„Let 'Em Have It – Right on the Chin.” – Die Haltung Der Britischen

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„Let 'Em Have It – Right on the Chin.” – Die Haltung Der Britischen „Let ‘em have it – right on the chin.” – Die Haltung der britischen Öffentlichkeit zum RAF-Flächenbombardement 1939-1945 Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Akademischen Grades einer Dr. phil., vorgelegt dem Fachbereich 07 – Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz von Jana Flemming aus Hamburg Mainz, 2008 Inhalt Seite I. Thematische und methodische Einführung……………...……...………….…... 5 1. Forschungsstand………….………………………………………………………... 6 2. Quellen…………………………………………………………………………….. 11 2.1. Die wöchentlichen Berichte des Informationsministeriums………………….. 11 2.2. Vier Zeitungen und die Arbeitsbedingungen der britischen Presse während des Krieges…………………………………………...…………..………… 15 2.2.1. Die Zeitungen……......……………..……………………..…………. 15 2.2.2. Die Zensur………………………..………………………..………… 23 3. Die Theorie der Schweigespirale als Gliederungs- und Argumentationshilfe…...... 27 II. Die Haltung der britischen Öffentlichkeit zum RAF-Flächenbombardement 1939-1945……...……………………………………………………………….….. 35 1. 1939/40: Spaltung der öffentlichen Meinung in der Frage nach Vergeltung…...…. 35 1.1. Die Strategie des Bomber Command 1939/40………………………………. 35 1.2. Zwischen dem Ruf nach Vergeltung und Angst vor der Invasion: Analyse der ausgewählten Zeitungen 1939/40………...……………………..………….……… 40 1.2.1. Die Darstellung der „Leaflet Raids“ und Präzisionsbombardements in den seriösen Zeitungen…..………………….…...……………...……….. 41 1.2.2. Die Auseinandersetzung mit der Appeasement-Politik und den erfolglosen Bombardements im Mirror und Express………...…………….. 45 1.2.3. Die Frage nach Vergeltung im Spiegel der Presse……….….…....…. 53 1.2.4. Leserbriefe……….……………..………………….………..….……. 68 1.3. Diskussionsbeginn: Die Analyse des MoI 1940…...…………….….………… 78 1.3.1. Reaktionen auf den „Blitz“…….…..……………..……….………… 78 1.3.2. Gründe für die fehlende Einigkeit in der britischen Bevölkerung…... 82 1.4. 1939/40: Fazit………………………….……………………………………… 89 2. 1941/2: Die Wende – Flächenbombardement als Vorbereitung der Westoffensive 91 2.1. Der Weg zu den ersten 1.000 Bomber-Angriffen…………………………….. 91 2.2. Der Wunsch nach mehr Offensive: Analyse der ausgewählten Zeitungen 1941……………………………………………………………………………..…. 95 2.2.1. Der Weg zur neuen Strategie…………………………..……………. 95 2.2.2. Die Auseinandersetzung mit den Misserfolgen des Jahres 1941 in allen vier Zeitungen………………………………………………………… 103 2.3. Erste Anzeichen einer Vereinheitlichung der öffentlichen Meinung: Die Analyse des MoI 1941………………………………..……………………………. 109 2.3.1. Wende ab März 1941 und Ende des „Blitzes“..…..….…....…………... 109 2.3.2. Gründe für die beginnende Konsensbildung 1941………………….…. 116 2.3.3. Kriegseintritt der Sowjetunion und Wunsch nach einer zweiten Front im Westen……......…...……………………………………………………… 120 2.4. Zwischen Patriotismus und dem Ruf nach der Westoffensive: Analyse der ausgewählten Zeitungen 1942…………………...………………...………………. 125 2.4.1. Die 1.000-Bomber-Angriffe im Spiegel der Presse………...….……… 125 2.4.2. Die „Second Front now!“-Bewegung……………………….………… 137 2.5. Verstärkung der Tendenzen zu einer Konsensbildung: Die Analyse des MoI 1942…………………………..……………………………………...…………….. 145 2.5.1. Hoffnungslosigkeit in der britischen Bevölkerung zu Beginn des Jahres 1942………………………………………….………….……..……… 145 2.5.2. Die ersten 1.000-Bomber-Angriffe und wachsende Zuversicht…...….. 147 2.5.3. Flächenbombardement als Vorbereitung der Westinvasion…….…….. 150 2.6. Exkurs: Verbots-Androhung für den Daily Mirror 1942……………….…….. 154 2.7. 1941/42: Fazit……………...……………..…………………………………… 164 3. 1943-1945: Konsens – Ausschluss gegnerischer Stimmen………....……………... 167 3.1. Die Casablanca Direktive löst die Direktive 22 ab…....……………………… 167 3.2. Erleichterung über die Offensive: Analyse der ausgewählten Zeitungen 1943………………………………………………………………………………... 171 3.2.1. Die Schlachten um die Ruhr, um Hamburg und Berlin…..…………… 171 3.2.2. Die deutsche Zivilbevölkerung als Ziel der RAF-Angriffe……….…... 179 3.3. Vorläufiges Ende im Prozess der Meinungsbildung: Die Analyse des MoI 1943………………………………………………………………………………... 190 3.4. Zwischen Offenheit und Leugnen: Analyse der ausgewählten Zeitungen 1944/45……………………………………………………………..……………… 197 3.5. D-Day und beginnende Tabuisierung des Flächenbombardements: Die Analyse des MoI 1944………...………………..…………………………….……. 211 3.6. Exkurs: Erfolglose Opposition gegen das Flächenbombardement – Analyse weiterer Quellen………..…………….……………………………………………. 215 3.7. 1943-1945: Fazit………………………..……………………………………... 232 III. Schlussbetrachtung………..……………………………………………………... 234 Abkürzungen….………………………………..……………………………………….. 239 Literatur und Quellen…...……………..……………………………………………….. 240 I. Thematische und methodische Einführung Unter der Bezeichnung „öffentliche Meinung“ findet man in den Lexika die un- terschiedlichsten Bedeutungen. Wurde das Phänomen selbst schon in der Antike beobachtet, entstand „öffentliche Meinung“ als Begriff erst zur Zeit der Aufklä- rung. Dabei erfuhr er schon sehr bald eine doppelte Definitionszuschreibung: Man meinte damit einerseits die Kommunikation innerhalb einer Gesellschaft, die In- formation ihrer Einzelpersonen zur Sicherung ihres Zusammenhaltes und ihrer Handlungsfähigkeit, andererseits war die Vorstellung von der öffentlichen Mei- nung als Sozialkontrolle vorherrschend, die Idee, das Individuum sei nicht frei und selbst bestimmt, sondern unterliege einem starken Gruppendruck.1 In der Bundesrepublik wirbt die Meinungsforscherin Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann seit den siebziger Jahren für ein Konzept, das beide Stränge miteinander verbindet, indem sie die öffentliche Meinung definiert als „eine Meinung in wertbesetzten Berei- chen, die ohne Furcht vor Sanktionen öffentlich ausgesprochen werden und auf der sich öffentliches Handeln gründen kann.”2 Ausgehend von dieser Definition soll in der folgenden Untersuchung ein Ausschnitt der öffentlichen Meinung in Großbritannien über den RAF- Bombenkrieg während der Jahre 1939 bis 1945 analysiert und vorgestellt werden. Ziel ist dabei, herauszufinden, ob, wann und aus welchen Gründen sich ein öffent- licher Konsens zum Thema RAF-Flächenbombardement herausbildete. Die Quel- lengrundlage der Arbeit besteht vorrangig aus zwei Komplexen: Zum einen wer- den die wöchentlichen Berichte des britischen Informationsministeriums unter- sucht. Dabei handelt es sich um unveröffentlichte Quellen aus The National Ar- chives in London – Stimmungsberichte, die von Beamten des Ministry of Infor- mation (MoI) zur Erkundung der Moral, also der Standhaftigkeit der britischen Bevölkerung während des Krieges, wöchentlich angefertigt wurden.3 Gegenüber- gestellt wird dem die Analyse der vier Tageszeitungen The Times, The Manches- ter Guardian, The Daily Mirror und Daily Express. 1 Manfred Asendorf, Öffentliche Meinung (Öffentlichkeit), in: ders. u.a. (Hg.), S. 463-465. 2 Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, Öffentliche Meinung, S. 343. 3 Home Intelligence Weekly Reports 1940-44, TNA, INF I/292. Vgl. auch: Jana Flemming, Der RAF-Bombenkrieg, S. 323-341 sowie dies., in: Neitzel (Hg.), Der Bombenkrieg und seine Opfer, S. 18-29. 5 1. Forschungsstand Die Beschäftigung mit dem Luftkrieg hatte zum sechzigsten Jahrestag des Kriegs- endes Hochkonjunktur. Ausgelöst wurde das Interesse am Bombenkrieg nicht zuletzt durch Jörg Friedrich und sein Buch „Der Brand. Deutschland im Bomben- krieg 1940-1945“1, eine eindringliche Schilderung der Folgen alliierter Bomben- angriffe für die deutsche Zivilbevölkerung.2 Zuweilen ist die Debatte von einem für die deutsche Historiographie der Jahre 1933/39 bis 1945 neuen Opfergefühl geprägt. Dabei wird argumentiert, dass die Leidenserfahrungen der Deutschen in der bisherigen Geschichtsschreibung und öffentlichen Wahrnehmung auch auf- grund von Ängsten vor dem „Vorwurf der Aufrechnung“3 zu wenig oder gar nicht berücksichtigt worden seien. Wolle man also ein umfassendes Bild jener Zeit ma- len, müsse man auch den Opfern Erinnerung und Anerkennung zukommen lassen. Dem ist mit Ute Frevert, Volker Ullrich und anderen zu entgegnen, dass eine sol- cherart diagnostizierte Erinnerungslücke nicht existiert,4 sondern vielmehr, wie Dietmar Süß betont, „selbst Teil einer der unterschiedlichen Erzählungen war, in denen nach 1945 der alliierten Kriegführung gedacht wurde.“5 Deutsche Historiker begannen zwar erst seit etwa den 80er Jahren mit der detaillierten Erforschung des Luftkrieges, bemühten sich dann aber jenseits von Rechtfertigungsbestrebungen um eine ausgewogene und unsentimentale Ge- 1 Jörg Friedrich, Der Brand. Deutschland im Bombenkrieg 1940-1945, München 2002. In seinem Aufsatz „Ein Kolossalgemälde des Schreckens“ weist der Freiburger Militärhistoriker Horst Boog nach, dass es dem „Brand“ immer wieder an historischer Richtigkeit mangelt. Horst Boog, Ein Kolossalgemälde des Schreckens, in: Lothar Kettenacker (Hg.), Ein Volk von Opfern?, S. 131- 136. Ähnliche Klagen wie die Historiker stimmen auch die Germanisten an: So beklagt der Litera- turwissenschaftler Winfried G. Sebald, dass es keine ausreichende literarische Reaktion auf den Bombenkrieg gegeben habe. (Winfried G. Sebald, Luftkrieg und Literatur, München 1999.) Dem widerspricht der Spiegel-Journalist Volker Hage, Zeugen der Zerstörung. Die Literaten und der Luftkrieg. Essays und Gespräche, Frankfurt/Main 2003. 2 Zuvor hatte die von Günther Grass geschriebene Novelle „Im Krebsgang“ über die Schiffkatast- rophe von 1945 – das „Kraft-durch-Freude“-Kreuzfahrtschiff „Wilhelm Gustloff“ war 1945, ge- füllt mit Flüchtlingen aus den Ostgebieten, von einem sowjetischen U-Boot versenkt worden – das Leid der Vertriebenen thematisiert. (Günter Grass, Im Krebsgang,
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