Masaryk University Brno

Faculty of Education

Bachelor thesis

Development of political relationship among "The Big Three" throughout the Second World War

Michal Studýnka Brno 2017 Masaryk University Brno

Faculty of Education

The Department of English language and literature

Development of Political Relationship Among "The Big Three" Throughout the Second World War

Bachelor thesis

Thesis author:

Michal Studynka

Thesis supervisor:

Michael George, M.A. Declaration

/ hereby declare that I have written this bachelor thesis on my own a that I only used sources listed in bibliography.

I also give permission for this bachelor thesis to be deposited in the Masaryk University's library for studying purposes.

In Brno Michal Studýnka

March 2017 Acknowledgement

/ would like to use this opportunity to thank my thesis supervisor Mr. Michael George, MA. for his support, attitude and trust which he provided me during my work. Table of content

Introduction 7

1 Introduction of "The Big Three" 9

1.1 Winston Churchill 9

1.2 Franklin Delano Roosevelt 11

1.3 Joseph Stalin 13

2. Rise of world's political tension before the war 14

2.1 's rise to power 15

2.2 Policy of 15

2.2.1 Abyssinia crisis 16

2.2.2 Remilitarization of Rhineland 16

2.2.3 The Anschluss 16

2.2.4 The Munich treaty 17

3. Creation of "The Big Three" 18

3.1 position 19

3.2 Battle for Britain 19

3.3 Tripartite Pact and the Soviet position 20

4. Two events that decided the fate of the Second World War 20

4.1 Stalin joins the Allies 21

4.1.2 Atlantic Charter 22

4.2 and its ramification 22

4.3 Road to Teheran 23

5. Teheran Conference 24

5.1 Goals and topics 25 6. Development from Tehran to Yalta 26

6.1 Allied meetings before Yalta 27

7. Yalta Conference 27

7.1 Goals and topics 28

7.2 The end of the "original Big Three" 29

8. Harry Truman and the Atomic Bomb 29

8.1 World's first nuclear weapon 30

9. The war continues 31

10. Potsdam Conference 31

11. The end of World War 2 and aftermath of the Potsdam Conference 32

Conclusion 34 Introduction

In 1941, Germany and its Axis allies were conquering the world. Its ultimate victory seemed assured as there was no one who could stop Hitler's armies. Great Britain was the last piece of Europe that was able to resist the aggressor. This situation changed however when the Soviet Union and later the United States joined Britain in the fight against the Axis forces, creating an Alliance that against all odds and with differing views was able to work together to achieve one goal... victory.

But how did these three nations with completely different ideologies and their leaders get together at the first place? And how did they cooperate despite having their own agenda and differences? This thesis presents the answers to these questions and more. Many people believe that once Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin joined up, they were relentlessly trying to find the best and quickest way to destroy Hitler and his allies. The truth is however somewhat different.

At first it was Great Britain who was carrying the heaviest burden of the World War II. After swift campaign through Europe and the capitulation of France, the situation looked quite grim. Granted, Britain was receiving support from the United States but due to its policy of isolationism, the US was nowhere near an actual aid to its ally. And this is when Hitler made the biggest mistake in the war. He decided to attack the Soviet Union. Ever since the war broke out, there was a neutrality pact between the leader of the and Joseph Stalin. But when the invasion into Russia started, Hitler created an enemy for himself that would eventually be his end.

Though Stalin started as a neutral element and even considered joining the Axis, he now made for a perfect ally for the struggling British forces. Winston Churchill who was a great critic of communism made a very pragmatic decision. He created an alliance with Stalin in hopes that together they would be able to fight Hitler on several fronts. But one more crucial part of the future allies was missing, the United States. It was the attack on Pearl Harbor that finally gave an excuse to president Franklin Roosevelt to join the war and it also changed the opinion of the American people. They were attacked. American lives were lost. And this was all done by an enemy with whom they weren't in conflict at the time. Now people were volunteering to fight the Japanese and their allies in Europe, factories started to

7 produce tanks, planes, weapons and ammunition. This was the beginning of the end for the Axis.

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin formed what is now known as The Grand Alliance also known as "The Big Three". Ever since the creation of this alliance, the military and political leaders of these three nations changed the course of the war. But victory couldn't be achieved over night - It required planning and coordination. There were many meetings between the members of "The Big Three" where they discussed military strategy or international politics, but there were only three meetings where all the members, Great Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States would meet. Those were the conferences in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam. It was here where the fate of the world was debated both during the war and after the war is over. And it was on these conferences where it became apparent that each of the leaders of the Grand Alliance had their own goals and agendas and that their opinions were often very conflicted.

8 1 Introduction of "The Big Three"

The Big Three is a term used in the context of the Second World War for the most prominent allies in the fight against the Axis forces. Members were the Great Britain led by Winston Churchill, the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin and the United States of America led firstly by Franklin Roosevelt and later by his successor Harry Truman. There were other political entities that were cooperating in the alliance, but these three countries and their leaders carried the biggest importance in the war and in shaping the world after its end.

1.1 Winston Churchill

Born on the 30th November 1874 into an aristocratic family. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a distinguished politician and his mother, lady Jeanette Churchill, was a daughter of an American businessman. Thanks to his parentage, he was assured to receive the best education possible. In 1893, he was accepted to the Royal Military Academy, eventually graduated and started his military career as an officer. In the following years, he participated in conflicts in Cuba, India and in . By the end of the century, he tried to start his political career but his first attempt to join the parliament in 1899 was unsuccessful. He continued his military service as a war correspondent in the Second Boer War in South Africa. During this conflict he was captured and imprisoned. However, he managed to escape and travel over 300 miles to safety. This deed made Churchill very popular in Britain. Also thanks to this popularity, he could get elected to parliament in 1900. In March that year, he presented his first speech to his peers and thus effectively started his very successful political career. (Gilbert, p. 121)

In 1911, Winston Churchill was appointed First Lord of Admiralty. In this post, he began to reform the Royal Navy. Most of the British ships were powered by coal at that time and he aimed to modernize them into oil powered. Churchill was a strong supporter of British sea superiority. (Willmott, p. 53)

During the Great War, his reputation suffered due to several unsuccessful events, the most notable was the Dardanelles Campaign. During the battle for Gallipoli, Britain suffered a serious defeat by the Ottoman Empire. Over 200 000 British soldiers died, and the remaining force had to withdraw from the region. In 1915, Churchill was forced to resign his post to avoid major crisis in government. He rejoined the military with rank of lieutenant colonel and served for several months commanding British troops in France. (Willmott, p. 53) 9 After the war, Churchill was again given a post in the government as Minister of Munitions. During the Russian Civil War, he was a strong advocate of foreign interventions against the Bolshevism movement. With his own words, it had to be "strangled in its cradle" (Willmott, p. 15). In 1921, he was one of the signatories of the Anglo-Irish treaty which led to the creation of an independent Irish Republic. In mid-1920s Churchill oversaw the policy of return to the Gold Standard, a move that he later considered as the biggest mistake of his political career. It caused deflation, unemployment and eventually led to a general strike in 1926. (Poulicek, p. 51)

During the world's rising tension of the 1930s and the policy of Appeasement, his political power was very low, but he was a strong outspoken of the British foreign policy, especially in its mild approach towards the emerging threat of fascism in Italy and Germany. On September 3rd, 1939 following the attack on Poland, Britain declared war on Germany and Winston Churchill was again appointed First Lord of Admiralty. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was unable to stop German offensive and after the failed attempt to defend Norway he resigned his post and recommended Churchill to succeed him. (Rowse, p. 107) On May 10th, 1940 Winston Churchill became Prime Minister and leader of Great Britain at the time of the Second World War.

"I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat." We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalog of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival. Let that be realized; no survival for the British Empire, no survival for all that the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge and impulse of the ages, that mankind will move forward towards its goal. But I take up my task with buoyancy and hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. At this time I feel entitled to claim the aid of all, and I say, "come then, let us go forward together with our united strength."

(Churchill, "Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat") 10 1.2 Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Roosevelt was born January 30th, 1882. Much like his future ally Winston Churchill, he lived a life of privilege. Both his father James Roosevelt and his mother Sara Ann Delano came from wealthy New York families and therefore, Franklin could receive the best education available. He attended Harvard College in Massachusetts where he studied economics. Roosevelt was an average student however he became editor-in-chief of the daily newspaper, The Harvard Crimson. This position helped him nurture some of his traits that would become very important in the future, like energy, ambition and the ability to manage others. Roosevelts greatest role model in his early adulthood was his cousin Theodore Roosevelt who in 1901 became President of the United States. (Leuchtenburg, p. 48)

The political career of Franklin Roosevelt could be described as "stellar". In 1910 Roosevelt run for a seat in State Senate for the Democratic Party. He was able to get a surprise win in regions that were traditionally supported Republicans. Even though his cousin Theodore Roosevelt's third-party run for a new term of Presidency in 1912, he supported Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson, who later became President. Thanks to this support, he became Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1913. (Willmott, p. Ill) He was a strong supporter of a large and efficient naval force. As the second-highest ranking representative in the Navy Department, he oversaw Navy's civilian employees. During this time, he gained much experience in dealing with labor unions or managing government in time of war. He was also highly respected for his fairness serving as an Assistant Secretary of the Navy, there wasn't a single strike during his time in the office.

In 1920 Franklin Roosevelt resigned his position and joined Governor James Cox in his run for Presidency as a Vice-Presidential candidate. Cox and Roosevelt were strong defenders of Wilson's administration and supporters of US membership in the . Unfortunately, both these ideas were unpopular in the United States during 1920's. Despite the support of the southern states, they lost the election. (Willmott, p. Ill)

His political career was halted in 1922 when he was diagnosed with poliomyelitis (polio). A neurological disease that causes muscle weakness and paralysis. This disease made him paralyzed from waist down for the rest of his life. Despite this fact, he didn't want to retire from public life, but he also made great efforts to hide the implications of polio to his overall health. Over the years, however, this disability became well known and became a part of his image. (Leuchtenburg, p. 62)

11 In 1929 Franklin Roosevelt was elected to the office of governor for the state of New York. Just a few months in the office, the greatest economy of the world, the Wall Street Crash, occurred and the Great Depression started. Unlike many other Governors and even US President Hoover, Roosevelt saw the depression as a very serious problem and aimed to actively fight its implications. (Willmott, p. Ill) He was endorsing unemployment insurance, support for farmers or full employment policy. These ideas combined with his position of governor of the most populous state made him a strong candidate for the next presidential elections. He became the Democratic Party candidate. Roosevelt declared in his acceptance speech:

"I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms. "

(Roosevelt, "Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago")

On one side there was the current government's passive approach to deal with the economic crisis and on the other, there were Roosevelt's statements and plans to actively deal with it. People realized that something must change, or the situation will continue to degrade and this hope for change cause a landslide victory for Democrats. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected the first Democratic President of the United States since Woodrow Wilson.

After the outbreak of the Second World War, Roosevelt was supporting Great Britain and France when they declared war on Germany. Because of the US policy of isolationism, he wasn't allowed to give any military help but was able to provide non-military aid as part of his cash and carry policy which was later surpassed by the Lend-Lease policy. After the fall of France, the isolationist movement in the United States lost much of its support and Roosevelt could start aiding the Allied countries like Great Britain, , China or later the Soviet Union with food, oil, and other materials. (Yeap, p. 36) During this time the President begun a regular correspondence with British Prime Minister Churchill and they forged personal relationship and respect for one another.

Japan attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 meant not only that the USA joined the war, but it also allowed Roosevelt to start providing the Allies with military aid such as warships, planes, and weaponry. The United States became a crucial part of future military operations as well as one of the loudest voices in shaping the post-war political stage.

12 1.3 Joseph Stalin

Born on the 18th December 1878 in Georgia. Unlike his future counterparts Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin was born into a very poor family. His mother wished for him to become a priest and so at age 16 he began studies a seminary, but he didn't finish. Since 1900, he was a member of Social-Democratic political underground where he often caused strikes in industrial centers in Kavkaz. Due to his eagerness in creating bloody conflicts he wasn't very popular even among his peers. In the years between 1902 and 1913, he was imprisoned and exiled several times.

In 1903, Stalin joined the Bolsheviks and two years later after the Revolution of 1905, he was elected as Georgia's representative in the movement. On the same year, he met Vladimir Lenin for the first time. After the Russian Revolution, Stalin returned from exile in which he was for the past 4 years to again meet with Lenin who invited him into his newly formed government. During the Civil War, his position among the Bolsheviks grew. He was ruthless in his methods to complete tasks given to him by Lenin. He frequently used "Red Terror" which were executions without trial. (Poulicek, p. 104)

During the Polish-Soviet War, he was leading part of the Red Army tasked with the conquering of the south-west and especially the city of Lwow. However, the Polish were able to repulse the Soviet advance and forced Stalin to return to Moscow. This unsuccessful campaign caused territorial losses in Belarus and Ukraine on the borders with Poland. (Willmott, p. 43)

In 1922 he was appointed by Lenin as the new General Secretary of the Communist Party which would Stalin later transform into the most powerful political position in the Soviet Union. By this time, he was already building a strong base of supporters, but he also had several opponents including Lenin who shortly before his death called for Stalin's demotion. However, Stalin's position was already strong enough that he himself offered to stand down, but the other members of the Central Committee voted for him to stay. (Willmott, p. 43) This de facto established Stalin as the leader of the newly renamed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

In the early years of 1930's, there were several events that showed Stalin as a ruthless dictator. First was the famine that spread especially through the Ukrainian region of the Soviet Union and resulted in over 5 million deaths and Stalin did very little to prevent it as it forced many people to move from small villages to towns and that meant a boost in industry.

13 Secondly, even though his power wasn't yet absolute, he begun with large-scale political purges. Any opposition to Stalin's regime was repressed and people involved were executed. This time in Russian history is called The Great Terror. (Poulicek, p. 104)

As the tension in Europe was rising and the threat of war was becoming more and more unavoidable, Stalin wished to remain neutral in the upcoming conflict to secure a strong position of the Soviet Union in the aftermath. Towards this end, he signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler which lasted until Germany's invasion into USSR and Stalin's subsequent alliance with Roosevelt and Churchill.

2. Rise of world's political tension before the war

In the years before the Second World War, there were several alarming things about the emerging conflict whose roots could be found in the where the defeated countries after WWI suffered great war indemnity. For example, Germany had to pay 132 billion German Marks. Its army was reduced to no more than 100 thousand strong and couldn't possess any tanks, air force or submarines. Rhineland, the area on the western border of Germany was demilitarized and for 15 years under Allied supervision. In addition, parts of its territory were divided between France, Belgium, Denmark, Poland or Czechoslovakia. Clearly, all these conditions were viewed as very harsh by the worn-out Germany and the sum to be paid was considered impossible to accomplish. Germans viewed this treaty as humiliating and destructive to any chance of future revitalization of the nation. (Poulicek, p. 12)

The greatest responsibility for the Treaty was carried by France. Britain achieved their primary goal in dismantling Germany's Navy, so they would no longer pose a threat. The United States of America disagreed with such strict reparations fearing the future balance of power in Europe. (Preston, p. 19) While Germany was severely weakened, France, on the other hand, would become a new major power in the region if all the reparations were kept. However, as was shown later, the international oversight including French was unable to enforce the treaty's terms.

14 2.1 Adolf Hitler's rise to power

In Germany, civil unrest and worker strikes spread across the nation after the end of World War I. In addition to losing over a tenth of its territory and dismantling its army, Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war and pay reparations. This was seen as a humiliation by many nationalists and these views were shared and used by Adolf Hitler for his political elevation. (Willmott, p. 17)

In 1919, he joined a small nationalist party and thanks to his passionate and manipulative public speaking, he soon became its leader. He changed its name to NSDAP which became commonly referred to as the Nazi Party. The Nazis denounced both Communism and Capitalism. Initially, the party wasn't very popular and when Hitler tried to overthrow the government in Bavaria in 1923, the attempt failed, the NSDAP was banned, and Hitler was imprisoned for treason. When he was released he immediately began to rebuild the movement.

A huge increase in party's popularity began in 1929 when the Great Depression struck the world. Already weakened German economy collapsed overnight and Hitler used the atmosphere of anger and fear to promise to restore Germany to its former greatness. Many desperate people were lured by this idea joined the Nazis, increasing their parliamentary votes from under 3% to over 18% in just two years. In 1932, Hitler ran for president but lost to the decorated war hero General von Hindenburg. A year later, president Hindenburg was advised to appoint Hitler as the Chancellor due to his growing popularity. He immediately began to expand his new powers. (Willmott, p. 19)

In 1933, the Parliament building was set on fire and Hitler used the situation to convince the government to grant him emergency powers. Soon the freedom of the press was abolished, other political parties banned, and anti-Jewish laws passed. When President Hindenburg died the next year, there were no new elections. Hitler became Supreme Chancellor and leader of now Nazi Germany. (Yeap, p. 15)

2.2 Policy of appeasement

In the time before the war, Hitler made several decisions both within Germany and in its foreign policy that was in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. He started rebuilding Germany's army. In 1935, the grew to 600 thousand which was six times more

15 than permitted by the treaty. Naval and air forces were also re-established and even though the League of Nations protested, there were no sanctions implemented. He began to see the western powers and the League of Nations as incapable of any real response to his violations of the treaty. (Willmott, p. 12) In following years Hitler tested his opinion in increasingly bolder acts.

2.2.1 Abyssinia crisis

Though not committed by Germany, the Italian-Ethiopian War of 1935 only empowered Hitler's belief that he could violate the restrictions applied to his country after World War I without fear of ramifications. When in October 1935, the Italian troops entered Ethiopia without declaring war first and by May the next year conquered it. In response, the League of Nations did impose sanctions on Italy but excluded oil and coal. Also, several European countries like Austria or Hungary refused to apply them. A month after the Italy's conquest of Ethiopia, the sanctions were lifted. (Taylor, p. 381)

2.2.2 Remilitarization of Rhineland

In 1936, Hitler sent his troops to Rhineland in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles which stated that the border between Germany and France would be demilitarized. Fearing only the British possible response, it was really the French reaction that he was curious about. However, only the Soviet Union suggested sanctions against Germany. France protested to the League, but no action was taken. It became clear to Hitler than instead of risking conflict, many countries would choose to compromise and talk if the issue wouldn't directly be affecting them. This realization gave Hitler a confidence boost and a strong negotiating position. (Rowse, p. 42)

2.2.3 The Anschluss

Adolf Hitler continued in his vision of creating a Greater German Reich and its first step was to reunite Germany and Austria. Such union was however in direct violations of the conditions agreed upon after the First World War. After an unsuccessful Nazi putsch in Austria, Hitler demanded that the imprisoned party members were released, or military action would be taken. He also launched propaganda reports about riots in the country and calling 16 for German troops to restore order. Without any hope for help from other countries, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg resigned and allowed the Nazis to take over the government. When the German troops crossed the borders, they met no opposition and were even greeted by civilians. Because of the unwillingness and unpreparedness of other countries to use force to stop the Germans, Hitler was further reassured that he could use even more aggressive approach to expansion. (Willmott, p. 31)

2.2.4 The Munich treaty

The last and most evident example of the policy of Appeasement was the Munich treaty. Unlike other countries, Czechoslovakia didn't ignore the growing threat of the Nazi Germany and it began to prepare for a possible military conflict. There was a high level of military conscription as well as building fortification along the border with Germany. But above all else, the people were willing to fight for their country and not allow the Germans to take it without a fight. By September 1938, over 1 million Czechoslovaks were ready to stand against the possible invasion. (Šrámek, p. 21) However, there were several facts that stood against them. First, there was a large German minority living in Sudetenland, the area along the border with Germany that wished to secede and join Hitler. Secondly, even though Czechoslovakia had treaties with both France and Britain to assist in case of an attack, neither country was ready to enter the war at that time.

However, they realized Hitler's expansive tendencies and chose to actively participate in solving this problem. The negotiations with Hitler were led by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain whose goal was to avoid was in any case. (Breugel, p. 201) On 28th September 1938, a conference took place in Munich to decide the fate of Czechoslovakia. Present countries were Germany, Italy, Britain, and France while the Czechoslovaks were not even invited. Hitler promised that he only wished to reunite all German people oppressed by foreign government and that he would do no farther action against the rest of the country. The document created is now known as "the ". Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš was presented with the result of the conference and was given an ultimatum. Either surrender Sudetenland of refuse and face Germany alone. Without the help of its allies, Czechoslovakia couldn't hope to prevail in a defensive war against Hitler's armies. The government was forced to accept the terms.

17 Leader of the French delegation Édoauard Daladier returned from Munich expecting a hostile crown for basically betraying one of France's allies but when he was greeted by a cheering crowd, he turned to his aid and said in disbelief:" Les cons (Morons) " (Šrámek, p. 18) Upon his return to Britain, Neville Chamberlain was too greeted by a crowd and promised that he brought "Peace for our time" from Munich, believing that Hitler would keep his word and attempt no further hostilities. (Breugel, p. 296) Opposing the policy of Appeasement, Winston Churchill criticized Chamberlain for his role in the Munich Treaty. When in March 1939 German troops entered the rest of Czechoslovakia and annexed it, many politicians and leaders realized that no amount of compromise or negotiations would stop Hitler from taking over the rest of Europe.

3. Creation of "The Big Three"

Second World War began on 1st September 1939 when Hitler's armies attacked Poland, hi reaction to this act of aggression, Great Britain declared war on Germany on September 3rd. The future and most influential members of the Allied forces each posed very different approach to this crisis.

The United States of America didn't want to be pulled into this conflict which was believed to be a "European problem". However, Franklin Roosevelt contacted Winston Churchill who was at that time named Lord of Admiralty and proposed to maintain regular communication to share information about the war. (Poulíček, p. 62)

Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union was cooperating with Germany in 1939. In August of that year, Stalin and Hitler made a non-aggression pact also known as Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, hi this document, the Soviet Union declared neutrality towards Germany and it even included clauses about dividing spheres of influence over Poland and Baltic states between these two countries.

After the conquest of Poland, Hitler turned his attention westward. His main goal was to quickly defeat France and then the rest of Europe. German offensive began on May 10th, 1940 and on the same day there was a change of leadership in Great Britain. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain stepped down and Winston Churchill became commander in charge of all British forces. At this point, it was clear that Hitler will not stop until he reaches total domination over Europe and so Churchill was prepared to fight to the very end. (Poulíček, p.

18 61) Unfortunately, till June 1941, Britain was alone in this fight as France couldn't stop Germany's armies and on 22nd June 1940 was forced to capitulate.

3.1 United States position

After France's defeat, Hitler began war operations against Britain which was the last major obstacle in his conquest of Europe. Churchill knew that without help, Great Britain would not be able to resist the Germany's offense indefinitely. He asked Roosevelt for assistance in form of ships and materials in exchange for British bases in the Caribbean which was known as Destroyers for Bases Agreement. The majority of American public however still opposed a direct military intervention in the war. (Leuchtenburg, p. 100) Roosevelt who was elected President for his third term in January of 1940 promised that he would not pull the United States into the conflict, he realized that military intervention might be inevitable. The Lend-Lease policy was signed in March 1941 in which the USA would supply aid like oil, food and even warships and planes to Britain, Free France, China and other Nations that opposed Hitler. This was the first major step done by the United States to end their non- interventionist policy.

3.2 The

One of the most important military campaigns of the Second World War commenced in July 1940 and lasted for three months. It is known as Battle of Britain. Before he could realize operation Sea Lion, which was a plan for an invasion of the British Isles, Hitler wanted to gain total air superiority. However, with the support of their allies, use of advanced technologies like radar, the knowledge that they are defending their homeland and powerful presence of Winston Churchill, the British Royal Air Force was able to defeat German aggressors.

"We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. "

(Churchill, "We shall fight on the beaches ")

It should also be noted that Hitler himself made several mistakes that eventually made a great impact on the result of the War. Instead of focusing on bombing radar installations, 19 airports and military factories that supplied much-needed material for the RAF, Hitler ordered a full-scale bombing of civilian targets and especially London. (Willmott, p. 63) This fact gave the RAF much-needed opportunity to regroup and rebuild. From this moment the balance of power shifted towards the British and due to heavy losses, the German air force had to cease their operations over Britain and cancel their plans for the invasion. This marked the first defeat of Nazi Germany in the war.

3.3 Tripartite Pact and the Soviet position

Also known as Berlin Pact was signed on 27th September 1940. It was a military alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan with other states joining later such as Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Croatia. It recognized regions of control when the new world order is established. Japan would gain control over the Greater East Asia and Germany and Italy in Europe and Africa respectively.

Just as Great Britain and the United States were starting to work together in their efforts towards Germany, the Soviet Union was in a similar position, only on the other side of the fighting parties. Just before the formation of the Tripartite Pact, Stalin was informed of its existence and the potential of the Soviet Union joining this military alliance. Based on the previous agreements with Germany, namely the Molotov-Riebertop Pact, the Soviets sent its Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov to Berlin to discuss the conditions of the Soviet Union joining Tripartite. However, Hitler had no intention of allowing the Soviets to join the alliance because he had already made plans to invade and conquer the Soviet Union. (Willmott, p. 98)

4. Two events that decided the fate of the Second World War

As stated earlier, Hitler had made some major mistakes that caused him the war including his mismanagement of the Battle of Britain. Probably his biggest one was when he made an enemy of Stalin. (Preston, p. 154) In 1941 the situation in Europe and Asia was relatively stable. Germany and the Soviet Union had the German-Soviet Treaty of Nonaggression of 1939 and in April 1941 there was the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact which healed the wounds made during the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939. In this time

20 Hitler decided that rather than risking Stalin joining Churchill and Roosevelt in the efforts to defeat Germany, he would remove this possibility by conquering the Soviet Union.

4.1 Stalin joins the Allies

On 22nd June 1941, a full-scale invasion of the Soviet Union began in . Even though Stalin was informed of the possibility of German aggression from several sources including Winston Churchill himself, he didn't believe them to be true. When the attack commenced, he was so surprised that he couldn't respond for 11 days which caused the Red Army to retreat into chaos. He was awoken from this state when he was informed that the Soviets pose very little resistance to the invading forces and that some are even welcoming the Nazis as liberators. (Preston, p. 113) Winston Churchill who was always a strong objector to communism addressed the invasion in a live radio broadcast:

"... In fact, I gave clear and precise warnings to Stalin of what was coming. I gave him warnings, as I have given warnings to others before. I can only hope that these warnings did not fall unheeded. ... The past, with its crimes, its follies, and its tragedies, flashes away. I see the Russian soldiers standing on the threshold of their native land, guarding the fields which their fathers tilledfrom time immemorial. ... We have but one aim and one single irrevocable purpose. We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us. Nothing. We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. ... Any man or Stat who fights against Nazism will have our aid. Any many or State who marches with Hitler is our foe. ..."

(Churchill, "Speech on the German Invasion of Russia ")

At this moment, Churchill was above else a pragmatic as he realized that the Soviet Union was the only effective ally against Nazi Germany. Official talks of cooperation soon followed between Stalin and his British counterpart and on 12th July 1941 the Anglo-Soviet Agreement, which stated that both powers would aid each other, and they would not seek a separate peace with Germany, was signed. Franklin Roosevelt also declared his support to Stalin and offered aid to the Soviet Union as part of the Lend-Lease policy.

21 4.1.2 Atlantic Charter

In August 1941, was the first historical meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt. The meeting took place in Placentia Bay in North America. Both leaders discussed here a joined declaration of principles which became known as the Atlantic Charter. It consisted of several goals, to which both Great Britain and the United States of America had committed themselves. For example: not to seek to enlarge their territories, no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people, restoration of self-government to those deprived of it, global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all, disarmament of aggressor nations, freedom from fear and want. (Fenby, p. 56) In September 1941, Stalin also added his signature to the Atlantic Charter and so made this document the first cooperative act of these three leaders.

4.2 Attack on Pearl Harbor and its ramification

In 1941, the relationship between the USA and Japan very strained especially due to the war in China. Japan was a member of Axis while China was part of the American Lend- Lease program. On 7th December 1941, the launched a surprise attack on US Naval Base at Pearl Harbor where most of the United States Pacific Fleet was stationed. The attack lasted two hours and caused heavy causalities on US material and personnel. Nearly 20 ships and over 300 aircrafts were either destroyed or damaged and almost 2500 people died. (Willmott, p. 114)

On the next day, December 8th Roosevelt delivered the now famous "Infamy Speech" to Congress, calling for a on the Empire of Japan. Less than an hour later, the United States of America formally declared war on Japan and officially joined World War Two. On December 11th, Hitler made another crucial mistake by declaring war on the USA even though the Tripartite Pact didn't require it.

"Yesterday, December 7th, 1941 - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.

No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people, in their righteous might, will win through to absolute victory.

22 / ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire."

(Roosevelt, "Pearl Harbor Address to the Nation")

4.3 Road to Teheran

Between 1941 and 1943, the Allied leaders were working on several joint military operations which were planned in meetings between them. While the Teheran Conference was the first true meeting of Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, also known as "the Big Three", there were other conferences before that. As mentioned earlier, two weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Churchill and Roosevelt met in Washington where they signed the Atlantic Charter and discussed other issues regarding their strategies in fighting the Axis forces. For example, joined British and US bombing runs against Germany, support of Soviet offensive or encouragement of subvert activities in German-occupied territories. (Fenby, p. 52)

In 1942, further military operations were being planned. The most important topic was opening a second European front to help the Soviets in the East. While Russian delegation was pressing for Allied invasion into France as soon as possible, Churchill and Roosevelt preferred operation Torch, in which the US forces would join military operations in North Africa. It was primarily the British Prime Minister who was pushing for a different strategy than the other two leaders. (Fenby, p. 107) He believed that instead of opening a new large front, the Allies should instead focus on several smaller campaigns on the peripheral areas of the Germany occupied territories to wear the enemy down by forcing them to spread their forces and to increase and support resistance movements in in those territories.

In January 1943, a conference was held in Casablanca. It isn't counted among the main 3 conferences because not all members of the "Big Three" were present. Joseph Stalin declined his attendance due to the situation at Stalingrad. The conference had two main results. First, the creation of a plan for an invasion of France and opening of the western front. Second, the Allies would accept nothing else but an unconditional surrender of the Axis forces.

From a political point of view, the Casablanca Conference showed that there were already large differences in Allied leaders' opinions. (Eisenhower, p. 198) Churchill for

23 example preferred invasion to Sicily followed by mainland Italy before the invasion to France to decrease Germany's defensive capabilities. Also, the idea of unconditional surrender came from Roosevelt and even though Churchill supported it, he would prefer a different solution for he hoped that if peace was reached with Germany, it could prevent a Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe. (Beschloss, p. 28) It was evident in Casablanca that Britain's voice in shaping the result of the Second World War was dwindling. This trend was further apparent in future meetings of the Allied leaders where the initiative was seized either by the United States and even more by the Soviet Union.

5. Teheran Conference

The first meeting of the Big Three with the code name "Eureka" was held between 28th November and 1st of December 1943 and it took place in the capital of Iran, Teheran. As the war was progressing, a conference where all the major leaders of the Allied forces would talk face to face became a necessity. Several topics had to be discussed but the most prominent was the opening of the second front in the west to relieve struggling Soviets in the east.

However, before the conference could even start a big problem had to be solved first, the location. Stalin was reluctant to leave the Soviet Union and if so, it would have to be close to its borders so that he could oversee the ongoing war efforts on the Eastern front. Roosevelt too had to face a big problem as the US constitution didn't allow the President to leave the country for a longer period of time. On the other hand, Churchill was willing to go almost anywhere. (Stalin, p. 102) It was agreed that the country in which the conference will take place should have the presence of all the participating parties. As such, Iran was chosen despite objections from Roosevelt who preferred other locations like Cairo or Basra.

At first, the meetings were supposed to take place at the US embassy where Roosevelt stayed but since both British and Soviet embassies were located on the other side of the city and basically right in front of each other, the location was changed to the Soviet embassy. For Roosevelt not to travel such a long distance, both Churchill and Stalin offered him to stay at their embassies. While Churchill could offer only 1 bedroom and a living room, Stalin's offer was a 6-room apartment. Roosevelt declined their offers at first because he didn't want to show any favoritism and wished to appear neutral but due to security reasons he accepted to stay at the Soviet embassy. (Fenby, p. 191)

24 5.1 Goals and topics

Each of the leaders came to Teheran with their agenda. Roosevelt aimed to create a new world organization which would surpass the ineffective League of Nations. In this organization, 4-member powers - the USA, Great Britain, Soviet Union and China would be responsible to keep the world peace. He also wanted a promise that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan and in exchange, he would overlook the Soviets' agenda in Eastern Europe which he considered to be unimportant. (Beschloss, p. 26)

Churchill's main goal was to protect the interests of the British Empire, especially the control over the to maintain control over the eastern Mediterranean. He was also worried about the Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and, so he wanted to enforce operations through Italy and Balkan area to reach middle and eastern Europe much sooner. His wish was that this approach would brink Turkey to the war. (Poulicek, p. 190)

Stalin's objective was to regain possession over areas which were lost after the First World War in the Baltic and Eastern Europe. Also, he wanted to reach an agreement about war reparations for the damage caused by war. And lastly, he aimed to create a "protective shield" of for-Soviet oriented countries between USSR and Germany that included Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary. In the event of another war, these countries would take the worst damage and would allow the Soviet Union to launch a counter-offensive before the enemy would even reach its borders. (Baciu, p. 35)

Many of the goals with which the leaders came to the conference were quite different and for example in the question of Eastern Europe, the British and Soviet ideas were contradicting each other. During the conference, there were several personal meetings between Roosevelt and Stalin where they would discuss their goals. Even though the question of Eastern Europe was not important to Roosevelt, he was concerned about Poland as the 1944 elections were coming up and there were 6 million Polish immigrants living in the USA and he wanted their support. (Baciu, p. 36) He also needed Stalin's support in the war against Japan. In these meetings, the relationship between these two leaders grew stronger and because their agendas weren't in conflict, they were able to find common ground more easily than for example Stalin and Churchill who disagreed with each other quite often. (Fenby, p. 209)

On 1st December the delegation concluded the conference with following results. The main topic, the opening of the second front, was finally solved. It was agreed that the Allied

25 invasion of France would commit during May 1944 () supported by operations in southern France (). At about the same time, the Soviet Union would launch an offensive against the Germans, so it would have to keep its forces divided. It was also deemed desirable that Turkey would join the war efforts against Germany and its allies by the end of the year. The question of post-war Polish borders was resulted by Churchill and Stalin by accepting the Curzon Line established in 1919. Roosevelt asked to be excluded from this decision considering the effects on Polish voters in the US in the 1944 election. (Fenby, p. 193)

6. Development from Tehran to Yalta

The main event in the 16 months leading to the second meeting of the Big Three was the opening of the Western front. On 6th June 1944, the Allies launched Operation Overlord, a successful invasion of France. As it was agreed in Tehran, the Soviet Union started their summer offensive. Pushing Hitler's army on two sides and gaining momentum in the war. (Preston, p. 233) The question was no longer if but rather when Germany will be defeated. Churchill hoped for a swift campaign into northern Italy and liberation of Vienna, Prague, and Budapest before the Red Army. Paris was liberated in August 1944 and the Allies started their push into Germany. In September 1944, was launched. It was the largest airborne operation of the war and its goal was to take Netherlands and reach Germany from the north. This would mean to completely circumvent the Siegfried Line which was Germany defense line on the border with France. Allies hoped that if the operation was a success the war with Germany would be won by winter 1944. (Willmott, p. 232) However, they were unable to hold several strategic locations including a crucial bridge near Arnhem. Eventually, the Allied forces had to withdraw as they were pushed back by several German armed divisions. The progress in Italy was also much slower than especially Churchill wished for. The Allies were forced to push into Germany from France. It was near the border where Germans attempted their last counter-offensive on the Western front. In December, they launched Operation Northwind and were able to halt Allies' advance for almost a month. (Eisenhower, p. 346)

On the Eastern front, the Soviet Red Army was pushing through Belarus, Ukraine, and Poland. Inspired by the Soviet victories, people in Germany occupied countries started several uprisings. Most notable is the during which 200 thousand civilians were

26 killed by the Germans. (Willmott, p. 245) By February 1945, the Soviets pushed all the way through Yugoslavia and Hungary and was getting closer to Germany.

In the Pacific, the US forces were pressing the Japanese and gaining several major victories including the or the Battle of the Philippine Sea after which provided the Americans with strategic air bases and ability to bombard Japanese main islands.

6.1 Allied meetings before Yalta

Before the next conference between all three leaders, several other ones took place to solve military issues in the war effort. In September, President Roosevelt met with Prime Minister Churchill in Quebec, Canada. They discussed the ongoing military operations in France, future zones of influence when Germany is defeated, British-American cooperation in the Pacific as well as the continuance of material aid to Britain after the war. (Beschloss, p. 121)

Second important meeting before Yalta was Churchill's visit in Moscow in October. By that time the Soviet forces conquered both Romania and Bulgaria and due to the pace of Soviet advance on the Eastern front, Churchill was worried about the fate of Greece. The main topic of this meeting was to divide the spheres of influence over the liberated countries after the war. Besides the mentioned countries above Yugoslavia and Hungary were also talked about. In the end, Churchill was satisfied as he got the majority in Greece which was his objective. (Baciu, p. 164)

7. Yalta Conference

The second conference where the three leaders met took place between 4th and 11th February 1944 and was codenamed the Argonaut Conference. Again mostly because of Stalin's reluctance to travel away from the Soviet Union, both Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to meet on the coast of the Black Sea, specifically Yalta on Crimea Peninsula.

In the time of this conference, the situation in the war was very different from what it was during the Tehran Conference. After the successful invasion of France and the Soviet offensive in the east, the German armies were being pushed further back toward the borders of their homeland. By February, the Soviet army reached Pomerania and Silesia and liberated many countries from occupation including a big part of Poland. On the Western front, the 27 Allies entered western Germany and were gathering their forces by the river Rhine getting ready for the final push into the heart of Germany. (Willmott, p. 258)

7.1 Goals and topics

The victory in Europe was inevitable and so the biggest question for the conference was the shaping of the post-war Europe as well as dividing the spheres of influence in defeated Germany. As it was the case in Tehran, all three leaders came to Yalta with their own goals. Roosevelt primary aim was to get the Soviet Union to join the war efforts in the Pacific and Stalin's participation in the . Churchill wanted to ensure free and democratic elections in Central and Eastern Europe with a strong emphasis on Poland. And Stalin continued with his plan for increasing the Soviet influence in these countries as part of the USSR's national security strategy. (Baciu, p. 198)

As for the question of post-war Germany, Roosevelt introduced the idea to divide the country into several occupation zones where each zone would be governed by one of the major Allied members. He also presented a notion to give control over one of the zones to France. Churchill agreed because he wanted the French to maintain the status of a major power in Europe after the war. Stalin, on the other hand, objected to this idea as he believed that France didn't earn such position compared to the countries of the Big Three. He also worried that other countries that fought the Nazi regime might issue a similar claim over the control of Germany. (Fenby, p. 292) In the end, it was agreed that France would indeed receive control over an occupation zone, but this zone would be taken from those owned by the US and Britain.

Another issue that was discussed was the war reparations. Stalin had two goals: First, reduction of Germany's industrial capacity to 20% and total breakdown of its military industry. Second, the Soviet Union would get 10 billion dollars from Germany in the span of 10 years as compensation for the damages the war cost. Both Churchill and Roosevelt objected to this, fearing the repetition of the situation after the First World War when Germany was tasked to pay similar sum but ended up paying only its fraction. (Fenby, p. 292) The issue resulted when the Big Three agreed on the total sum to be paid by Germany to be 20 billion dollars which would be shared among the countries that carried the biggest weight in the war efforts, Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union. To get close to this

28 amount, Germany would sell some of its estates, factories, ships, trains, and machinery. (Baciu, p. 201)

The Polish question became very important as all parties had their own interest in it. Roosevelt and Churchill aimed to establish the eastern Polish border on the Curzon line and suggested that any territorial loses in the east would be compensated by moving the western border towards the river Nisa at the expense of Germany's territorial claims. Everyone, including Stalin, pledged to ensure free elections in Poland after the war. (Beschloss, p. 187)

Roosevelt achieved his goal when Stalin promised to enter the war against Japan in up to three months after Germany's defeat. This was a crucial point for the US delegation as its forces were preparing for the eventuality of invasion of the Japanese main islands. In exchange for their help, the Soviets would regain control over several territories lost during the Russia-Japan war of 1904. (Fenby, p. 306)

7.2 The end of the "original Big Three"

The second direct meeting between Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt was also their last one. Only two months after his departure from Yalta, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt died on 12th April 1945 and, so he didn't live to see Allied victory over Germany a month later. He was succeeded by Harry Truman who led the US delegation in the final meeting of the "Big Three" in Potsdam. Winston Churchill came to Potsdam Conference as the leader of the British delegation but due to his party's loss in the Parliamentary election, he was replaced by the new Prime Minister, Clement Atlee.

8. Harry Truman and the Atomic Bomb

With the death of Franklin Roosevelt, the office of President fell to his serving vice- president Harry S. Truman who on 12th April 1945 became the 33rd President of the United States. Truman was born to a middle-class family in 1884 and unlike his predecessor, he didn't have the privilege of a wealthy legacy behind him. He was also the last president who didn't have a degree from a university. After his graduation from high school he became a farmer and when the United States joined the First World War he volunteered and was shipped to France as an officer. (Poulicek, p. 254)

29 After the war, he opened a clothing business which went bankrupt in 1922. At that time Truman attended law school at the University of Missouri but left after 2 years. His political career began when he was elected a judge in Jackson County, Missouri. However, he served in an administrative capacity since he didn't' have a law degree. In 1934, Truman joined the US Senate for state Missouri. He was a strong supporter of Franklin Roosevelt and his policies. Truman was chosen to be the Democratic party candidate for Vice-Presidency over the current vice-president Henry Wallace who was deemed to be too "left thinking" for the Democrats. (Miller, p. 187) Because of Roosevelt's fading health, it was expected that he wouldn't live through the four-year term meaning the winning candidate would assume the highest office during Roosevelt's last Presidency.

After the elections, Truman's Vice-Presidency lasted only 82 days when President Roosevelt died, and Truman was sworn into office as 33rd US President.

8.1 World's first nuclear weapon

By the end of the World War II, the Allies were working on the creation of a weapon of mass destruction. The research was called "The " and it was led by the United States with support from the and Canada. The Soviets were intentionally left out of this operation because of the growing mistrust within the Allied leadership.

The Manhattan project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves and physicist Robert Oppenheimer who is now considered to be "the father of the atomic bomb". Besides the development of the bomb, many Manhattan Project personnel were conducting missions in Europe and even behind enemy lines to gather nuclear material, documents, and intelligence on the German own nuclear weapon project which was abandoned in 1942. (Poulicek p. 260)

The first successful detonation of a nuclear device, the Trinity test, was conducted in New Mexico on 16th July 1945. The explosive power of the bomb informally nicknamed "The Gadget" was about 20 kilotons of TNT. Oppenheimer who was among those who witnessed the explosion later remarked this moment with words from the Bhagavad Gita: "Now I become Death, the destroyer of worlds". (Willmott, p. 293) The United States now possessed the most destructive weapon in history which existence completely shifted the balance of power in the years to come. 30 9. The war continues

Several major events accrued before the third and last meeting of the "Big Three". In the months after the conference in Yalta. On the Western front, the Allies crossed the river Rhine and in the south, they were able to push through Germany's defense line in Italy. Meanwhile, the Soviet forces made their way to Berlin. The city was surrounded, and the last remaining German forces were fighting a desperate battle against the Red Army. Unwilling to surrender and accept defeat, Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his bunker on 30th April. (Willmott, p. 279) On the same day, Soviet troops captured the Reichstag and marked the military defeat of Germany. On 7th May 1945, the newly appointed Reich President Karl Donitz tasked General Alfred Jodl with informing the Allies about Germany's complete and unconditional surrender of its remaining forces. (Eisenhower, p. 426) The document was signed on 7th of May in Reims, France. This day marked the end of World War 2 in Europe.

The fighting however continued in the Pacific. The Japanese refused to surrender and were willing to fight to the last man. To break their morale, the US forces conducted many bombings of Japan cities. This strategy was not unlike the Hitler's plan to break the British spirit by targeting London and other cities instead of focusing solely on military targets. During these air raids, 67 Japanese cities were destroyed or severely damaged and hundreds of thousands of civilians were killed. (Willmott, p. 287)

10. Potsdam Conference

The last meeting of the "Big Three" took place in Germany between 17th July and 1st August 1945. However, it was very different from the other two as there were several changes in leadership. As the head of the US delegation came Harry Truman who surpassed deceased president Franklin Roosevelt. For Great Britain, it was still Winston Churchill, but he was accompanied by Clement Atlee who would succeed him after Churchill lost the parliamentary elections. The Soviet delegation was again led by Joseph Stalin. The relationships between the leaders weren't as warm as before. Churchill's worries over Soviet influence in Eastern Europe were fulfilled as both in Poland and in Yugoslavia, the newly appointed governments had a strong for-soviet view. The US and USSR relationship were also damaged when shortly after his inauguration, President Truman canceled all aid coming into the Soviet Union. The situation was quickly solved as the US still wanted Stalin to join the war against Japan, but the damage was done. (Fenby, p. 321)

31 As it was the case in the two previous conferences, the leaders had to agree to a place for the meet. Churchill was trying to place it in London, but Stalin preferred the outskirts of Berlin. Again, it was Stalin's suggestion that was agreed upon and for the third time, the conference between the three main leaders of the Allies was hosted by the Soviets. In Tehran, it was the Soviet Embassy, in Yalta it was within the Soviet territory and in Potsdam, it was in an area controlled by Soviet forces. (Willmott, p. 290)

During this conference, President Truman wished to inform Stalin about the successful test of the nuclear weapon. He previously informed Churchill and believed that by revealing this information to the Soviet leader it would give him leverage in future negotiations. However, he was very surprised by Stalin's calm reaction when he briefed him that the United States of America now possessed a weapon of mass destruction and thought that he perhaps didn't fully understand what he was just been told. Ironically Stalin was aware of the program longer than Truman since he only learned about it shortly after he became President. Despite the heavy security of the Manhattan Project, a ring of Soviet spies was able to infiltrate it and keep Stalin well informed of American progress. (Fenby, p. 330)

The main topic of the conference, however, was the fate of post-war Germany which would be divided into four occupation zones. The main aims for the future of Germany were: Demilitarization - reducing the armed forces, Denazification - destroying and remnants of the Nazism ideology in all areas of German society, Democratization - transition into the democratic political system, Decartelization - transition to a free market economy. (Poulicek, p. 258)

When Clement Atlee took over the negotiations from Winston Churchill as the new Prime Minister on 29th July, Joseph Stalin gained a very strong position as both Atlee and Truman were not as experienced in foreign politics. (Baciu, p. 258) He ignored some of the previous agreements made in Yalta about the democratization of former Nazi allies. The Soviet Union would get territories at the expense several countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania or Ukraine.

11. The end of World War 2 and aftermath of the Potsdam Conference

During the conference on 27th July, the Allies called for an unconditional surrender of the Japanese Empire, but the offer was rejected. On 9th August, the Soviet Union honored the deal made between Stalin and Roosevelt and entered the war in the Pacific within 3 months 32 since the end of the war in Europe. Meanwhile, the Allies were preparing for the possibility of an invasion of the Japanese home islands. Estimating that such operation would cost lives of up to 500 thousand soldiers and millions of Japanese civilians as they were willing to fight to the last man, it was decided to use the new weapon, the Atomic Bomb. On 6th and 9th August, two bombs were dropped on cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki. To this day, this decision is considered highly controversial as the importance of nuclear weaponry wouldn't have such an impact if it wasn't used at least once. (Miller, p. 248)

In the face of the destruction these weapons caused and the Red Army advances in the north, the Japanese finally decided to capitulate. On 2nd September 1945, the Empire of Japan signed its unconditional surrender to the Allied forces, effectively ending World War II.

The biggest conflict in human history ended but it didn't mark the start of an era of peace. The world's political landscape changed drastically. (Fenby, p. 334) The European powers like Britain, France, and Germany were totally devastated by the war and a new conflict emerged that lasted for 40 years, the . Ever since the end to of the Potsdam conference, the spirit of understanding and cooperation among the three leaders from the previous meetings was gone and two new superpowers were created, the United States and the Soviet Union. The spheres of influence were clearly set as Stalin ensured his future control over Eastern Europe despite previous agreements about the free and unbiased development of post-war countries. (Baciu, p. 285) Fascism was eliminated but the biggest issue became the clash between Democracy and Communism combined with unprecedented arms race and development of more powerful nuclear arsenal.

33 Conclusion

World War II was the biggest military conflict in history. Its ramifications were even greater than after the Great War when many old regimes, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire or the Russian Empire fell. Even though it is called the First World War, most of the fighting was done on battlefields in Europe unlike the Second World War in which we could see the conflict raging all over the world and where almost every country was supporting either the Allies or the Axis. But the its consequences were not just in the damage to the infrastructure or loss of millions of lives. The biggest consequences emerged after the war ended with a complete reshaping of the world order.

There were several major powers before the conflict started. Both Great Britain and France managed to keep their status as colonial rulers after World War I, Germany was able to rebuild after its defeat and under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, in a very short time became one of the most powerful countries in the world. On the other hand, the Soviet Union was still recuperating from the Bolshevik uprising and fall of the empire. And the United States of America was focusing on its domestic policy rather than foreign. Of course, the economic crisis played a big part in leading to the conflict as it severely weakened certain regimes while giving the opportunity for totalitarian regimes to rise up.

In 1945 when the Second World War ended, Germany was again in ruins looking to rebuild, only this time under the supervision of the Allies. Great Britain and France lost much of their influence in both Europe and over their colonies throughout the world. There were two real victors, that are known to this day as "World's superpowers", the United States of America and the Soviet Union. It was these two countries that had the strongest voice in shaping the world in the second half of the 20th century. Because of their different ideologies, they often clashed at many opportunities, however through local conflicts and never directly. This conflict was later called the Cold War.

Because of its military success during World War II, negotiations at Allied conferences and political manipulation, the Soviet Union's sphere of influence was reaching far beyond its borders. The entire area of Eastern Europe formed so-called "Soviet Block" and gave Joseph Stalin a dominant position over other countries in war-torn Europe.

However, it was the United States of America who became without a doubt the most powerful nation on the planet without an equal in its economic and military strength. Plus, the 34 US had a huge advantage, the Atomic Bomb. A weapon of mass destruction that no other country possessed was supposed to be America's insurance against anyone who would try to challenge it. Despite the belief that they would be able to keep the monopoly on nuclear weapons for many years, the US leaders were shocked when in 1949, the Soviet Union performed a successful test of their own atomic bomb thus again completely shifting the balance of power between these two nations.

In the following decades, both superpowers launched an unprecedented arms race trying to get any advantage over the other. However, what probably defines this era of history the most was the implementation of the "Mutual Assured Destruction" (MAD) idea. Both, the United States and the Soviet Union realized that if they were to enter a direct war with each other and used the arsenal at their disposal, they wouldn't just destroy their enemy but the entire world. This fact kept both sides from resolving their differences by force, but it didn't stop them from spreading their influence over others and using other countries to resolve their conflicts without using their nuclear arsenal.

The shadow of the World War II remains as it is over 70 years since its end and no country is willing to start another global conflict as it would most likely destroy life as we know it. Instead, there is a high focus on diplomacy and resolving conflicts without starting a war. Organizations like the UN, NATO or the EU were created for this very purpose and so far, it's working. The work that was started by "the Big Three" during World War II continues and others have taken place of Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin in their effort to keep the world safe.

35 Bibliography

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