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GLOSSARY

The chapters in this volume contain from several : Bengali, , Nepali, , and Tibetan. Many Sanskrit and Sanskrit-related words are used in Bengali, Hindi and Nepali, so there is much overlap in the vocabulary related to renunciation in these Sanskrit-related languages. Acknowledging this overlap, we include Hindi, Bengali, and Nepali terms in a single list for Sanskrit-related languages. Because Tibetan and Sanskrit belong to different families, we list Tibetan terms in a separate list. Where alternative Sanskritized spellings appear in different chapters, we indicate both variants (samsar a; jnan I a; tapas I ya; vairag I ya). Three -derived words (khilaphat, majzub, mazar) are included in the first list, as they are used by Bengali-speaking .

Sanskrit,Related Languages of Hindi, Bengali, and Nepali Sanskrit scholar; spiritual leader of renouncer group ahamkar egotism ajiv insentient matter akhand Bharat united aryika noble woman; nun of the Jain Digambar sect asan seat or posture for meditation ashram hermitage in atman soul in Hinduism avadhut ascetic believed to be above all rule baba an old man; an ascetic (fbairagini) Vaishnava renouncer bansuri flute bhakti devotion in Hinduism bhandara feast Bharat India 270 GLOSSARY

bhek initiation into renunciation, usually Vaishnava or bhek-dhari person who has taken bhek or wears clothes signifying bhek bhog enjoyment; suffering; experiencing the result of good or bad deeds brahman ultimate reality; impersonal absolute daitva duty or responsibility dan contribution; donation; gift duty; moral order; religion waistcloth worn by men dhuni sacred fire pit associated with wandering renouncers diksha initiation by a that usually involves obtaining a mantra divyalok region of celestial beings do tara a lute--like instrument gaumutra cows' unne. ghar house or home of layperson ghuspeti infiltrator; spy guru spiritual teacher in Hinduism havan sacrificial fire Hindutva Hindu nationalism imani batein affairs jati byabasa caste occupation }ina literally conqueror; omniscient spiritual teacher of]ainism; synonym with Tirrhankara jivl a soul; that which has sentience in Hinduism and Jain ism jnan/ a knowledge; wisdom jnanamarg path of knowledge kamkarnewali literallly she who works karma action or good works; fruits of action in Hinduism karmayoga the yoga of good works karmic pertaining to actions or good works in this or other lives kashaya paSSions kavatchan tunic worn by mumukshus, upasikas, and samanis in khepa crazy; mad with longing for Divine; Bauls may append this to their name khilaphat Caliphate; used by Bauls and some Sufis ro refer to institu• tion of renunciation khukuri traditional Nepali curved knife with an iron blade kriyayoga particular yogic technique; used synonymously with karmayoga by some renouncers to mean "the yoga of action" kuti hermitage; small room, especially in a temple GLOSSARY 271

Lalan panthis followers of the famous Baul practitioner and artist Lalan who lived during the eighteenth century; his songs, sung by Bauls in West and , have esoteric meanings that are passed on from guru to disciple after ini• tiation (diksha) linga phallic representation of Shiva; a sign of Shiva's divine pres• ence and spiritual potential madhukari gathering honey by a bee; refers to mendicant practice of taking a little from many households and never a lot from one mahatma great soul; term of address usually for (male) saints mahavratas great vows of a renouncer majzub person who has renounced worldly concerns as a result of losing her or his senses; having ecstatic devotion or divine mala garland or necklace; rosary used in recitation of a mantra maya illusion; attachments and affections one feels for others mazar Muslim shrine dedicated to a saint mithini ritual sister; fictive kinship bond established between two women in Nepal mithyadrishti state of ignorance; delusion enlightenment; state of spiritual emancipation muhpatti mouth covering worn by Jain renouncers mumukshu one who desires emancipation; term used to describe a first year student at school for monastic training mum male renouncer murti icon in which a deiry resides murti devotional worship of icons nigodas the simplest form of life in Jainism nirguna without attributes or qualities nirjara the elimination of karmas in Jainism pagal crazy; see khepa priest paramlok heavenly region path recitation pran I a life force; breath prasad gift from a deiry or holy place; blessed food pratikraman a ritualized confessional prayer in Jainism pratilekhna the careful checking of clothes, books, and so on for insects pravachan religious sermon puja devotional ritual in Hinduism; veneration pujari ritual officiate 272 GLOSSARY rajya rule; kingdom roti unleavened flatbread made from wheat rup beauty; form; color; menstrual blood used in Baul initiation rites sadhana religious or ritual discipline; spiritual practice sadhu (f. sadhvi) Hindu renouncer; ascetic saguna with attributes or qualities sallekhana ritual fast to death in Jainism samaj society; community samani semi-renouncer category within Jain Terapanthi sect; woman who is initiated but permitted some practices forbidden to "full" renouncers, such as traveling by means other than by foot samayik meditation on true self; state of spiritual equanimity samsarl a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; worldly existence samskar I a mental impression forming on the mind; habit; also life cycle rite for Hindu householders sannyas I a renunciation of householder life for other wordly pursuits sannyasi (f sannyasini) Hindu renouncer seva serviCe shakti female creative principle; strength shiksha learning; education silpi artist; performer; craftsperson sindhur red powder worn by women to symbolize marital status sthan place; location sudarshan chakra sacred discus associated with Vishnu Sufi Muslim mystic Sufism mystical form oflslam emphasizing inner meanings of Muslim texts, mystical states to achieve close• ness to God, and the importance of a guide (pir or mursid) to gain knowledge; popular form of Islam in swami or master; term of address for male sadhus drum tapas I ya ascetic discipline, austerities tirthankara omniscient spiritual teacher of Jainism; synonym withjina tulsi mala garland made of carved wood from a sacred basil plant worn by Vaishnavas GLOSSARY 273 tyagi(f tyagini) a renouncer; one who has relinquished wordly concerns udasi free from worldly constraints; carefree upasika worshipper; term used to describe girls who are preparing to take initiation into renouncer order vairag I ya detachment; desirelessness vairagi (j vairagini) a renouncer who is in a state of detachment Vaishnava worshipper of god Vishnu or of one of his incarnations vanaprastha forest dwelling; one of the four stages of life in classi• cal Hinduism vandana devotional salutation vipassana a meditative technique vritti inner disposition vyavahar wordly behavior; business yogi (j yogini) practitioner of yoga; spiritual practitioner m or Buddhist tradition yoni female organ of generation; seat, place of rest, home, womb; usually represented at base of Shiva linga icon zildawar revenue official in Jammu and Kashmir in the colonial era

Tibetan Language ache elder sister ani aunt aphyi grandmother be le pang byes expiatory rite m which ransom figures (be le) are tossed Bon Tibetan religious tradition that predates and is still practiced in areas of Tibet and the . Now recognized by the Dalai Lama as a fifth sect of Buddhism Bonpo practitioner of the Bon tradition (Tib. Bon po) brgya 'bzhi expiatory rite involving the ritual tossing of effigies 'bum skor village ritual involving circumambulation of the fields chomo female religious practitioner of the Tibetan Buddhist and Bon traditions who lives independently m a village, without monastic support (Tib. jo mo) 274 GLOSSARY dbu mdzad chant-master; the monk or nun responsible for leading the monastic assembly in chanting dge skos a monastic office of disciplinarian dge tsha village ritual to honor the ancestors dgu mig bzlod expiatory rite involving the tossing of nine effigies 'dri chang begging for beer; event to raise funds for rituals drogmo ritual sister; fictive kinship bond established between two women (Tib. grogs mo) dzo yak/cow crossbreed animal used for transport and farm work (Tib. mdzo) geshe highest qualification in Tibetan monastic system, attained after a minimum of nine years of study and thought comparable to a PhD (Tib. dge bshes) gnyer pa steward who organizes funding, food, and finances for a ritual or institution gompa a temple or monastery in the Buddhist or Bon tradition (Tib. dgon pa) Kagyu Tibetan Buddhist sect known for its emphasis on meditation (Tib. bKa' rgyud) klu underground spirits that rule over fertility and prosperity of homes, villages, individuals mchodgnas monks serving three-year terms as village ritual officiants mkhanpo abbot; head of assembly mnga' 'og ritual, financial, and legal domain of a monastery within which it has jurisdiction no mo younger sister Nyingma literally "the old one"; earliest sect ofTibetan Buddhism that shares many practices with Bon and is known for noncelibate householder lamas (Tib. rnying ma) ma'i rin literally milk price, paid to a bride's mother pe rag jeweled headdress passed on from mother to (usually eldest) daughter at time of her wedding (Tib. be rag) rdo rje slop dpon a monastic office, head ritual officiant of monastics rgyal mdos expiatory rite involving the tossing of thread crosses ri !a bzhugs byes literally dwelling on the cliff; refers to a nuns' admission into assembly and more permanent residence at the clifftop nunnery Sakya Tibetan Buddhist sect widespread in the Mustang region of Nepal (Tib. sa skya) sgrol chu first watering; laborious process by which fields of seedlings are slowly flooded to prevent soil erosion GLOSSARY 275 skal ba the share that each nun or monk earns when public donations are divided among members of an assembly Tamang major ethnic population living in Nepal's middle hills; they speak a Tibeto-Burman language, practice their own form of Buddhism, and maintain strong links to ethnic Tibetan popula• tions elsewhere in the Himalayas. tsa mo granddaughter; niece (Tib. tsha mo) tulku reincarnate lama in the Tibetan religious tradition (Tib. sprul sku) NoTES ON CoNTRIBUTORS

Ann Grodzins Gold is Professor of Religion and Anthropology at Syracuse University. Her research in has included studies of pilgrimage, world renunciation, women's expressive traditions, and memories of environmental change. Her publications include four books: Fruitful journeys: The Wdys of&jasthani Pilgrims; A Carnival ofParting: The Tales of King Bharthari and King Gopi Chand; Listen to the Heron's Words: Reimagining Gender and Kinship in North India (coauthored with Gloria Raheja); and most recently In the Time ofTrees and Sorrows: Nature, Power and Memory in Rajasthan (coauthored with Bhoju Ram Gujar), which in 2004 was awarded the Ananda Kemish Coomaraswamy Book Prize from the Association for Asian Studies. Kim Gutschow is a Visiting Assistant Professor in the Department of Religion at Williams College. She is the author of Being A Buddhist Nun: The Struggle for Enlightenment in the Himalayas (Harvard University Press, 2004), which won the 2005 Sharon Stephens Prize for best ethnography awarded biannually by the American Ethnological Association. She has also written numerous articles on gendering Buddhist monasticism, fasting rit• uals, Tibetan medicine, pilgrimage, and the politics of water. She has worked in the Himalayan regions of Jammu and Kashmir for 15 years, researching the status of women and nuns, the female body, birthing, postpartum practices, and the relationship between Buddhist rituals, social power, and irrigation practices. Kristin Hanssen received her doctorate from the University of Oslo, Norway, for a thesis titled Seeds in Motion: Thoughts, Feelings and the Significance of Social Ties as Invoked by a Family of Vaishnava Mendicant Renouncers in Bengal. She has worked extensively with Vaishnava Bauls in rural , focusing on everyday activities involving singing songs for alms viewed in light of subjective experiences of menstrual blood as a source of physical and spiritual well-being. Her current interests include material culture, popular and political Islam, and issues of gender and modernity. 278 NoTES oN CoNTRIBUTORs

Sondra L. Hausner is an independent scholar researching gender, migration, and religion as a social system in South Asia. Her manuscript Wandering in Place: The Social World of Hindu Renunciation won the 2004 W Elder Prize in the Indian Social Sciences from the American Institute of Indian Studies and will be published by Indiana University Press. Meena Khandelwal is Assistant Professor of Anthropology and Women's Studies at the University of Iowa. She has published several articles and an ethnography entitled Women in Ochre Robes: Gendering Hindu Renunciation (State University of Press, 2004). She is pursuing research interests in the areas of feminist anthropology, Indian diaspora, and transnational dimensions of Hindu renunciation. Lisa I. Knight is Assistant Professor in the Departments of Religion and Asian Studies at Furman University. Her research, funded by Fulbright and American Institute of Bangladesh Studies, focuses on how Baul women in West Bengal and Bangladesh negotiate between their identity as Bauls who challenge normative Hindu and Muslim society and their reputation as good Bengali women in the rural communities in which they live. She is currently working on a manuscript, entitled Negotiated Identities, Engendered Lives: Baul Women in West Bengal and Bangladesh. Kalyani Devaki Menon is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Religious Studies at DePaul University. Her research has focused on women in the Hindu nationalist movement and ties into her broader interests in religious politics, gender, and modernity in India. She is currently working on a manuscript entitled Dissonant Subjects: Women in the Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, and has published articles based on this research including one that appeared in the journal of Asian Studies in February 2005. Sara Shneiderman is a PhD candidate in Anthropology at Cornell University. She has worked in Nepal since 1994, and has published on a range of topics including women's religious identity, the ritual production of ethnic identity, and the effects of the Maoist movement on rural political consciousness. Her current research ventures across the Nepali border to India (, West Bengal) and China (Tibetan Autonomous Region) to comparatively on the construction of cultural, religious, and political identity in multiple national contexts for the Thangmi, a marginalized ethnic community with populations in all three countries. Anne Vallely is Assistant Professor in the Department of Classics and Religious Studies at the University of Ottawa with primary research interests in the Anthropology of Religion. Her work focuses on the Jain community, NoTES oN CoNTRIBUTORS 279

both within India and outside of it, and is particularly concerned with gender, women's religious lives, asceticism, diaspora and transnational studies, ethics, and the symbolic construction of human-nonhuman boundaries. She is the author of several articles and essays on Jain teachings and prac• tices, and a book Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography ofa Jain Ascetic Community (University ofToronto Press, 2002). INDEX

Note: Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations. abandonment,207,208,216,231 Alter, Joseph, 102 abstinence, 15, 17, 18 Anandamath (Chattopadhyaya), 150 abuse, 10, 20, 198-9, 256 ani, 179 Acaranga Surra, 227 defined,273 acharya, 229 Annapurna, 72, 150 defined, 269 a phyi, 179 ache, 179 defined, 273 defined, 273 Arjuna, 63, 148-9, 153, 156 Advaita Vedanta, 12, 64 Arya Samaj, 42 Advani, L.K., 161, 162, 165n2, 165n4 aryika, 229 Afghanistan, 154 defined, 269 agenc~27,218n2,249,250,251, Asad, Tala!, 163 261,265n4 asan, 125, 129-30 and Bauls, 193 defined, 269 and Hindu nationalism, 145, 165n3 asceticism, 2, 128-9, 195 and nuns, 179 ascetics, 3, 21, 64, 66n4, 248 spiritual, 90n3 images of, 4 and Tibetan women, 71, 78, 84 asexuality, 18-19 aging, 232, 259, 261 ashramas, 156 ahamkar, 62, 66 ashrams, 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, 22, 24, 25, defined,269 39-68,45, 129, 130, 131,251 see also ego andBauls, 107,118,191,198,200, Ahearn, Laura, 161 201-2,205-7 ahimsa, 225 defined, 269 see also nonviolence support for, 8, 40, 41, 44, 118 ajiv, 225, 226, 233 and widows, 260 defined, 269 atman, 28n13, 147, 233 akhand Bharat, 15 3, 154 defined, 269 defined,269 see also souls Allah, 193, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215 authenticity, 71, 84 alms, 95-6, 105, 108, 109, 115, 117, 119 Baul, 193, 194, 195, 218n4 and Bauls, 191, 192, 194, 197, 198, avadhut, 43 200,201,202,203 defined, 269 and Jains, 240 Ayodhya, 145, 161 282 INDEX babas, 28n6 Bharat, 141 defined, 269 defined, 269 Babb, Lawrence, 17 see also India , 145, 161, 162, Bharati, Uma, 142, 143, 145 165n4 BharatiyaJanata Parry (BJP), 144, 145, Babur, 162 158-9, 165n4 Bacchetta, Paola, 146 Bharat Ma, 132 bairagi, 191, 194, 197 , 145, 150, 151, 152-3, defined,269 157, 158 Bangladesh, 22, 154, 191-222 Bhargava, Rajeev, 146 map, xiv bhek, 194,195,197,198,200-9 bansuri, 15 7 defined, 270 defined, 269 and widows, 260-1 Baragaun, 72 bhek-dhari, 194 Basu, Arnrita, 146, 159, 160 defined, 270 Bauls, 5, 6, 7, 22, 95-122, 98, 174, Bhikshu, Acharya, 237 217,259,263 bhog, 48 and celibacy, 18 defined, 270 and sexualiry, 14-15, 16, 193, Birbhum, 96, 193, 198, 204 194,202 BJP (BharatiyaJanata Parry), 144, 145, and single women, 191-222 158-9, 165n4 begging, 8, 249 Blee, Kathleen, 159 and Bauls, 95-122 bodily secretions, 14, 18, 95, 96, and Jains, 259 97-9, 104-7, 114, 119, 120, begging beers, 172, 182 121, 193 be le pang byes, 183 see also menstrual blood defined,273 body, 4, 12-14, 26, 249, 250, 257, Bell, Sandra, 18 261-3 Bengal, 261 and Bauls, 96, 97 see also West Bengal andJains, 13-14, 19,223-45 Bengali language, 97 othering of, 233-8 , 2, 4-5, 6, 9, 95-123, , 195, 200 191-222,248 map, xiv Bhagavad Gita, 111, 153 Bon,2, 13,26,69,81 and Hindu nationalism, 141, 142, defined, 273 144, 148-9, 155, 160, 164 Bonpos,69-93,248 and service, 21, 63 defined, 273 Bhagavad Gita Gyan Yagya, 141, 149, boundaries, 22, 41, 64, 164, 248, 150, 153, 155, 157, 159-60 249,263 , 52, 58 Bourdieu, Pierre, 184 bhakti, 41, 119, 121 Brahma Kumari movement, defined, 269 16-17 see also devotion brahman, 147 bhandara, 58 defined,270 defined, 269 Brahmanical Hinduism, 136n11 INDEX 283

Brahmins, 39, 40, 57 chomo,69-93, 70,232 and Bauls, 96, 97, 106, 107, 114, Christianity, 63 120, 121 Christians, 146 and caste, 42, 109-11, 112, 115 Chudala, Queen, 166n5 and rituals, 62, 66n4, 95, 97, 116 circumambulation, 74, 183 and sacred thread ceremony, 108-9 communities, 2, 3, 7, 125-6, brgya bzhi, 183 127, 130, 132, 133 defined, 273 householder, 5, 8 Brhradyaranyaka Upanishad, 24 lay, 2, 5-6 British , 49, 64 monastic, 1, 7 Buddhism, 2, 4, 23, 69, 71, 73-4, 81, natal, 2, 6 91n18, 171-89,248 compassion, 64, 80, 116, 130, 132, 225 Buddhists, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 20, Congress Party, 163 171-89 cosmology, 17, 247 'bum skor, 183 cremation, 96, 243, 253 defined, 273 burial, 219n11, 253 daitva, 141 defined, 270 Calcutta () Dalai Lama, 74, 81, 171 map, xiv dan, 40 c~te,4-5,40,42,48,96,99, 100, defined, 270 111-16, 129, 133 Daniel, . Valentine, 100, 101 and Bauls, 193 Dashnami, 41, 66n5 and , 42, 109-11, 112, 115 Dayananda , 42 lower, 119, 120, 121, 184 Dazey, Wade H., 64 and mobility, 10 dbu mdzad, 181 Cech, Ktystyna, 7 4 defined, 274 celibacy, 11-19, 26, 76-7, 85, 160, death, 1, 41, 60, 110, 179, 183,264 195,248,249,262 and Hindu nationalism, 142, 151, and Bauls, 191 153, 157 and chomo, 71, 80 and Jains, 225, 239, 242, 243 male, 16, 18 deities, 46, 53, 55, 66, 120, 201 see also sexuality Bon, 73 "Chandra's Death" (Guha), 260-1 worship of, 41, 42, 110, 111 Char Dham, 135n6 Descartes, 225, 226 Chasey Kengtse Bon Hostel, 83-4 detachment, 12, 19, 63 chastity, 14, 15, 17, 18, 29n19, 119 and Bauls, 96, 191 see also sexuality and Hindu nationalism, 141, 147-9, Chattopadhyaya, Bankimchandra, 150 157, 163, 164 childbearing, 16, 27, 80, 96, 117, and Jains, 225, 232, 233-4, 237 237,243 and service, 65, 66, 147 Chill uri and wandering, 125 map, xiv and yoginis, 125 Chinmayananda, Swami, 144, 148 Narayan, 252, 254, 255, 257 Chitgopekar, Nilima, 256 shrine, 253 284 INDEX devotion, 1, 26, 47,49-51,59, 116, drogrno, 87 172, 199,251-5 defined, 274 and Bauls, 27, 96, 114, 120, 121, Drolma, Khenmo, 30n23 209-12,214 Drugpa Kadyud, 176 and Brahmins, 111 see also Kagyu ecstatic, 214 dualism, 225, 241-2 and fasting, 234 Dube, Leela, 230 and Hindu nationalism, 150, 155-7 Dundas, Paul, 227 and Jains, 236 Durga, 42, 150 and love, 119 Duryodhana, 153 and suffering, 115 dzo, 76 see also bhakti; pujas defined,274 dge skos, 181 defined, 274 economics, 4, 8, 16, 21, 25, 70, 71, 75, dge tsha, 183 80-3,259 defined, 274 for nuns and monks, 180-5 dgu mig bzlod, 183 in Zangskar, 173-6, 179 defined, 274 education, 8, 16, 25, 40-1, 42, 77, , 193, 220n17 80-7 map, xiv religious, 3, 65, 71, 83-4, Dharamsala, 82 86,88 dharma, 69-93, 117, 142, 150-1, 153, see also schools 161, 162 Eggan, Fred, 258 defined, 270 ego,4,24,62,63,65,66, 79,156 of money, 21 embodiment, 3, 4, 12-13, 27, 257 Dharmashastras, 166n16 emotion, 3, 6, 11, 12, 14, 19, 131, dhoti, 109 152,232,238,259,263 defined,270 and Bauls, 105, 106, 119-20, Dhritarashtra, 166n15 121 dhuni, 22, 128, 129, 131 and Hindu nationalism, 152, defined, 270 155, 159 diaspora, 22, 144 and Jains, 242, 243 Digambar Jains, 227-30 and widows, 260 diksha, 200, 234, 237, 238-9 ethnography, 22-4, 257-8, 264 defined, 270 exchange of women, 185 divyalok, 43 defined, 270 faith, 2, 7, 8, 142, 146, 150, 197, 230, Dolanji, 82, 84, 85 231, 232 donations, 7, 8, 63, 82, 181, 182 fakirs, 97 , 101, 103 families, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11-12, 16, 17, defined, 270 50,232 , 8, 175, 203, 206, 244n3 and Bauls, 191 , 113, 116, 120 in Lubra, 75, 76 'dri chang, 172 and nuns, 177-9 defined, 274 poor, 8 INDEX 285 fasting, 14, 15, 20, 121, 231, ghar, 129 233-4 defined, 270 feminists, 29n 17 gharjamai, 200 fertility, 16, 173, 183,231,242 Ghatiyali, 251,252 fire sacrifices, 41, 42, 59-60, 66n4, Ghosh, Bishnupriya, 151, 152 147, 182 ghuspetis, 158 food, 45-8,51,65, 101, defined, 270 113-14, 120 Gitagovinda, 157 at concerts, 118 global perspective, 19-22 and motherly qualities, 132 gnyer pa, 181 and ritual purity, 55 defined, 274 and yoginis, 134 Gold, Ann Grodzins, 115-16, 163, see also ritual feasts 247-67 gompa, 75, 83 Gandhari, 154 defined, 274 Gandhi, M., 144, 148, 260, 261 Gopi Chand, King, 256 Ganga Ma, 132 graves, 202 (goddess), 53, 112-13, Great Prayer Festival, 182 114,115 Grosz, Elizabeth, 241 Ganges (river), 10, 13, 21, 56, 95, 104, Guha, Ranajit, 260-1 112, 126-8, 132 Gujar, 257 Garhwal, 135n4 , 20, 25, 42, 52-4, 61-3, "Garland of Devotees," 262 107, 108, 195, 248, gaumutra, 49 256,258 defined, 270 and Bauls, 201 gayak, 194 and bodily secretions, I 06 Gelugpa, 171, 176 defined,270 gender, 4, 5, 8-9, 26, 27, 57, and food, 65 65,211,212,250,251,256, Gutschow, Kim, 5, 171-89 257,262 and Arya Samaj, 42 hair-cutting ceremony, 75-6 and Bauls, 120, 121, 192, 193, Hanssen, Kristin, 5, 95-123 196, 216 Hanuman, 162, 167n22 and celibacy, 14, 17, 18 , 10, 39-68, 125-38 and Hindu nationalism, 142-5, map, xiv 150-2, 165 Harlan, Lindsey, 262-3 and Jains, 230, 232 Hart, George, 119 and kinship, 174 Haug, Frigga, 14, 230 in Lubra, 71, 72, 77-80, Hausner, Sondra L., 1-36, 125-38, 256 87,88 havan, 41 and monasticism, 185 defined, 270 and suffering, 115 see also fire sacrifices and Tibetan Buddhism, 173 Hawley, John S., 262 geshe, 85 healing, 115, 252 defined, 274 health, 100-1, 102 286 INDEX

Hinduism, 2, 20, 21, 42, 63, 64, identity, 247, 249, 251, 254 141-2,259,260 Baul, 192, 193, 199, 202, 203-4, Brahmanical, 136n11 207,219n14 classical, 14 7 caste, 121 Hindu nationalism, 5, 7, 16, 64, and gender, 77-80, 87 141-69 and Hindu nationalism, 150 , 5, 7, 22, 23, 25, 110, 141-69, lay, 89 194, 197 political, 146 and alms, 11 7 religious, 21, 71, 74, 87, 89 and body, 14 yoginis, 134 and celibacy, 18 immorality, 160, 162 and marriage, 11, 17 inaction, 63, 148-9 and solitude, 9 incest, 188n17 Hindutva, 141-69 India, 22 defined, 270 map, xiv holism, 242 see also Bharat hot and cold, 99, 101, 119, initiation, 11, 23, 41 120, 121 BauL95,96, 108-9, 12~ 121,192 householders, 12, 26, 53, 61, 62, 130, see also diksha 248,258-63 insani batein, 141 and alms, 15, 117, 119 defined,270 and Bauls, 104-8, 118-19, interaction, 5-6, 13, 25, 39, 99-100, 191,194-6,203-4, 119, 121-2, 181 208-9,216 and yogis, 125, 131 communities and, 2, 5, 8 In the Name ofGod, 167n21 and families, 11 intimacy, 6, 19, 24, 26 and Jains, 235, 236, 237, 240, 241, intuition, 43 242,243 Islam, 2, 145, 204 and karma, 63 Islamabad, 152 and kinship, 50 isolation, 9-11 and , 195 itinerancy, 191 and rituals, 41 see also wandering roles of, 150 and service, 65-6 jadugari, 256 and songs, 257 Jainism, 2, 225 and widows, 251-2 Jains, 5, 6, 7, 20, 25, 28n9, 223-45, and women, 10, 24, 150, 231, 247,248,259,263 232-4,249-50 and body, 13-14, 19, 223-45 andyoginis, 125-6, 133-4 Jammu, 25, 171 and yogis, 129-30 map, xiv see also laypeople jangli rani, 255-6 husbands, 207, 208, 216 jati byabasa, 197 and Bauls, 196-204, 205 defined,270 Jayadeva, 157 INDEX 287 jina, 232 Kathmandu, 74, 81, 82, 187n9 defined,270 Kauravas, 153, 166n15 Jinnah, 152 kavatchan, 236 jiv, 225, 226, 233 defined, 270 defined, 270 Kelley, Gina, 30n23 see also souls Kham (Tibet), 76 jnana,41,64 Khandelwal, Meena, 1-36, 39-68, defined,270 148,232,256 jnanamarg, 43 khepa, 193 defined, 270 defined, 270 Juergensmeyer, Mark, 262 see also madness khilaphat, 194, 209 Kagyu, 74,91n21 defined, 270 defined, 274 khukuri, 76 see also Drugpa Kadyud defined,271 ,67n9,97, 150 King, Ursula, 25, 63 kamkarnewali, 46 kinship, 173, 174-6, 177, 179, defined, 270 181-2, 185 Kamlesh Bharati, Sadhvi, 149, 150, klu, 173 155, 161 defined, 274 Kanak Prabha, Sadhvi, 237 Knight, Lisa 1., 5, 9-10, 22, 95, Kandahar, 154 191-222,259 Kangra, 255-6 Kolkata (Calcutta) , 152 map, xiv Kargil War, 146, 151, 153, 154, Krishna, 52, 63, 97, 104, 107, 113, 157, 158 148-9, 153, 155, 156, 157, karma, 41, 48, 63, 64, 81, 232, 234, 193,262,263 243,244n5 kriya yoga, 75, 132 defined, 270 defined, 271 and Jains, 225, 226-7, 239, Kumaon, 127 240,241 map, xiv karmayoga, 63 festivals, 128 defined,270 Kurukshetra, 153, !66n15 karmic, 130, 149, 225, 226, 227, kuti, 129 240,244n1 defined, 271 defined, 270 Karnataka State, 176 , 176, 186n4 Karsha, 171-2, 177, 178, 181, 182, Ladnun,223-45 186n8 map, xiv kashaya, 225 Lahore, 153 defined, 270 Lakshman, 56 Kashmir, 25, 146, 152, 166n13, Lakshmi, 11 7 171, 187n8 Lalan Fakir (Lalan Shah), 105, 195, map, XIV 209,219n14 288 INDEX

Lalan panthis, 195 mahavratas, 225 defined, 2 71 defined, 271 Lalan Shah (Lalan Fakir), 105, 195, Maira, 112 209,219n14 Maitreyi, 24 lamas, 73, 74, 78, 81-2, 85 majzub, 210, 214-15 Lama Tashi Gyalzen, 73, 83 defined, 271 Lamb, Sarah, 99, 161-2, 261 malas, 20 land ownership, 181, 184 defined, 271 laypeople, 2, 5-6, 25, 39-40, male characteristics, 24, 26, 48, 72, 44-51, 88 77-80, 151 and Bauls, 195 male institutions, 8, 25, 84 and celibacy, 77 males, 4, 8, 19, 44, 56, 57, 74, 75, 76, donations from, 7, 8 118, 132, 208, 255, 256, 260, and fasting, 233-4 261,263 identity of, 89 and Arya Samaj, 42 andJains, 13, 15,224,227,231-2, and Bauls, 193, 200, 203, 259 235-8,240,243 and bodily secretions, 97, 105, and nuns and monks, 176-7, 179, 106, 107 181-3 and celibacy, 16, 18 and travel, 10 and Hindu nationalism, 142, 145, and yoginis, 126-7 151, 154, 163 see also householders and Jains, 25, 224, 233, 234, 235 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 185 see also monasteries; monks; munis liberation, 147, 148, 156, 166n5, 225, Manang, 73 227,228,234,264 mandalas, 176 Liberation War, 197 Mankekar, Purnima, 151, 152, 164 linga, 105 mantras, 74, 108, 109, 110, defined, 271 111,200 literacy, 78-80, 82, 83 map, xiv Lo Monthang, 76 marami, 220n20 love, 119, 120, 121 March, Kathryn, 79 Lubra Village, 5, 21, 69-93, 186n7 marital homes, 10, 11, 126, 133, 257 ill., 72 marriage, 3, 5, 6, 11, 14, 16, 17, 27, map, xiv 133, 134, 173, 192,209,210, 211,212-13 madhukari, 194, 202 and Bauls, 97, 104, 197, 198, 203, defined, 271 204,205-6,207-8,259 madness, 131, 214 and chastity, 18 see also khepa; pagal child, 64 Mahabharata, 63, 113, 153, 154, foreign, 22 166n18 in Lubra, 75 mahatmas, 50, 56-7, 58-9 and nuns, 185 defined, 271 in Zangskar, 175 Mahavir I a, 4, 227, 233 Marriott, McKim, 99 INDEX 289 maya, 195, 208 mothers, 1, 5, 13, 27, 65, 108, 128, defined, 271 196,197, 199,207,219nl2,231 mazar, 210 and Bauls, 209 defined,271 chomo as, 65, 80 mchod gnas, 183 goddesses as, 107 defined,274 and gurus, 51 meditation, 20, 43, 71, 76, 130-2 and Hindu nationalism, 149, 151 and Jains, 239 single, 4, 178, 209 men, see males and yoginis, 132-4 Menon, Kalyani Devaki, 5, 7, 64, see also Bharat Mata; families 141-69,258-9 Muci Das, 112 Menri Gompa, 82, 84 muhpatti, 239 menstrual blood, 95, 101, 106-7, 263 defined, 271 see also bodily secretions Mukta, Parita, 262, 263 menstruation, 55, 98, 104, 114 mumukshus, 236-7 first, 107-8 defined, 271 merit, 183, 184, 185, 194 Mundaka Upanishad, 142, 146-7 Miller, Joseph, 257 munis, 232, 241 Mira Bai, 262-3 defined, 271 mithini, 87 see also males defined, 2 71 murti puja, 42 mithyadrishti, 242 defined,271 defined, 271 see also pujas mkhan po, 181 murtis, 46 defined, 27 4 defined, 271 mnga' 'og, 181 music, 22, 98, 192,212,214,217,223 defined, 274 see also singing; songs mobility, 9-11, 192 Muslims, 22, 110, 161, 197, 210, 216 social, 176 and alms, 117 modesty, 261-3 and Hindu nationalism, 145, 146 moksha, 63, 142, 147, 149, 226, 227 in Zangskar, 187n8 defined, 2 71 see also Bauls see also liberation Mustang Bon Action, 84, 85, 86 monasteries, 8, 9, 10, 74, 81, 82, Mustang District, 69-93, 248 85,87 map, xiv in Tibet, 187nl1 in Zangskar, 172-8, 181-8 Nabhadas, 262 see also monks Narayan, Kirin, 129, 130-1, 255 monastic institutions, 6, 15, 20, 25, Narayan, Uma, 256 28n9,64, 73,81-2,84,87,88-9 Narayana, 62 monasticism, 21, 77, 85, 174-6, 185 natal environment, 7 monkeys, 161, 162 natal families, 5, 6, 249, 259 monks, 8, 81, 171-89 natal homes, 7, 10, 11, 126, 133, morality, 18, 49, 163, 230 177-8,179,248 290 INDEX

Naths, 28n9, 256, 264n2 , 146, 151, 152, 153, 154, nationalism 157, 158 Hindu,5, 7, 16,64,141-69 Palmo, Tenzin, 28n14 religious, 22 Pandavas, 153, 166n15 Nav Terapanth Jains, 20 , 39 Nepal, 8, 26, 69-93 defined, 271 map, xiv see also Brahmins , 78, 82 paramatma, 62 New , 141-69, 142, 153 paramlok, 52 map, xiv defined, 271 nigodas, 226 Parmarthik Shikshan Sanstha (PSS), defined, 271 234-8 nirguna, 41 path, 60 defined, 271 defined, 2 71 nirjara, 234 pativrata, 263 defined,271 Patwardhan, Anand, 167 n21 no mo, 179 Pechilis, Karen, 20 defined, 274 pe rag, 175 nonviolence, 14, 224, 225, 227, 231, defined, 274 238,241,243 pilgrimages, 10, 126, 130, 259 nunneries, 7, 8, 20, 23, 25, place, 128-34 91n21 Pluralism Project, 20 in Nepal, 74, 187n11 politics, 80-3, 259 in Zangskar, 171-89 and celibacy, 15-17 nuns, 1, 77-8,88,89,89n1, 118-19, and Hindu nationalism, 141-69 186n7,228,250 polyandry, 75 Jain, 223-45 possession support for, 6, 259 divine, 214 in Zangskar, 171-89 power, 12, 25, 26, 85, 126, 127, 241, Nyingma, 74 242,254-6,259 defined,274 and aging, 252 and Bauls, 14, 15, 27, 95, 96, 97, ochre,67, 193,194,199,200,251, 119-20 252,253,254 and Hindu nationalism, 144, 145, o ma'i rin, 185 160, 162-4, 165n3 defined,274 institutional, 71 oral traditions, 250, 256 and nuns and monks, 174, Organization of Sadhvi Strength 182, 184 (Sadhvi Shakti Parishad), 141, religious, 85, 120, 126, 127, 131 145, 149, 150, 153, 160, 161 spiritual, 10, 44, 52, 53, 66, 133 and suffering, 115, 119 Padum, 187n8 yogic, 17 pagal, 193, 210-15, 216 Power, Margaret, 146 defined, 271 pran, 101, 115 see also madness defined, 271 INDEX 291 prasad, 47, 51, 54, 57, 60, 65, 160 Rajputs, 262-3 defined, 271 rajya, 156, 157 pratikraman, 234, 241 defined,272 defined, 271 Ram, 145, 161, 162 pratilekhna, 240, 241 , 67n7 defined, 272 , 64 pravachans, 143-4, 146, 153, 158, and Mission, 160, 163, 164 148 defined, 272 Ramakrishna Order, 147 prayers, 42, 81, 150, 187n15 Ramanujan, A. K., 26 and Jains, 223, 231, 239, Ramaswamy, 25 241,243 , 44, 161 priests Ramble, Charles, 26, 78 Christian, 29 Ramjanmabhumi movement, 145, Hindu, 39-40, 48-67, 73, 91, 97, 165n4 167,206,252-54,271 Ram rajya, 156, 157 householder, 73 Ranganathananda, Swami, 148 see also pandits rape, 15, 110, 179 primogeniture, 175 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh PSS (Parmarthik Shikshan Sanstha ), (RSS), 144, 145, 163, 234-8 165n4 pujaris, 62 ,67n7, 167n22 defined, 272 Rawalpindi, 152 pujas, 42, 45, 47, 52-3, 62, 113, rdo rje slob dpon, 181 118,234 defined, 274 and Brahmins, Ill rebirth, 67, 142, 147, 149, 184, defined, 272 219n13,227,232 see also devotion see also samsar , 41 reciprocity, 173, 174, 179-80, 183 purity, 14, 15, 46, 54-6, 96, 114, 160, reflections 162, 173, 183-4 of Jains, 239 and Jains, 224, 225, 231, 239, religion, 4, 7, 12, 25, 162 244n7 Tibetan, 70, 71, 73, 82, 84, 85 Puvali ka Devji, 252, 253-4 religious authenticity, 71, 84 religious authority, 16, 71, 81, 85, 160, Qur'an, 193, 215 162, 163 religious discipline, 3, 9, 42 Rabi' a of Basra, 21 0 religious education, 3, 65, 71, 76, 78, Radha,97, 107,157 81,83-4,86,88 Raheja, Gloria Goodwin, 163 religious practices, 3, 7, 9, 12, 13, Rai Das, Ill 19,21,24, 74,85, 129,130, Rajagopal, Arvind, 160, 162 131-2,250 Rajasthan, 223-45 Baul, 9, 192, 210 map, xiv Bon,5 Rajasthanis 252 andJains, 231 292 INDEX religious practices-continued rup, 122n5 and laywomen, 15, 231 defined, 272 in Lubra, 70, 71, 73-9, 81-2, 84, 85, 89 sacred duty, 142, 153, 154-5, Tibetan, 79 157, 164 and yoginis, 134 sacred thread ceremony, 108-9, 121 see also ritual practices; spiritual sacrifices, 42, 120, 151 practices and Hindu nationalism, 149, 151, religious roles, 73, 77, 78, 84 153, 154, 159 religious traditions, 2, 4, 20, 27, 73, see also fire sacrifices; self-sacrifice 80,84-5,163,195,257,258 sadhana, 9,40,43, 57,63, 106,130, and body, 12, 13 132,209,212 religious training, see religious and Bauls, 193, 195, 196, 202, 203, education 204,207 remarriage, 3, 197, 199,206,207,208 defined,272 renunciation and Jains, 243 history of, 3-11 see also spiritual practices; worship Reynell, Josephine, 231, 234 sadhus, 39, 53, 61,64-6, 104, 106, rgya! mdos, 183 107, 109, 117, 120, 194,248 defined,274 defined,272 ri Ia bzhugs byes, 179 and wandering, 129 defined,275 sadhvis, 1, 5, 6, 126, 131-2, 150-1, Rishi Ashram, 39-68 232,237,238,250,259 Rithambara, Sadhvi, 141, 142, 144, Hindu nationalist, 141-69 145, 147, 149, 151-5, 157, 159, Jain, 236, 239-41, 243 160, 162 Sadhvi Shakti Parishad (Organization ritual activities, 24, 40-1, 63, 64, 184 ofSadhvi Strength), 141, 145, ritual feasts, 56-61 149, 150, 153, 160, 161 see also food sages, 56, 66n4, 67n8 ritual practices, 18, 41, 71, 83, 132, saguna, 41 184, 196,219 defined,272 see also religious practices; spiritual Sakya, 74,91n21 practices defined, 275 ritual purity, 54-6 sa!!ekhana, 243 rituals, 2, 20, 64, 81, 182-3, 184 defined, 272 and Bauls, 97 samaj, 194, 208 Bengali, 6 defined, 272 household, 3, 5 samanis, 20, 236, 237 at nunneries, 182 defined, 272 rosaries, 20, 102-3 samayik, 234 rotis, 60 defined,272 defined, 272 Samnyasa Upanisads, 128-9 RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh), samsar, 233 144, 145, 163, 165n4 defined,272 Rubin, Gayle, 185 see also rebirth INDEX 293 samsara, 1, 142, 147, 149, 160 Shah Jalal, 210 samskaras, 47 shakti, 96, 115, 119, 149-54 defined, 272 defined, 272 Samuel, Geoffrey, 73-4 Shakyamuni Buddha, 73 sannyas, 96, 108-9, 122n3, 194 shame, 231, 262, 263 defined, 272 Shankara, 66n1 sannyasa, 21, 41, 47, 50, 56-7, 58 Shanta, N., 233 as service, 63-6 Sherab Miwo, 73 sannyasinis, 14, 39, 59, 65, 192, 250-1 shiksha, 218n6 sannyasis, 57, 208-9, 216, 241 defined,272 and Bauls, 191, 194 Shiva, 42, 97 defined, 272 Shiva Saraswati, Sadhvi, 154-7 Santiniketan, 193, 195, 199,204 Shneiderman, Sara, 5, 21, 26, map, xiv 69-93 Saraswati Dashnami, 39 Shudras, 110 Sarkar, Tanika, 150, 151, 152, 158 Shvetambar Jains, 118-19 schools, 5, 13, 40, 57, 78, 82, 128, ill.,228 159,205 silpi, 194 Bon,83-7 defined,272 Jain, 234-6 sindhur, 166n8 see also education defined,272 sedentariness, 11, 126-30, 131, sindhuri, 151, 166n8 132, 133 Singhal, Ashok, 161, 162 seed (human), see bodily secretions singing, 193,211-15,253 self, 79, 146, 224, 225, 230, 232, and Bauls, 95-104, 116-18, 121, 234,241 197,198,200,205 self-sacrifice, 99, 115, 119 and suffering, 115 self-suffering, 260, 261 see also music; songs seva, 21, 41, 53, 62, 65-6, 75, 147, Sita, 67n7 148,232 skal ba, 181 defined, 272 defined, 275 and Hindu nationalism, 148 sleep, 14, 18, 52, 129, 227, 230, 239 andJains, 231-2 , Margaret, 210 sexuality, 4, 11-19,26,27,65, 151, Saba, Elisa]., 18 192,231,232,250 social distinctions, 5, 57, 212 and Bauls, 14-15, 16, 193, 194, 202 social hierarchies, 4, 184, 185 and Hindu nationalism, 151 social involvement, 65, 131 and Jains, 230, 238, 241, 242, 243 social nerworks, 1, 96, 121, 184 and suffering, 115 social roles, 2, 26, 57, 72, 132, 192, in the United States, 29n 19 209,210,212,216,224,231, and widows, 261 247,251 see also celibacy; chastity and Bauls, 196, 199 sgrol chu, 177 social structures, 2, 16, 126 defined,275 social values, 3, 64 Shah Ali Bagdadi, 211 solitude, 6, 7, 9-11, 66, 199 294 INDEX songs, 7, 27, 191, 193, 197, 205, Svetambar Jains, 227-30 214,257 ill.,228 see also music; singing swamis, 20, 43, 51 souls, 115, 147, 223-6, 230, 233, 234, defined,272 239,243,255 see also individual names see also atman; jiv , 193,209,210, 220n17 sound, 99, 119-20 map, xiv speeches, 158-64 spiritual practices, 144, 148, 215, , 109 224,243 defined, 272 in Lubra, 71, 74-7, 79, 80, 83, 86 Tagore, Rabindranath, 97 see also religious practices; ritual Tamang, 79 practices defined,275 spirituality, 20, 26, 160, 227, 236, 248 Tambiah, Stanley, 173 Sri Mad Bhagavad Gita Cyan Yagya, Tamil Nadu, 115 141, 149, 150, 153, 155, 157, Tamil poetry, 119 159-60 Tamils, 99, 100, 101 status, 5, 11, 18,25-6, 126, 134, 176, Tantrics, 14, 27n4, 96-7, 172, 182-3, 184,250 184,263 and Bauls, 192-7, 202--4, 207, tapas, 131 214,216 defined, 273 and caste, 41, 42 tapasya, 64, 260 economic, 71 , 96 and Hindu nationalism, 142, 151, Tattvartha Surra, 239 160, 162 Terapanthi Jains, 223--45, 229 and Jains, 225, 229, 234 Tibet, 8, 21, 69, 70, 73, 262, 263 in Lubra, 75, 79, 88, 89 Chinese occupation of, 80-1 sthan, 125 Tibetan language, 78, 82, 83 defined,272 tirthankara, 237 sudarshan chakra, 157 defined, 273 defined, 272 trade, 76, 77, 80-1, 82, 83, suffering, 115-16, 119, 120, 121 87, 89 Sufis, 194,210,212,214 tradition, 21, 86, 134 defined,272 transmission, 70, 90, 99, 264 Sufism, 210 travel, 10-11,20-2,24,25, 129, 176, defined, 272 203,248,251 support and Bauls, 7, 191, 203 for ashrams, 8, 40, 41, 44, 118 in Lubra, 73, 76-7, 82, 83, for Bauls, 118 88,89 financial, 1, 6, 28n9, 85 see also wandering for institutions, 7, 8, 9, 28n9, Trawick, Margaret, 99, 115, 116, 81, 85 119-20 for nuns, 6, 259 tsa mo, 179 for yoginis, 126 defined,275 INDEX 295 tulku, 76, 85 Vermont, 20 defined,275 VHP (Vishwa Hindu Parishad), 141, tulsi, 199 145, 148, 156, 159, 161, 165n4 Tulsi, Acharya, 234 Vinaya, 173 tulsi mala, 20 1 violence, 8, 9, 28n9, 145, 148, 151, defined, 273 154,232,240,241 tyagi, 191, 194 vipassana, 20 defined,273 defined,273 Vishnu, 42, 67n7, 166n18 udasi, 220n20 Vishvarupa, 153 defined, 273 Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), 141, untouchability, 42, 57, 64, 99, 145, 148, 156, 159, 161, 165n4 115, 121 Vivekananda, Swami, 64, 144, Upanishads, 24, 66n4, 67n8, 142, 147, 148 146-7, 148 Volatile Bodies (Grosz), 241 upasikas, 236-7 vrittis, 55 defined, 273 defined, 273 Uttaranchal, 135n4 vyavahar, 62 map, xiv defined, 273 Uttar , 126 wandering, 125, 126, 127, 129, 134 vairagini, 233, 237, 238-9 see also travel defined,273 Watkins, Joanne, 73 vairagya, 66, 233 weaving, 79-80 defined, 273 West Bengal, 5, 27, 95-123, see also detachment 191-222 Vaishnavas, 97, 102, 104, 109, 194, map, xiv 260-1 Westerners, 20, 64, 81, 85, 131, defined, 273 225,242 see also Bauls widows,64, 133,134,192,207,216, Vajpayee, Atal Behari, 145, 153, 159 251,252,260-1 Vajrayana Buddhists, 12, 14, 23 Willis, Janice, 71 Vallely, Anne, 6, 7, 13, 14, 118-19, wives, 1, 5, 13, 17, 27, 126, 134, 185, 223-45 192, 196,216,231,251 vanaprastha, 156, 166n16 Baul, 204-9 defined,273 womanhood, 11-19 vandana, 238 Women in Ochre Robes: Gendering defined, 273 Hindu Renunciation , 150 (Khandelwal), 39 Vashisht, 56 women's roles, 1, 2, 11, 71, 73, 77, 84, Vatuk, Sylvia, 259 126,133,134,156,257 Vedanta, 12, 43, 64, 66n4 andBauls, 192,196,199,216 Vedas,42,63,64,66n4,67n8, 105, in Lubra, 77 107, 147, 193 and yoginis, 132 296 INDEX

Woolf, Virginia, 179 Yajnavalkya, 24 World's Parliament of Religions, 64 yoga,20,63, 130 worldly involvement, 141-2, 148, yoginis, 77, 125-36, 192, 256 149, 164 yogis, 43, 125, 132, 256 worship, 20, 25, 41-4, 57, 97, defined, 273 102, 104, 105, 107, 113, yoni, 104-7 117,251,257 defined,273 and Bauls, 120, 121, 201, 212, yugal mantra, 200 213,215 and Brahmins, 110 Zangskar, 5, 6, 8, 14, 25, 75, 77-8, and Hindu nationalism, 156, 157 171-89 of husbands, 17 map, xiv and Jains, 236 zildawar, 171 and suffering, 115 defined,273 see also sadhana Zurba Tashi, 172-3