1BZOPNPSFUIBOb HITSVILLE UK: PUNK IN THE FARAWAY TOWNS Pg1 Roger Sabin During the punk years, I was lucky enough Catholic Girls. (In due course, the Small to live near one of the premier independent Wonder shop in London became a record label, Russell Bestley Pg2 Hitsville UK: Punk in faraway towns record shops, Small Wonder in Walthamstow, and signed up some of the top regional acts; London. Every time I visited, there would Bauhaus, from Northampton, the Cockney Pg4 From the First Wave to the New Wave be a new exhibition of art – by which, I Rejects from East London and The Cure, from mean the owner festooned the walls with the Crawley being the best-known. They declined, Pg5 Coloured Music latest seven-inch record sleeves. He’d also however, to sign my band – the rotters.) play the new sounds very loud, which meant Pg6 The Prole Art Threat his ‘gallery’ had a soundtrack. It was all There is a graphic design dimension to very mesmerising, and on a Saturday the shop the show (Bestley teaches the subject at Pg7 Key Categories in UK Punk would be packed with adolescents like me, university). But these sleeves were often not buying very much, but standing there not ‘designed’ in any conventional sense. Pg8 The Punk Community half-deaf and gawping like zombies. They were about mates deciding upon the most punkish/outrageous/amusing/dumb image, and Pg9 Proto Punk and Pub Rock Russ Bestley’s Hitsville UK: Punk in the then adding some typography – often filched Faraway Towns revives that sense of (small) from elsewhere or inexpertly lettrasetted Pg10 New Wave and Novelty Punk wonder, but isn’t just an exercise in on. The sleeves, and the records they nostalgia. It makes a case for seven inch housed, were not meant to last, and were Pg12 DIY, Post Punk and the Avant-Garde sleeves as a signifier of a point in history not intended to make their creators famous. when DIY took over a significant sector of The ethic seemed to be, in the words of one Pg14 Oi and Street Punk popular culture, and when art was up for fanzine from the time, ‘Ain’t Bin to No Art grabs. 1976-84 was a period when a School’ – though, as Bestley shows, some of Pg16 Real Punk, New Punk and Hardcore scissors-and-glue mentality empowered youths these lo-fi designers certainly had been to up and down the country to produce sleeves art school, and were more knowing than they Pg17 Anarcho Punk of often stunning originality. The mix of let on. bizarre colours, playful typography, and Pg19 Sound & Vision stitched-together images captured the spirit Does this amateur status make the sleeves of the equally DIY records perfectly. any less ‘valid’ than a product that might have come out of a major label and had There was also a political element. thousands of pounds spent on it? Does The phenomenon straddled the end of the their throwaway-ness make them not worth Callaghan Labour government and the remembering? Does the regional aspect beginnings of Thatcherism, and had varied detract from their appeal or authenticity? agit-prop manifestations (Bestley is not I’d argue the very opposite – but, please, afraid to highlight the far-right elements take a look and decide for yourself. of punk as well as the better-known left-wing and anarcho-punk scenes). Localised Roger Sabin production circumvented the corporations, and as each of the Faraway Towns gave rise Roger Sabin is the Editor of Punk Rock: to its own version of the Small Wonder shop, So What? (Routledge) so punk became as much about local issues, local politics, even the local pub, as about anything happening down the King’s Road (‘Sten Guns in Sunderland’ was one of the more amusing song titles).
Hitsville UK is thus a riposte to the received wisdom of so many ‘top-down’ BBC documentaries about punk. It’s not about pogo-ing with Malcolm at some legendary Pistols concert in London. It’s about how the movement was lived by tens of thousands of teenagers all over the country, and about the bands they loved: the likes of Discharge from Stoke; the Cult Maniax from Exeter; the Prefects from Birmingham; Rudi from Belfast; Johnny and the Self-Abusers from Edinburgh, and the bands that never made it beyond their immediate surroundings such as the Small Mercies from Tunbridge Wells (with one R.Bestley on bass). Southampton itself could boast a clutch of such bands, including Strate Jacket, Catch 22, and the mighty www.company-london.com HITSVILLE UK: PUNK IN THE FARAWAY TOWNS
Vinyl records seem to hold a deep-seated quickly, with subsequent stock often being market, its origins, and its references: emotional value for many of us – we can housed in a plain sleeve or of the (boring!) where The Clash had defined the sound of remember where we were, who we were with, black vinyl variety (I had my suspicions the Westway and had sung about sten guns and that gut feeling dragging us back in that the trendy bloke behind the counter in Knightsbridge, now groups were rallying time whenever we hear a particular record, in Boots was grabbing all the best stuff against their local council, or the village or come across a certain record sleeve. for himself anyway). However, if you were pub landlord who banned punk drinkers, or I can remember hearing snippets of the prepared to put in the effort, you could the lack of prospects or excitement in their new, outrageous phenomenon of ‘punk rock’ be rewarded with the ‘first edition’ record own home town. through items on the television news, and that showed how dedicated you really were seeing the shocked reports in the newspapers to the new movement. I can remember walking This exhibition is both a celebration of the (all that spitting, vomiting, swearing and miles to out-of-town newsagents on hearing wide range of graphic approaches adopted by rebellion certainly sounded appealing to a reports that they had singles by the likes punk sleeve designers, and an attempt fourteen year old potential punk rocker), of X Ray Spex, The Lurkers, UK Subs or to redress the balance of recent punk though it wasn’t until the beginning of Generation X on pink, red, blue, orange or ‘histories’ which focus purely on a 1977 that I really heard anything of the green vinyl. For that extra special rarity short-lived series of events based around actual music. I was skateboarding with my well outside of the charts even more effort the Kings Road and Oxford Street. It is brother and some friends, and I remember was required – such as bunking the train to based on the mapping and grouping of a wide overhearing the radio in my mate’s back London to seek out the Dangerous Girls or range of punk-related seven inch single garden – the song was Grip, the debut single Mekons single that John Peel had been raving sleeves across the period 1976 to 1984, and by The Stranglers, and I could genuinely about the week before. It got easier once seeks to tell a wider, more inclusive story describe it as a life-changing moment. I punk became a national ‘movement’ and record of the punk years. was so impressed, I began to seek out other shops began to advertise in the back of the examples of this ‘new wave’ of music. I music press – you could buy obscure singles ordered the debut album by The Stranglers by the likes of Crass, The Tights, Spizzoil, from my mum’s Freemans catalogue (those Menace or the Television Personalities by were the days…), and I started listening to mail order from Rough Trade or Small Wonder. John Peel on Radio One and Stuart Henry at Of course, everyone has their own particular Radio Luxembourg, discovering new groups tale to tell of the punk years. Mine include and trying to find out more in the music my mum destroying my ticket for a Siouxsie press. Punk grew exponentially during 1977 & The Banshees gig at Lewisham Odeon (she’d – in some ways, unknown to me at the time, read reports of race riots and punk Nazis in because so many groups and labels saw the the News Of The World), burning my bondage golden opportunity of a bandwagon to jump trousers in the dustbin (luckily, I managed on – and I began to seek out the music in to rescue the singed garments in order to earnest. wear them again – result! Even more punk!), and destroying my copy of the Cult Maniax “If you’re going to Black Horse e.p. – which would now, rather reminisce,then you amusingly, be worth a large amount of money. need to do it properly” Punk hit the regions in a different way to The Mekons, 1st Guitarist (CNT Records)1982 its impact in the cities. It’s interesting to see how the ‘waves’ of punk activity shifted The first port of call for a budding punk their geographical centres over time, moving rocker, beyond some very limited radio gradually away from London, Manchester or play and the music press, was the records Liverpool and out into the smaller towns themselves. Gigs were often centred around and cities of the UK. This includes the London and the major metropolitan centres locations of bands themselves, as well as – early punk tours seldom rolled into town their fan-bases: local groups could play to if you lived out in the sticks. Specialist local fans – ‘anyone’ could ‘do it’ – and record shops were actually something of a the ‘subculture’ became so widely popular rarity on the high street in the mid 1970s that many could afford to invest in their – you were more likely to buy the latest own slice of vinyl history, with at least releases from Boots, Woolworths, the a 50/50 chance of getting their money back Co-Op, or a small electrical retailer like through record sales. As punk disappeared Rediffusion – the same people that your back underground in the late 1970s, local parents rented the television from. Local DIY scenes were cropping up all over the newsagents also stocked singles – especially country, and young punk fans, annoyed at those in the charts – and I soon learnt a being told that they’d missed the boat and few techniques for seeking out that prized that punk was dead, decided to take control limited edition punk record on coloured of its legacy themselves, thus ensuring an vinyl or in a picture sleeve. The bigger even bigger, harder, faster, louder New ‘chart’ stores would sell out of their Punk movement would emerge. This time, initial batch of punk new releases very though, punk was genuinely ‘regional’ in its
2 3 FROM THE FIRST WAVE TO THE NEW WAVE COLOURED MUSIC
In many of the recent published histories Once punk and the ‘New Wave’ had become ‘back to basics’ approach. Crass had already of punk, punk begins and ends in the broadly accepted and could be marketed by “...adopted black clothing as a protest metropolis, lasting perhaps two or three the major labels, chart entries became far against the narcissistic peacockery of the years (the lifetime of the Sex Pistols as more familiar between 1978 and 1979. The fashion punks” early in their career, and a band, together with the opening up of major labels were also quick to recognise the reflection of this approach within their the movement to record company marketing the potential for a punk collectors’ market, sleeve graphics was almost inevitable – as strategies and the realisation by major following the success of independents was the adoption of similar graphic styles labels that punk had strong business such as Stiff who had started to produce by a subsequent range of Anarcho Punk groups potential), then disappears. Although some ‘alternative’ versions and formats of their heavily influenced by Crass themselves. credit is generally given to secondary new releases. Stiff saw the potential for groups and locations following in the wake limited edition coloured vinyl releases, of the London scene, in particular the picture sleeves and alternative formats such Buzzcocks and later Factory Records in as 10 inch albums and oddly shaped discs Manchester and a number of groups around – reflected in good sales in the first few Liverpool, Sheffield or Leeds, these are weeks following a release date – and were seldom credited with any local agenda or soon followed by other independents such as individual style reflecting alternative Small Wonder, Chiswick and Beggars Banquet. approaches to the punk ethos of the capital. Virgin records also offered limited edition Much of the significance attributed to certain coloured vinyl versions of singles by the locations and individuals also appears to likes of X Ray Spex, The Members and The have been given retrospectively: Factory Skids, while US based major label A&M tapped Records, for instance, were not to achieve into the trend for releases by The Dickies commercial significance until the 1980s and and The Police. The natural conclusion of 1990s with the success of New Order and the this marketing style saw The Lurkers’ debut Happy Mondays, together with the Hacienda Free Admission Single (Beggars Banquet nightclub, which opened in May 1982. There 1977) issued in 1978 in red, white and blue are in fact a great many links and crossovers vinyl versions, while their fourth single, between the First and Second Waves of UK punk I Don’t Need To Tell Her (1978), came in – from the developing London punk scene and four different sleeves, each depicting a gigs further afield by early progenitors such member of the group – a similar technique as the Clash and the Sex Pistols to the “punk was later used by Chiswick Records to market diaspora”, as Jon Savage has described it. The Damned’s Love Song single in April Some provincial bands were able to get a 1979. Generation X released their fourth foothold in the new movement through support single, King Rocker (Chrysalis 1979) at slots with touring groups and exchanging around the same time, with initial pressings or sharing gigs – notable among these were in four different sleeves each featuring the Buzzcocks (who organised two gigs for an individual member of the band, and four the Sex Pistols in Manchester, playing as corresponding coloured vinyls. support act at the second), Neon Hearts (who set up their own club in the back room of Although the marketing strategies based on a pub in Wolverhampton and promoted punk limited editions and coloured vinyl proved gigs), Suburban Studs (who supported the Sex initially very successful, the inherent Pistols in their home town of Birmingham conflict with what could be seen as the punk and again in London) and The Prefects (who ideology did lead to criticism from both supported The Clash in Wolverhampton and punk bands and audiences, and was savagely a number of other dates on the White Riot parodied in both song lyrics and interviews: tour in the Spring of 1977). In this way, the Television Personalities Part Time Punks gigs were an important feature in both (Kings Road 1978) included the line “They’d establishing the movement with a wider like to buy the O-Level single, or Read audience and in gaining recognition for About Seymour, but they’re not pressed in local bands. Later developments in the DIY red, so they buy The Lurkers instead.” The field in particular, when many groups found shift in the late 1970s and early 1980s to a growing market for self-produced records a more ideological, austere and politicised and took up the challenge to start their punk, especially within the Anarcho Punk own labels, saw a growing confidence in sub-genre, saw a decline in the market for the expression of regional, or provincial, alternative formats and coloured vinyl concerns. While many of the early punk bands releases and a return to basic black vinyl – had sung about life in the city, urbanity, often housed within a simple black and white boredom and apathy, later bands found a folded sleeve. This can be seen as not only strong enough demand for their work to reflecting low cost production techniques produce records about particular regions, on the part of independent labels, but the local scenes, even individuals and rival employment of deliberate visual codes with towns or groups. which to deliberately denote austerity and a
4 5 THE PROLE ART THREAT KEY CATEGORIES IN UK PUNK
The independent sector grew strongly between and use of imagery and in typographic style. UK punk was a broad umbrella description, 1978 and 1984, in particular benefiting from Techniques for reproduction of a range of which incorporated a wide range of styles the widening market for punk and avant-garde punk graphic material also underwent change, and approaches from the outset, finding records in the late 1970s. They later partly because independent producers some coherence as a distinct punk market successfully captured the early 1980s punk of fanzines and sleeves could build upon developed during the Second Wave before market whilst the major labels turned to innovations and good practice developed by fragmenting once again into a number of the promotion of new styles and a broader others. The growth of the independent DIY opposing and/or inter-related tribal groups audience. A combination of low overheads and scene in the late 1970s also resulted in during the Third Wave. Although a quite the ability to produce short runs of records graphic design for record sleeves, posters, disparate range of potential new sub-genres which were both cost effective and flyers and fanzines which could be targeted emerged in the Second and Third Waves of audience-specific allowed the smaller to specific, often small-scale, markets. Many punk, often originated and defined by music independent labels to operate in this record sleeves could be regarded as critics and record companies, many failed to specialist market much more easily than the strongly non-commercial in terms of the become widely recognised. However, a number majors, who relied on mass production and mainstream record market, either in their of broad themes and groupings did become distribution, and a high turnover of their uncompromising use of text and imagery, or in accepted by punk bands, music critics and product. Early 1980s punk-specific labels the hand-made, labour intensive nature of the fans, and these categories could be broadly could then tap into a well-established packaging itself which would be extremely defined as follows:- market – notably punks who continued to expensive to reproduce on a large scale. define themselves as part of the movement The design of record sleeves often involved • Proto Punk and Pub Rock rather than adopt a new trend, and those strategies that, although based on limited • New Wave and Novelty Punk who were interested but had been too young budgets, were inventive and sophisticated • DIY, Post Punk and the Avant-Garde to respond to the First (or even Second) – incorporating alternative production • Oi and Street Punk Waves. Riot City, an independent punk label processes, the adaptation of available, • Real Punk, New Punk and Hardcore set up by Bristol group Vice Squad and lo-tech materials, and simple printing • Anarcho Punk Simon Edwards of local independent Heartbeat techniques. Certain design strategies later Records to release their first record, is a became established more widely within It should be noted that certain of these good example: after initially pressing 1,500 the field of music packaging and proved categories may bear a relationship to UK copies of the Last Rockers e.p. in December influential within the wider practice of punk but are not in fact sub-genres of 1980, they found that sales far exceeded graphic design, while many others were ad it: groups in the Proto Punk and Pub Rock expectations, eventually selling in excess hoc adaptations of more traditional design category might be defined as precursors to of 22,000 copies. The label went on to sign skills relating to the branding, marketing punk, which in some cases continued to other bands and to gain a strong foothold and promotion of popular cultural artefacts. operate alongside the developing new genre, in the independent market – Riot City It should not be overlooked that the growth benefiting from the association in the eventually released some 29 singles, and 12 in small-scale DIY punk outlets, labels and process. It certainly did no harm for groups albums by a number of different Third Wave distributors also helped to establish an such as Dr Feelgood and the Count Bishops punk bands between 1980 and 1984, when they effective ‘alternative’ marketplace, which when their labels adopted some of the visual were forced to close following the collapse continues to thrive to this day. styles of the new wave in the packaging and of their distributor Pinnacle Records. Other marketing of their records. labels thrived during this period with the establishment of a firm Third Wave punk fanbase and market for their releases. Both Secret Records (based in London) and No Future (based in Malvern, Worcestershire) had a string of minor chart successes between September 1981 and the end of 1982, releasing singles by Oi-related groups such as Blitz, The Partisans, Red Alert, The Violators and Peter & The Test Tube Babies. The short-lived glossy magazine Punk Lives calculated Oi-related record sales in excess of two million across the sub-genre’s first four years, demonstrating a level of commercial success on a par with many First Wave record releases which has subsequently been played down within historical accounts of the movement.
It should also be noted that the visual styles of fanzines and graphic ephemera surrounding punk did not stand still during this period – there is no one standard punk visual language – but did in fact undergo an evolution in terms of both the creation
6 7 THE PUNK COMMUNITY PROTO PUNK AND PUB ROCK
From the beginning, UK punk was a fragmented ideological and even regional factors led The roots of UK punk are many and varied, and Island R&B group Dr Feelgood, who had formed and disparate grouping of distinct musical to some entrenched positions on the part of discourse surrounding the ‘true’ origins of in 1971 and had a number one album in the UK and visual styles. Many groups were credited bands and labels, and occasionally to direct the movement has thrown up many conflicting charts, Stupidity, in September 1976, were with an association to the emerging genre confrontation between fans of opposing arguments. While the influence of musicians very influential to the development of the as a way of garnering public and press groups. in New York in the early 1970s, including Pub Rock scene in London, and the developing interest, and the perceived need to build the New York Dolls, Iggy Pop, Lou Reed, punk scene – it was a £400 loan from a groundswell of new groups under the Patti Smith, Television and The Ramones is vocalist Lee Brilleaux that allowed Jake punk banner meant that some groups bore often cited, other artists from the UK, Riviera and Dave Robinson to start up Stiff associations in quite indirect ways. This is such as David Bowie and Roxy Music, are also Records in the Summer of 1976. Similarly, particularly true of those groups who were claimed as the natural lineage into the The Count Bishops featured heavily in the already partly established on the Pub Rock punk scene of 1976. John Robb’s Punk Rock: pages of Sniffin’ Glue – sharing the same scene, and who were associated with early An Oral History gives a range of opinions label as The Gorillas, and offering a independent labels linked to punk, such from a wide range of individuals involved high-energy, guitar-led live show, the group as Stiff and Chiswick Records. Therefore, in the early punk movement, and includes fitted well with the Proto Punk scene. The although this study is concerned with the all the above, together with Glam Rock, the Count Bishops Speedball e.p. was the first definitions of, and distinctions between, a late hippie underground, and the London Pub release on the Chiswick label in November number of emerging sub-genres of UK punk, Rock scene. It is certainly arguable that 1975, and featured a picture sleeve – an other related sub-genres, such as Proto Punk individual punk ‘pioneers’ were influenced by unusual device at the time. (i.e. the Pub Rock and R&B groups operating the music and fashions that had gone before, around the start of UK punk in late 1976 and and the well-documented attitudes of those Several active groups and individuals on early 1977) and New Wave (e.g. artists such First Wave artists who gained widespread the late hippie underground scene also as Ian Dury, Wreckless Eric, Nick Lowe and critical attention have helped to cement a played a key part in the crossover between Elvis Costello at Stiff Records) are also fairly rigid collection of pre-punk artists Proto Punk and the First Wave of UK punk. identified. as inspiration for UK punk’s First Wave. A The Pink Fairies originally formed in 1969 more recent trend in punk history has given as a three-piece group featuring vocalist One other point, which does require greater credit to groups such as Mott The Twink with Steve Peregrin Took (formerly reiteration, is that many UK punk groups Hoople, Dr Feelgood, Eddie & The Hot Rods of T Rex) and Mick Farren. Twink left the were classified within more than one and the Pink Fairies as inspirations for group in 1971 to pursue a solo career, and sub-genre, especially during different punk music and songwriting (including the was replaced by Larry Wallis – co-founder periods of their careers. When a group first perceived move away from an Americanised of Heavy Metal group Motörhead with former appeared on the scene, many journalists form of Rock & Roll to a more localised Hawkwind bassist Lemmy – who would go on to would try to find a place for them alongside English equivalent). It should be noted, become part of the Stiff Records regular those sub-genres already recognised, but however, that the latter development is in team as a producer. The Pink Fairies also once the group became more widely known they part due to the rise in importance of groups played at the Mont De Marsan Punk Rock might be placed alongside a different set of such as The Clash and The Damned within punk Festival in August 1976, alongside The peers. Also, groups tended to become more histories – whereas earlier histories were Damned and various UK Proto Punk groups. proficient, and potentially more commercially centred around the Sex Pistols and their Wallis released one solo single on Stiff, viable, over time – so the shift from ‘Punk’ immediate entourage, more recent accounts Police Car, in November 1977, while Farren to ‘New Wave’, or from DIY to ‘Post Punk’ have highlighted the part that individuals released the four track Screwed Up e.p. was perhaps more the result of a group’s such as Mick Jones and Joe Strummer of The with The Deviants on the same label. Also natural development rather than Clash and Rat Scabies and Brian James of in 1977, Twink teamed up with Alan Lee Shaw self-conscious industry marketing and The Damned played in the development of the and Rod Latter of The Maniacs to form The promotions. early punk scene. Rings, who released one single, I Wanna Be Free, on the Chiswick label in May 1977, and First Wave UK punk can be seen to have For the purposes of this exhibition, also performed at the 2nd Mont De Marsan been fairly diverse, both musically and however, Proto Punk examples have been Punk Rock Festival. This crossover between sartorially: in terms of this project, limited to those groups which were cited punk and the late hippie underground was sub-genres are limited at this stage to in early punk reviews – in the music press to have a direct influence on the formation Proto Punk, Punk Rock, Novelty Punk and New and in fanzines such as Sniffin’ Glue – and of Anarcho Punk scene-leaders Crass, and Wave. The Second Wave, between 1978 and those record labels which were to become the regular Stonehenge Free Festival saw 1980, saw the emergence of DIY and the Post central to the development of the First Wave a number of close collaborations between Punk Avant-Garde, as well as the beginnings of UK punk, such as Stiff and Chiswick. the punk and hippie scenes in subsequent of a Street Punk style, while the early Certain Pub Rock and R&B groups, such as years. Free festivals involving groups 1980s Third Wave led to the division of the The Gorillas and Eddie & The Hot Rods, from both scenes were a regular occurrence movement into fairly clearly defined featured in early punk reviews, and to a in the South and West of England in the sub-genres such as Anarcho Punk, Oi, New certain extent were categorised within the early 1980s, often leading to open conflict Punk and Hardcore, as well as the crossover punk milieu – both groups played at the Mont with the police, and can be seen in part with US Hardcore and the early emergence De Marsan Punk Rock Festival in Bordeaux, as precursors to the rave culture of the of Neo-Fascist Punk. These emerging on 28th August 1976, and were regularly following decade. sub-genres of UK punk were defined in large featured in Sniffin’ Glue. The Hot Rods even part by the music press and by specific released what was to become a ‘punk classic’ audience groups. Tribal differences became single, Do Anything You Wanna Do, at the more clearly marked, and strong political, height of punk in July 1977. Fellow Canvey
8 9 new wave and novelty punk
Like Proto Punk, many of the artists within Ian Dury & The Blockheads could be said to One punk parody even managed to precede this category bear a somewhat tangential bridge both camps. the furore surrounding the Sex Pistols position relative to UK punk. While New Wave television appearance in December 1976 – had was a generic term largely applied to the The term Novelty Punk covers the range of it appeared a few weeks later, it could have punk movement in its early incarnation, it punk-related records which were produced, achieved national exposure. Gimme That Punk later became associated with chart-friendly, particularly during the First Wave, in Junk by the Water Pistols was released in punk-influenced music which was seen to be order to offer an often humorous view of November 1976, just a couple of weeks before distinct from the punk movement itself. the new genre. The tradition of generic the Sex Pistols debut single. A comic blend However, a number of key figures associated novelty records which reflect and comment on of clichéd tabloid punk descriptions (the with the New Wave need to be considered in developing trends in popular music is almost singer boasts of wearing chains, swearing this context. Nick Lowe, formerly a member as old as recorded music itself. Music Hall and petty violence) and generic rock pop, of successful Pub Rock group Brinsley comedians such as Stanley Lupino based some its play on words is very humorous and Schwarz, recorded the first single to be of their sketches around reflections on the pre-figures a number of key later developments released on Stiff Records, So It Goes, in popularity of Ragtime in the decade after in punk history. The chorus repeats the August 1976 as a solo artist, and went on to 1910, producing comic records such as Have lyrical refrain; “Anarchist... Anarchist... become the label’s in-house producer. The You Got Any Rag? (1916), while the ensuing An’ I kissed a couple of local girls”, B-side of the single, Heart Of The City, decades saw popular generic Jazz and Swing playing directly with Johnny Rotten’s vocal was described as “...the FIRST new wave songs during the 1930s and 1940s by the inflection in the opening lines of Anarchy In punk sound on vinyl” by Melody Maker the likes of Count Basie, Duke Ellington and The UK, while the subject of the last verse following year. Lowe also played the Mont De Glen Miller, and celebrations of new could easily be taken as future Sex Pistols Marsan Punk Rock Festival, and on the 1977 post-war youth styles such as Chuck Berry’s bassist Sid Vicious, real name John Simon Live Stiffs Tour alongside Ian Dury & The Rock ‘n’ Roll Music (1957) and Heinz’ Just Richie: Blockheads, Elvis Costello and Wreckless Like Eddie (1963). With the advent of punk, Eric. As producer, Lowe is credited with The the tradition was embraced by both those I am a rebel and Simon’s my name Damned’s debut single, New Rose (October operating within the movement and those Mum thinks I’m crazy I drive her insane 1976) and album Damned Damned Damned outside wishing to comment on it. The second I know two chords and I sing out of tune (February 1977) – which are widely noted as single by London pub rock band turned punks If punk rock lasts I will make a fortune the first UK punk single and album release The Vibrators, Pogo Dancing (RAK 1976), fits respectively – and his raw production style neatly into this model, as do such one-off While this notion of punk parody and became hugely influential to subsequent punk novelty singles as Norman And The Hooligans humorous critique can be seen to originate recordings by other artists. Other Stiff I’m A Punk (President 1977) and The Punkettes from both inside and outside the genre, a Records artists, including Ian Dury, Elvis Goin’ Out Wiv A Punk (Response 1977). Pop distinction should be made between meta-punk, Costello, Wreckless Eric, Rachel Sweet and producer Jonathan King also got in on the as a punk discourse from within, and the The Yachts were associated with the early UK act, recording a single under the pseudonym adoption of punk styles for either comedic punk scene before moving on to commercial Elizabeth, entitled God Save The Sex Pistols value or commercial viability by artists success under the New Wave heading – like (Creole, August 1977), a ‘royalist’ answer outside of the punk movement. Nick Lowe, however, they were never really record to the Sex Pistols’ God Save The defined as ‘punk’ in the first place, and the Queen released in May the same year. Some of term New Wave seems far more appropriate to the most successful punk parodies even made apply to all their output. Jake Riviera left inroads in the national charts – Jilted John Stiff to co-found Radar Records with former by Jilted John (Rabid/EMI 1978) remained United Artists A&R man Andrew Lauder in late in the chart for twelve weeks, peaking at 1977, taking Nick Lowe, Elvis Costello and number four in August 1978, while Heads The Yachts with him, and that label also Down No Nonsense Mindless Boogie by fellow became a significant player in the New Wave Mancunians Alberto Y Lost Trios Paranoias scene. (Logo 1978) charted the following month, and The Monks’ Nice Legs Shame About Her Face Many successful early UK punk groups became (Carrere 1979) took punk’s by-now generic closely associated with the New Wave once cockney accent and simple guitar riffs to they had become more well known, and once build a novelty hit in April 1979. The Monks production values on their record releases took the punk parody one step further with became more acceptable to the mainstream. their next single, Johnny B Rotten (EMI Many of the successful First Wave groups 1979), even going so far as to mimic Jamie who managed to establish careers on major Reid’s original artwork for the Sex Pistols’ labels, such as The Jam, The Stranglers, Anarchy In The UK. Siouxsie & The Banshees, The Police and The Clash, expanded their musical repertoire as their careers progressed, moving away from the early generic ‘punk rock’ description in the process. There is also an overlap between the New Wave genre and certain Proto Punk groups and labels – groups such as The Radio Stars, The Motors, Squeeze and
10 11 diy, post punk and the avant-garde
Beginning with the notion of self-publishing, independent records produced by some of this trend in the promotion of a do-it- often in parallel with other activities these bands “...mark the full UK take-up of yourself ideology, either through the such as fanzine production, this category the challenge posed by Buzzcocks’ ‘Spiral hand-crafted nature of labels and sleeves, covers a broad range of musical styles and Scratch’. Unlike the US, where major label or through a direct message within the visual strategies, often produced in limited deals were rarely an option and putting your artwork or lyrics themselves. In London, numbers. As indicated by the definitions own records out was a matter of necessity, The Television Personalities issued their used to compile the Independent Chart, UK Independent label releases were often the first single, 14th Floor/Oxford Street W1, independent releases were determined by result of choice becoming ideology.” Savage on their own Teen ‘78 label early in 1978, production and marketing factors rather refers here directly to the first record incorporating hand-written labels and folded, than musical style, and as such the range release by the Buzzcocks from Manchester, a Xeroxed sleeves. Their second single, the of independent and DIY releases in the late four-track seven inch e.p. (extended play) Where’s Bill Grundy Now? e.p., released on 1970s is very broad, covering everything single on their own New Hormones label the re-named Kings Road label, sold out of from electronic pop to jazz and dance entitled Spiral Scratch, which was released several pressings during 1978, before being music. During the First and Second Waves in the spring of 1977 and funded by a loan taken up and re-pressed by Rough Trade in of UK punk, the influence of new labels and from guitarist Pete Shelley’s father. The 1979, eventually selling in excess of 15,000 distribution networks such as Small Wonder, single got good publicity and was played copies. The Rough Trade version featured Cherry Red and Rough Trade helped to create on John Peel’s national radio show – it sleeves with reproduced notes on the reverse a more established sub-genre of DIY punk eventually sold 16,000 copies before it detailing the recording and production costs music, together with more sophisticated was deleted in September 1977, making it a of both record and artwork. Interestingly, marketing strategies and longer production hugely successful, and widely recognised, the record sleeves were a major production runs. Other small labels, such as FAST punk DIY enterprise. expense for the group (particularly when Product, Illegal and Stiff, also enjoyed the you compare it with the cost of recording: benefits of major label distribution deals Though Spiral Scratch became symbolic “recorded at I.P.S. Shepherd’s Bush, August with established companies. of the punk DIY ethos, largely due to 26/1978, cost £22.50”). The sleeve note reads its success in gaining radio airplay and “…sleeves 2,000 = £110 by Delga, Kent. We This is the broadest category within this enthusiastic reviews in the music press, didn’t want to but what else do we do?”, field, covering a range of activities from other groups were also experimenting with expressing the groups’ frustration with the self-produced and distributed small label self-produced records around the same time. renewed demand for picture sleeves during output through to popular independent Some of these achieved critical acclaim this period. The lyrics of the Television artists or labels with a more established and sold successfully, particularly those Personalities’ record itself are heavily catalogue, and as such it does impact across from the capital, where direct contact critical of the new ‘punk’ market, with a range of other sub-genres. Many Anarcho with journalists documenting the evolving its apparent obsession with coloured vinyl Punk and Hardcore releases, for instance, ‘scene’ was easier. One of the better known records, picture sleeves and trendy venues, could equally be defined as DIY, in that they DIY groups were the Desperate Bicycles, and the track Part Time Punks makes a number were low budget releases, often with who issued their first single Smokescreen/ of barbed comments on the way the punk scene home-produced sleeve artwork and packaging, Handlebars on their own Refill Records label was developing at the time. Other groups and were distributed via independents such in London during the summer of 1977. The moved from a base in the independent as Southern Records or Rough Trade. However, total cost of production amounted to £153 avant-garde into more prominent positions a distinction should be made between groups for recording, pressing and printing simple with the backing of major record labels, who released their records independently one sided, one colour sleeves. The group and this development was seen not only as and saw the Do It Yourself maxim as an used the profits from the sale of the limited good business by some participants, but explicit reflexive practice, and those who edition of 500 records to produce a second as in some ways inevitable in light of may have run their own labels but were less single entitled The Medium Was Tedium/ the historical development of the music concerned with promoting and foregrounding Don’t Back The Front (this time with a two industry. Some independent labels, such as the ‘anyone can do it’ message. Independent colour sleeve printed on both front and Fast Product, actively encouraged links labels were to have a strong influence on the back) some three months later. 1,000 copies with the major labels, setting themselves structure of the music industry throughout of this single were issued, selling within up as a kind of pro-active A&R department the following two decades. The Cartel weeks and leading to a repress of a further to establish groups on the ground and then distribution network was very successful for 1,000. After this batch was sold, the label pass them through to the major labels. a number of years, and it took some time for became self-financing, producing a further Fast Product released debut singles by the the major labels to reassert their grip on three singles and an album over the ensuing Gang Of Four, Mekons, Scars and the Human the market. When they did, a new category, three years. The first two Desperate Bicycles League, all of whom went on to sign to major Indie, emerged as a loose branding tool, the releases were also interesting because they labels – in fact, Fast Product was itself major labels clumsily attempting to tap into featured the same two tracks on both sides, eventually bought out by EMI Records. the well-established independent market and apparently because the group could only audiences. afford to cut one master for one side of a record. The lyrics were also concerned with Many Second Wave bands were heavily promoting the DIY ethos – on Smokescreen influenced by both media coverage of punk the singer announces “Xerox music’s here and by direct contact with bands on at last!” and on the run out groove a lone tour and records made available through voice shouts the phrase “It was easy, it was national distribution and radio airplay. cheap, go and do it!”. Self-produced DIY As Jon Savage suggests, a number of DIY, efforts over the following year continued
12 13 oi and street punk
This category stems originally from the The Hoople, and both The Damned and The Daily Mail went so far as to target music single by Cock Sparrer, Runnin’ Riot early Second Wave of UK punk, with bands Rezillos covered The Sweet’s Ballroom Blitz. journalist Garry Bushell and the Sounds (Decca 1977) had featured a photograph of such as Sham 69, Menace and Slaughter & The The Damned also toured as support act to music paper: a headline on 9th July 1981 a pitch invasion by West Ham supporters. Dogs providing a musical style based on Marc Bolan in March 1977, and a television described Sounds as “The Skinhead Bible Coupled with lyrics which were often traditional rock & roll forms twinned with series entitled Marc, which was commissioned of Hate from an Establishment Stable”, the anti-establishment, and in particular Glam Rock and pop, and a visual aesthetic by Granada Television and presented by Bolan editorial going on to report that it was anti-police, this image attracted a which references the image of the ‘boot in the autumn of 1977, featured a number “...not merely a pop paper but a vehicle following which included football hooligans, boy’, skinhead culture, and working class of punk artists including Generation X for viciously extremist and fascist views.” skinheads and some right-wing elements. youth iconography. The terms ‘Oi’ and and the Boomtown Rats. The interpretation Sounds management took legal action against Many of the early Oi bands gained a strong ‘Street Punk’ were coined in the late 1970s of Oi as an essentially live music form the Daily Mail and the NME (who had repeated following and achieved minor chart positions by journalists, notably Garry Bushell at which embraced singalong traditions and the allegations), but the perception of the with record releases, but by 1981 were Sounds, in order to promote a particular a (drunken) party atmosphere is also Oi movement as wholly embracing the racist attracting an increasingly violent faction genre of newly developing bands and labels evident in other cover versions and in the cause had already become widely accepted as to their gigs. Garry Johnson asserts that who drew on the image of those earlier bands development of Oi sub-genres such as the fact. trouble within the movement was largely and refined their sound into a loud, fast Garry Bushell-manufactured ‘Punk Pathetique’ caused by football allegiances rather than and aggressive new style. Often dealing movement incorporating Splodgenessabounds, Garry Johnson, an outspokenly anti-racist racism: “...the real problem of the movement with supposedly ‘working class’ subject the Toy Dolls and Bushell’s own group The Oi poet, did make an attempt to redress was rival football fans – but it was a matter such as football, drinking, sex and Gonads. The Gonads recorded a punk version the balance with his 1981 book Oi: A View problem we were fighting and winning.” violence, songs usually combined singalong of Tom Jones’ Delilah, and both the Toy from the Dead End of the Street, written choruses and simple chants with melodic Dolls and Splodgenessabounds were renowned in the weeks following the Southall riot. hooklines. The influence of earlier Glam Rock for various comic interpretations of well-known Placing the contemporary skinhead culture on both the musical and visual direction of songs. Splodgenessabounds covered the Rolf firmly within a set of historical references Second Wave UK Street Punk and Oi should Harris children’s classic Two Little Boys which traced back to the 1960s rude boy not be overlooked. Glam Rock had initially – which actually spent seven weeks in the fashions and their adoption of early ska and grown in popularity as a back to basics national charts between August and September reggae music from Jamaica, and including pop rock format in direct opposition to 1980 – while the Toy Dolls achieved a Top photographs of black punk fans and ska the increasingly complex and professional Ten place at Christmas 1984 with their musicians, Johnson states “…white working output of the Progressive Rock movement. radical reworking of the nursery rhyme class got more in common with black working The most successful UK singles band of the Nellie The Elephant. class, than they have with white rich middle early 1970s were Slade, from Walsall in the class.” He also argues strongly against West Midlands. Their early image tapped The patriotic sentiments expressed by the both right and left-wing political groups, into the skinhead style of the late 1960s, likes of The Last Resort (whose record and tries to centre the Oi movement within wearing the outfits of the football terraces releases included titles such as Red, an apolitical working class youth culture and street style of working class youth, White and Blue, Lionheart and Rose Of (thus mirroring the position of much First and their music was simple, loud and heavy, England) and Cock Sparrer (whose 1982 single Wave punk). This is a similar argument to utilising strong 4/4 drum patterns – which England Belongs To Me became an instant Oi that put across by Garry Bushell and other became central to the Glam Rock musical classic) helped to give the Oi movement a sympathetic journalists, though their ideas style. As the public interest in Glam Rock notoriety and fascist associations. Even the of working class tradition and pride are grew, Slade, along with other successful nationalist associations of songs such as often fraught with ideological problems. Glam artists such as David Bowie, Marc the 4 Skins version of the Dambusters theme Bolan, The Sweet and Mud, moved further into and The Business’ interpretation of Ironically, the press backlash which forced the pop mainstream, adopting a musical style traditional Negro spiritual Dayo (The Banana the Oi movement underground may well have which married their earlier raw rock & roll Boat Song) appeared to display an uneasy led to a consolidation and strengthening of with catchy hooklines and melodic choruses. mix of male drinking rituals and jingoism. the right-wing factions within it, with Tensions created in the press came to a far-right elements continuing to grow Oi groups such as Cock Sparrer, who formed head with a gig at the Hamborough Tavern, throughout the 1980s and 1990s and the in 1974 as a pub rock band playing mostly Southall in July 1981 featuring the 4-Skins establishment of dedicated labels and Small Faces covers and attracted a skinhead and The Business. The venue was attacked by fund-raising gigs for neo-fascist parties. and bootboy following in East London, were local Asian youths, and fighting between Some Oi groups such as Cock Sparrer and directly influenced by early Glam Rock, and gig-goers, the police and local Asians the Cockney Rejects (whose track Oi, Oi, later Oi and Street Punk groups tended to led to a full-scale riot and considerable Oi, on their second album, Greatest Hits wear their influences on their collective damage to the pub and local businesses. Vol.2, leant the movement its name) espoused sleeves: both One Way System and The Crack The resulting publicity meant that the Oi allegiance to football teams (in both cases covered Slade’s Cum On Feel The Noize, while movement was forced to go underground, and West Ham FC), and dressed in the ‘uniform’ the 4 Skins covered Merry Xmas Everybody many left-wing and non-political groups were of the football terraces – boots, braces and and Vice Squad recorded a version of The put in a difficult position of disassociating short hair. The Cockney Rejects featured a Sweet’s Teenage Rampage. It should also be themselves from the movement that they had photograph of a football crowd on the sleeve noted that this link between punk and Glam been happy to be connected with earlier of their single We Are The Firm/War On The Rock had also been prominent during earlier in their careers whilst it had led to Terraces (1980), while another single based periods of the movement: the Sex Pistols had gigs and audiences for their records. The on a football terrace chant, I’m Forever auditioned singer Johnny Rotten by asking Southall riot was widely reported in the Blowing Bubbles, featured military stripes him to sing along to a recording of Alice national press, with almost all journalists in the colours of the West Ham football Cooper’s Eighteen, guitarist Mick Jones of placing the blame firmly in the camp of the strip. These approaches were not without The Clash had been heavily influenced by Mott bands and their skinhead followers. The precedent: promo sleeves for the debut 14 15 real punk, new punk and hardcore anarcho punk
Parallel to the development of Oi as a Neurotics and The Partisans, appeared on A sub-genre which developed in its own country, often outside of the regular music separate genre, another punk style was the early Oi compilation albums, before right, partly as a reaction to the increased industry circuit. Many of these events evolving which drew inspiration from the establishing their own identity as central political polarisation within punk as a whole, raised funds for a range of political First Wave sounds of the Sex Pistols, The to the New Punk movement. Others, including and as a connection to earlier concerns of causes, from CND to the Animal Liberation Clash and The Damned and Second Wave Infa Riot and Blitz, sought to distance the underground movement of the 1960s. Often Front, as well as smaller local campaigns. back-to-basics groups such as the UK Subs, themselves from early categorisation with employing explicit visual and verbal attacks Book and record stalls at venues provided The Lurkers, The Ruts and Stiff Little the Oi movement following the negative on the power of the state and authority access to the underground and anarchist Fingers. New Punk and Hardcore groups often publicity and connotations of right-wing figures, together with strong anti-war and/ media, and gigs were sometimes scheduled for espoused anti-authoritarian sentiments along political positions attributed to the genre. or animal rights sentiments and an austere, afternoons without a bar licence in order with an abrasive, less melodic, musical Some early influences, both musically and monochrome, deliberately lo-tech sleeve design to give admittance a younger audience. The style set against the popular trends in lyrically, also cross the boundaries: Sham approach, Anarcho Punk records tended to Crass Records label also released a series New Wave and other Post Punk releases. As 69, Menace, The Lurkers and the UK Subs, follow certain unspoken aesthetic rules, of budget-price compilation albums, entitled with the Oi sub-genre, the Sounds newspaper for instance, married overt working class often directly influenced by the output of Bullshit Detector, showcasing demo tapes was again instrumental in defining this sentiments to rabble-rousing chants and the leading Anarcho Punk band Crass. Crass sent in by unknown bands sympathetic to development as ‘New Punk’ – and groups football terrace choruses – themes which were an anarchist collective based in a the Anarcho Punk cause. Later developments such as The Exploited, Chron Gen, GBH, continued to be central to both Oi and New commune in Epping forest. In the late 1970s, in the sub-genre saw a further reflection Discharge, Vice Squad and the Anti Nowhere Punk songwriting. However, fairly strong the members of this loose-knit, strongly and critique of the way that Anarcho Punk, League gained large followings and enough divisions – musical, political and sartorial ideological group formed a punk band to in itself, had become stylised and had record sales to reach the national charts. – were to become apparent between the relay their anarchist message following established invisible rules and codes of It is also important to note that none of developing Hardcore Punk and Oi sub-genres, the networks established by Rock Against conduct among its followers. these groups came from London: the overall to the extent that these two terms became Racism and a wide base of support for CND, impression given by the music press and widely recognised and the New Punk category the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Their Anarcho Punk was also to split politically supporters of New Punk was that it signalled itself faded from view over time. media interruptions – incorporating records, as the sub-genre developed during the early a return to Punk’s ‘true’ roots in working books, films, events, concerts, and posters 1980s, at least in terms of approach. While class culture, and many of those involved – employed a distinctive visual style and an Crass continued to offer a subversive were from working class backgrounds across overt anarchist rhetoric, and paved the way critique of the British government’s the smaller towns and cities of the UK. for an entire sub-genre of anarchist punk involvement in the Falklands War and the bands. They also had a strong influence on threat of global nuclear conflict, others such Some labels specialising in New Punk and Oi the growing traveller movement, and their as Flux Of Pink Indians and Conflict took on records did achieve solid sales figures and utopian visions of the future, coupled with radical positions regarding animal testing regular placings in both the alternative an aggressive refusal to cooperate with the and the meat industry, through records such charts and the national chart. The Riot City mainstream, saw them frequently in direct as the Flux debut album Strive To Survive label became synonymous with the New Punk confrontation with authority. A successful Causing The Least Suffering Possible and movement, following their initial success marketing strategy, based on word-of-mouth Conflict’s To A Nation Of Animal Lovers. with Vice Squad, The Insane and Abrasive communications and the underground scene Conflict also encouraged a more proactive Wheels, although Garry Bushell, writing in born out of the early punk networks, saw form of resistance than the peaceful means Sounds, described the label as the “dustbin the band’s name stencilled on walls across of protest put forward by the Crass camp, of punk”. Vice Squad were later signed to the country, even though their records were with strong links being tied to underground EMI records, though they kept the Riot City blacklisted in many of the major record anarchist groups such as Class War and label identity on their releases: in fact, chains. Using a strategy of (low) maximum activists within the Animal Liberation EMI set up a subsidiary punk and new wave price details on the sleeves, visual devices Front. The Stop The City campaign, which label under the revived Zonophone banner, centred on a heavy black circle (initially involved mass rallies in central London to and signed other successful punk groups the derived from the band’s central visual bring the city to a halt, also had close Cockney Rejects and the Angelic Upstarts, identity), the anarchist symbol, and fold- ties to a number of interlinked anarchist both of whom went on to have national chart out posters, the group’s graphic output was groups, and running battles with the successes. This model of specialist New Punk designed to make strong political messages. authorities were commonplace. labels was mirrored by others such as Beat The System, Rot Records, Razor, Fallout, Pax Crass had a strong influence among the In common with the cross-over between New and Clay Records (the latter, like Rondelet, countless number of young groups formed Punk and Oi, a grey area exists in the covering both New Punk/Hardcore and NWOBHM/ in their wake who shared their concerns distinction between Anarcho Punk and several Heavy Metal releases). Other labels crossed about the threat of nuclear war and the groups who are more commonly labelled over between the New Punk and Oi sub-genres; exploitation inherent within the capitalist Hardcore, in particular the latter’s scene Secret Records became home to The Exploited, system, though they often expressed this in leaders Discharge and other associated The 4 Skins, The Business and Chron Gen, less convincing terms. Many of the Crass groups on Stoke’s Clay and Bristol’s Riot while No Future Records released material collective were from an older, and more City labels. Nearly all of Discharge’s by Blitz, The Partisans and Peter & The educated, background than their followers, output between 1980-84 was concerned with Test Tube Babies, many of whom featured and the inclusion of substantial anarchist the threat of nuclear war and included in the national and alternative charts. texts on their record sleeves was mirrored strong anti-militarist statements: songs Categorisation does become blurred at this by some (often rather inarticulate) such as Realities Of War, State Violence point, as some groups crossed boundaries copycat pieces by younger bands. Bands State Control, Two Monstrous Nuclear Stock between definitions of Oi, Street Punk and were supported by underground Anarcho Piles and Protest And Survive provided a New Punk. This is partly because some Punk networks – gigs were set up by local central manifesto for the group, and their bands, such as The Exploited, the Newtown activists in small venues across the lyrical and musical concerns were adopted
16 17 sound and vision by a number of like-minded groups such as a genre-defining Oi classic released in 1980:- The punk categories and sub-genres listed industry to remain underground, avant-garde and The Varukers, The Skeptix and Broken Bones. above were defined in large part by critics uncommercial. As the industry invested in the Songs recorded by these groups do indeed It’s the greatest working class rip off, oi, in the music press, with labels and groups New Wave, for instance – the only punk sub- echo many of the sentiments of Anarcho oi, oi What a fucking rip off, oi, oi, oi often keen to latch on to new trends as a genre to achieve relative success in the USA Punk groups such as Crass and Flux Of Pink form of promotion. The later sub-genres – other punk sub-genres sought to distance Indians, but the groups were more commonly The success of groups such as Discharge, of UK punk – Oi, Hardcore, New Punk and themselves from this field. The development associated with the evolving Hardcore scene both in terms of chart placings and critical Anarcho Punk – became firmly established of a number of increasingly aggressive, for a number of reasons. Firstly, the support in the music press, also saw them during the Third Wave, and carried musical abrasive and awkward sub-genres (such as overarching banner of the Crass collective more closely aligned with the New Punk and sartorial codes through which to define Hardcore, Oi, New Punk and Anarcho Punk, as encompassed so much of the Anarcho Punk establishment. Discharge’s participation in themselves and their opposition to other well as the more radical elements of DIY and scene during this period that many groups the Apocalypse Now tour of 1981, alongside groups and factions. A key question in Post Punk) can be seen to be an inverse reaction found themselves in a position where they The Exploited, Anti Nowhere League, Anti relation to punk graphic approaches is to punk’s co-option into the mainstream, and had to either ally themselves with the Crass Pasti and Chron Gen, saw them gain some whether similar distinctions were voiced in patterns can be observed in the way that camp or be seen as distinct from it. Some level of critical and commercial success, the sleeve design of records within these waves of acceptance and opposition play music journalists adopted a very negative but also placed them firmly in the New Punk punk communities. A series of exhibition out over time. These patterns can be seen attitude towards Crass, and were followed by camp by association. Whereas Crass, Conflict panels relating to these punk sub-genres to have been both political and aesthetic outspoken members of a number of groups in the and Poison Girls deliberately operated aims to display the range of graphic codes – from the lyrics and public statements Oi and New Punk scenes. It should be noted here outside of the music press and standard and iconic devices present on a range of the groups involved to the musical and that these sub-genres were evolving in parallel performance venues, and were prepared to of record sleeves, in order to evaluate visual styles of their records. This trend to Anarcho Punk, and could be seen as being vary their musical and lyrical styles distinctions and to unpack the subtle identifies punk as distinct from other in direct competition, so allegiances tended to encompass a broad range of influences ways in which agendas might be promoted contemporaneous forms of popular music such to become more explicit. A rift grew between (including poetry, literature and spoken-word and audience allegiances secured. Strong as Pop, Disco and Funk, each of which could those groups who identified themselves with performance for instance), the Hardcore graphic styles, such as the raw, black and be seen to enjoy a sense of close allegiance Anarcho Punk, centred around Crass, and the groups tended to retain the visual and white aesthetic of the Crass label, were with the record industry, and where new New Punk and Oi bands who featured on the verbal language of ‘anarchy’ allied to a emulated by other groups who felt an affinity artists were keen to be embraced by the Oi! compilation albums and were championed brutal, monotonous sound assault. to that particular scene, and this led to commercial mainstream. Disco and funk, like by Garry Bushell in Sounds. Crass had the cementing of certain generic visual jazz, country, rock & roll and rhythm & included a song entitled Punk Is Dead on codes across a range of material: indeed, blues before them, enjoyed far higher levels their debut mini album in 1978, and Bushell the graphic styles of ‘scene leaders’ were of commercial success worldwide than punk, had taken it upon himself to criticise often mirrored by up-and-coming groups, although the development of new markets and the group regularly within his reviews. particularly through home-made, DIY artwork. an international punk underground was to The debut album by The Exploited, Punk’s In some cases, visual styles were directly have far-reaching effects. In particular, Not Dead (Secret 1981), bears a direct ‘lifted’ in order to provide an instant the close fit between the punk subculture relationship to the Crass title, and the connection to the original, while others and a wide range of radical political and group became standard-bearers for the New used appropriation as a tool to comment on cultural groups meant that the genre was to Punk movement. punk’s internal discourse, or as an ironic become widely successful in spite of the attack on the movement. While many early mainstream, and punk record sales and events The war of words between New Punk groups punk releases were housed in plain record remain buoyant in a largely independent and and the Anarcho Punk bands even went so far company bags or simple black and white underground market. as the trading of insults on vinyl: Crass picture sleeves, and increasing number of released a flexidisc entitled Rival Tribal New Wave sleeves produced during the ‘boom’ The graphic and musical styles of a number Rebel Revel (Crass 1981), mimicking the of 1978-79 show signs of a major financial of Third Wave punk sub-genres were to stylised Cockney accent adopted by many Oi investment – coloured vinyl records housed remain underground, going on to influence a groups, and exchanged words with Bushell in full colour litho-printed sleeves, for range of new movements during the 1980s and in the music press and fanzine interviews. instance. Parallel DIY efforts tended to be 1990s. The hard-edged styles of Anarcho and The argument was later taken up by Special much more basic, with limited use of colour Hardcore punk were always unlikely to cross Duties singer Steve Arrogant (the pseudonym and the adoption of simple folding and over into the mainstream, but did enjoy a itself an ironic opposition to Crass lead packaging solutions. Meanwhile, the 1981-82 New strong level of support among fans and went singer Steve Ignorant). Arrogant was a Punk explosion displays a real split between on to influence new genres such as Thrash regular commentator in Sounds, frequently sleeves incorporating glossy, full colour Metal and even the Rave scene of the early writing letters to the paper to put forward images (and, curiously, a growth in the use 1990s. Other punk-inspired developments such his vision of 1980s punk, and Special Duties of picture discs, a very un-punk format if as the new electronica of Mute Records and released the single Bullshit Crass on ever there was one), and the raw, back- The Human League crossed over to the pop Rondelet records in 1982, reaching number to-basics, black and white sleeves of the mainstream in the early 1980s and helped to seven in the independent chart. Many of Hardcore and Anarcho Punk groups – in this build a foundation for electronic pop which the sentiments expressed in this song were case, the result more of an ideological, continues to feature in the charts. A range reiterated by other groups, including the rather than purely economic, split. of DIY styles also provided a strong musical Crowbar single Hippy Punks (1984) and The and visual influence on the development of Gonads’ Peace Artists (1982). Ever ones to When compared with other contemporary punk as a whole. Innovations in packaging take an argument further, Crass retorted forms of popular music, punk offers some materials and marketing techniques by with the track It’s The Greatest Working interesting contrasts. In particular, a pioneering labels such as Stiff Records and Class Rip-Off, itself a parody of The Cockney significant strand of punk can be seen to Beggars Banquet, including coloured vinyl Rejects single The Greatest Cockney Rip Off, have been in a constant battle with the music and limited edition releases, were also
18 19 subsequently mirrored by the major labels. Published in conjunction with the exhibition Indeed, it should be unsurprising that many Hitsville UK: Punk in the Faraway Towns innovators in the music industry continue at the Millais Gallery, Southampton to release their initial recordings on a April 12th to May 26th 2007. small independent label, before signing to a major label and developing their approach Thanks to: Sarah, Roger Sabin, Rob Bevan, within a more commercial framework. The Alex and Chrysostomos at Company, ‘hard edges’ of the original approach might Les and Bridget at the Millais Gallery, be softened in the process, but the influence Janice, Angus, Stuart, Patrick and can often be seen to filter out across a the LCC Research Department, MAGDLCC, range of subsequent releases. The success Alex Ogg, Ged Babey, TV Smith, The of ‘indie’ music since the mid 1980s bears Joiners, Rich Levene, Tony Suspect and out this assertion: the use of lo-tech the Southampton DIY scene, Ian PTP, materials and the incorporation of a hand- Wayne, Chimp, the Luce boys and all made and limited edition craft aesthetic is punx everywhere a central theme of many releases within this genre, and has become something of a visual trope in itself. Indeed, the increasing homogenisation of the music industry, reduced to four or five major international labels and distributors by the early 21st Century, together with the growth of new technologies such as the internet, has allowed the DIY underground – and punk with it – to continue to thrive as an ‘authentic’ voice of opposition.
Russell Bestley, March 2007
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