HEINEMANN ADVANCED HISTORY: MUSSOLINI & ITALY PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Edward Townley | 240 pages | 08 Apr 2002 | Pearson Education Limited | 9780435327255 | English | Harlow, Italian campaign (World War II) - Wikipedia

Royal Australian Air Force — No. Sources: RAN, n. Army of the Czech Republic. Retrieved October 27, The German Army —45 5 : Western Front — New York : Bloomsbury. San Jose: Bender Publishing. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved October 25, The Meaning of the Second World War. Here the failure was almost total. What initially looked like a rapid thrust into the heartland of Europe became a long-drawn-out, painful and costly war of position and attrition Retrieved Archived from the original on October 26, Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Oldenbourg Page May, Page "The surrender of nearly one million men from Army Group C, effective at noon on May 2, brought to an end the Mediterranean struggle that had begun five years earlier. The Air Force Historical Foundation. Retrieved March 1, In the context of the RSI, where numerous war crimes were committed during the Nazi security warfare , and many individuals were therefore involved in such crimes especially GNR and Black Brigades personnel , this influences negatively the casualty count, under a statistical point of view. Universal Newsreel. Retrieved February 21, Blaxland, Gregory Alexander's Generals the Italian Campaign — London: William Kimber. Blumenson, Martin Salerno to Cassino. Volume 3. Washington, D. Bohmler, Rudolf Monte Cassino: a German View. Brooks, Thomas R. Da Capo Press. Carver, Field Marshal Lord Churchill, Winston []. The Second World War. London: Pimlico. Clark, Mark []. Calculated Risk. New York: Enigma Books. D'Este, Carlo Algonquin Books. Ellis, John Harpur, Brian The Impossible Victory. Hippocrene Books. Hosch, William L. Jackson, General W. HMSO ]. Butler, J. Katz, Robert The Battle for . Keegan, John []. Liddell Hart, Basil []. History of the Second World War. London: Papermac. Moraes, Mascarenhas US Government Printing Office. Montemaggi, Amedeo La battaglia di Rimini e lo sbarco in Grecia decisivi per l'Europa sud-orientale e il Mediterraneo. Rimini: Museo dell'Aviazione. Imola: Angelini Editore. Guida storico iconografica ai campi di battaglia. Orgill, Douglas London: Heinemann. Weinberg, Gerhard L. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zaloga, Steve World War II. Africa Asia Europe. Bibliography Category Index Portal. Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons. American soldiers of the U. Italy , San Marino , Vatican City. May , men ration strength [8] April , men ration strength [9] 1,, men overall strength [10] Aircraft: 3, aircraft September 4, aircraft March [11]. May , men ration strength [8] April , men ration strength [9] , men overall strength [9] , men only [9] Aircraft: aircraft September [12] 79 aircraft April [11]. Sicily: 22, casualties [13] Italian mainland: [b] [c] [d] : , : 89, : 35, : 30, : 25, : 20, : 11, : 8, : 5, : 3, : 2, : Total : ,—, casualties Vehicles : 8, aircraft destroyed [d] : 3, armoured vehicles destroyed [19]. Prelude Africa Asia Europe. If you have changed your email address then contact us and we will update your details. Would you like to proceed to the App store to download the Waterstones App? We have recently updated our Privacy Policy. The site uses cookies to offer you a better experience. By continuing to browse the site you accept our Cookie Policy, you can change your settings at any time. We can order this Usually dispatched within 2 weeks. Quantity Add to basket. This item has been added to your basket View basket Checkout. View other formats and editions. Added to basket. The Anatomy of Fascism. Robert O. Introducing Fascism. Stuart Hood. Hitler Ian Kershaw. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Kevin Passmore. . Catherine A. Liberal Fascism. Jonah Goldberg. Black Sun. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. Jonathan Bowden. Education in Nazi Germany. Lisa Pine. Mussolini and Italy - Edward Townley - Google книги

Would you like to proceed to the App store to download the Waterstones App? We have recently updated our Privacy Policy. The site uses cookies to offer you a better experience. By continuing to browse the site you accept our Cookie Policy, you can change your settings at any time. We can order this Usually dispatched within 2 weeks. Quantity Add to basket. This item has been added to your basket View basket Checkout. View other formats and editions. Added to basket. The Anatomy of Fascism. Robert O. Introducing Fascism. Stuart Hood. Hitler Ian Kershaw. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Kevin Passmore. Nazi Germany. These cookies are necessary to provide our site and services and therefore cannot be disabled. For example, we use cookies to conduct research and diagnostics to improve our content, products and services, and to measure and analyse the performance of our services. Show less Show more Advertising ON OFF We use cookies to serve you certain types of ads , including ads relevant to your interests on Book Depository and to work with approved third parties in the process of delivering ad content, including ads relevant to your interests, to measure the effectiveness of their ads, and to perform services on behalf of Book Depository. Dispatched from the UK in 1 business day When will my order arrive? Steve Phillips. Geoff Stewart. Susan Willoughby. Martin Collier. Sally Waller. Jonathan Bromley. Edward Townley. John Laver. Toby Purser. Christopher Rowe. Bob Whitfield. Between 11 May and 31 January , casualties. Between February and March 13, casualties. British estimates for 1—22 April 41, casualties. Royal Australian Air Force — No. Sources: RAN, n. Army of the Czech Republic. Retrieved October 27, The German Army —45 5 : Western Front — New York : Bloomsbury. San Jose: Bender Publishing. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved October 25, The Meaning of the Second World War. Here the failure was almost total. What initially looked like a rapid thrust into the heartland of Europe became a long-drawn-out, painful and costly war of position and attrition Retrieved Archived from the original on October 26, Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Oldenbourg Page May, Page "The surrender of nearly one million men from Army Group C, effective at noon on May 2, brought to an end the Mediterranean struggle that had begun five years earlier. The Air Force Historical Foundation. Retrieved March 1, In the context of the RSI, where numerous war crimes were committed during the Nazi security warfare , and many individuals were therefore involved in such crimes especially GNR and Black Brigades personnel , this influences negatively the casualty count, under a statistical point of view. Universal Newsreel. Retrieved February 21, Blaxland, Gregory Alexander's Generals the Italian Campaign — London: William Kimber. Blumenson, Martin Salerno to Cassino. Volume 3. Washington, D. Bohmler, Rudolf Monte Cassino: a German View. Brooks, Thomas R. Da Capo Press. Carver, Field Marshal Lord Churchill, Winston []. The Second World War. London: Pimlico. Clark, Mark []. Calculated Risk. New York: Enigma Books. D'Este, Carlo Algonquin Books. Ellis, John Harpur, Brian The Impossible Victory. Hippocrene Books. Hosch, William L. Jackson, General W. HMSO ]. Butler, J. Katz, Robert Heinemann Advanced History: Mussolini and Italy, 1st, Townley, Edward | Buy Online at Pearson In November, the condemned Italy's aggression and imposed . This excluded oil, however, an indispensable raw material for the conduct of any modern military campaign, and this favoured Italy. The Ethiopian offensive was defeated by the superiority of the Italian's weaponry artillery and machine guns as well as aerial bombardment with chemical weapons , at first with mustard gas. The Ethiopians in general were very poorly armed, with few machine guns, their troops mainly armed with swords and spears. Some Italians objected when they found out but the practices were kept secret, the government issuing denials or spurious stories blaming the Ethiopians. As the progress of the Christmas Offensive slowed, Italian plans to renew the advance on the northern front began as Mussolini had given permission to use poison gas but not mustard gas and Badoglio received the Italian III Corps and the Italian IV Corps in during early The forces of Ras Kassa were defeated, the Italians using phosgene gas and suffering 1, casualties against 8, Ethiopian casualties according to an Ethiopian wireless message intercepted by the Italians. Special sprayers were installed on board aircraft so that they could vaporize, over vast areas of territory, a fine, death-dealing rain. Groups of nine, fifteen, eighteen aircraft followed one another so that the fog issuing from them formed a continuous sheet. It was thus that, as from the end of January , soldiers, women, children, cattle, rivers, lakes, and pastures were drenched continually with this deadly rain. To systematically kill all living creatures, to more surely poison waters and pastures, the Italian command made its aircraft pass over and over again. That was its chief method of warfare. The Ethiopians suffered massive losses and poison gas destroyed a small part of Ras Mulugeta's army, according to the Ethiopians. During the slaughter following the attempted withdrawal of his army, both Ras Mulugeta and his son were killed. The Italians lost killed and wounded while the Ethiopians lost 6, killed and 12, wounded. Ethiopians again argued that poison gas played a role in the destruction of the withdrawing armies. In early March, the army of Ras Imru was attacked, bombed and defeated in what was known as the Battle of Shire. In the battles of Amba Aradam, Tembien and Shire, the Italians suffered about 2, casualties and the Ethiopians about 15,; Italian casualties at the Battle of Shire being men. On 31 March at the Battle of Maychew , the Italians defeated an Ethiopian counter-offensive by the main Ethiopian army commanded by Selassie. The Ethiopians launched near non-stop attacks on the Italian and Eritrean defenders but could not overcome the well-prepared Italian defences. When the exhausted Ethiopians withdrew, the Italians counter-attacked. The attacked the survivors at Lake Ashangi with mustard gas. The Italian troops had casualties, the and the Ethiopians suffered 8, casualties from 31, men present according to an Italian estimate. Early activities included stealing war materials, rolling boulders off cliffs at passing convoys, kidnapping messengers, cutting telephone lines, setting fire to administrative offices and fuel and ammunition dumps , and killing collaborators. As disruption increased, the Italians were forced to redeploy more troops to Tigre, away from the campaign further south. On 3 October , Graziani implemented the Milan Plan to remove Ethiopian forces from various frontier posts and to test the reaction to a series of probes all along the southern front. While incessant rains worked to hinder the plan, within three weeks the Somali villages of Kelafo , Dagnerai, Gerlogubi and Gorahai in were in Italian hands. After a lull in February , the Italians in the south prepared an advance towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and , reducing them to ruins even though Harar had been declared an " open city ". The Ethiopians were drawn up behind a defensive line that was termed the "Hindenburg Wall", designed by the chief of staff of Ras Nasibu, and Wehib Pasha , a seasoned ex-Ottoman commander. After ten days, the last Ethiopian army had disintegrated; 2, Italian soldiers and 5, Ethiopian soldiers were killed or wounded. Meanwhile, Selassie conducted a disorganized retreat towards the capital. There, government officials operated without leadership, unable to contact the Emperor and unsure of his whereabouts. After several days, they decided that they should relocate to Gore , though actual preparations for their departure were postponed. That day his Council of Ministers resolved that the city should be defended and a retreat to Gore conducted only as a last resort. The view was subsequently adopted by Selassie and preparations were made for his departure. From there he fled to the United Kingdom, with the tacit acquiescence of the Italians who could have bombed his train, into exile Mussolini had refused a request from Graziani to mount such an attack. Before he departed, Selassie ordered that the government of be moved to Gore and directed the mayor of to maintain order in the city until the Italians' arrival. Imru was appointed Prince Regent during his absence. The city police, under Abebe Aregai and the remainder of the Imperial Guard did their utmost to restrain a growing crowd but rioters rampaged throughout the city, looting and setting fire to shops owned by Europeans. Most of the violence occurred between looters, fighting over the spoils and by 5 May, much of the city lay in ruins. Haile Mariam conducted hit-and-run attacks around the capital. Plans were made to storm parts of the capital but a lack of transport and radio equipment prevented a co-ordinated attack. Numerous members of Ethiopian royalty were taken prisoner and others were executed soon after they surrendered. Graziani ordered the town to be bombed in retaliation for the killings Magliocco was his deputy. Local hostility forced out the Patriots and , commander of the southern Patriots, withdrew his troops to Arbegona. Surrounded by Italian forces, they retreated to Butajira , where they were eventually defeated. An estimated 4, Patriots were reportedly killed in both engagements, 1, of whom—including Damtew—after being taken prisoner. In late , after the Italians tracked him down in Gurage, Dejazmach Balcha Safo was killed resisting to the end. After the end of the rainy season, an Italian column left Addis Ababa in September and occupied Gore a month later. Imru was flown to Italy and imprisoned on the Island of Ponza , while the rest of the Ethiopian prisoners taken in the war were dispersed in camps in and Italy. A second column went south-west to attack Ras Desta and the Dejasmatch Gabre Mariam who had assembled military forces in the Great Lakes district. The Ethiopians were defeated on 16 December and by January, the Italians had established a measure of control over the provinces of Jimma, Kafa and Arusi. After another two months, the remaining Ethiopians were surrounded and fought on, rather than surrender. Mariam was killed. That same date, 19 February — according to the Ethiopian calendar — saw the attempted assassination of Marshal Graziani by Ethiopian rebels. The campaign of reprisals visited by the Italians upon the population of Addis Ababa has been described as the worst massacre in Ethiopian history. Ethiopian sources estimated that 30, people were killed by the Italians, while Italian sources claimed that only a few hundred were killed. A history of the massacre estimated that 19, people were killed, 20 percent of the population of Addis Ababa. Many more were imprisoned, even collaborators such as Ras Gebre Haywot, the son of Ras Mikael of Wollo , Brehane Markos, and Ayale Gebre, who had helped the Italians identify the two men who made the attempt on Graziani's life. According to Mockler, "Italian had fired into the crowds of beggars and poor assembled for the distribution of alms; and it is said that the Federal Secretary, Guido Cortese , even fired his revolver into the group of Ethiopian dignitaries standing around him. Comrades, today is the day when we should show our devotion to our Viceroy by reacting and destroying the Ethiopians for three days. For three days I give you ''carte blanche'' to destroy and kill and do what you want to the Ethiopians. Italians doused native houses with petrol and set them on fire. They broke into the homes of local Greeks and Armenians and lynched their servants. Some even posed on the corpses of their victims to have their photographs taken. There is a Yekatit 12 monument in Addis Ababa in memory of these Ethiopian victims of Italian aggression. In , Colonel A. Barker wrote that from 1 January to 31 May , the Italian army and Blackshirt units lost 1, men killed, men died of wounds and thirty- one missing; about 1, Eritrean troops and civilian workmen were also killed, a total of 3, casualties. Based on 1, Italians killed in the first six months of , Ministry of Africa figures for 6 May to 10 June are 8, men killed, which Sbacchi considered to be fairly accurate. There was a lack of reliable statistics because confusion during the invasion made it difficult to keep accurate records and the Statistical Bulletin had ceased to provide data on fatalities. Field hospital records had been destroyed, inventories dispersed, individual deaths were not reported and bodies were not repatriated to Italy. Unpublished reports listed 3, military and civilian fatalities among 44, casualties and from May to June , there were another 12, military and civilian fatalities in , casualties. Italy's military victory overshadowed concerns about the economy. We have decided to bring to an end the most unequal, most unjust, most barbarous war of our age, and have chosen the road to exile in order that our people will not be exterminated and in order to consecrate ourselves wholly and in peace to the preservation of our empire's independence The Ethiopian Emperor's telegram caused several nations to temporarily defer recognition of the Italian conquest. A group of jeering Italian journalists began yelling insults and were expelled before he could speak. The Romanian chairman, Nicolae Titulescu , jumped to his feet and shouted "Show the savages the door! At the conclusion of his speech, which appeared on newsreels throughout the world, he said "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". France appeased Italy because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany; Britain decided its military weakness meant that it had to follow France's lead. Mexico was the only country to strongly condemn Italy's sovereignty over Ethiopia, respecting Ethiopian independence throughout. In April , Mussolini launched the Italian invasion of Albania. Italian military forces used between and tons of mustard gas to attack both military and civilian targets, [] despite being a signatory to the Geneva Protocol banning the practice. Fuller , who was present in Ethiopia during the conflict, stated that mustard gas "was the decisive tactical factor in the war. The Italians stated that their use of gas was justified by the execution of Tito Minniti and his observer in Ogaden by Ethiopian forces. Rome, October 27, To His Excellency Graziani. The use of gas as an ultima ratio to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counter-attack is authorized. After Minniti's death, the order was expanded to use of gas "on a vast scale":. Rome, December 28, To His Excellency Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized Your Excellency the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Military and civilian targets were gas bombed and on 30 December, a Red Cross unit was bombed at Dolo and an Egyptian ambulance was attacked at Bulale; a few days later an Egyptian medical unit was bombed at Daggah Bur. There were more attacks in January and February, then on 4 March , a British Red Cross camp near Quoram appeared to be subject to the most deliberate attack of all, when low-flying Italian aircraft crews could not have missed the big Red Cross signs. The Italians tried to keep their resort to chemical warfare secret but were exposed by the International Red Cross and many foreign observers. The Italians claimed that at least 19 bombardments of Red Cross tents "posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance", had been "erroneous". The Italians delivered poison gas by gas shell and in bombs dropped by the Regia Aeronautica. Though poorly equipped, the Ethiopians had achieved some success against modern weaponry but had no defence against the "terrible rain that burned and killed". The use of chemical agents in the war was nothing more than an experiment. He concluded "From my own observations and from talking with [Italian] junior officers and soldiers I have concluded that gas was not used extensively in the African campaign and that its use had little if any effect on the outcome". Italians, like the war correspondent Indro Montanelli , noted that the Italian soldiers had no gas masks, that there was no use of gas or it was used in very small amounts if at all. It is my opinion that of all the superior weapons possessed by the Italians, mustard gas was the most effective. It caused few deaths that I observed, but it temporarily incapacitated very large numbers so frightened the rest that the Ethiopian resistance broke completely. In place of the laborious process of picketing the heights, the heights sprayed with gas were rendered unoccupiable by the enemy, save at the gravest risk. It was an exceedingly cunning use of this chemical. Haile Selassie in his report to the League of Nations described it:. Special sprayers were installed on board aircraft so they could vaporize over vast areas of territory a fine, death-dealing rain. Groups of 9, 15, or 18 aircraft followed one another so that the fog issuing from them formed a continuous sheet. In order more surely to poison the waters and pastures, the Italian command made its aircraft pass over and over again. These fearful tactics succeeded. Men and animals succumbed. The deadly rain that fell from the aircraft made all those whom it touched fly shrieking with pain. All those who drank poisoned water or ate infected food also succumbed in dreadful suffering. In tens of thousands the victims of Italian mustard gas fell. Historian Angelo Del Boca condemned the use of gas, but argued that it had only a minimal effect on Italian war aims. Ethiopian troops used Dum-Dum bullets , which had been banned by declaration IV, 3 of the Hague Convention and began mutilating captured Eritrean often with castration beginning in the first weeks of war. The Italians decreed miscegenation to be illegal. Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant Amhara rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights. The Italians also definitively abolished slavery and abrogated feudal laws that had been upheld by the Amharas. Early in , a revolt broke out in , led by the Committee of Unity and Collaboration, made up of some of the young, educated elite who had escaped reprisals after the assassination attempt on Graziani. The general oversaw another wave of reprisals and had all Ethiopians in administrative jobs murdered, some by being thrown from aircraft, after being taken on board under the pretext of visiting the King in Rome, leading to the saying "He went to Rome". The army of occupation had , men but was spread thinly; by the garrison had been increased to , soldiers, including 75, Italian civilians. The former police chief of Addis Ababa, Abebe Aregai, was the most successful leader of the Ethiopian guerrilla movement after , using units of fifty men. While in exile in England, Haile Selassie had sought the support of the Western democracies for his cause but had little success until the Second World War began. In August , the Italian conquest of was completed. The British and Selassie incited Ethiopian and other local forces to join a campaign to dislodge the Italians from Ethiopia. Selassie went to Khartoum to establish closer liaison with the British and resistance forces within Ethiopia. On 18 January , Selassie crossed the border into Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla and two days later rendezvoused with . Since the League of Nations and most of its members had never officially recognized Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, Haile Selassie had been recognized as the restored following his formal entry into Addis Ababa in May The list included the destruction of 2, churches, , houses, the slaughter or theft of 5,, cattle, 7,, sheep and goats, 1,, horses and mules and , camels. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Events leading to World War II. Main article: Abyssinia Crisis. Haile Selassie. Ras Kassa Haile Darge. Ras Desta Damtew. Imru Haile Selassie. . Emilio De Bono. Pietro Badoglio. Main article: De Bono's invasion of Abyssinia. Main article: Ethiopian Christmas Offensive. Main article: March of the Iron Will. Main article: Yekatit Clark []. Main article: Treaty of Peace with Italy, Resistance movements continued for several years after the defeat of Ethiopia, although censorship kept this from the Italian public. In the sanctions vote, 44 delegates approved the ending of sanctions, 4 abstained and 1 Ethiopian delegate voted for retention. Delivered from evil. Internet Archive. Gas in Etiopia: I crimini rimossi dell'Italia coloniale in Italian. Neri Pozza Editore. London: Granada. Berghahn Books. Taylor and the Historians 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Eugene Register-Guard. The Afro American. Slide Rule. London: William Heinemann. The Economist. Retrieved 10 March Archived from the original on 23 September Retrieved 24 May Martin P. African Dynamics. II illus. Leiden, NL: Brill. Retrieved 8 October Dictionary of African Biography. Antonicelli, Franco Trent'anni di storia italiana: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza — lezioni con testimonianze [ Thirty Years of Italian History: From Antifascism to the Resistance — Lessons with Testimonials ]. Reprints Einaudi in Italian. Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore. Baer, George W. Barker, A. London: Cassell. Rape of Ethiopia, New York: Ballantine Books. Baudendistel, Reiner Human Rights in Context. Oxford: Berghahn. Candeloro, Giorgio Milano: Feltrinelli. Cannistraro, Philip V. Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Clarence-Smith, W. London: Frank Cass. Clark, D. Crozier, Andrew J. The Causes of the Second World War. Oxford: Blackwell. Would you like to proceed to the App store to download the Waterstones App? We have recently updated our Privacy Policy. The site uses cookies to offer you a better experience. By continuing to browse the site you accept our Cookie Policy, you can change your settings at any time. We can order this Usually dispatched within 2 weeks. Quantity Add to basket. This item has been added to your basket View basket Checkout. View other formats and editions. Added to basket. The Anatomy of Fascism. Robert O. Introducing Fascism. Stuart Hood. Hitler Ian Kershaw. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Kevin Passmore. Nazi Germany. Catherine A. Liberal Fascism. Jonah Goldberg. Black Sun. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. Jonathan Bowden. Education in Nazi Germany. Lisa Pine. David Renton.

Second Italo-Ethiopian War - Wikipedia

New York : Bloomsbury. San Jose: Bender Publishing. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved October 25, The Meaning of the Second World War. Here the failure was almost total. What initially looked like a rapid thrust into the heartland of Europe became a long-drawn-out, painful and costly war of position and attrition Retrieved Archived from the original on October 26, Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Oldenbourg Page May, Page "The surrender of nearly one million men from Army Group C, effective at noon on May 2, brought to an end the Mediterranean struggle that had begun five years earlier. The Air Force Historical Foundation. Retrieved March 1, In the context of the RSI, where numerous war crimes were committed during the Nazi security warfare , and many individuals were therefore involved in such crimes especially GNR and Black Brigades personnel , this influences negatively the casualty count, under a statistical point of view. Universal Newsreel. Retrieved February 21, Blaxland, Gregory Alexander's Generals the Italian Campaign — London: William Kimber. Blumenson, Martin Salerno to Cassino. Volume 3. Washington, D. Bohmler, Rudolf Monte Cassino: a German View. Brooks, Thomas R. Da Capo Press. Carver, Field Marshal Lord Churchill, Winston []. The Second World War. London: Pimlico. Clark, Mark []. Calculated Risk. New York: Enigma Books. D'Este, Carlo Algonquin Books. Ellis, John Harpur, Brian The Impossible Victory. Hippocrene Books. Hosch, William L. Jackson, General W. HMSO ]. Butler, J. Katz, Robert The Battle for Rome. Keegan, John []. Liddell Hart, Basil []. History of the Second World War. London: Papermac. Moraes, Mascarenhas US Government Printing Office. Montemaggi, Amedeo Ethiopians again argued that poison gas played a role in the destruction of the withdrawing armies. In early March, the army of Ras Imru was attacked, bombed and defeated in what was known as the Battle of Shire. In the battles of Amba Aradam, Tembien and Shire, the Italians suffered about 2, casualties and the Ethiopians about 15,; Italian casualties at the Battle of Shire being men. On 31 March at the Battle of Maychew , the Italians defeated an Ethiopian counter-offensive by the main Ethiopian army commanded by Selassie. The Ethiopians launched near non-stop attacks on the Italian and Eritrean defenders but could not overcome the well-prepared Italian defences. When the exhausted Ethiopians withdrew, the Italians counter-attacked. The Regia Aeronautica attacked the survivors at Lake Ashangi with mustard gas. The Italian troops had casualties, the Eritreans and the Ethiopians suffered 8, casualties from 31, men present according to an Italian estimate. Early activities included stealing war materials, rolling boulders off cliffs at passing convoys, kidnapping messengers, cutting telephone lines, setting fire to administrative offices and fuel and ammunition dumps , and killing collaborators. As disruption increased, the Italians were forced to redeploy more troops to Tigre, away from the campaign further south. On 3 October , Graziani implemented the Milan Plan to remove Ethiopian forces from various frontier posts and to test the reaction to a series of probes all along the southern front. While incessant rains worked to hinder the plan, within three weeks the Somali villages of Kelafo , Dagnerai, Gerlogubi and Gorahai in Ogaden were in Italian hands. After a lull in February , the Italians in the south prepared an advance towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga , reducing them to ruins even though Harar had been declared an " open city ". The Ethiopians were drawn up behind a defensive line that was termed the "Hindenburg Wall", designed by the chief of staff of Ras Nasibu, and Wehib Pasha , a seasoned ex- Ottoman commander. After ten days, the last Ethiopian army had disintegrated; 2, Italian soldiers and 5, Ethiopian soldiers were killed or wounded. Meanwhile, Selassie conducted a disorganized retreat towards the capital. There, government officials operated without leadership, unable to contact the Emperor and unsure of his whereabouts. After several days, they decided that they should relocate to Gore , though actual preparations for their departure were postponed. That day his Council of Ministers resolved that the city should be defended and a retreat to Gore conducted only as a last resort. The view was subsequently adopted by Selassie and preparations were made for his departure. From there he fled to the United Kingdom, with the tacit acquiescence of the Italians who could have bombed his train, into exile Mussolini had refused a request from Graziani to mount such an attack. Before he departed, Selassie ordered that the government of Ethiopia be moved to Gore and directed the mayor of Addis Ababa to maintain order in the city until the Italians' arrival. Imru Haile Selassie was appointed Prince Regent during his absence. The city police, under Abebe Aregai and the remainder of the Imperial Guard did their utmost to restrain a growing crowd but rioters rampaged throughout the city, looting and setting fire to shops owned by Europeans. Most of the violence occurred between looters, fighting over the spoils and by 5 May, much of the city lay in ruins. Haile Mariam conducted hit- and-run attacks around the capital. Plans were made to storm parts of the capital but a lack of transport and radio equipment prevented a co- ordinated attack. Numerous members of Ethiopian royalty were taken prisoner and others were executed soon after they surrendered. Graziani ordered the town to be bombed in retaliation for the killings Magliocco was his deputy. Local hostility forced out the Patriots and Desta Damtew, commander of the southern Patriots, withdrew his troops to Arbegona. Surrounded by Italian forces, they retreated to Butajira , where they were eventually defeated. An estimated 4, Patriots were reportedly killed in both engagements, 1, of whom—including Damtew—after being taken prisoner. In late , after the Italians tracked him down in Gurage, Dejazmach Balcha Safo was killed resisting to the end. After the end of the rainy season, an Italian column left Addis Ababa in September and occupied Gore a month later. Imru was flown to Italy and imprisoned on the Island of Ponza , while the rest of the Ethiopian prisoners taken in the war were dispersed in camps in East Africa and Italy. A second column went south-west to attack Ras Desta and the Dejasmatch Gabre Mariam who had assembled military forces in the Great Lakes district. The Ethiopians were defeated on 16 December and by January, the Italians had established a measure of control over the provinces of Jimma, Kafa and Arusi. After another two months, the remaining Ethiopians were surrounded and fought on, rather than surrender. Mariam was killed. That same date, 19 February — Yekatit 12 according to the Ethiopian calendar — saw the attempted assassination of Marshal Graziani by Ethiopian rebels. The campaign of reprisals visited by the Italians upon the population of Addis Ababa has been described as the worst massacre in Ethiopian history. Ethiopian sources estimated that 30, people were killed by the Italians, while Italian sources claimed that only a few hundred were killed. A history of the massacre estimated that 19, people were killed, 20 percent of the population of Addis Ababa. Many more were imprisoned, even collaborators such as Ras Gebre Haywot, the son of Ras Mikael of Wollo , Brehane Markos, and Ayale Gebre, who had helped the Italians identify the two men who made the attempt on Graziani's life. According to Mockler, "Italian carabinieri had fired into the crowds of beggars and poor assembled for the distribution of alms; and it is said that the Federal Secretary, Guido Cortese , even fired his revolver into the group of Ethiopian dignitaries standing around him. Comrades, today is the day when we should show our devotion to our Viceroy by reacting and destroying the Ethiopians for three days. For three days I give you ''carte blanche'' to destroy and kill and do what you want to the Ethiopians. Italians doused native houses with petrol and set them on fire. They broke into the homes of local Greeks and Armenians and lynched their servants. Some even posed on the corpses of their victims to have their photographs taken. There is a Yekatit 12 monument in Addis Ababa in memory of these Ethiopian victims of Italian aggression. In , Colonel A. Barker wrote that from 1 January to 31 May , the Italian army and Blackshirt units lost 1, men killed, men died of wounds and thirty-one missing; about 1, Eritrean troops and civilian workmen were also killed, a total of 3, casualties. Based on 1, Italians killed in the first six months of , Ministry of Africa figures for 6 May to 10 June are 8, men killed, which Sbacchi considered to be fairly accurate. There was a lack of reliable statistics because confusion during the invasion made it difficult to keep accurate records and the Statistical Bulletin had ceased to provide data on fatalities. Field hospital records had been destroyed, inventories dispersed, individual deaths were not reported and bodies were not repatriated to Italy. Unpublished reports listed 3, military and civilian fatalities among 44, casualties and from May to June , there were another 12, military and civilian fatalities in , casualties. Italy's military victory overshadowed concerns about the economy. We have decided to bring to an end the most unequal, most unjust, most barbarous war of our age, and have chosen the road to exile in order that our people will not be exterminated and in order to consecrate ourselves wholly and in peace to the preservation of our empire's independence The Ethiopian Emperor's telegram caused several nations to temporarily defer recognition of the Italian conquest. A group of jeering Italian journalists began yelling insults and were expelled before he could speak. The Romanian chairman, Nicolae Titulescu , jumped to his feet and shouted "Show the savages the door! At the conclusion of his speech, which appeared on newsreels throughout the world, he said "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". France appeased Italy because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany; Britain decided its military weakness meant that it had to follow France's lead. Mexico was the only country to strongly condemn Italy's sovereignty over Ethiopia, respecting Ethiopian independence throughout. In April , Mussolini launched the Italian invasion of Albania. Italian military forces used between and tons of mustard gas to attack both military and civilian targets, [] despite being a signatory to the Geneva Protocol banning the practice. Fuller , who was present in Ethiopia during the conflict, stated that mustard gas "was the decisive tactical factor in the war. The Italians stated that their use of gas was justified by the execution of Tito Minniti and his observer in Ogaden by Ethiopian forces. Rome, October 27, To His Excellency Graziani. The use of gas as an ultima ratio to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counter-attack is authorized. After Minniti's death, the order was expanded to use of gas "on a vast scale":. Rome, December 28, To His Excellency Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized Your Excellency the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Military and civilian targets were gas bombed and on 30 December, a Red Cross unit was bombed at Dolo and an Egyptian ambulance was attacked at Bulale; a few days later an Egyptian medical unit was bombed at Daggah Bur. There were more attacks in January and February, then on 4 March , a British Red Cross camp near Quoram appeared to be subject to the most deliberate attack of all, when low-flying Italian aircraft crews could not have missed the big Red Cross signs. The Italians tried to keep their resort to chemical warfare secret but were exposed by the International Red Cross and many foreign observers. The Italians claimed that at least 19 bombardments of Red Cross tents "posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance", had been "erroneous". The Italians delivered poison gas by gas shell and in bombs dropped by the Regia Aeronautica. Though poorly equipped, the Ethiopians had achieved some success against modern weaponry but had no defence against the "terrible rain that burned and killed". The use of chemical agents in the war was nothing more than an experiment. He concluded "From my own observations and from talking with [Italian] junior officers and soldiers I have concluded that gas was not used extensively in the African campaign and that its use had little if any effect on the outcome". Italians, like the war correspondent Indro Montanelli , noted that the Italian soldiers had no gas masks, that there was no use of gas or it was used in very small amounts if at all. It is my opinion that of all the superior weapons possessed by the Italians, mustard gas was the most effective. It caused few deaths that I observed, but it temporarily incapacitated very large numbers so frightened the rest that the Ethiopian resistance broke completely. In place of the laborious process of picketing the heights, the heights sprayed with gas were rendered unoccupiable by the enemy, save at the gravest risk. It was an exceedingly cunning use of this chemical. Haile Selassie in his report to the League of Nations described it:. Special sprayers were installed on board aircraft so they could vaporize over vast areas of territory a fine, death-dealing rain. Groups of 9, 15, or 18 aircraft followed one another so that the fog issuing from them formed a continuous sheet. In order more surely to poison the waters and pastures, the Italian command made its aircraft pass over and over again. These fearful tactics succeeded. Men and animals succumbed. The deadly rain that fell from the aircraft made all those whom it touched fly shrieking with pain. All those who drank poisoned water or ate infected food also succumbed in dreadful suffering. In tens of thousands the victims of Italian mustard gas fell. Historian Angelo Del Boca condemned the use of gas, but argued that it had only a minimal effect on Italian war aims. Ethiopian troops used Dum-Dum bullets , which had been banned by declaration IV, 3 of the Hague Convention and began mutilating captured Eritrean Askari often with castration beginning in the first weeks of war. The Italians decreed miscegenation to be illegal. Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant Amhara rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights. The Italians also definitively abolished slavery and abrogated feudal laws that had been upheld by the Amharas. Early in , a revolt broke out in Gojjam, led by the Committee of Unity and Collaboration, made up of some of the young, educated elite who had escaped reprisals after the assassination attempt on Graziani. The general oversaw another wave of reprisals and had all Ethiopians in administrative jobs murdered, some by being thrown from aircraft, after being taken on board under the pretext of visiting the King in Rome, leading to the saying "He went to Rome". The army of occupation had , men but was spread thinly; by the garrison had been increased to , soldiers, including 75, Italian civilians. The former police chief of Addis Ababa, Abebe Aregai, was the most successful leader of the Ethiopian guerrilla movement after , using units of fifty men. While in exile in England, Haile Selassie had sought the support of the Western democracies for his cause but had little success until the Second World War began. In August , the Italian conquest of British Somaliland was completed. The British and Selassie incited Ethiopian and other local forces to join a campaign to dislodge the Italians from Ethiopia. Selassie went to Khartoum to establish closer liaison with the British and resistance forces within Ethiopia. On 18 January , Selassie crossed the border into Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla and two days later rendezvoused with Gideon Force. Since the League of Nations and most of its members had never officially recognized Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, Haile Selassie had been recognized as the restored emperor of Ethiopia following his formal entry into Addis Ababa in May The list included the destruction of 2, churches, , houses, the slaughter or theft of 5,, cattle, 7,, sheep and goats, 1,, horses and mules and , camels. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Events leading to World War II. Main article: Abyssinia Crisis. Haile Selassie. Ras Kassa Haile Darge. Ras Desta Damtew. Imru Haile Selassie. Benito Mussolini. Emilio De Bono. Pietro Badoglio. Main article: De Bono's invasion of Abyssinia. Main article: Ethiopian Christmas Offensive. Main article: March of the Iron Will. Would you like to proceed to the App store to download the Waterstones App? We have recently updated our Privacy Policy. The site uses cookies to offer you a better experience. 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