Bulll!tin Amel'ic ТЬе Bergen School , again into the .' spread scientij of Meteorologyl · lowed the еагli in the 1850's :', ТЬе Bergel The Cradle of' modern weather-forecasting Ву Ralph Jewell figure: '•. (1862-1951), 1 , and tl · е'уегу way,]ac With the weather а major factor in the process of survival ofpressure and temperature which . · Bjerkne~' son а and development, it is по surprise that fishermen and it allowed, theproblem of cyclones at the beginn . considered аз а ргоЫет for scien- . sma!! farmers in Westeгn Norway have Ьееп preoccupied Sфооl in 191 се could Ье solved. '•• and Тог Bergl with some sort of foгecasting for century ироп century. It But the [иПег awareness of the · , А! though th was а surprise, however, that the coastal town of Beгgen unexpected complexities of the at-' of t should Ьесоте the cradle of meteorology as atwentieth mosphere's behaviour combined .both in workin, with the gr0wing amount of routi century science. It was as late as60 years 8go that а small пе work in official meteorological gгoup of researchers - the so-called Bergen School of institutions apparently led to а Mt?teorology - developed а гemarkabIe ilew kind of ,growing pessimism, еуеп apathy,. towards the theoretical problem . weather-forecasting practice. Their effort quickly Ьесате tbe physical dynamics of cyclones the most conspicuous of аll the vaгious initiatives which Essence of the Bergen Schoo! competed to Ьесоте the guiding pгinciple for the massive historical significance is· that it and urgent task of гeconstгucting inteгnational cooperation supplied ап extremely . . . r~vision of the principles of inmeteorology afterthe FirstWorld War. orology and. that after the Bergen School meteorology did not ТЬе Bergen group made ап the work of the Bergen School, that outstanding contribution to thc thc most thorough of аН transfor understanding of а great problem, mations in thc history of mete ТЬе author the апотаliез and paradoxes of orology took place .. Ralph Jewell was Ьот in Сот which had often divided mete wall, England 1910. Не is orologists - the problem ofmiddle When telegraphy opencd ир presently Research Fellow 01 the latitude atmosplleric dcpressions. ncw possibilities fqr internation Norwegian Research Council]or ТЬе emerging meteorology сотр аllу coordinated effort in mete SCience and the Humanities оп rised practical innovatibns in [оге orology during the 1850's and leave 01 absence .from his post ае ' casting proccdures as' well аз а 1860's тапу governments estab the Department 01 phiiosophy, conceptual revision оС the struc- lished official institutions [ог the University 01 Bergen, (о which he ~, ture of cyclones. ~ scientific' nianagement of the new was appointed in 1966. «Polar Front MeteoroJogy», аз opportunities. ЕасЬ participating Beginning М! studies in the the Bergen SchooJ's methods and state had its own pattern of initi Natural Sciences, Ьи! provoked Ьу ideas werc calIcd during thc Twcn atives and priorities, but the pгac~ philosophical and social problems ties, signallcd thc bcginningof а tiCal usefulness of anticipating аЬои! scimce, Ralph Jewelllurned new phase in thc dcvclopmcnt of storms was seen Ьу аН of thcm and his attention 10 the humanislic . meteorology. 1t is а challenge to thus ihe problem of the dynamics study 01 science, grad~aling ./roт find а way of accounting [ог how of travelling depressions (<
into the same kind оЕ wide nections of Scandinavian expedi rangements which satisficd Ыт scientific decline which fol tion-related research, Ье аn that his work il1 Leipzig would the earlier surge of creativity nounced the original research Pl'O continue undcr favourable conditi the 1850's and 1860's,. gramme [гот which the Bergen ons, Bjerknes accepted this ofТeг. The Bergen School had four School's new meteorology иl Оп 23 August 1917, Bjcrknes figures: Vilhelm Bjerknes timately sрг;шg. wrote to his friend and confidant 862-1951), who wa,s the senior Bjerknes' great plan, of adopting Svante Arrhenius about the ,,,,,,.,.u',,, and (Ье key personality in the research criteria of physics for developments in his research рго ,Jack Bjerki1es (УilЬеlт the scientific handling of the сот gramme ир to the departure [гот '1JI',H"'''''q son iщd twenty уеагэ old plex problems оЕ meteorology and Leipzig: the beginning of the Bergen ultimately of weather fогшisting, «Concerning scientific work ЭсЬооl in 1917), Halvor Solberg was stated clearly and firmly in the бnа! year in Leipzig has Ьееn Тог Berg~ron, 1904. As а scientific manifesto it extremely fruitful. For,.., the first Although the most striking in was so attractive that it won sup time, we have made headwaywith tions of the Bergen School, port from the Carnegie Institution meteorological prognosis based оп in working methods and the (support which lasted from 1906 to dynamical principles. How тисЬ огу, were mainly due (о the three 1941), it attracted talented recruits practical significance this might younger personalities, (Ьеу were to· his project, and it helps to have, it is still (оо 800n to say; But only possible within the context of exp1ain why it was Bjerknes who as theory, it looks promising.» Vilhelm Bjerknes' well-established was called to а professorship to Оп 18 December, after his first research strategy and the inspiring lead а new Geophysics Instittite at leadership Ье always seemed: to the Uпivегsitу ofLeipzig where he autumn i Bergen, Bjerknes wrote to Arrheriius: «. . . we аге really provide. began his tепurе in January 1913. А! Leipzig Ье continued his getting оп with the prognosis рго dynamical invеstigаtiоnsипdег Ыеm, using dynamical principles. The Pre-Bergen School conditions which augured well in Up to а certain poinfit is going well, and strangely enough it is Meteorological Research 1913 but which deteriorated after Programmeof Vilhеlпi ту old circulation-theorem which the onset of war in 1914. At Bjerknes . seems to ofТeг moSt, so [аг at аnу Leipzig Вjегiщеs hoped to achieve After showing great talent in rate. But other paths appear to Ье а theoretical sоlиtiоп to the pro physics in continuirig the intellec opening ир too - competitio;t is Ыет of the atmosphere's dy healthy after аН. Therei~ still а tually extremely ambitious рт паmics conceived as а problem of long way to go to anything ргас grammc of his fa1hei' С. А. Bjerk physics. nes who sought 10 'ау new tical, but in аnу case it feels foundations' for understanding satisfying when it turns out that the properties оЕ thc all-pervading The nе", conditions atmospheric phenomena develop medium «ether», in' performing at Bergen accordlng (о the laws of nature.» excellent experimental and theo Bjerknes' war-time difficulties These «other paths» were the first retical work as Hertz' assistant at while living апd working in Ger hints towards new approaches Воnn, and in his first academic тапу during the war сате (о а in meteorology - approaches in the position аз Lecturer, afterwards head in the winter of 1916-1917. spirit of the Bergen School as Professor, in Mechanics at the ТЬе food shortages and other re opposed to Bjerknes'· earlier pr6- . Тесhпiсаl Uriiversity of Stock strictions which Ье had to [асе gramme. Ьоlт, Vilhelm Bjerknes Ьесате encouraged family and fricnds to Several factors afТected the тоге and тоге occupied with ех arrange [ог Ыт to return to Nor emergence of new «strains» of еn ploring (Ье research оррогtиnЩсs way. At the same time ambitious quiry within the Bergen-based in meteorology and hydrography developments were' afoot in Вег Bjerknes-led group. ТЬе change \vhich had Ьееn dramatically gen, where the oceanographer [~oт the established academic opened ир Ьу hiS. discpvery 'of а Bjern Helland-Hansen was busy тШеи of Leipzig to the тисЬ less (Ьеогет in 1897 сопсегniпg cir establishing а new Geophysics In [огтаllу academic situation in cu1ation in fluids, Attempting (о stitute within the framework of Bcrgen, (Ье improved access to make the step from а c1assical Bergen Мивеит. Scandinavian meteorological data hydrodynamics of аn idealiscd flu Оп 17 March 1917, the council and the influence (jf new colIeagues id, to а physical hydrodynamics of of Bergen Museum sent BjcrkfIes such as the oceanographer Bjern the actual fluid bodics оЕ осеаn its invitation to а specially created HelIand-Наnsеn, аН plaved some . and atmosphere, and supported Ьу second professorship at the Geo part in the subtle processes Ьу characteristie «outdoor» соn- physics Institute. After making ar- which new circumstances evoked 826 Уо/. 62, No. 6, June
АШgаtеn ЗЗ - the home 01 lhe Bergen School. Siluated оп Ihe edge 01 Bergen 's .fines/ public park оп а rise ofland nеат. Ille town cenlre tMs house providea splendid accommodalionfor Ihe Bjerkneslamily оп Ihe ground jloor аnа for Ihe working of.fices 01 Ihe forecasting ven/ure 01 the Bergen School upslairs оп the jloor аЬоие. The house шаs /ransjerred /0 IheGeophysics Institule Ьу the lоса! shipошnеr J. L. Мошinсkеl ,n 1919. The combination 01 Ihe Bjerknes ftmily living dошnstаirs шith Ihe Bergen School шоrking upstairs mеРnl а 101 10 the young recruits jor шhот Vilhelm Bjerknes шаs а constant source 01 encouragemenl аnа i'l spiration, аnа for шhот in ma1V' саш Iheir time ,n Bergen was the .first long slay ашау from ftmiliar сотраn.у аnа surroundings.
, The key ftatures , This picture шаs Iqken аl Alligatcll ЗЗ, . шеrе drашn ,n J
Bergen in Novtmber' 1919. Sealed ,n Illt i ·.representing the I1 fortground аl the table оп the lejI is Тот Bergeron devised Bergeron, аl his lejl Сат! Guslav Ross~}' ам ; .lаmШат /0 all. Ms lejl Svein Rossela,nd. The person stand , 'invesligations Веl ing, almosl шith his back to the сатет, is ':, 'аnа cQUeague Jqcl Jack Bjerknes. Contilluing сlосkшisе атоиnа , .. School publicaliol the g,'oup, Sverre Gasland аnа Johan Larsm, ... some imporlant I bolh clerical assislants are seated alllle back . 01 the room. Тм JOung la~v is Сиnиот Ft!Зrslаd аnа her dulies .involvtd receiving new mocll meteorological observations Ьу telephone аnа Ihe subsequenl entering 01 the dala оп the basic resea аау'! тар sheets .. Gunvor Ftlrslad's nеа! that Bjerk шriting аllошеd her to enter а greal numbrr to pro\o olobservalions шUhоul/оо much conlusion оп of the the тар sheet - а malter certain теinЬт 01 of thl Ihe Bergen School pri;:.ed high(v, аnа шhiсh to the is not шithоul signijicance for шhаl Illt . Ви' шеаthеr тар Ьесате ,n Ihe тШеи 01 IIlt Bergen Scl1001.
Сиnиот. Ft!Зrstаd, Тот Bergtron аnа Jack Bje(knes at шоrk оп 14 November 1919. Тшо аа)! еатиет аn exceptional ftll 01 тош had оссuттеа ,n Bergen аnа Bergeron шаs keen 10 .find оиl the reason for и. Роит аа)! afler this picture шаs /aken he mаае шhаt he took 10 Ье his .first теиаЫе drawing 01 Ihe joining 01 the соМ аnа шаrm fron/s. This particular тар, for November 18th, 1919, has rесеnф Ьеen [оса/еа Ьу Ihe author' at Bergen. Ву depicting the phenomenon olocclusion iI сап Ье sai4 10 mark а lurning point in the аgпс me/eorologv 01 Ihe Btrgen School. were t: i!1duced theory to I Аmе/';сап MeteOl'ological Soc;ety 827
The key Jeatures 01 the weather maps 01 t/le Bergm Scl/Ool шщ /lle 1ron/s. T11e..J' were drawn [n red and Ыие оп the dai(y char/s. Facing /he difficlIIU' 0/ representing the three main kinds 01jron/swithou/ Ihe benefi/ 01 (%llr prinling, Bergeron devised а scheme 01 inden/ed black !iIleS which is nош /horollgll[)' jamiliar 10 all. From Leipzig where he ша! /emporari/y conlinuing Ilis inveSligations Bergeron senl tbls post card, dated 8 january, 1924, 10 his 1rimd and colleague jqck Bjerknes, IIrging Ыm 10 emp1o.y the /lOlalion illjulure Bergen Schoo! publications. This remarkable document offirs а reminder 01how simp/e some imporlanl iJrigins сап Ье.
new modulations of Bjerk basic research theme. lt is that Bjerknes still saw his to provide а theoretical of the problem of the of the atmosphere ар- to the needs of practical melteoroll:)gv. But was it necessary to solve а theoretical pro of such enormous complexity аnу practical use could
.One factor was to have crucial '14"Il11,;i:tI1\X for the extent to' which early programme gave to characteristically «Bergen investigations. Norway а difficult food-supply situa following а disappointing har in 1917. During late autumn the first weeks of 1918 the . seemed to Ье wilIing encourage any initiative aimed increasing the productivity of agriculture. А typical Bergen Sc//Oo! weather тар showing rain ((Rеgщ) [n Norwegian) in conjuncЦon These were the circumstances wilh the шагm front drawn а! that time as а Ыие line and а narrIJwer band 01rain be!onging to induced Bjerknes to tack the cold front drawn а! а red line. This might strike meteorologists as slightly odd - it was not theory to practical forecast- until later that the Bergen maps depicted шаrm 1ronts in red arld co!d fronts in Ыuе. 828 Уо/. 62, No. 6, June
ing ЬеГоге the theoretical solution Оп 4 J une Bjerknes wrote again attracted attention and support, was properly obtained. If these to Arrhenius. «Life is fateful. Now too the developing ideas. of J general conditions created the 1 have suddenly Ьесоте а «prac and Solberg attracted great background for this momentous tical» meteorologist. We shall (гу thusiasm and Bergeron resl switch ш Bjerknes' attitude to do аН we сап in order to provide Ьесате fascinated. The roots ВСЬОI towards involvement in practical weather forecasts for farming. the Bergen School as а тШеи Ьу Нг meteorology, the immediate Previously this has only been tried youthful improvising enthus and catalyst was apparently а news in Eastern Norway. But now, at are found just here. Jack Bje paper article. ту suggestion, the Storting has already ~ granted 100,000 kr. for establish and the. ing а forecasting service for the. leading whole of Western Norway from that сусll Bergeron's Early t,;Otntlr.lbution: Meteorology in the interests Kristiansand to Trondhjem.» Ьееп зи~ о! food production Occlusion of fronts Solberg's Q Оп 13 February 1918 the Kristi Bergeron's first major ania newspaper «Tidens Tegn» to the emerging Bergen School carried а report of а meteorological Meteorology caт~ in N service in Sweden whereby farmers 1919. Several times could obtain weather forecasts Ьу Jack Bjerknes' cyclone.model forecasting work Bergeron telephone. «In the interest of our Оп 18 September after Jack Bjerk ted features оп his maps agriculture, сап we have some nes had spent а busy summer seemed anomalous according thing similar in Norway?» the preparing daily weather forecasts the conception оС Director of the Norwegian Mete- based оп а greatly increased пит as expressed in J ack . orological Institute, ТЬ. Hessel ber of reporting observer-~tations paper. Whereas Jack berg, was asked in an interview established within the budget of model ~llowed only the following t~is report. Hesselberg's the special government grant, of separation between the reply was that thcre were too many Bjerknes wrote again to Arrhenius: Нпе and squall-line at the difficulties for such а' эсЬете to Ье «Jack reaHy enjoys Ыв wo.rk here раг! of the tongue оС warm practical in Norway. (in Bergen). Steering-lines and Bergeron suspected the А key document in the history of squaH-liпеs sweep past incessantly Нпе to catch .ир with the s the Bergen School сате as а сот and provide Ыт with the best ing-line in some cases, and ment оп this interview. Vilhelm material Ье could desire for his they might even join in some Bjerknes wrote to Hesselberg оп 18 work.» Ву November 1918 Jack Оп 18 November 1919 February: «Helland-Hansen and 1 Bjerknes had completed а brilliant expressed this suspicion in а have Ьееп disturbed Ьу reading eight-page paper which gave а . fident' drawing where these 'your surrendering remarks in revolutionary view of the structure lines actually did merge «Tidens Tcgn» of Feb 13th. ( .. ) of сусlопез. In this new conception This drawing opened ир the ТЬе situation is such that for the steering-lines and squall-lines to the idea of the process sake of the country; meteorology is b,ad pride of place. Later these «occlusion» of соМ and duty-bound to do its utmost, even names gave way to «warm front» fronts, а conceptionwhich in if there are по telegrams from and «cold front», which were to Ье much later remark of England.' And а situation like the the two linch-pins of the new Bjerknes сате to belong to present опе for getting mete meteorology . meteorologist's Аве. With orology the resources it properly ОП 2 November Jack Bjerknes process the way was clear deserves wШ never arise again.» and Halvor Solberg met Tor Ber seeing that cyclo,nes do not ТЬе connection with the pro geron in Stockholm. While the two опе fixed structure, but that blem of food-supply catalysed а «Bergen» adepts enthusiastically have several, corresponding to chain reaction among Bjerknes explained their new conceptions, different stages of а complete and Ыз contacts, both civil and Bergeron Ьесате aware of the cycle, involving the stages of military. Following а short talk great relevance these ideas had for development and decay. With between Bjerknes and the Prime his own work оп· comparing the discovery оС occlusion the Minister, Gunnar Knudsen, а transparency of the atmosphere in Bergen ideas Ьесате геsШепt government grant was made to different weather conditions. Jack robust in regard to their finance а project whel:'eby а Bjerknes and Solber.g also· ар to encounter challenge from scheme to offer weather forecasts parently saw the relevance of Ber pirical confrontations with for the benefit of agriculture could geron's interest for their work too. er systems, or from Ье realised. Just as Vilhelm's 1904 programme theory. American Meteorological Society 829
discovery «During Jack's absence 1 reflec Cyclones were. now seen as ос- . l'v,r-In,n.. «families» ted оп the Hciffmeyer charts. 1 curring in fаmШеs, the Iife-stage third major constituent of the managed to find something which reached Ьу any particular cyclone '~~,r,,",>nt research platform of the we had suspected for а long time, arriving at the West Norwegian School was the discovery namely а line of discontinuity in coast giving important clues about Ьу Halvor Solberg during temperature, wind etc. which the state of the remaining тет and March 1920. Ву this stretched right across the тар bers to Ье expected from the West Jack Bjerknes' cyclone m9del from one side to the other. ТЬеге is iп the зате sequence, ог family. already attracting wide atten по doubt at аН that this line Vilhelm Bjerknes saw immedi and the important modificati continues аН around the Pole, even ately that this discovery had great leading towards the concep if the Hoffmeyer charts do not importance for the practical ser that cyclones had life-histories extend sofar. То the North ofthe vice of weather forecasting and Ьееn suggested Ьу Bergeron. line we Ьауе «cold Polar air», to that it was bound to attract great Solberg's own w6rds геуеаl the the South we Ьауе «warm Equa attention internationally. ~ ТЬе new vision of meteorological toria\ air». lt is only along this younger members of the g'ergen IJLU"JL',"'~ which b~, J ack Bjerknes line that rain faHs, in most ,case.s at School experienced the situation аз Bergeron now shared. Не least. lt marks the front battle-Iine standing at the edge of а сот to his chief ТЬ. Hesselberg, between two bodies of air and that pletely new and unexpected ге of the Meteorologicalln- is why it has such а contorted search frontier. With this concep course, since now the warm and tion the three main components of «ln the course of оиг work we then the cold has dominance оуег the Bergen School's new research Ьауе to make digressions first the other.» programme were assembled into а one side and then to the other, that forward progress is уегу . ( ... ) We Ьауе, in fact, to write а whole new mete , а «Meteorologie der Vernunft», indeed а «der too if уои wili,... latest results, which аге to Ьауе far~reaching con '''''U"."".~. directly invite usto do
,11! /Ile /ех! makes clear Jack Bjerknes se/ the ball rolling with а reтarkahly clear соnсер /ual picture о/ the тoiions going оп within cyclonic disturhances о/ the atmo~phere. Solberg was thf jirst who venlured /0 continue drawing the /wo characleristic lines so as to connect cyclones with еасА along а /airly conlinuous circuтpolar о/ demarcalion hetween warm and соМ along which cyclones seeтed 10 Ье strиng оп а string 11. These two photo show two о/ Solherg 's original based оп Qhservations collec{ed '{Jnd avaiZable in the ((HojJmeyml Char/s /he уеат. 1907. Drawn in March 1920 sketches consol.idate the idea о/ а polar fronl and ореn ир the further о/ «(cyclone /amiliesll. ; 830
single, very powerfuI, integrated talking point that the Hordaland геасЬ. Seen in this way, the 191 form. County Fishermen's Organisation connection with the problems from Hordaland, the district farming and food production, around Bergen, invited Ыт to its 1919 connection with fishing аппиаl meeting, and from this the improvement of security at The response of fishermen gathering а telegram was sent to the way in which . ТЬе forecasts sent out Ьу Bjerknes' the Norwegian Government: relations during the post-war group immediat.ely Ьесате very «ТЬе Horda1and County Fisher made Norway а favoured loca popular among fishermen, whose men's Organisation gathered at its for initiatives aimed at . daily.Hfe was often а succession of Аппиаl Meeting at Manger today, scientists from previously battles against winds and waves submits it8 urgent арреаl to the states, the specia1 interes.t along а rocky coast. ТЬе Secretary Government that the enterprise shipping companies оС Bergen in of Rogaland County Fishermen's which has Ьееп led Ьу Profes80r transatlantic wеафег service, Organisation invited Vilhelm Bjerknes regarding weather Core аН matters оС intrinsic, not Bjerknes to address the 1920,Ап casting must Ье supported with аН extrinsic, interest, affecting as пиаl Meetingwhich was held in the funds necessary Cor the соп do such basic features as the July 1920. ТЬе day after this meet tinuation and the extension оС this portunities, goa1s and objectives ing а 1осаl newspaper of Stavanger work which is of the greatest im the research group in question. carried the story -: portance for the fishing industry,» Ву means of the documents « . .. the SecJ;'etary of the Or Some time after thesc very 1ected, sa1vaged and processed ganisation asked the Professor to positive responses Crom the fisher the author during the 1ast do аН in his power to make sure теп, Bjerknes made' the remark years ln Bergen, it is now that the forecasts were sent out as that of аН the Согтз of scientific to show the direct сorшесtН}I early in the' day as possible. recognition which Ье had reccived, between the practical projects Similarly, Ье requestedthe profes ПОПе gladdened Ыт more than the Bergen School and the sor to extend the service 80 that these responses Crom this part оС oretical work which grew also fishing hamlets without tele the community. them. l! was the reflection оп рЬопез could receive some kind of methods and procedиres signalled forecasts а8 promptly а8 had Ьееп improvised to fulfi1 p08sible. Just last winter the fore From projects to new theory demands of practkal needs casts Ьауе saved а great deal of As early аз 1918 the Vilhelm specific projects which equipment, perhaps еуеп Ьитап . Вjегkцеs-lеd group Ьесате а focal the spur to new theory in the lives, and we fishermen know fuH point for several different social, of the Bergen School. The weH that these foreca8t8 аге bound commercial, political and intellec from specific projects to to Ьауе ап importance for saving tual Corms оС attention. ТЬе several theory сап Ье made fuHy clear lives and equipment which could ways in which this group attracted this particular episode in the по! Ьауе Ьееп thought of before, this attention and won prestige tory of science. and that it i8 therefore of the most had important bearings оп the Vi1he1m Bjerknes' pressing urgency thЪ:t they should kind of opportunities which arose, concerns thus passed Ье as fuHy developed aspossible.» and a1so оп the goa1s and objec major intelle<:tual. and Bjerknes' reception among .the tives which the members individu change, tlie fuH uпаеr'stа'nQШ~ Rogaland fishermen was зисЬ а аllу or collectively 'attempted to which only history сап