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Savaş Fotoğraflarinin Kullanimi Bağlaminda Propaganda Ve Manipülasyon

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Savaş Fotoğraflarinin Kullanimi Bağlaminda Propaganda Ve Manipülasyon T.C. MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ GÜZEL SANATLAR ENSTİTÜSÜ FOTOĞRAF ANASANAT DALI SAVAŞ FOTOĞRAFLARININ KULLANIMI BAĞLAMINDA PROPAGANDA VE MANİPÜLASYON Yüksek Lisans Tezi Nazım Serhat FIRAT İstanbul – 2008 T.C. MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ GÜZEL SANATLAR ENSTİTÜSÜ FOTOĞRAF ANASANAT DALI SAVAŞ FOTOĞRAFLARININ KULLANIMI BAĞLAMINDA PROPAGANDA VE MANİPÜLASYON Yüksek Lisans Tezi Nazım Serhat FIRAT Tez Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Bülent Erutku İstanbul – 2008 ÖNSÖZ İnsanlığın görsel hafızasının en önemli araçlarından biri olan fotoğraf, günümüzde gerçeğin içinden çekip aldığı an’ı dondurup saklama misyonundan hayli uzak bir noktaya taşınmıştır. Gündelik yaşamımızda karşılaştığımız görüntülerin her birinin içinden fırlayan studium ve punctum oklarıyla algımız delik deşik olmaktadır. Savaş ve benzeri olağanüstü durumlarda ise etrafımızı saran fotoğraflar çok daha fazla saldırganlaşmakta, algımızı ele geçirmeye çalışmaktadırlar. Bunun en önemli alanı da haber fotoğrafları içinde yer alan savaş fotoğraflarıdır. Gerek foto muhabir olarak çalıştığım dönemlerde ürettiğim fotoğrafların gerekse tarihsel olarak savaş alanlarında üretilen fotoğrafların işlenerek sunulması sebebiyle bu alanda üretilen fotoğrafların yitirdiği masumiyet, beni bu tez konusu üzerine çalışmaya itmiştir. Çalışmamın her aşamasında bilgi, birikim ve desteğini sunan, tıkandığım noktalarda yapıcı eleştirileriyle çıkış yolları gösteren ve her daim benim bıktırıcı tekrarlarıma zaman ayıran değerli hocam ve danışmanım Yrd. Doç. Bülent Erutku’ya sonsuz teşekkür ederim. Tez çalışmam boyunca bilgi ve deneyimlerini, desteğini ve sevgisini eksik etmeyen arkadaşım Tuba Emiroğlu’na çok şey borçluyum. Ayrıca yüksek lisans eğitimim boyunca üzerimde emekleri olan hocalarım Prof. Barbaros Gürsel, Prof. Sabit Kalfagil ve Prof. Güler Ertan’a teşekkürlerim sonsuzdur. I İÇİNDEKİLER ÖNSÖZ ÖZET SUMMARY GİRİŞ 1- PROPAGANDA…………………………………………………….…... 2 1.1.Propaganda için ilk söz: İdeoloji…………………………………….…... 2 1.2.Kavram olarak propaganda………………………………………….…... 7 1.3.Propaganda yöntemleri……………………………………………….…. 12 1.3.1.Lenin tipi propaganda…………………………………………..…. 13 1.3.2.Hitler tipi propaganda……………………………………………... 15 1.4.Propaganda ve karşı propaganda da kadın temsili……………………..... 16 1.5.Manipülasyon…………………………………………………………..... 22 1.5.1.Görüntünün doğrudan manipüle edilmesi………………………..... 23 1.5.2.Görüntünün kadrajla manipüle edilmesi…………………………... 27 1.5.3.Görüntünün altyazı eklenerek manipüle edilmesi………………..... 29 1.5.4.Görüntünün kurgu yoluyla manipüle edilmesi…………………….. 32 2- SAVAŞ ve FOTOĞRAF………………………………………………... 35 2.1.Kırım Savaşı……………………………………………………………... 41 2.1.1. Roger Fenton……………………………………………………… 41 2.1.2. Felice Beato……………………………………………………….. 46 2.2.Amerikan İç Savaşı………………………………………………………. 47 2.2.1.Girişimci fotoğrafçılar……………………………………………... 48 2.3.Birinci Dünya Savaşı…………………………………………………….. 52 2.3.1. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda propaganda……………………………. 52 2.3.2.Afiş ve kartpostal………………………………………………….. 57 2.3.3.Osmanlı cephesi……………………………………………………. 60 2.3.3.1. Harp Mecmuası………………………………………….. 64 II 2.4.İspanya İç Savaşı………………………………………………………… 68 2.5.İkinci Dünya Savaşı……………………………………………………… 75 2.5.1.Hitler ve Nazi propagandası………………………………………... 79 2.5.1.1.John Hearfield…………………………………….............. 89 2.5.2.SSCB………………………………………………………...……... 91 2.5.3.ABD………………………………………………………… …….. 98 2.6.Vietnam Savaşı…………………………………………………………… 107 2.7.Körfez Savaşı…………………………………………………………….. 115 2.8.Irak Savaşı………………………………………………………………... 120 2.8.1.Saddam Hüseyin fotoğrafları………………………………………. 126 2.8.2.Esir askerler ve er Jessica Lynnch’in kurtarılış hikayesi…………… 129 2.8.3.Evening Standard’ta çoğalan Iraklılar……………………………… 131 2.8.4.Çavuş Boudreaux olayı……………………………………………... 132 2.8.5.Sahte işkence fotoğrafları…………………………………………... 134 2.8.6.Ebu Garib fotoğrafları………………………………………………. 135 SONUÇ…………………………………………………………………………… 143 KAYNAKÇA…………………………………………………………………….. 145 FOTOGRAF LİSTESİ…………………………………………………………… 152 RESİM LİSTESİ…………………………………………………………………. 161 EKLER…………………………………………………………………………… 164 III ÖZET Gündelik yaşamımızda evimizin tepesine bir bombanın düşmesi ya da sokağımızda silahlı adamların birbirine ateş etmesi sık şahit olduğumuz bir durum değildir. Bu tip durumlara savaş fotoğrafları üzerinden görsel şahitlik yaparız. Fotoğraflar, her zaman savaşın gerçekliğini gösteremezler. Bertold Brecht’in dediği gibi “Krupp fabrikasının bir fotoğrafı bize bu fabrika hakkında çok az şey söyler.” Aynı şekilde bir savaş fotoğrafı da, üzerindeki imgelerin dışında pek bir şey gösteremez ve söyleyemez. İzleyici, fotoğrafın alt yazısı, manşeti ya da o savaşa dair başka kaynaklar tarafından üretilmiş yazı ve görseller tarafından kodlanır. Bir savaşa dair oluşan fikrimiz, savaşın doğru ve desteklenmesi gerektiği veya yanlış ve durdurulması gerektiği gibi, bu tip yazı ve görsellerin üzerimizde yarattığı etkiyle şekillenir. Bu çalışmanın konusu da toplumun kitle iletişim araçları üzerinden gerçekleşen savaş propagandasıyla savaşa olan ilgisinin ve desteğinin nasıl ayakta tutulduğudur. Çalışma iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Çalışmanın birinci bölümünde propagandanın fotoğraflar üzerinde hangi yöntemlerle işlendiği ve ideoloji kavramının, bu işlem sürecinin merkezi olan kitle iletişim araçlarında ki belirleyici rolü açıklanmıştır. Devam eden bölüm ise kronolojik olarak ele alınan savaş fotoğraflarının, birinci bölümde sunulan kuramsal zemin üzerinden analizine ayrılmıştır. Bu analizde fotoğrafın icadından bugüne geçen 153 yıl içinde yaşanan birçok savaştan, tezimizi eksiksiz sunabilmek adına sırasıyla: Kırım Savaşı (1853- 1856), Amerikan İç Savaşı (1861-1865), Birinci Dünya Savaşı (1914-1917), İspanya İç Savaşı (1936-1939), İkinci Dünya Savaşı (1939-1945), Vietnam Savaşı (1964- 1975), Körfez Savaşı (1990-1991) ve Irak Savaşı (2003-…) seçilmiştir. Örnek olarak seçilen savaşlardan elde edilen fotoğraf ve imgelerin hangi şartlarda üretildikleri ve kamuoyuna sunulurken hangi yöntemlerin kullanıldığı yine ikinci bölümde tartışılmıştır. IV SUMMARY In our daily lives it isn’t a frequent situation that a bomb drops on our houses or men with guns shoot eachother in our street. In this kind of situations we testify visually by means of war photographs. Photographs do not always express the reality of wars. As Bertold Brecht said “A picture of the Krupp Factory tells a little about this factory”. Just like this, a war photograph cannot express much, except for the images on it. The spectator is encoded by the subtitles, headlines of photographs, or by articles or visuals produced by other sources about wars. Our idea about a war, that a war is fair and needs to be supported or that a war is unfair and needs to be ended, is formed by the effects of this kind of articles and visuals on us. The theme of this work is how a society’s concern and support are kept alive by the propaganda of wars by means of mass media. This work consists of two parts. In the first part how propoganda is treated on photographs by what kind of methods and the determinative effect of propoganda on mass media that is the centre of this process are discussed. The following part is allocated in order to analyse the chronologically discussed photographs out of the theoretical background which is explained in the first part. In this analyses the photographs of wars in the last 153 years ,from the invention of photograph till today, have been chosen in order of: Crimean War (1853-1856), American Civil War (1861- 1865), The First World War (1914-1917), Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), The Second World War (1939-1945), Vietnam War (1964-1975), Gulf War (1990-1991), Iraq War (2003-….) How the chosen photographs and images are taken and what kind of systems are used in order to present them to public opinion are discussed in the second part also. V “Fotoğraflar yalan söylemez, ama yalancılar fotoğraf çekebilir.” Lewis HİNE . VI GİRİŞ Fotoğrafın 1839 yılında Fransız Bilimler Akademisi tarafından dünyaya yeni bir icat olarak duyurulmasının üzerinden çok geçmeden, 1855 yılında Kırım Savaşı’nı fotoğraflaması için görevlendirilen Roger Fenton o güne kadar sadece ressamların hayal güçleriyle ya da tanıkların anlatımlarıyla esinlenip resmettikleri savaşı fotoğrafladı. Tasviri mağara resimlerinden bugüne binlerce kez yapılan, insanın doğayla ve birbiriyle giriştiği mücadele artık fotoğrafın da konusuydu. Daha yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde bütün bir Avrupa’yı saran ve dünyanın tüm bölgelerinde hissedilen savaş insanlık tarihine eşi benzeri görülmemiş dehşet verici fotoğraflar bırakacaktı. Birinci Dünya Savaşı ve sonrasında ulusların birbirlerini boğazlamaları için kurmaları gereken ordular, 20. yüzyıl öncesindeki sayıca daha küçük olan profesyonel orduların sayısını kat be kat aşmaktaydı. İmparatorlukların kalıntıları üzerinde yükselen Ulus Devletler kalabalıkları hayali bir hedef için savaşa çağırmışlar ve bunda öylesine başarılı olmuşlardır ki; Birinci Dünya Savaşında Fransa ve Almanya arasındaki cephede milyonlarca insan bir ay içinde ölmüştür. Burada sorulması gereken soru milyonlarca insanın savaşa ve ölüme nasıl ve hangi araçlarla ikna edildiğidir. Bu sorunun, sanat ile olan ilişkisi popüler eğlence kültürünün ve günlük iletişim araçlarının hazırlanmasında ve kullanımında kendini göstermektedir. Birinci ve İkinci Dünya Savaşlarında ve sonrasında yaşanan tüm savaşlarda yazılı ve görsel medyaya savaşan bütün taraflarca büyük önem verilmiştir. Savaş Fotoğraflarının kullanımı bağlamında propaganda ve manipülasyon konulu bu çalışma, savaş sırasında cephede ve cephe arkasında üretilen fotoğraflara ve bu fotoğrafların kullanımına
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