbery (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986), pp. 53–63. 59 Anne Jacobson Schutte, Autobiografia di una santa mancata, ed. Anne Jacobson Schutte (Bergamo: Pierluigi Lubrina Editore, 1990), pp. 95–7; Cecilia Ferrazzi: The Autobiography of an Aspiring Saint, ed. Anne Jacobson Shutte (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). 60 Heinrich Kramer and James (sic) Sprenger, The Malleus Malificarum (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1971), p. 125. 61 Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions: Tales of Magic, Marriage, and Power at the End of the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) and Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner’s, 1971). 62 Moshe Sluhovsky, ‘A Divine Apparition or Demonic Possession? Female Agency and Church Authority in Demonic Possession in Sixteenth-Century France’, Sixteenth Century Journal 27 (1996): 1039–55. 63 Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972) and Peter Burke, The Historical Anthropology of Early Modern Italy: Essays on Perception and Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) 142 Notes

64 Clifford Geertz, ‘ “From the Native’s Point of View:” On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding’ in Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, ed. Richard A. Shweder and Robert A. Levine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 126.

3 Spiritual Journeys

1 Domenico Berti, ‘Di Giovanni Valdes e di taluni suoi discepoli secondo nuovi documenti tolti dall’Archivio Veneto’, Atti della R. Accademia dei Lincei 275 (1877–78), 3rd series, Memorie della classa di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche, vol. 2, p. 68. I published an earlier version of this chapter as ‘Spiritual Journeys and the Fashioning of Religious Identity in Renaissance Venice’ in Renaissance Studies, 10 (1996): 358–70. 2 Berti, ‘Di Giovanni Valdes’, p. 69. 3 I costituti di don Pietro Manelfi, ed. Carlo Ginzburg (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press; Chicago: Newberry Library, 1970). 4 Berti, ‘Di Giovanni Valdes’, p. 68. 5 On the evangelical, Anabaptist or antitrinitarian, and millenarian move- ments in Venice, see my Venice’s Hidden Enemies: Italian Heretics in a Renaissance City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993; 2nd edn Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). 6 Bernardino Ochino, ‘Del modo di liberarsi dalla confusione di tante fedi, sette e modi di vivere’ in Opuscoli e lettere di riformatori italiani del Cinquecento (Bari: Laterza, 1913), vol. 1, p. 263; on Alteri, see Martin Luther, Werke: Briefwechsel (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus, 1947), vol. 10, pp. 204–5; Alessandro Trissino, ‘Ragionamento della necessità di ritirarsi a vivere nella Chiesa visible di Gesù Cristo, lasciando il papesimo’, in ‘Alessandro Trissino e il movimento calvinista del Cinquecento’, ed. Achille Olivieri. Rivista di storia della Chiesa in Italia 21 (1967): 100–1. 7 See especially Delio Cantimori, Eretici italiani del Cinquecento (Florence: Sansoni, 1939). 8 Lucien Febvre, ‘The Origins of the French Reformation: A Badly Put Question’, in A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, ed. Peter Burke and trans. K. Folca (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), p. 86. 9 Martin, Venice’s Hidden Enemies, pp. 173–4. 10 Bernd Moeller, Imperial Cities and the Reformation, ed. and trans. H. C. Erik Midelfort and Mark U. Edwards, Jr. (Durham, N.C.: The Labyrinth Press, 1982), p. 83. For a similar critique of the limits of social histories of the Italian here- sies (including my own efforts in this field), see Silvana Seidel Menchi, ‘Italy’ in The Reformation in Social Context, ed. Bob Scribner, Roy Porter, and Mikuläs Teich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 181–201. 11 See now Giles Constable, The Reformation of the Twelfth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 12 Francesco Petrarca, Secretum, edited with notes and an introduction by Ugo Dotti (Rome: Archivio Guido Izzi, 1993). 13 Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, John T. McNeill, ed., Ford Lewis Battles, trans. (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960), Bk. 3, Chap. 2, section 10. Notes 143

14 Montaigne, The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965), p. 823 [Les essais, Pierre Villey, ed. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1924), p. 1075]. 15 Stephan Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 119, though Greenblatt hastens to add that ‘the inwardness of [his] poems can in no way be conceived as Wyatt’s private affair … [it] is intertwined with the great public crisis of the period, with religious doctrine and the nature of power.’ (119). 16 John Foxe, Acts and Monuments, ed. Josiah Pratt, 8 vols (London: G. Seeley, 1870). 17 The literature on Spiera is extensive; for an orientation, see M. A. Overell, ‘The Exploitation of Francesco Spiera’, Sixteenth Century Journal 26 (Fall 1995): 619–37. 18 John 3: 1–2. Calvin’s anti-Nicodemite writings include his De fugiendis impio- rum illicitis sacris of 1536, vol. 5 of Corpus Reformatorum, Ioannis Calvini Opera quae supersunt omnia, Guilielmus Baum et al., eds, 59 vols (Brunswick, 1863–1900), cols 239–78 [hereafter I will cite this edition of Calvin’s works as CO]; his De christiani hominis officio in sacerdotiis papalis ecclesiae vel adminis- trandis vel abiiciendis, also of 1536, vol. 5 of CO, cols 279–312; his Petit traicté monstrant que c’est que doit faire un homme fidele of 1543, vol. 6 of CO, cols 537–88; his Excuse de Iehan Calvin à Messieurs les Nicodemites sur la complaincte qu’ilz font de sa trop grand rigeur of 1544, vol. 6 of CO, cols 589–614; his Quatre sermons of 1552, vol. 8 of CO, cols 369–452 and in 1562 his Response à un certain Holandois, vol. 9 of CO, cols 581–628. On this theme in Calvin’s thought, see Carlos Eire, The War Against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and for a textual history of these works, see Eugenie Droz, Chemins de l’hérésie: Textes et documents, 4 vols (Geneva: Slatkine, 1970–1976), vol. 1, pp. 131–71. 19 Peter Burke, The Fortunes of the Courtier: The European Reception of Castiglione’s Cortegiano (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995). 20 Francesco Guicciardini, Ricordi, with an English translation by Ninian Hill Thomson (New York: S. F. Vanni, 1949), series 2, no. 28. 21 On Bernard of Clairvaux’s psychology, see Etienne Gilson, The Mystical Theology of Saint Bernard, trans. A. H. C. Downes (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955); for Peter Abelard, see especially his Ethica: Peter Abelard’s Ethics, ed. with an introduction, English translation and notes by D. E. Luscombe (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); for Aelred of Rievaulx, see his De spirituali amicitia: L’amitié spirituelle, ed. with an introduction, French translation, and notes by J. Dubois (Bruges: Editions Charles Beyaent, 1948); and on changing twelfth-century ideals of penitence, Thomas Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), pp. 18–19. 22 The tension between these ideals is not exclusively western; see, for example, the suggestive essay by Raymond Jamous, ‘Politesse et sincérité dans le monde arabe’ in Politesse et sincérité, ed. Jean-Michel Besnier (Paris: Editions Esprit, 1994), pp. 25–31. 23 Alan of Lille, De virtutibus et de vitiis et de donis spiritus sancti in Odon Lottin, Psychologie et morale au XIIe et XIIIe siècles, 6 vols (Louvain: Abbaye du Mont César, 1942–1950), vol. 6, p. 51. 144 Notes

24 Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, trans. English Dominican Province, 3 vols (New York: Benzinger Brothers, 1947), pt. I–II, Qu. 57, Art. 5. 25 Victoria Kahn, Rhetoric, Prudence, and Skepticism in the Renaissance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985). See also Charles Trinkaus, In Our Image and Likeness: Humanity and Divinity in Italian Humanist Thought, 2 vols (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970) and Nancy S. Struever, Theory as Practice: Ethical Inquiry in the Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 26 Machiavelli, The Prince, ed. and trans. Mark Musa (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1964), pp. 144–7. 27 Baldesar Castiglione, Il libro del Cortegiano, ed. Bruno Maier (Turin: UTET, 1964 [1528]), pp. 236, 253, 200. 28 Erwin Panofsky’s identification of the three figures, reading from left to right, as Titian, his son Orazio Vecellio, and his ‘adopted’ grandson Marco Vecellio is accepted by most scholars. See Panofosky, ‘Titian’s Allegory of Love: A Postscript’ in Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1955), pp. 166–7. 29 Erwin Panofsky and Fritz Saxl, ‘A Late Antique Religious Symbol in Works by Holbein and Titian’ Burlington Magazine 49 (1926): 177–81 and Panofosky, ‘Titian’s Allegory of Love’, pp. 146–68. 30 For a recent and important discussion of the problem of identity in Titian, see Daniela Bohde, ‘Skin and the Search for the Interior: The Representation of Flaying in the Art and Anatomy of the Cinquecento’ in Bodily Extremities: Preoccupations with the Human Body in Early Modern European Culture, ed. Florike Egmond and Robert Zwinjnenberg (London: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 10–47. 31 Mario Santoro, Fortuna, ragione e prudenza nella civiltà letteraria del Cinquecento (2nd edn: Naples: Ligouri, 1978). 32 Cited in Paolo Simoncelli, Evangelismo italiano del Cinquecento: Questione religiosa e nicodemismo politico (Rome: Istituto storico italiano per l’età moderna e contemporanea, 1979), pp. 379–80. 33 Cited in Antonio Rotondò, ‘Atteggiamenti della vita morale italiana del Cinquecento: la pratica nicodemitica’, Rivista storica italiana 79 (1967): 1029. 34 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 22, dossier ‘Varotta Marcantonio’, memorial of January 21, 1567. 35 Cited in Weissman, ‘The Importance of Being Ambiguous’, p. 275. 36 Gene Brucker, ‘Introduction: Florentine Diaries and Diarists’, in Brucker, ed., Two Memoirs of Renaissance Florence: The Diaries of Buonaccorso Pitti and Gregorio Dati, (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), pp. 9–18. 37 Guido Ruggiero, The Boundaries of Eros (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). 38 The analogy between Contarini and Luther – with certain psychological reso- nances – is emphasized by Hubert Jedin in a series of articles: ‘Ein Turmerlebnis des jungen Contarinis’, Historisches Jahrbuch 70 (1951): 115–30; ‘Vicenzo Quirini und Pietro Bembo’, Miscellanea Giovanni Mercati (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1946), vol. IV, pp. 407–24; and ‘Contarini und Camaldoli’, Archivio Italiano per la storia della pietà 2 (1952): 53–117. See also the important biography by Elisabeth Gleason, Gasparo Contarini: Venice, Rome, and Reform (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). Notes 145

39 The pope’s decree establishing the Roman Congregation of the Holy Office is the bull Licet ab initio; the text is in Documents Illustrative of the Continental Reformation, ed. B. J. Kidd (Oxford: Clarendon, 1911), pp. 346–50. 40 ‘Contarini an Giustiniani’ in Contarini und Camaldoli, ed. Hubert Jedin (Rome: Edizioni di storia e Letteratura, 1953), p. 13; English translation in ‘Gasparo Contarini to Paolo Giustiniani’ in Reform Thought in Sixteenth-Century Italy, ed. Elisabeth Gleason (Chico, California: Scholars Press, 1981), p. 24. 41 ‘Contarini an Giustiniani’, p. 14; English translation in ‘Gasparo Contarini to Paolo Giustiniani’, pp. 25–6. 42 Rita Belladonna, ‘Aristotle, Machiavelli, and Religious Dissimulation: Bartolomeo Carli Piccolomini’s Trattati nove della prudenza’ in Peter Martyr Vermigli and the Italian Reform, ed. Joseph C. McLelland (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1980), pp. 31–2. 43 Berti, ‘Di Giovanni Valdes’, p. 71. 44 Berti, ‘Di Giovanni Valdes’, pp. 74–5. 45 M. E. Pommier, ‘L’itinéraire religieux d’un moine vagabond italien au XVI siècle’, Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’Ecole française de Rome 66 (1954), p. 316. 46 Aldo Stella, Anabattismo e antitrinitarismo in Italia nel XVI secolo (Padua: Liviana, 1969), pp. 258–9. 47 Stella, Anabattismo, p. 259. 48 Stella, Anabattismo, p. 260. 49 Stella, Anabattismo, p. 260. 50 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 22, dossier ‘Contra Odoricum Grisonum et complices’, testimony of 16 May 1567. 51 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 7, dossier ‘Contra denuntiatos pro hereticis de con- tracta Sancti Moysis.’

4 A Journeymen’s Feast of Fools

1 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimonies of 4, 15, 18 September 1582. An earlier version of this chapter appeared in The Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 17 (1987): 149–74. 2 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, the testimonies of 4 and 15 September 1582. 3 Euan Cameron, ‘“Civilized Religion:” From Renaissance to Reformation and Counter Reformation’ in Civil Histories: Essays Presented to Sir Keith Thomas, eds Peter Burke, Brian Harrison, and Paul Slack (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 49–66. 4 The Council of Trent distinguished between superstitious worship and true religion in its decree ‘Concerning the Things to be Observed and Avoided in the Celebration of the Mass’, in The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, ed. and trans. J. J. Schroeder (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1941), pp. 150–2. On the Tractatus de superstitionihus, see Mary Rose O’Neil, Discerning Superstition: Popular Errors and Orthodox Response in Late Sixteenth Century Italy (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1982), pp. 19–20. On the Apostolic Visit in Venice, see Silvio Tramontin, ‘La visita apostolica del 1581 a Venezia’, Studi Veneziani 9 (1967): 453–533. 146 Notes

5 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimony of 4 September 1582. 6 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimony of 15 September 1582. 7 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolomeo’, testimonies of 20 September, and 2 and 16 October 1582. 8 The full text of the memorial reads: Seculares n.o. tres congregati in quodam cubiculo diebus festivis tempore vesperorum induti camisijs loco coltarum cum birettis de pagina rubei coloris ut vulgo dicitur a croce more cardinalium. Et alter ipsorum cum mitra papali pariter de pagina et in illius summitate cum cruce de pagina. Et cum curtina rubei vindisque coloris loco pluvialis ante altere ad hoc preparato in quo tenebant ciatum loco calicis cum opperculo rotundo loco patente et supra sedem Pontificis alterius ipsorum insignia supra que posuer- ant claves, accenis candillis 4.or vesperas et complectorium pluries can- tarunt, chorum representarunt cum folle supra schabellum, Inibe tenentes tres libros v officiis Beate Marie. Quorum duo alterius vicibus se gessere pro Pontificem passique sunt se ut pontificem revereri ab aliis duobus, bis Altare cum turribulo et navicella existente incenso turrificarunt bis altare cum pura aqua existente in vase aereo ad hoc proportionato cum spargulo aspersere. Et unus de eis sedens in loco eminentiori semel predicavit Evangelium que exposuit, de quibus admoniti ab uno quod male faciebant responderunt se credere non male agere. Nihilominus Mitram bireta lacevarunt et absque predictis habitis sacerdotalibus semel postea accensio candellio in Altari complectarium dixere re detesta Sanctum Tribunal [ordinavit perquiri ipsos] et perquisitio ipsis latitarunt per pluros dies Et cum decreta esset inquisitio et citatio sponte comparuerunt duo ipsorum post capturam alterius interro- gatur de plano fatentur et dicunt se credidisse non male egisse nec peccasse sed nec cognoscere se male egise et peccasse et veniam petunt. Queritur an p.ti ut formales heretici debeant abiurare aut de vehementi vel de levi. ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49 ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo.’ On the distinction between those suspected de levi and de vehementi for heresy, see Nicolau Eymerich, Directorium inqvisitorum … cum commentariis Francisci Pegñae (Venice: Apud Marcum Antonium Zalterium, 1595), pp. 376–84; for a modern, scholarly discussion of this distinction, see John Tedeschi, The Prosecution of Heresy: Collected Studies on the Inquisition in Early Modern Italy (Binghamton, N.Y.: MRTS, 1991), p. 152. 9 ‘Cum haec quae referuntur acta, non modo ab impietate, sed a levitate etiam animi, ac ignoranda proficisci possint, nisi me personarum circum- stantia ad vehementem suspicionem adducerent, levem tantum praesump- tionem, ac suspicionem esse duxerim, qua illi de haeresi leviter suspecti haberi debeant’, ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, legal brief provided by Martinus Fornarius; ‘Ego … existimo supra iscriptos reos ut vehementer suspectos abiurare debere’, ibid., opinion of Pietro Vendramin; ‘Casus iste mio iuditio tres habet partes’, ibid., opinion of Pietro Rodulfo; and ‘Omne quod agimus, agimus propter finem’, ibid., opinion of Desiderius Guido. Vendramin edited and annotated an alpha- betized manual for inquisitors entitled Repertorium Inqvisitorium Praevitatis Haereticae (Venice: Apud Damianum Zenarum, 1575). Notes 147

10 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, interroga- tions of 18 October 1582. While the tie to Lutheranism was implicit in the questioning of the heretics on this day, Desiderius Guido made the connec- tion explicit: ‘Si quidem ista [the underlying motivation for the ceremony] fuit eorum credulitas, proculdubio ad execrandum damnatam heresim Lutheranorum inciderent, putantium omnes Christianos esse sacerdotes, omnesque habere equalem potestatem’, ibid., brief of Desiderius Guido. The final sentence, however, makes it clear that the inquisitors did not reduce the ritual to ‘Lutheranism’ alone, since their sentence specified that Evangelista, Fabio, and Bortholo were strongly suspected of heresy not only because their ceremony implied that they held the belief that all men are priests but also for performing a diabolical deed – ‘una cosa malfatta et dia- bolica.’ A similar distortion of popular beliefs and practices took place in the Friuli at about this time; see Carlo Ginzburg, The Nightbattles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), though now see Franco Nardon, Benandanti e inquisitori nel Friuli del Cinquecento (Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste, 1999). 11 Several of Ginzburg’s works have been suggestive for the method I follow here, but see especially his article ‘Morelli, Freud and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientific Method’, History Workshop 9 (1980): 5–36, now reprinted in Ginzburg, Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1986), pp. 96–125 under the title ‘Clues: Roots of an Evidential Paradigm.’ For Darnton, see his The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Basic Books, 1984) – the quotation is from Darnton, p. 5. 12 See Dennis Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft: Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice, 1400–1600 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Robert C. Davis, Shipbuilders of the Venetian Arsenal: Workers and Workplace in the Preindustrial City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); and Monica Chojnacka, Working Women of Early Modern Venice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). 13 Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1968). 14 Richard Mackenney has provided a superb portrait of this trade in his ‘“In Place of Strife”: The Guilds and the Law in Renaissance Venice’, History Today 34 (1984): 20–1. The statistics concerning the distribution of wealth in the guild are taken from Mackenney. ‘Arti e Stato a Venezia tra tardo medio evo e ‘600’, Studi veneziani, n.s. 5 (1981): 134–5 – see also Mackenney, Tradesmen and Traders: The World of the Guilds in Venice and Europe, c. 1250–c. 1650 (London: Croom-Helm, 1987). On the mercers as retailers of vestments, see Giovanni Monticolo, ed., I capitolari delle arti veneziane (Rome, 1896–1914), vol. 2, p. 308 (Merciai, 11, 1271) and Luca Molà, The Silk Industry in Renaissance Venice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), pp. 174–6 and 296–7. 15 Paolo Preto, Peste a società a Venezia, 1576 (Vicenza: N. Pozza, 1978), pp. 118–19. 16 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimony of 16 October 1582. 148 Notes

17 On the shearers’ strike, see Frederic Lane, Venice: A Maritime Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 314. I have dated the incident through consultation of the Mariegola of the Laneri, Correr, MS, ser. IV, Mariegole, no. 129. 18 On compagnnonage, see the excellent study by Cynthia M. Truant, The Rites of Labor: Brotherhoods of compagnonnage in Old and New Regime France (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994). 19 ASV, Sant‘Uffizio, busta 20, dossier ‘Paolo Gaiano’, testimony of 29 October 1569. 20 Pierre Lebrun, Histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses, 4 vols (Paris: Widow of Delaulne, 1732–37), vol. IV: Recueil des pièces pour servir de supple- ment à l’histoire des pratiques superstitieuses, pp. 54–5. Compare the descrip- tion of these rites of initiation with the documents published by Roger Lecotte, ‘Les plus anciens imprimés sur le compagnonnage (XVII siècle)’, Bulletin folklorique de l’île-de-France, 4th ser, 4 (1968): 67–72. 21 ASV, Sant‘Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimony of 22 September 1587. 22 On itinerancy, see Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 1000–1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 67. 23 On Carnival in Venice, see Ruggiero, Binding Passions: Tales of Magic, Marriage, and Power at the End of the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Muir, Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice, pp. 156–81; Peter Burke, ‘Le Carnaval de Venise: Esquisse pour une histoire de longue durée’, in Les jeux de la Renaissance, eds. Philippe Ariès and Jean-Claude Margolin (Paris: J. Vrin, 1982), pp. 55–63; Linda L. Carroll, ‘Carnival Rites as Vehicles of Protest in Renaissance Venice’, Sixteenth Century Journal 16 (1985): 487–502; and on the figure of Carnival as a fat man, Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), p. 185. 24 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 30, dossier ‘Contra Jacobum Georgium et Zachariam Lombardini’, passim. On this trial, see Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions, pp. 3–23. 25 The earliest documentation for the Feast of Fools comes from France in the twelfth century – see E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903), vol. 1, p. 275, though it is probable that the feast existed as early as the tenth century: see Vincenzo de Bartholomaeis, Origini della poesia drammatica italiana (Turin: Società Editrice Internazionale, 1952), p. 179. 26 My description follows the text of a service book used in thirteenth-century Padua; Karl Young has published the relevant passages in his The Drama of the Medieval Church (Oxford: Clarendon, 1933), vol. 1, pp. 106–9. 27 On the survival of the feast in sixteenth-century France, see Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, vol. 1: pp. 297–305 especially, and on its survival in Sicily, see Giuseppe Pitrè, ed., Biblioteca delle tradizioni popolari siciliane (Palermo: L. P. Lauriel, 1870–88), 12:137. On the feast in Lucca and its suppression, see Cesare Sardi, ‘La ceremonia del Vescovino negli antichi costumi lucchesi’, Archivio Storico Italiano, 5th ser., 30 (1902): 393–400. Trevisan’s decree is in his Constitutiones et privilegia patriarchatus et cleri Venetiarum (Venice: Aldine Press, 1587), 4v. Notes 149

28 Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, vol. 1, p. 374 especially, and Paolo Toschi, Le origini del teatro italiano (Turin: Einaudi, 1955), pp. 79–103. Both scholars emphasize the clerical origins of much lay festive life. Natalie Davis takes strong issue with this view: ‘The Reasons of Misrule’, in her Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 102. 29 ‘Seculares homines faciendo tales ludos, qui sunt duntaxat ad risum vel ad ludibrium, non debent uti habitibus vel vestimentis monachorum, vel monialium aut aliorum ecclesiasticorum, cum illud sit etiam a civili jure prohibitum’, in the Epistola et 14 conclusiones facultatis theologiae Paris, ad ecclesiarum praelatos contra festum fatuorum in Octavis Nativitatis Domini vel primam Januarii in quibusdam ecclesiis celebratunt, in Chartularium Universitatis parisiensis, ed. Heinrich Denifle (Paris: Delalain, 1897), vol. 4, p. 655. 30 Although I have found no direct evidence for the Feast of Fools in the Abruzzi, it is likely that it existed there, for the region enjoyed a strong liturgico-dramatical tradition throughout the late Middle Ages. See Vincenzo de Bartholomaeis, ed., Il teatro abruzzese del medio evo (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1924). On folklore in the Abruzzi in general, see Giovanni Pansa, Miti, leggende e superstizioni dell’Abruzzo (Sulmona: U. Caroselli, 1924–27). On the mocking of the pope in the Feast of Fools, see again the Epistola et 14 conclusiones, p. 655. Chambers also describes such a feast in sixteenth- century Amiens, a city not directly under papal authority (The Mediaeval Stage, vol. 1, p. 302). 31 Giovanni Dominici’s recommendation that parents encourage their children to play with toy altars is in his Regola del governo di cura familiare, ed., Donato Salvi (Florence: A. Garinei, 1860), p. 146; and for Savonarola’s boyhood and his play with toy altars, see pseudo-Burlamacchi, Vita del beato leronimo Savonarola (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1937), p. 6. On Evangelista’s childhood, see ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 49, dossier ‘Dall’Aquila, Bortolommeo’, testimonies of 16 and 18 October 1582. 32 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 44, dossier ‘Felini Giuseppe’, testimony of 10 October 1577. The Felini trial presents a number of complexities and should be read in light of ASV, Sant’Uffizio. busta 47, dossier ‘Capuano Alvise’, Felini’s recalcitrant son-in-law. 33 Edward Muir, Ritual in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 34 Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe, p. 202. The citation from Victor Turner is from The Ritual Process (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966), p. 176. For an important critique of Turner, see Caroline Walker Bynum, ‘Women’s Stories, Women’s Symbols: A Critique of Victor Turner’s Theory of Liminality’ in Anthropology and the Study of Religion, ed. Frank Reynolds and Robert Moore (Chicago: Center for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1984), pp. 105–25. André Vauchez emphasizes the vicarious quality of medieval spirituality in his La Spiritualité au moyen âge occidental, Vllle–Xlle siècles (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1975). 35 Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, p. 9, and Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance Florence, pp. 213–78 and 399–418. 36 Muir, Civic Ritual, p. 168. 150 Notes

37 Muir, Civic Ritual, pp. 156–81; and for Florence, in addition to Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance Florence, see Ronald F. E. Weissman, Ritual Brotherhood in Renaissance Florence (New York: Academic Press, 1985). A similar transition in festive life and the meaning of Carnival occurred in Nuremberg in these years: see Samuel Kinser, ‘Presentation and Representation: Carnival at Nuremberg’, Representations 13 (1986): 1–41 – see also Kinser, Rabelais’s Carnival: Text, Context, Metatext (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). 38 Muir, Civic Ritual, p. 164; and Matteo Casini, I gesti del principe: la festa polit- ica a Firenze e Venezia in età rinascimentale (Venice: Marsilio, 1996). 39 On Borromeo and Bellarmine’s attacks on Carnival and the suppression of comedies in Venice, see Burke, ‘Le Carnaval de Venise’, p. 59. On Venetian views of the theater and morality in this period, see also Gaetano Cozzi, ‘Appunti sul teatro e i teatri a Venezia agli inizi del Seicento’, Bollettino dell’Istituto di Storia della Società e dello Stato Veneziano I (1959): 187–9. 40 On Venetian expansion onto the terraferma, see John Jeffries Martin and Dennis Romano, ‘Reconsidering Venice’ in our Venice Reconsidered: The History and Civilization of an Italian City State, 1297–1797 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), pp. 8–13 especially; on the growing detachment of the nobility from civic affairs, see Nicolai Rubinstein, ‘Italian Reactions to Terraferma Expansion in the Fifteenth Century’, in J. R. Hale, Renaissance Venice (London: Faber and Faber, 1973), pp. 197–217, and Brian Pullan, ‘The Occupations and Investments of the Venetian Nobility in the Middle and Late Sixteenth Century’, in the same volume, pp. 379–408. On the growth of manufactures, see Frederic Lane, Venice: A Maritime Republic, pp. 308–21. Richard Mackenney points to many of the significant changes which took place in the structure and function of Venetian guilds between the late Middle Ages and the early seventeenth century in his ‘Arti e Stato a Venezia tra tardo medio evo e ‘600.’ 41 Turner, The Ritual Process, p. 194. 42 Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and Semiotics (Berkeley: University of Caliornia Press, 1977), p. 51; the concept of bricolage as a means of under- standing alternative systems of meaning derives from Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 16–33 especially.

5 Possessions

1 Elena was tried by the Venetian Inquisition on two occasions: ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 30, ‘Contra Helena ditta la Draga demoniata, 1571’ and busta 49, ‘Crusichi, Elena’, 1582. This trial has received considerable atten- tion. See Ruth Martin, Witchcraft and the Inquisition in Venice, 1550–1650 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), pp. 140–6 especially and Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions: Tales of Magic, Marriage, and Power at the End of the Renaissance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 149–64 especially. 2 ASV, Sant’Uffizio, busta 30, ‘Contra Helena ditta la Draga’, testimony of 11 August 1571. 3 Cited in Ruggiero, Binding Passions, p. 162. Notes 151

4 Carlo Ginzburg, The Nightbattles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 8. This influential work, which first appeared in Italian in 1966, should now be read in con- junction with Franco Nardon, Benandanti e inquisitori nel Friuli del Seicento (Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste, 1999). 5 Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘Boundaries and the Sense of Self in Sixteenth- Century France’ in Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought, eds Thomas C. Heller, Morton Sosna, and David E. Wellbery (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986), pp. 53–63; on the permeable character of the skin in pre-Enlightenment Europe, see also Barbara Duden, The Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor’s Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991). 6 On historicizing the Renaissance body, see David Gentilcore, ‘The Ethnography of Everyday Life’ in Early Modern Italy, ed. John A. Marino (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 202–5. 7 Jeffrey B. Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle Ages (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972). 8 Peter Brown, The Cult of Saints: Its Rise and Function in Late Antiquity (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 107. 9 Francesco Maria Guazzo, Compendium maleficarum, ed. M. Summers, trans. E. A. Ashwin (New York: Dover Publications, 1988), p. 106. 10 Peter Winch, ‘Understanding a Primitive Society’ in his Ethics in Action (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), pp. 8–50 remains an essential starting point for the importance of understanding the kinds of questions that beliefs in witchcraft sought to answer. Winch demonstrates clearly that witchcraft beliefs are not a substitute for science but are rather closely related to the fundamental question of why misfortunes afflict particular persons. 11 Brian P. Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe (London: Longman, 1987), p. 57. 12 Ruggiero, Binding Passions, p. 149; cf. Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). 13 Didier Anzieu, The Skin Ego, trans. Chris Turner (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). 14 Brian P. Levack, The Witch-Hunt, p. 21. 15 Heinrich Kramer and James [sic] Sprenger, The Malleus malificarum, trans. Montague Summers (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1971), p 99. 16 Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 433–8 stresses the com- plexity of the relation between the rise of printing and the development of the witch craze. 17 Bernardo [Rategno] da Como, De strigiis in Lucerna inquisitorum haereticae praevitatis (Milan: Apud Valerium et Hieronymum Fratres Metios, 1566); Italian translation in La stregoneria: diavoli, streghe, inquisitori dal Trecento al Settecento, eds Sergio Abbiati, Attilio Agnoletto, and Maria Rosario Lazzati 152 Notes

(Milan: Arnoldo Mondadori Editori, 1984), pp. 200–17 and Bartolomeo Spina, Questio de strigibus, selections published in La stregonaria, pp. 256–63. On Modena, see Carlo Ginzburg, ‘Stregoneria e pietà popolare: note a proposito di un processo modenese del 1519’ Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Lettere, storia e filosofia. S. II 30 (1961): 269–87. 18 Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 11–30. 19 Ruth Martin, Witchcraft and the Inquisition in Venice, p. 208 and passim; Mary Rose O’Neil, Discerning Superstition: Popular Errors and Orthodox Response in Late Sixteenth-Century Italy, Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1981; E. William Monter and John Tedeschi, ‘Toward a Statistical Profile of the Italian Inquisitions, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries’ in The Inquisition in Early Modern Italy: Studies on Sources and Methods, eds Gustav Henningsen and John Tedeschi (Dekalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1986), p. 135. 20 Guido Ruggiero, Binding Passions, p. 17. 21 Carlo Ginzburg, The Night Battles, p. 137. 22 Peter Burke, ‘Witchcraft and Magic in Renaissance Italy: Gianfrancesco Pico and his Strix’, in The Damned Art: Essays in the Literature of Witchcraft, ed. Sydney Anglo. (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), pp. 32–50. 23 Eymeric and Peña, Directorium inqvisitorum, pp. 335–48. 24 Desiderio Scaglia, ‘Prattica per provedere nelle cause del Tribunale del Sant’Offitio’, Ph. 12868, Ranuzzi Collection, Humanities Research Center, University of Texas, Austin; on this work, see John Tedeschi, ‘The Question of Magic and Witchcraft in Two Inquisitorial Manuals’ in Tedeschi, The Prosecution of Heresy: Collected Studies on the Inquisition in Early Modern Italy (Binghamton, New York, MRTS, 1991), p. 252, n. 48. 25 Masini, Sacro Arsenale. 26 John Tedeschi, ‘The Question of Magic and Witchcraft’, p. 252, n. 48. 27 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner’s, 1971), p. 493. 28 The distinction between bewitchment and possession was not easily made; see Francesco Maria Guazzo, Compendium maleficarum, pp. 167–9. For a useful collection of essay on possession and exorcism, see Brian P. Levack, ed., Witchcraft, Magic and Demonology, 12 vols (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1992), esp. vol. 9 Possession and Exorcism. 29 Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons; Anne Jacobson Schutte, Aspiring Saints: Pretense of Holiness, Inquisition, and Gender in the Republic of Venice, 1618–1750 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). 30 O’Neil, ‘Discerning Superstition’, p. 301. 31 Menghi’s Latin texts on exorcism and possession include the Flagellum dae- monum, exorcismos terribles, potentissimos, et efficaces (Venice: Apud I. V. Sauionum, 1644) and the Fustis daemonum adivrationes formidablies (Venice: Apud. I. V. Sauionum, 1644). Antonio Aliani, see preceding note, has counted 14 editions of the Flagellum daemonum; 7 of the Fustis daemonum; and 33 of the Flagellum and the Fustis in a combined edition. Ottavio Franceschini offers an overview of Menghi’s career in his reprint edition of the Compendio dell’arte essorcistica. Among Italian scholars who have studied Menghi, see Massimo Petrocchi, Esorcismi e magia nell’Italia del Cinquecento e Notes 153

Seicento (Naples: Libreria scientifica editrice, 1957), pp. 13–27 especially and Giovanni Romeo, Inquisitori, esorcisti e streghe nell’Italia della Controriforma (Florence: Sansoni, 1990). Mary O’Neil has played a key role in calling attention to the significance of this figure in the contemporary historiogra- phy of the Renaissance. See especially her essay ‘Sacerdote ovvero strione: Ecclesiastical and Superstitious Remedies in 16th-Century Italy’ in Understanding Popular Culture: Europe from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century, ed. Steven L. Kaplan (Berlin: Mouton Publishers, 1984), pp. 54–83. 32 O’Neil, Discerning Superstition. 33 Alessio Porri, Antidotario contro li demoni, nel quale si tratta come entrano ne’ corpi humani (Venice: R. Megietti, 1601) and Giorgio Polacco, Pratiche per discerner lo spirito buono dal malvagio (Bologna: Giacomo Monti, 1638). 34 Zaccaria Visconti, Complementum artis exorcisticae (Venice: Francisum Barilettum, 1600), Alessandro Albertino, Malleus daemonum (Venice: Typis Bartholomaei, 1620), and Candido Brognolo, Manuale exorcistarum ac paro- chorum (Lyons: Apud J. Radisson, 1658). Other important manuals of exor- cism included Alberto da Castello, Liber sacerdotalis (Venice: Victor a Rabanis, 1537); Pietro Antonio Stampa, Fuga Satanae (Como: Ex Typografphia H. Frouae, 1597); the Tesaurus exorcismorum atque coniura- tioum terribilium (Cologne: Lazarus Zetzner Heirs, 1626); Carolo Olivieri, Baculus daemonum (Perugia: Apud Marcum Naccarium, 1618); and Floriano Canale, Del modo di conoscer e sanare I malificiati trattati due (Brescia: Santo Zanetti, 1638; reprint edition: Sala Bolognese: Arnaldo Forni, 1987). 35 O’Neil, ‘Discerning Superstition’. 36 The 1572 edition has not survived, but see the Compendio dell’arte essorcistica e possibilità della mirabili e stupende operationi delli demoni e dei malefici con i rimedii opportuni all’infirmità maleficiali (Bologna: G. Rossi, 1576; reprinted with a postface by Ottavio Franceschini, Genoa: Nuova Stile Regina, 1987). In an appendix to Franceschini’s edition, Antonio Aliani provides a list of the various editions of Menghi’s works; there were 17 editions between 1576 and 1617. 37 Girolamo Menghi, Compendio dell’arte essorcistica, Proemio, p. 2 (not numbered). 38 Tomaso Garzoni, Piazza universale di tutte le professioni del mondo, ed. Paolo Cherchi and Beatrice Collina, 2 vols (Turin: Einaudi, 1996), vol. 1, pp. 493–8. 39 On the trials in Siena in 1569, when five women were burned, and at Rome in 1572, where there were four executions, see Romeo, Inquisitori, esorcisti, pp. 44–5, n. 50; on the trial at Lecco, carried out under Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, see ibid., pp. 48–53; and on the trial in Liguria of 1587–88, ibid., pp. 29–31; at Mantua in 1595 and 1600–01, ibid., p. 44; at Perugia in 1590, ibid., p. 44. See also Schutte, Aspiring Saints, p. 63. 40 Menghi, Compendio, p. 75. 41 Menghi, Compendio, p. 77. 42 Menghi, Compendio, pp. 152 and 224. 43 Menghi, Compendio, pp. 83–6, though, in the end, he proposes the solution that both opinions are true: ‘Concediamo adunque la loro esperienza vera, ma fa di bisogno che anchor essi concedano le nostre essere vere, perche una non ripugna all’altra, anci l’una, & l’altra alle volte ha potuto occorrer.’ (Compendio, 167, 177–8) 154 Notes

44 Romeo, Inquisitori, esorcisti e streghe, p. 117. 45 Romeo, Inquisitori, esorcisti e streghe, p. 107 or 167. 46 Romeo, Inquisitori, esorcisti e streghe, pp. 119–22. 47 Nardon, Benandanti e inquistori, pp. 179 ff. 48 Garzoni, Piazza universale, p. 496. 49 Menghi, Compendio, p. 44. 50 Stephen Greenblatt, ‘Shakespeare and the Exorcists’ in Greenblatt, Shakespearian Negotiations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 94–128. 51 Moshe Sluhovsky, ‘A Divine Apparition or Demonic Possession? Female Agency and Church Authority in Demonic Possession in Sixteenty-Century France’, Sixteenth Century Journal 27 (1996): 1039–56 and Greenblatt, ‘Shakespeare and the Exorcists.’ 52 Clark, Thinking with Demons, p. 409. 53 Cecilia Ferrazzi, Autobiografia di una santa mancata, ed. Anne Jacobson Schutte (Bergamo: Pierluigi Lubrina Editore, 1990); Autobiography of an Aspiring Saint, ed. and trans. Anne Jacobson Schutte (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 71–2. 54 Giancarlo Volpato, ‘Girolamo Menghi, o Dell’arte escorcista’, Lares 57 (1991): 381–97. 55 Menghi, Flagellum daemonum, p. 20. 56 Menghi, Fustis daemonum, p. 30. 57 Menghi, Flagellum daemonum, p. 21. 58 Menghi, Flagellum daemonum, p. 36. 59 Menghi, Flagellum daemonum, pp. 74–5. 60 Garry Wills, Venice, Lion City: The Religion of Empire (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), pp. 69–71. 61 Daniela Bohde, ‘Skin and the Search for the Interior: The Representation of Flaying in the Art and Anatomy of the Cinquecento’ in Bodily Extremities: Preoccupations with the Human Body in Early Modern Culture, eds Florike Egmond and Robert Zwijnenberg (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), p. 32. 62 Katharine Park, ‘The Criminal and the Saintly Body: Autopsy and Dissection in Renaissance Italy’, Renaissance Quarterly 47 (1994): 1–33. 63 Ovid, Metamorphosis, Bk. VI, line 385, also cited by Wills, Venice, Lion City, p. 70.

6 The Proffered Heart

1 Emile Mâle, Religious Art from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Centuries (New York: Pantheon, 1949). Portions of this chapter appeared earlier in my ‘Inventing Sincerity, Refashioning Prudence: The Discovery of the Individual in Renaissance Europe’, American Historical Review 102 (1997): 1309–42. 2 Cesare Ripa, Iconologia, overo descrizzione di diverse imagini cavate dall’ antichità e di propria invenzione, trovate e dichiarate da Cesare Ripa perugino (Rome: Faci, 1603; reprinted New York: G. Olms, 1970). 3 Erna Mandowsky, Untersuchungen zur Iconologie der Cesare Ripa (Hamburg: H. Proctor, 1934); Gerlind Werner, Ripa’s Iconogia: Quellen-Methode-Ziele (Utrecht: Haentjens Dekker & Gumbert, 1977). See also the important Notes 155

review essay on Werner by Elizabeth McGrath, ‘Personifying Ideals’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 53 (1990): 363–8. 4 At roughly the same time, the Dutch humanist Hadrianus Junius and the Dutch artist Maarten van Heemskerck developed prints portraying the story of Momus and the creation. In the inscription to his etching, borrowed from Junius, Heemskerck has Momus state, ‘I recommend man being fash- ioned with a latticed breast so that the space within conceals nothing from those who keep their eyes and ears open.’ (Ilja M. Veldman, Maarten van Heemskerck and Dutch Humanism in the Sixteenth Century, trans. Michael Hoyle [Maarsen: Gary Schwartz, 1977], p. 101.) 5 John L. Lievsay, Stefano Guazzo and the English Renaissance 1575–1675 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961); cf Daniel Javitch, ‘Rival Arts of Conduct in Elizabethan England: Guazzo’s Civile Conversation and Castiglione’s Courtier’, Yearbook of Italian Studies 1 (1971): 178–98. 6 Stefano Guazzo, La civil conversazione, ed. Amadeo Quondam (Modena: Panini, 1993). 7 As the Italian scholar Amedeo Quondam has shown in his comprehensive study of La conversazione civile, there are numerous structural parallels between the way in which Guazzo described various virtues – justice, grace, courtesy, and so on – and Ripa’s portrayals of these same ideas. Quondam first established the influence of Guazzo on Ripa in his ‘La virtù dipinta: noterelle (e divagazioni) guazziane intorno a Classicismo e Istituto in Antico Regime’ in Stefano Guazzo e la Civil conversazione, ed. Giorgio Patrizi (Rome: Bulzoni, 1981). 8 Guazzo, La civil conversazione, p. 170. 9 Giralomo Vida, Dialogi de rei publicae dignitate (Cremona: Apud Vincentium Conetem, 1556), reprinted with an Italian translation in Giuseppe Toffanin, L’Umanesimo al Concilio di Trento (Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli, 1555), pp. 77–157. 10 Quondam, ‘Note al primo libro’ in Guazzo, La civil conversazione, vol. 2, pp. 55–6. 11 Carol Maddison, Marcantonio Flaminio: Poet, Humanist, & Reformer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), p. 158. 12 Guazzo, La civil conversatione, vol. 1, p. 86. 13 Guazzo, La civil conversatione, vol. 1, p. 107. 14 Guazzo, La civil conversatione, vol. 1, p. 111. 15 Guazzo, La civil conversatione, 86: ‘Chi desidera adunque usar felicemente della civil conversazione ha da considerare che la lingua è lo specchio e ‘l ritratto dell’ animo suo, e che sì come dal suono del danaio conosciamo la bontà e la falsità sua, così dal suone delle parole comprendiamo a dentra la qualità dell’ uomo e i suoi constumi.’ See also p. 92. 16 Lievsay, Stefano Guazzo and the English Renaissance. 17 Flaminio put great emphasis on sincerity. He translates Psalm 12: with a direct reference to Sincerity as a virtue. This is a new usage of the term in the Italian context. ‘Now kindly Truth has been driven away by lying/Falsehood, and has left the cities,/Together with Faith, and holy Modesty, and her sister/Lovely Sincerity.’ The original psalm does not use this word: ‘They speak vanity every- one with his neighbour, with flattering lips and with a double heart do they speak.’ (Maddison, Marcantonio Flaminio, p. 165). 156 Notes

18 Guazzo, La civil conversazione, vol. 1, p. 24. 19 Quondam, ‘Note al primo libro’ in Guazzo, La civil conversazione, vol. 2, p. 60. 20 Il Beneficio di Cristo, con le versioni del secolo XVI: documenti e testimonianze, ed. Salvatore Caponetto (Florence: Sansoni, 1972; Chicago: Newberry Library, 1972), p. 82 21 On the spread of Calvinist ideas in France in this period, see Robert J. Knect, The French Civil Wars, 1562–1598 (New York: Longman, 2000). 22 Peter Burke, The Art of Conversation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 11. 23 Lionell Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 2. 24 A notion of sincerity is implicit in Petrarch’s ‘The Ascent of Mont Ventoux’ (The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, ed. Ernst Cassirer et al. [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948], 46). On Valla and sincerity, see Mario Fois, Il pensiero cristiano di Lorenzo Valla nel quadro storico-cul- turale del suo ambiente (Rome: Gregoriana, 1969). 25 Regula Benedicti, Rudolphus Hanslik, ed., vol. 75 of Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 2nd edn (Vienna: Hoelder-Pichler-Temsky, 1977), sect. 18: ‘de disciplina psallendi.’ On the influence of classical ideals of concordia on the Benedictine Rule, see Winfrid Cramer, ‘Mens concordet voci: zum Fortleben einer stoischen Gebetsmaxime in der Regula Benedicti’ in Pietas: Festschrift für Bernhard Kötting, eds Ernst Dassmann and K. Suso Frank (Münster: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1980), pp. 447–57, esp. 454; Viktor Warnach, ‘Mens concordet voci: zur Lehre der heiligen Benedikt über die geistige Haltung beim Chorgebet nach dem 19. Kapitel seiner Klosterregel’, Liturgisches Leben 5 [1938]: 179.) That concordia was not merely a religious but also a political ideal in the late Roman world is evident from H. P. L’Orange, Art Forms and Civic Life in the Late Roman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 46–51. On the medieval context, see Giles Constable, ‘The Concern for Sincerity and Understanding in Liturgical Prayer, Especially in the Twelfth Century’, in Classica et Mediaevalia: Studies in Honor of Joseph Szövérffy, eds Irene Vaslef and Helmut Buschhausen (Washington: Classical Folio Editions, 1986), pp. 17–30. 26 Cited in Caroline Walker Bynum, Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), p. 98. See also John F. Benton, ‘Consciousness of Self and Perceptions of Individuality’ in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, eds Robert Benson and Giles Constable (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 263–95. 27 Hugh of St. Victor, Expositio in Regulam Beati Augustini, in Patrologiae cursus completus series latina [PL hereafter], ed. J. P. Migne (Paris: Apud Garnieri Fratres, 1844–91), vol. 176: col. 892. 28 Bernardus Sylvestris, Cosmographia, translation with introduction and notes by Winthrop Wetherbee (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), pp. 88 and 109. 29 Alan of Lille, ‘Expositio prosae de angelis’, in Alain de Lille: Textes inédits avec une introduction sur sa vie et ses oeuvres, ed. Marie-Thérèse d’Alverny (Paris: Vrin, 1965), p. 196. Notes 157

30 Adam of Dryburgh, Liber de quadripertito exercitio cellae, sect. 35, in PL, vol. 153: col. 878C. 31 Francis’s reversal of Benedict’s formula ‘ut mens nostra concordet voci nostrae’ to ‘ut vox concordet menti’ has occasioned considerable discussion. See Bertilo De Boer, ‘La soi-disant opposition de Saint François d’Assise à Saint Benoit’, Etudes franciscaines 7 (1957): 181–94. 32 Marsilio Ficino, Letters, Members of the Language Department of the School of Economic Science, London, trans., with a preface by Paul Oskar Kristeller, 5 vols (London: Shepheard-Walwyn, 1975–94), vol. 1: no. 77; 5: no. 21. 33 Robert Javelet, Image et ressemblance au douzième siècle de saint Anselme à Alain de Lille, 2 vols (Paris: Editions Letouzey & Ané, 1967) and Giles Constable, ‘The Ideal of the Imitation of Christ’, in Constable, Three Studies in Medieval Religious and Social Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 145–248, esp. 179–217. 34 Bynum, Jesus as Mother, p. 90 and Timothy J. Reiss, The Discourse of Modernism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982), p. 87. Both Bynum and Reiss are responding critically to Morris, The Discovery of the Individual. 35 Heiko Oberman, The Harvest of Late Medieval Theology: Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Nominalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967). 36 Steven Ozment, ‘Luther and the Later Middle Ages: The Formation of Reformation Thought’, in Transition and Revolution: Problems and Issues in European Renaissance and Reformation History, ed. Robert M. Kingdon (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1974), p. 124. Despite Ozment’s point, it remained true that the human person continued to be understood, at least in part, in the language of similitude, a language in which concordia continued to play a role, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. On this theme, see especially Michel Foucault, The Order of Things, pp. 17–77. Foucault ignores the evidence from early Protestant theology that challenges his dating of the shift from an emphasis on similitude to one of difference, identity, and analysis. As he notes, ‘[e]stablishing discontinuities is not an easy task even for history in general.’ (50) 37 Martin Luther, ‘Preface to the Psalms’, in Martin Luther: Selections from His Writings, ed. John Dillenberger (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961), 38–9 [‘Vorrhede auff den Psalter’ in Luther, Die Deutsche Bibel in D. Martin Luthers Werke (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus, 1925), X, pt. I, 100 and 101.] 38 ‘Preface to the Psalms’, 39 [‘Vorrede’, pp. 100, 102, 103]. 39 Calvin, A Commentary on the Psalms, Arthur Golding, trans. [1571], revised and edited by T. H. L. Parker (London: James Clarke, 1965), 16 [Ioannis Calvini in librum Psalmorum commentarius [1557] in vol. 29 of CO, cols 16 and 17]. Here and below I have modified the Golding-Parker translation slightly. On the centrality of the Psalms to Calvin, see Barbara Pitkin, ‘Imitation of David: David as Paradigm for Faith in Calvin’s Exegesis of the Psalms’, Sixteenth Century Journal 24 (1993): 843–63, and for the central role of the Psalter in Reformed spirituality, see Henri Chaix, Le Psautier Huguenot: sa formation et son historie dans l’Eglise Réformée (Geneva: Romet, 1907). Calvin had com- pared the Psalms to an anatomy of the soul in his Preface to Louis Budé’s translation of the Psalms (1551) [‘Preface de Iehan Calvin aux lecteurs fideles, 158 Notes

touchant l’utilité des Pseaumes et de la translation presente’ in Rudolphe Peter, ‘Calvin and Louis Budé’s Translation of the Psalms’, in John Calvin, ed. G. E. Duffield (Appleford: The Sutton Courtenay Press, 1966), pp. 201–6, esp. p. 202, a work overlooked in CO, and further evidence of Calvin’s desire to popularize the Psalms among Reformed congregations]. 40 Calvin, A Commentary on the Psalms, Ps. 12, v. 3 [in librum Psalmorum com- mentarius [1557], Ps. 12, v. 3]. 41 Calvin, A Commentary on the Psalms, Ps. 15, v. 2 [in librum Psalmorum commentarius, Ps. 15, v. 2]. 42 Melanchthon, Loci communes theologici, trans. by Lowell J. Satre with revisions by Wilhelm Pauck, in Melanchthon and Bucer, ed. Wilhelm Pauck (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969), pp. 29, 27, 30 [Loci communes in vol. 2, pt. 1 of Melanchthons Werke, Hans Engelland and Robert Stupperich, eds (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 1978), pp. 29, 27, 31]. 43 Bouwsma, ‘The Two Faces of Humanism’, 47. Melanchthon himself did not use the term ‘insincere’ but rather ‘per simulationem’ (Melanchthons Werke, 28). 44 Calvin, Institutes, Bk. 3, Chap. 20, sect. 31. 45 Bouwsma, John Calvin, p. 179. 46 Melanchthon, Loci communes, 27 [Melanchthons Werke, 27]. 47 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, 610 [Essais, 804]. 48 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, 140 [Essais, 189–90]. 49 Guicciardini, Ricordi, series 2, no. 104. 50 Shakespeare, Hamlet, Liii.59. 51 The best biographical study of Montaigne remains Donald M. Frame, Montaigne: A Biography (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965). Scholars who have highlighted the split between public and private life in Montaigne’s self-exploration include Frederick Rider, The Dialectic of Selfhood in Montaigne (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973) and Nannerl O. Keohane, ‘Montaigne’s Individualism’, Political Theory 5 (1977): 363–90. 52 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 177 [Essais, p. 241]. 53 Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning, 46. 54 Prudence is most often used as a synonym for wisdom (sagesse) in the Essays. 55 My analysis of sincerity in Montaigne is especially indebted to Jean Starobinski, Montaigne in Motion, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 56 Montaigne, The Compete Essays, pp. 600–1 [Essais, p. 792]. 57 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 642 [Essais, p. 846, where he adds, ‘[p]our estre bien secret, il le faut estre par nature, non par obligation’]. 58 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 505 [Essais, p. 666]. 59 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 491 [Essais, p. 647]. 60 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 492 [Essais, p. 649]. 61 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 610 [Essais, p. 804]. 62 Jean Lecointe, L’ldéale et la différence: la perception de la personnalité littéraire à la Renaissance (Geneva: Droz, 1993), esp. Chap. 3: ‘Vers une rhétorique de la personne.’ 63 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, p. 615 [Essais, p. 810–11]. 64 Montaigne, The Complete Essays, pp. 773–4 [Essais, p. 1011]. Notes 159

65 Greenblatt, ‘Psychoanalysis and Renaissance Culture’, in Literary Theory/Literary Texts, eds Patricia Parker and David Quint (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 222. 66 Marc Fumaroli, ‘Michel de Montaigne ou l’éloquence du for intérieur’ in Jean Lafond, ed. Les formes brèves de la prose et le discours discontinu (XVIe–XVIIe siècles) (Paris, J. Vrin, 1984), pp. 27–50. 67 On Montaigne’s library, see Hugo Friedrich, Montaigne, trans. Dawn Eng (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 41–2 as well as Montaigne’s own description in the Essays, pp. 628–9 [Essais, vol. 3, pp. 828–9; on Guazzo’s influence, see Marcel Tetel, Présences italiennes dans les Essais de Montaigne (Paris: Champion, 1992), pp. 11–27; Tetel misidentifies the Cavaliere in La civil conversazione as ‘l’auteur lui-même, le Cavaliere Guazzo.’ (14) First, the Cavaliere is not Stefano but Guglielmo, the author’s younger brother; moreover Annibale more closely represents the author; on this second point, see Giorgio Patrizi, ‘Una retorica del molteplice: forme di vita e forme del sapere nella ‘civil conversatione’, p. 48. 68 Montaigne, Essays, p. 244 [Essais, p. 337]

7 Myths of Identity – an Essay

1 The passage from ‘On Presumption’ is from Montaigne, The Complete Essays, trans. Donald M. Frame (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958), pp. 484–5; Les essais, ed. Pierre Villey, 3 vols (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1924), vol. 2, p. 639; on Montaigne’s views of the popular and elite beliefs concerning witchcraft, see especially his essay ‘Of Cripples’, Essays, pp. 784–92; [Essais, vol. 3, pp. 1025–35]. For a useful reading of this second essay, see Maryanne C. Horowitz, ‘Montaigne’s Doubts on the Miraculous and the Demonic in Cases of His Own Day’ in Regnum, Religio et Ratio: Essays Presented to Robert M. Kingdon, ed. Jerome Friedman (Kirksville, Mo.: Sixteenth Century Essays & Studies, 1987), pp. 81–92. 2 Michael Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self: Autobiography and Self- Identity in England, 1591–1791 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996). 3 My arguments here are informed in particular by the recent work of Lionel Gossman, See, in particular, his ‘Cultural History and Crisis: Burckhardt’s Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy’ in Rediscovering History: Culture, Politics, and the Psyche, ed. Michael S. Roth (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), pp. 404–27. On de Tocqueville’s reactions to 1848, see especially his Recollections, trans. George Lawrence (Garden City: Doubleday, 1970). 4 James Hankins, ‘“The Baron Thesis” after Forty Years and Some Recent Studies of Leonardo Bruni’, Journal of the History of Ideas 56 (1995): 309–38. 5 William James Bouwsma, ‘The Renaissance and the Drama of Western History’, The American Historical Review 84 (1979): 1–15. 6 On the appropriation of Burckhardt’s ideas, especially as he developed them in his Weltgeschichtliche Betractungen, see Lionel Gossman, ‘Jacob Burckhardt: Cold War Liberal?’ in Journal of Modern History 74 (2002): 551–3. 7 Gossman, ‘Jacob Burckhardt: Cold War Liberal?’ pp. 538–72. 160 Notes

8 James Grubb, ‘When Myths Lose Power: Four Decades of Venetian Historiography’, Journal of Modern History 58 (1986): 43–94. 9 Lee Patterson, ‘On the Margin: Postmodernism, Ironic History and Medieval Studies’, Speculum 65 (1990): 87–108. 10 Frederic Jameson, Postmodernism or, The Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke, 1991), an expansion of his earlier essay by the same title in New Left Review 146 (1984): 53–92 and David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), but see also Barbara Epstein, ‘Postmodernism and the Left’, New Politics 6 (1997): 130–44, whose remarks have done much to shape my own thinking on this subject. For other important efforts to offer a historical account of the emergence of postmod- ern thought, see Martin E. Gloege, ‘The American Origins of the Postmodern Self’ in Constructions of the Self, ed. George Levine (Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992), pp. 59–80 and Carolyn J. Dean, The Self and Its Pleasures: Bataille, Lacan, and the History of the Decentered Subject (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992). 11 On French postmodernism, see the polemical work of Luc Ferry and Alain Renault, French Philosophy in the Sixties: An Essay on Antihumanism, trans. Mary H. S. Cattani (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990), which is useful primarily as an effort to place the development of postmod- ernism in its historical context. On the development of postmodernism in the United States, see the essays by Epstein and Gloege cited in the previous note. Daniel Gordon cautions against locating the origins of postmod- ernism exclusively in France; see his ‘On the Supposed Obsolence of the French Enlightenment’ in Postmodernism and the Enlightenment, ed. Gordon (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 206–11. 12 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (New York: Vintage, 1970), p. 387. 13 John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill and trans. Ford Lewis Battles, 2 vols (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960), vol 1, p. 188. 14 Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 2002) and Bill McKibben, Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age (New York: Times Books, 2003). 15 Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). 16 Robert Jay Lifton, The Protean Self: Human Resilience in an Age of Fragmentation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life (Boston: Basic Books, 1991); and Richard K. Fenn and Donald Capps, eds The Endangered Self (Princeton: Center for Religion, Self, and Society, Princeton Theological Seminary, 1992), with special attention to the essay by Mary Ellen Ross. Bibliography

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No book belongs to an individual author alone; each has a collective as well as a personal identity; and this is especially true of a book such as this one, long in the making, that has benefited from the assistance of many colleagues and friends at every step of the way. I shall always be grateful to Kenneth Gouwens for re-igniting, in a memorable discussion in Toronto, my interest in intellectual history. To Nicholas Davidson, I owe the gratitude of years of friendship as well as an invitation to a conference in London. It was during that overseas flight to Heathrow that I first had a chance to focus in a serious way on the possibility of explor- ing the history of Renaissance identities. Above all, I thank Edward Muir not only for inviting me to contribute to this series but also for his example and unfailing collegiality. Several colleagues have read and com- mented on the manuscript as it took shape. Alida Metcalf helped me rethink the rather theoretical first chapter, while Douglas Biow, Nancy Diehl, Eunice Herrington, and Ed Muir read the entire manuscript and offered constructive criticisms throughout. My colleagues have, as always, been a source of intellectual camaraderie; this is especially true of my own department where each of my fellow historians has contributed to this project in various ways but primarily through their good humor and their graceful willingness to suggest new perspectives and the consideration of new problems. Willis Salomon, a colleague in English, has done much to help me make at least some sense of the connections between the con- cerns of literary scholars and more traditional historians such as myself. From other campuses I have benefited enormously from the thoughts, insights, and encouragement of my friends and colleagues Caroline Walker Bynum, Marion Leathers Kuntz, Jacqueline Marie Musacchio, and Dennis Romano. Finally, to Antonio Calabria, tante tante grazie – he has been a friend in difficult times, bolstering my spirits and keeping me grounded in cose italiane ed umane. I have been grappling with the issues and the ideas in this book for a long while. My earlier essay with the title ‘The Myth of Renaissance Individualism’ appeared in The Blackwell Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance (2002). While my arguments have evolved significantly since I wrote that piece, I am grateful to the volume’s editor, Guido Ruggiero for making it possible for me to explore this theme even as my thinking on the subject was evolving. Fragments of that essay have an afterlife in

177 178 Acknowledgements this book, and I thank Blackwell Publishing as well as the editors of the American Historical Review, Renaissance Studies, and the Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies for permission to make use of previously pub- lished material, albeit in substantially different form. The Guggenheim Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Philosophical Society, the Faculty Development Commission at Trinity University, and the Joullian Fund of my department all offered crucial financial support that enabled work on this project – and I am grateful to each. Several scholarly institutions and communities have also provided support. Librarians and archivists at the Archivio di Stato in Venice, at the Warburg Institute in London, and at the Houghton Library, Harvard University have been more than accommodating. I am also indebted to Maria McWilliams of the Coates Library at Trinity; she has been imagi- native and resourceful in helping me locate works through Interlibrary Loan – not only primary sources but also the precious scholarship of my predecessors and peers whose work has done so much to pave the way for my own.

My family has always made room for my idiosyncratic interests. I am grateful for every moment with Mary Ellen, for her love, her laughter, her strength, and above all her take on things. She has always invited me to see the world in novel, imaginative, rebellious, and beautiful ways. And she has done much, drawing on her own interest in psycho- analysis and the history of the self, to sharpen my thinking on these matters. I am equally appreciative to Margaret, my daughter, and my son, Junius, not only for sharing their own interesting ideas with me about what they think the ‘self’ might be but also for pushing me again and again not to write a book that nobody reads. How many scholars must have winced as I did and do when, in one of those virtu- ally useless cavernous bookstores that now dot the American and British landscapes, a child asks for the umpteenth time, ‘Dad, how come we never see your books anywhere?’ Finally, it is a privilege to thank my brother, William Thomas Martin, for his love, friendship, and irrepressible intellectual curiosity. Because this is a book about identity, I dedicate it to the memory of my mother Dorothy Gemes Martin – who, along with her three lively sisters Mary Serena Gemes, Elizabeth Gemes Jackson, and Miriam Smith Irwin – had much to do with shaping my own sense of self. On the most important level, they offered me a sense of security and a sense of having a place in the world. They were, quite simply, my four points on the compass. Among other things, they told wonderful Acknowledgements 179 stories about growing up in a small town in north Georgia during the Depression. To hear them talk, their childhoods were not about indi- vidual accomplishments so much as about larger connections. Families sat on their porches after dinner; everybody was related to everyone; church was central to their lives; and they just knew that Mr C. L. Collins had the magical power that enabled him, among other things, to ‘wish’ warts away. I recognize that, while much about their lives was difficult, they were, relatively speaking, among the privileged. But the fact is that their conversations about their shared past made me deeply conscious at a relatively young age that I had been born into a world different from theirs, and this recognition – I am certain – played a decisive role in inciting a sense of historical curiosity. Of course I can’t know which of their incredible stories about growing up during the Great Depression are true, but the truths I do know I owe to each of them, and especially to Dorothy.

John Jeffries Martin San Antonio, Texas Index

Abelard, Peter 48 Beneficio di Cristo 108–9 Adam of Dryburgh 111 Bernard of Clairvaux 48 Aelred of Rievaulx 48 Bernard of Sylvester 110, 111 Agrippa, Cornelius 37 Bernardino of Siena 52 Alan of Lille 49, 110, 111 biography 10 Alberti, Leon Battista 30, 33–4, 52 Biow, Douglas 5–6 Albertino, Alessandro 92 body Aleandro, Girolamo 24 appearance 22–3, 98, 131 alienation 14, 38, 78, 106 embodied self 123–4, 131 Allegory of Prudence (Titian) 50–2 porous nature 18, 83–4, 99–102, Altieri, Baldassare 43 102 Anabaptists 42, 43, 44–5, 57–8 and relational self 14–15 angels, angelic spirits 37, 86 see also skin Anglican Church 97, 107 Bohde, Daniela 101, 143n.30 Anselm, St. 12 Bologna 57 antitrinitarian heresies 42, 43, 57 Bolognetti, Alberto 62 Aquinas, St. Thomas 12, 28, 49, 53 Bolzoni, Lina 30 Ariosto, Lodovico 17 Book of the Courtier (Castiglione) 8, Aristotle 48 34–5, 47, 49–50, 104, 140n.53 Arles, Martino de 63 books Arsenale 31, 32, 72, 131 on civility and etiquette 34–5, arsenalotti 31 49–50, 104–9 artisans and craftsmen 26, 44, demonological 87–8, 92–6 59–61, 70, 71, 74 on emblems 103 see also arsenalotti; cobblers; future of 130 printers; weavers heretical 25 artists 36, 50, 103–4 martyrologies 47 see also Carlo Dolci; Maarten van Borromeo, Carlo 78 Heemskerck; Hans Holbein the Bouwsma, William 115–16 younger; Lorenzo Lippi; Bragadin, Marcantonio 100 Lorenzo Lotto; Salvatore Rosa; bricolage 80 Raffaello Schiaminossi; Titian; Brognolo, Candido 92 Paolo Veronese Brown, Peter 85 Augustine, St. (of Hippo) 12, 44, 48–9 Bruni, Leonardo 49 Burckhardt, Jacob Bakhtin, Mikhail 68 Cicerone 4 Baron, Hans 126 Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy Barthes, Roland 136n.28 4, 125 Basle 124–5 cultural and historical context 124–6 Bellarmine, Roberto 78 postmodern reassessment of 5–7, benandanti 84, 89, 96 127 Benedictines 41 on Renaissance individualism Rule of St. Benedict 110 4–5, 6, 7, 9–10, 15, 125–6

181 182 Index

Burke, Peter 76 courtly life 34–5, 36, 47, 106, 108, Burton, Robert 17 109 Busale, Abbot Bruno 42, 57 see also Book of the Courtier Bynum, Caroline Walker 19, 112 craftsmen and artisans 26, 44, 59–61, 70, 71, 74 Caliari, Paolo see Veronese, Paolo see also arsenalotti; cobblers; Calvin, John printers; weavers on human nature 112, 132 Crusichi, Elena 83–4 on hypocrisy and sincerity 46–7, 47, 114–15, 116, 122 da Certaldo, Paolo 52 Calvinist ideas 108–9, 112 da Como, Bernardo 88 Campanella, Tommaso 37 da Venezia, fra Marino 26 Canale, Floriano 92 Darnton, Robert 67 Capuano, Alvise 75 Davis, Natalie Zemon 21, 74, 84 Carafa, Gianpetro (Pope Paul IV) 24, de Arles, Martino 63 25 de Maistre, Joseph 9 Caravia, Alessandro 27 de Priero, Silvestro 94 Cardano, Girolamo 38 de Tocqueville, Alexis 9, 10, 124, 125 Carnival 71–2, 76–8 Dee, John 37 Carpan, Bartolomeo 21–2, 22–3, della Casa, Giovanni 25, 34, 36 26–7, 30, 40 della Sega, Francesco 58–9 Casa, Giovanni della 25, 34, 36 demons and spirits 37–8, 94 Castelli, Giovanni Battista 73 exorcism of 91–100 Castiglione, Baldassare possession by 83–6, 98–100 Book of the Courtier 8, 34–5, 47, Derrida, Jacques 127–8 49–50, 104, 140n.53 disease and healing 83, 85–6, 90, Certaldo, Paolo da 52 96, 98–9, 102 Chambers, E. K. 74 dissimulation 28–30, 33–6, 47–8, Church, Roman Catholic 52–3, 119, 122 and access to spiritual power 89, Dolci, Carlo 103–4 91, 93 Dominicans 98 clergy and inversion rituals 72–4, dramas see theater 75–6 and exorcism 92–4 elites and patricians 34–5, 37, 44–5, Holy Office of Inquisition (see also 47, 53–5, 68 under Inquisition) 54 emblems 103, 104 and religious art 1–4 Emilia-Romagna 92 Church of England 97, 107 England 90–1, 97 civility 34–5; see also etiquette Enlightenment, ideological heritage Clark, Stuart 98 of 132 clergy see under Church, Roman Catholic Erasmus, Desiderius 34, 89, 124 cobblers 60 etiquette 36, 55; see also civility Como, Bernardo da 88 evangelism 43, 44, 53–7, 60, 61, concordia 110–12 107, 108–9 Contarini, Gasparo 53–6, 59, 107 exorcism 91–100 convents 38 Eymerich, Nicolau 29, 32, 35–6 conversation see speech Council of Trent 1, 63, 77–8, 93, Feast of Fools 72–4, 75–6, 81 106–7 Venetian journeymen 62–82 Index 183

Feast in the House of Levi, The Guerre, Martin 35 (Veronese) 1–3 Guicciardini, Francesco 47–8, 52, Febvre, Lucien 44 117 Felini, Iseppo 75 Guido, Desiderius 65–7 Ferrara 17 guilds 69, 76, 77, 78, 79 Ferrazzi, Cecilia 38, 98 Ficino, Marsilio 37, 111 Harvey, David 127 fishermen 31–2 healing and disease 83, 85–6, 90, Flaminio, Marcantonio 107, 108 96, 98–9, 102 Flaying of Marsyas (Titian) 100–1 heart Florence 53, 57, 76, 77 as center of moral being 104, Fornario, Martino 65 113–14, 115–17 Foucault, Michel 127–8, 129 proffered heart emblem 40, 103, Foxe, John 47 104, 116 France Heemskerck, Maarten van 154n.4 compagnonnages in 70 heresy exorcism of Nicole Obry 38, 97 as internal beliefs 28–30 Feast of Fools in 73, 74, 76 as a plague 24–6 French Revolution 10, 124 social location of 22–7, 44–5, spread of Calvinist ideas 109 60–1 Wars of Religion in 109 typology of 41–3 Francis, St. 111 see also Anabaptists; antitrinitarian Franciscans 25, 26, 52 beliefs; evangelism; millenarian Freud, Sigmund 15 heresies friars 25, 26, 52, 98 Hermeticism 37 Friuli 84, 96 hierarchies (social) and rituals 75–82, 88 Gaiano, Paolo 23, 24, 32–3, 70 see also elites Garzoni, Tomaso Holbein, Hans, the younger 124 Piazza universale di tutti professioni Holy Office of the Inquisition see del mondo 36, 93, 96 Inquisition, Holy Office of Gay, Peter 15 Huguenots 27, 38 Geertz, Clifford 39 humanism 49, 89, 106, 107, 124, Germany 91, 125–6 154n.4 Gherlandi, Giulio 58 Ginzburg, Carlo 67, 89 identities in Renaissance 13–14, 39, Giustiniani, Tommaso 53–4 84, 117, 130–1 Gonzaga, Lodovico 109 religious identity 46–8, 60–1 Gonzaga family 104, 109 social identity 17–18, 31, 36 Grabski, Józef 22 see also self Gratian, Baltasar 28 immigrants 23, 63, 68–9, 70, 71 Greenblatt, Stephen individual Renaissance Self-Fashioning 6, 7, as agent 116–22 11, 12, 16 as dissimilar to God 112–13 Grillando, Paolo 88 see also self Guazzo, Francesco Maria 85, 90 individualism, history of concept Guazzo, Stefano 104 8–12 Civil conversazione 8, 34, 36, 39, Inquisition, Holy Office of 54 104–9, 122 confessions to 41–3, 56–9 184 Index

Inquisition, Holy Office of continued Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Directorium inqvisitorium 24, 28, Witches) 38, 87–8, 95 32, 35–6, 89–90 Manelfi, don Pietro 42, 57, 58 and heresy 24, 25, 71–2, 95–6 Mantua 52, 104 in Modena 52 Marx, Karl 15 and possession 83 Masini, Eliseo questioning by 1, 22–30, 56, 63, 66 Sacro Arsenale 22, 29–30, 90 Sacro Arsenale 22, 29–30, 90 Medici family 77 and superstitious practice 62–7, 90 medicine see healing Venetian archives 7–8 medieval ideas of self see under Middle and witchcraft 84, 88–90, 91, 95–6 Ages interiority/inwardness 17–19, 46–8, Melanchthon, Philip 115–16 97–8, 102 Menghi, Girolamo 8, 92–100 inversion, rituals of 72–4, 75–6, 79, mercers 69–71 80–1, 88 ‘Feast of Fools’ among 62–82 merchants 35, 44, 59–61, 69, 76 Jameson, Frederic 127 Michelet, Jules 10 Javelet, Robert 111 Middle Ages Jedin, Hubert 143n.38 notions of self in 11–12, 48, jewelers 21–2, 26–7, 40, 60, 71 110–12 Jews 35, 57 millenarian heresies 42, 43 journeymen mercers 62–82 Mirabino, Angelo 67 Junius, Hadrianus 154n.4 misfortune 85 Modena 23, 24, 32–3, 52, 88 Kramer, Heinrich 38, 87, 95 Moeller, Bernd 45–6 monasticism 54, 56, 57, 59, 110–11 Lacan, Jacques 127 convents 38 Laureto di Buongiorno, Giovanni see also Benedictines; Dominicans; 57, 58 Franciscans lawyers and notaries 33, 47, 71 Monferrato 104, 106 Levack, Brian 87 Montaigne, Michel de 118–22 Lévi-Strauss, Claude 150n.42 Essays 11, 15, 121, 122 bricolage 80 on inward nature 15, 47, 116–17, Liguria 93 123–4 Lippi, Lorenzo 104 on witchcraft 89 literature see books Moravia 58, 59 Lombard, Peter 12 Muir, Edward 77 Lombardy 92 myths Lotto, Lorenzo 21–2, 40, 50 of Renaissance individualism Lucca 26, 73 124–30 Luther, Martin 38, 54, 112 social function of 12–13 and sincerity 113–14 Naples 57 Machiavelli, Niccolò 36, 49 nature (temperament) 120–1, 123 Macrobius, Ambrosius 50 neo-Platonists 37, 111 magic, spiritual 37–8 see also Macrobius see also witchcraft Nicodemites 35, 47, 55 Maistre, Joseph de 9 nominalism 112 Malinowski, Bronislaw 136n.28 Nuñes, Enriques 35 Index 185

Obry, Nicole 38, 97 Protestants 27, 35, 47, 52, 90–1 Ochino, Bernardino 43, 57 see also Calvinist ideas; evangelism; Ockham, William of 112 Huguenots; Luther, Martin Ovid 102 prudence 48–53, 55, 119 see also under self Padua 42, 72–3 publishing see books; printers University of 41, 53 painting see artists Quirini, Vincenzo 53–4 Panofsky, Erwin 50 Quondam, Amedeo 155n.7 Parto, Girolamo 33 Pater, Walter 10 Reggio Emilia 88 patricians 26, 34, 53–5 Reiss, Timothy J. 112 Patterson, Lee 11 religious identities 46–8, 60–1 Paul III, Pope 54 Ripa, Cesare Paul IV, Pope (Gianpetro Carafa) 24, Iconoglia 103, 105, 106 25 rituals Peña, Franciso 28, 29, 32, 35–6 exorcism 97–100 performance Feast of Fools 72–4 dissimulation 28–30, 33–6, 47–8, of healing 83, 97 52–3, 119 of inversion 72–4, 75–6, 79, of ritual 63, 74–82 80–1, 88 see also under self of journeymen mercers 63–74, Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) 11, 46, 78–82 110 social significance of 74–82 Piacenza 57 state orchestration of 68, 77–8 Piccolomini, Bartolomeo Carli 52, Rodolfo, Pietro 65–6 55 Rome 93 plague (1575–77) 69 Romeo, Giovanni 93, 95, 96 Polacco, Giorgio 92 Rosa, Salvator 104 Pole, Cardinal Reginald 107 Rosello, Lucio Paolo 52 Pomponazzi, Pietro 89 Ruggiero, Guido 38, 89 Pontano, Giovanni 49 Porri, Alessio 92 Sacks, Oliver 136n.40 Portrait of a Goldsmith in Three Views Sadoleto, Cardinal Jacopo 24 (Lotto) 21–2, 23 Salutati, Coluccio 49 portraiture 10, 21–2, 40, 50 Sanseverina, Lady Catherina 41 possession 38, 83–102 Scaglia, Cardinal Desiderio 90 postmodernism 127–30 Schiaminossi, Raffaelo 103 and Renaissance individualism Sega, Francesco della 58–9 5–7, 11, 12, 13, 127 self and the self as subject 15–16, 130 boundaries of 13–14, 18, 39–40, see also Greenblatt, Stephen 84, 86, 97, 131 Priero, Silvestro de 94 conforming or social 31–2, 36 printers 25 consciousness of 18–19 Priuli, Alvise 107 definition 14 proferred heart, emblem of 40, history of 40, 130–3 103–4, 105, 116 performative, role-playing 35–6, Protestantism 70, 81, 121, 131 intellectual revolution 112–17 porous (see also under body) 37–8 186 Index self continued Tihl, Arnaud du 35 and possession 84–5, 97–8 Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) 50–2, prudential 32–5, 50–3, 55–7, 117, 100–2 131 Allegory of Prudence 51 relational 7, 14–17, 39, 46, 84–5, Flaying of Marsyas 101 100 Tizzano, Lorenzo 41–4, 56–7, 59 sincere 38–9, 40, 107–8, 112–13 Tocqueville, Alexis de 9, 10, 124, see also identity; interiority 125 servants and workers 34, 45, 69–71, Toschi, Paolo 74 76 Trevisan, Giovanni 62, 67, 73–4 Shakespeare, William Treviso 22 Hamlet 8, 11, 18, 117 Trilling, Lionel 109–10 shipbuilders 31–2 Trissino, Alessandro 43–4 Sicily 73 Turner, Victor 76, 79 Siena 93 Simancas, Iacobo 28 Valdés, Juan de 41, 42, 107 sincerity 38–9, 40, 103–22 Valeriano, Pierio 50 Guazzo and 104, 106–9 Valla, Lorenzo 49, 110 history of the term 109–10 van Heemskerck, Maarten 154n.4 iconography of 103–4 Vendramin, Pietro 65 Montaigne and 119–122 Venezia, fra Marino da 26 and the Reformation 113–17 Venice and the Renaissance 110 apostolic visit 63 see also under self Carnival in 71–2, 76–8 skin 39–40, 84, 86, 100–2 case of possession 38, 83 smiths 60, 77 conforming self in 31–2 soul 84 elites and patricians in 53–5, 68, Sozzini, Fausto 43 71, 76–8 speech Feast of Fools in 62–7 and possession 97–8 guilds in 69, 76, 77, 78, 79 and prudence 34–5, 49–50, 52 heresy in 25–7, 33, 44–5 and sincerity 106, 107–8, 110–11, immigrants in 23, 26, 27, 32, 63, 114 68–9 Spiera, Francesco 33, 43, 47 Inquisition archives 7–8, 59–60 Spina, Bartolomeo 88 plague (1575–77) 69 spirits and demons 37–8, 92, 94 sexuality in 53 exorcism of 91–100 Venier, Nicolò 67 possession by 83–6, 98–100 Vergerio, Pier Paolo 33 Sprenger, Jakob 38, 87, 95 Veronese, Paolo symbols, religious 65, 79, 80, 90, 98 Burckhardt’s view of 4 Symonds, John Addington 10 Feast in the House of Levi 2 and Inquisition 1–4, 6–7 Tannio, Roberto 67 Vida, Marc Antonio 106–7, 108 Taylor, Charles 134n.7 Villafranca, Juan de 42 theater, Renaissance 16, 36 virtues 106 courtroom as 35–6 Visconti, Zaccaria 92 exorcism as 97 Thomas, Keith 90–1 War of Cyprus 100 Thomas Aquinas, St. 12, 28, 49, 53 weavers 23, 26, 32–3, 52, 70 Index 187

Weissman, Ronald F. E. 27–8 and misfortune 85, 150n.10 Weyer, Johannn 86 and porous self 38, 84 Winch, Peter 150n.10 sabbats 88, 94, 96 witchcraft 66, 86–96 workers and servants 34, 45, 69–71, and exorcism 93–6 76 and madness 86 Wyatt, Thomas 47