DOCSLIB.ORG

League of Nations

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
League of Nations League of Nations From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Société des Nations (French) Sociedad de Naciones (Spanish) League of Nations (English) International organization 1919–1946 → 1939–1941 semi-official emblem Anachronous world map in 1920–1945, showing the League of Nations and the world Capital Geneva Language(s) English, French and Spanish Political structure International organization Secretary-general - 1920–1933 Sir James Eric Drummond - 1933–1940 Joseph Avenol - 1940–1946 Seán Lester Historical era Interwar period - Treaty Of Versailles 28 June 1919 - First meeting 16 January 1920 - Liquidat 20 April 1946 ¹ The headquarters were based at the Palais des Nations, Geneva Switzerland The League of Nations (LoN) was an inter-governmental organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. The League's goals included upholding the new found Rights of Man such as right of non whites, rights of women, rights of soldiers, disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global quality of life. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. When during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the League accused Benito Mussolini's soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Mussolini responded that Ethiopians were not fully human, therefore the human rights laws did not apply. Benito Mussolini stated that "The League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." [1] After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. In May 1933 the League was powerless to convince Hitler that Franz Bernheim, a Jew, was protected under the minority clauses established by the League in 1919 (that all minorities were fully human and held equal rights among all men). Hitler claimed these clauses violated Germany's sovereignty. Germany withdrew from the League soon to be followed by many other totalitarian and militaristic nations. The onset of World War II showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to avoid any future world war. The United Nations replaced it after the end of the war and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League. Contents [hide] • 1 Origins • 2 Languages and symbols • 3 Principal organs o 3.1 Secretariat and Assembly o 3.2 Council o 3.3 Other bodies . 3.3.1 Health Organization . 3.3.2 International Labour Organization . 3.3.3 Permanent Central Opium Board . 3.3.4 Slavery Commission . 3.3.5 Commission for Refugees . 3.3.6 Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women • 4 Members • 5 Mandates o 5.1 "A" Mandates o 5.2 "B" Mandates o 5.3 "C" Mandates o 5.4 Mandatory Powers • 6 Resolving territorial disputes o 6.1 Upper Silesia o 6.2 Albania o 6.3 Åland Islands o 6.4 Memel o 6.5 Mosul o 6.6 Vilnius o 6.7 Colombia and Peru o 6.8 Saar • 7 Peace and security o 7.1 Greece and Bulgaria o 7.2 Liberia o 7.3 Mukden Incident o 7.4 Chaco War o 7.5 Italian invasion of Abyssinia o 7.6 Spanish Civil War o 7.7 Second Sino-Japanese War • 8 Disarmament and failures en route to World War II • 9 General weaknesses o 9.1 Origins and structure o 9.2 Global representation o 9.3 Collective security o 9.4 Pacifism and disarmament • 10 Demise and legacy • 11 See also • 12 Notes • 13 References • 14 Further reading • 15 External links [edit] Origins A commemorative card depicting President of the United States Woodrow Wilson and the "Origin of the League of Nations" The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been outlined as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch[2] outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states.[3] There, Kant argues for establishment of a peaceful world community not in a sense that there be a global government but in the hope that each state would declare itself as a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings. It is in this rationalization that a union of free states would promote peaceful society worldwide, therefore there can be a perpetual peace binded by the international community. [4] International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war.[5][6] This period also saw the development of international law with the first Geneva conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.[7][8] The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frederic Passy in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of parliament, in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1913. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU's structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.[9] At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialized countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths. [10][11] By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent.[12] Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "the war to end all wars",[13][14] and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations.[15] While the First World War was still underway, a number of governments and groups had already started developing plans to change the way international relations were carried out in order to prevent a repetition of the war.[13] United States President Woodrow Wilson and his advisor Colonel Edward M. House enthusiastically promoted the idea of the League as a means of avoiding any repetition of the bloodshed seen in World War I, and the creation of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for Peace.[16] Specifically the final point provided: "A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."[17] Before drafting the specific terms of his peace deal, Wilson recruited a team led by Colonel House to compile whatever information deemed pertinent in assessing Europe’s geo-political situation. In early January, 1918, Wilson summoned House to Washington and the two began hammering out, in complete secrecy, the President’s first address on the League of Nations which was delivered to an unsuspecting Congress on January 8, 1918.[18] Wilson's final plans for the League were strongly influenced by the South African Prime Minister, Jan Christiaan Smuts. In 1918 Smuts had published a treatise entitled The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion. According to F.S. Crafford's biography on Smuts, Wilson adopted "both the ideas and the style" of Smuts.[19] On July 8, 1919, Woodrow Wilson returned to the United States and embarked on a nation-wide campaign to secure the support of the American people for their country’s entry into the League. On July 10, Wilson addressed the Senate declaring that “a new role and a new responsibility have come to this great nation that we honour and which we would all wish to lift to yet higher levels of service and achievement.” Positive reception, particularly from Republicans, was scarce at best.[20] The Paris Peace Conference, convened to build a lasting peace after World War I, approved the proposal to create the League of Nations (French: Société des Nations, German: Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919.[21] The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • “Comfort Women”: Historical Agony and Practical Tasks
    S/N Korean Humanities, Volume 3 Issue 1 (March 2017) https://doi.org/10.17783/IHU.2017.3.1.15 pp.15~30∣ISSN 2384-0668 / E-ISSN 2384-0692 ⓒ 2017 IHU S/N Korean Humanities Volume3 Issue1 “Comfort Women”: Historical Agony and Practical Tasks 1) Xu Mingzhe* Yanbian University Abstract While more than seventy years have passed since liberation from Japanese colonial rule, the problems rooted in Japanese wartime aggression, including the issue of “comfort women,” remain unsettled due to the misperceived historical notion on the part of the Japanese government. The existence of the “comfort women” system has been commonly acknowledged as a fact by many and while the Japanese government acknowledged the existence of comfort women and comfort stations in the “Kono Statement,” the current administration of Shinzo Abe is denying Japan’s liability and compensation. First, we must contemplate again the meaning of the comfort women issue and the significance of resolving the issue. At the same time, we must endeavor not to leave imperial Japan’s inhumane activities and crime against humanity in the past and approach the comfort women issue to protect peace and justice and serve it as a warning to Japanese militarism which is currently on the rise. If we continue to fail in solving issues caused by the war, building a correct perception of history and securing peace in the region will be an arduous task. We must urge the Japanese government for a heartfelt apology, repentance and compensation so that the victims can pass away without any resentment. Key Words: Comfort women, Kono Statement, Comfort stations, Coercion * [email protected] Received January 10, 2017; Revised version received February 06, 2017; Accepted March 02, 2017 S/N Korean Humanities, Volume 3 Issue 1 15 Feature Articles : The Comfort Women Issue in East Asian Memory 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Friedrich Berber and the Politics of International Law in Germany and India, 1920S-1960S
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Sussex Research Online K. Rietzler Journal of Global History, 11.1 (2016) Counter-Imperial Orientalism: Friedrich Berber and the Politics of International Law in Germany and India, 1920s-1960s Katharina Rietzler1 This is the peer reviewed, accepted manuscript of an article which will be published in final form in the Journal of Global History, Vol. 11.1 (March 2016), doi:10.1017/S1740022815000303 Abstract: The most trenchant critiques of Western international law are framed around the legacy of its historic complicity in the imperial project of governing non-European peoples. International law organised Europe and its ‘others’ into a hierarchy of civilizational difference that was only ever reconfigured but never overturned. But when analysing the complex relationship between international law and imperialism the differences within Europe—as opposed to a dyadic opposition of Europe versus the ‘rest'—also matter. Within the historical and political constellations of the early and mid-twentieth century, German difference produced a set of arguments that challenged dominant discourses of international law by posturing as anti- imperial critique. This article focuses on the global career of Friedrich Berber (1898-1984) who, as a legal adviser in Nazi Germany and Nehru’s India, was at the forefront of state-led challenges to liberal international law. Berber fused notions of German civilizational superiority with an appropriation of Indian colonial victimhood, and pursued a shared politics of opposition. He embodies a version of German-Indian entanglement which did not abate after the Second World War, emphasizing the long continuities of empire, power differentials, civilizational hierarchies and developmental logics under the umbrella of international law.
    [Show full text]
  • Disarmament Conference 1932-1933 Orange Rows: Abyssinia Crisis 1935
    Key: Blue rows: Manchuria 1931 Green rows: Disarmament Conference 1932-1933 Orange rows: Abyssinia Crisis 1935 Date Event Significance September 1931 Japanese Army claims Chinese troops sabotaged the “Plausible” reason to invade: in self-defence, not invasion per se railway (belonging to the Japanese), invaded Manchuria and expelled Chinese troops February 1932 Creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo, with Henry Pu “Puppet State” meant that the League of Nations could not Yi installed as the emperor directly accuse the Japanese of taking over Manchuria, since it is technically an independent state July 1932 Germany proposes option of allowing Germany to rearm to Shows that other countries did not see Germany as an equal, but the level of other powers in the Disarmament Conference. as a defeated nation Proposal rejected, Germany walks Late 1932 Japanese Imperial Army attached Shanghai with warplanes - and gunships, ignored civilian government’s instructions to withdraw. China appealed to the League to take action (banking on idea of collective security) September 1932 LoN officials present report after field trip; Japan was to - withdraw from Manchuria December 1932 Agreement to treat Germany equally Indecisiveness of League: took 5 months just to decide to treat Germany as an equal January 1933 Germany returns to the Conferences - February 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor (quite obvious, no?) February 1933 Japan announced further expansion plans in China - 24 February 1933 League votes 42:1 on the subject (with the one being Japan, Illustrated
    [Show full text]
  • Юридическо Списание На НБУ, 2016–2017 Година, Брой 1–3 Law Journal of NBU, 2016–2017, No
    Юридическо списание на НБУ, 2016–2017 година, брой 1–3 Law Journal of NBU, 2016–2017, No. 1–3 ОБЩЕСТВО НА НАРОДИТЕ И ОРГАНИЗАЦИЯ НА ОБЕДИНЕНИТЕ НАЦИИ – СРАВНИТЕЛЕН АНАЛИЗ НА ПРАВНАТА УРЕДБА КАТЕРИНА ЙОЧЕВА* „Никой не желае ООН да последва съдбата на Обществото на народите, което се проваля, защото не може да оказва реално влияние“. Владимир Путин1 Въведение Първите международни организации, преследващи общи цели, възникват едва през ХХ век. Идеи за създаването на такива организации обаче съществуват още преди това. Политическото разединение и враждите между отделните държави са основна причина за сравнително късното им осъществяване. Първи стъпки към осъществяването на тези идеи се правят през ХІХ век. Първоначално държавите създават международни организации, за да сътрудничат помежду си по отделни въпроси. Така през 1865 г. е създаден Международният телекомуникационен съюз като Международен телеграфен съюз, а девет години по-късно (1874 г.) и Световният пощенски съюз (сега и двата специализирани организации/агенции на ООН). Тези две събития дават надежда, че и големи световни проблеми могат да бъдат разрешени по пътя на взаимното съгласие. Идеята за предотвратяването на последиците от военните сблъсъци и изграждането на структура, която да се грижи за опазването на мира, постепенно започва да си проправя път. През 1899 г. в Хага се провежда първата Международна конференция за мира, която цели да разработи начини за разрешаване на кризи по мирен път, предотвратявайки войни, и систематизиране на правила за водене на война. Впоследствие е създаден Постоянният арбитражен съд, който започва да действа през 1902 г. Ужасът на Първата световна война (1914–1918 г.) предизвиква вземането на по- крайни мерки като създаването на Обществото на народите (ОН) на Парижката мирна 1 Президент на Руската федерация в изявление от 11.9.2013 г.
    [Show full text]
  • Modernism in Practice: Shi Zhecun's Psychoanalytic Fiction Writing
    Modernism in Practice: Shi Zhecun's Psychoanalytic Fiction Writing Item Type text; Electronic Thesis Authors Zhu, Yingyue Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction, presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 26/09/2021 14:07:54 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/642043 MODERNISM IN PRACTICE: SHI ZHECUN’S PSYCHOANALYTIC FICTION WRITING by Yingyue Zhu ____________________________ Copyright © Yingyue Zhu 2020 A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF EAST ASIAN STUDIES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2020 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Master’s Committee, we certify that we have read the thesis prepared by Yingyue Zhu, titled MODERNISM IN PRACTICE: SHI ZHECUN’S PSYCHOANALYTIC FICTION WRITING and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Master’s Degree. Jun 29, 2020 _________________________________________________________________ Date: ____________ Dian Li Fabio Lanza Jul 2, 2020 _________________________________________________________________ Date: ____________ Fabio Lanza Jul 2, 2020 _________________________________________________________________ Date: ____________ Scott Gregory Final approval and acceptance of this thesis is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the thesis to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this thesis prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the Master’s requirement.
    [Show full text]
  • Black Internationalism and African and Caribbean
    BLACK INTERNATIONALISM AND AFRICAN AND CARIBBEAN INTELLECTUALS IN LONDON, 1919-1950 By MARC MATERA A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History Written under the direction of Professor Bonnie G. Smith And approved by _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey May 2008 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Black Internationalism and African and Caribbean Intellectuals in London, 1919-1950 By MARC MATERA Dissertation Director: Bonnie G. Smith During the three decades between the end of World War I and 1950, African and West Indian scholars, professionals, university students, artists, and political activists in London forged new conceptions of community, reshaped public debates about the nature and goals of British colonialism, and prepared the way for a revolutionary and self-consciously modern African culture. Black intellectuals formed organizations that became homes away from home and centers of cultural mixture and intellectual debate, and launched publications that served as new means of voicing social commentary and political dissent. These black associations developed within an atmosphere characterized by a variety of internationalisms, including pan-ethnic movements, feminism, communism, and the socialist internationalism ascendant within the British Left after World War I. The intellectual and political context of London and the types of sociability that these groups fostered gave rise to a range of black internationalist activity and new regional imaginaries in the form of a West Indian Federation and a United West Africa that shaped the goals of anticolonialism before 1950.
    [Show full text]
  • The Architecture of International Organizations 1922-•1952
    Leiden Journal of International Law (2021), 34, pp. 1–22 doi:10.1017/S092215652000059X ORIGINAL ARTICLE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL THEORY Designing for international law: The architecture of international organizations 1922–1952 Miriam Bak McKenna* Lund University, Faculty of Law, Lilla Gråbrödersgatan 4, 222 22 Lund, Sweden Email: [email protected] Abstract Situating itself in current debates over the international legal archive, this article delves into the material and conceptual implications of architecture for international law. To do so I trace the architectural devel- opments of international law’s organizational and administrative spaces during the early to mid twentieth century. These architectural endeavours unfolded in three main stages: the years 1922–1926, during which the International Labour Organization (ILO) building, the first building exclusively designed for an inter- national organization was constructed; the years 1927–1937 which saw the great polemic between mod- ernist and classical architects over the building of the Palace of Nations; and the years 1947–1952, with the triumph of modernism, represented by the UN Headquarters in New York. These events provide an illu- minating allegorical insight into the physical manifestation, modes of self-expression, and transformation of international law during this era, particularly the relationship between international law and the func- tion and role of international organizations. Keywords: architecture; historiography; international law; law and aesthetics; legal materiality 1. Introduction ‘When we make a building for the UN’, noted Oscar Niemeyer in 1947, we must have in mind what is the UN? It is an organization to set the nations of the world in a common direction and gives to the world security.
    [Show full text]
  • The League of Nations in the 1930S
    The League of Nations in the 1930s This is a transcript of The League of Nations in the 1930s podcast from www.mrallsophistory.com While my last podcast considered the League of Nations in the 1920s, we could argue that the League’s problems and ultimate failure in the 1930s stems from the last major world event of the 20s. Due to the Wall Street crash, the world was plunged into huge economic depression which ultimately led to strained relations between countries as they tried to survive at all costs. While the 1920s saw presented a mix of both success and failure for the League of Nations, the 1930s arguably saw its complete collapse. The first failure of the League in the 1930s was a dispute over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. In an attempt to overcome the effects of the worldwide depression, Japan took over this area of China after claiming Chinese aggression against their railway there. In response, China asked the League of Nations for help, as specified in the Covenant of the League. The first problem with the League’s response to Manchuria was that it took their representative, Lord Lytton, over a year to reach a judgement. This delay showed their inefficiency at responding to crises, and when they finally did reach a judgement in February 1933 by ordering Japan to leave Manchuria the Japanese refused. As a result of not liking the decision, Japan left the League instead and stayed in Manchuria! The League was left in a precarious situation. Britain and France, the leading powers within the League, were reluctant to impose trade sanctions or even a ban on weapons for fear of further damaging their own economies by losing valuable trade.
    [Show full text]
  • The Interest of States in Accountability for Sexual Violence in Armed
    Military Self-Interest in Accountability for Core International Crimes Morten Bergsmo and SONG Tianying (editors) PURL: http://www.legal-tools.org/doc/08dd00/ E-Offprint: Kiki Anastasia Japutra, “The Interest of States in Accountability for Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts: A Case Study of Comfort Women of the Second World War”, in Morten Bergsmo and SONG Tianying (editors), Military Self-Interest in Accountability for Core International Crimes, FICHL Publication Series No. 25 (2015), Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, Brussels, ISBN 978-82-93081-81-4. First published on 29 May 2015. This publication and other TOAEP publications may be openly accessed and downloaded through the website www.fichl.org. This site uses Persistent URLs (PURL) for all publications it makes available. The URLs of these publications will not be changed. Printed copies may be ordered through online distributors such as www.amazon.co.uk. © Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2015. All rights are reserved. PURL: http://www.legal-tools.org/doc/08dd00/ 10 ______ The Interest of States in Accountability for Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts: A Case Study of Comfort Women of the Second World War Kiki Anastasia Japutra* The term ‘comfort women’ or ianfu (also jugun ianfu or military comfort women) refers to hundreds of thousands of women recruited to serve the Japanese military as sex workers during the Second World War.1 An es- timated 80 per cent were Koreans while the rest comprised women from China, Southeast Asia, Taiwan and the Pacific region. To facilitate this practice, military installations known as so-called comfort stations were established all over Asia, in territories where Japanese troops were de- ployed.
    [Show full text]
  • Timeline for World War II — Japan
    Unit 5: Crisis and Change Lesson F: The Failure of Democracy and Return of War Student Resource: Timeline for World War II — Japan Timeline for World War II — Japan Pre-1920: • 1853: American Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Tokyo harbor and forced the Japanese to allow trade with U.S. merchants with threat of military action. • 1858: Western nations forced Japan to sign the Unequal Treaties. These articles established export and import tariffs and the concept of "extraterritoriality" (i.e., Japan held no jurisdiction over foreign criminals in its land. Their trials were to be conducted by foreign judges under their own nation's laws). Japan had no power to change these terms. • 1868: Japan, in an effort to modernize and prevent future Western dominance, ousted the Tokugawa Shogunate and adopted a new Meiji Emperor. The next few decades saw rapid and successful industrialization during the Meiji Restoration. • 1899: With newly gained power from recent industrialization, Japan successfully renegotiated aspects of the Unequal Treaties. • 1899–1901: The Boxer Rebellion led China to a humiliating defeat by the Eight-Nation Alliance of Western powers including the United States and Japan, ceding more territory, and dealing one of the final blows to the struggling Qing Dynasty. • 1904–1905: The Russo-Japanese War began with a surprise attack and ended by an eventual Japanese victory over Imperial Russia. The Japanese took control of Korea. • 1914: During World War I, Japan and other Allies seized German colonial possessions. • 1919: Japan, as a member of the victorious Allies during World War I, gained a mandate over various Pacific islands previously part of the German colonial empire.
    [Show full text]
  • The World War Two Allied Economic Warfare: the Case of Turkish Chrome Sales
    The World War Two Allied Economic Warfare: The Case of Turkish Chrome Sales Inaugural-Dissertation in der Philosophischen Fakultät und Fachbereich Theologie der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen Nürnberg Vorgelegt von Murat Önsoy Aus der Türkei D29 Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 15 April 2009 Dekan: Universitätsprofessor Dr. Jens Kulenkampff. Erstgutachter: Universitätsprofessor Dr. Thomas Philipp Zweitgutachter: Universitätsprofessor Dr. Şefik Alp Bahadır ACKNOWLEDGMENTS An interesting coincidence took place in the first year of my PhD study, I would like to share it here. Soon after I moved to Erlangen, I started thinking over my PhD thesis topic. I was searching for an appropriate subject. Turkish Chrome Sales was one of the few topics that I had in my mind. One day, I went to my Doktorvater Prof. Thomas Philipp’s office and discussed the topics with him. We decided to postpone the decision a few days while I wanted to consider the topics one last time and do the final elimination. Afterwards I went to the cafeteria of the Friedrich Alexander University to have lunch. After the lunch, just before I left the cafeteria building, I recognized somebody speaking Turkish and reflexively turned around. He was a Turkish guest worker with a large thick moustache; I paid attention to his name tag for a second. His name was Krom, the Turkish word for chrome, since, for the first time in my life I was meeting someone with the name Krom I asked him about his name. Perhaps he is the only person with this name in Turkey. He told me that, this name was given by his father, who was a worker of a chrome mine in Central Anatolia and that day, when Mr.
    [Show full text]
  • Sov Presence in the UN Secretariat May 1985.P65
    99th Congress COMMITTEE PRINT S. Prt. lst Session 99-52 SOVIET PRESENCE IN THE U.N. SECRETARIAT REPORT OF THE SENATE SELECT COMMITTEE ON INTELLIGENCE UNITED STATES SENATE MAY 1985 Printed for the use of the Select Committee on Intelligence U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 47-800 O WASHINGTON: 1985 SENATE SELECT COMMITTEE ON INTELLIGENCE [Established by S. Res. 400, 94th Cong., 2d Sess.] DAVE DURENBERGER, Minnesota, Chairman PATRICK J. LEAHY, Vermont, Vice Chairman WILLIAM V. ROTH, JR., Delaware LLOYD BENTSEN, Texas WILLIAM S. COHEN, Maine SAM NUNN, Georgia ORRIN HATCH, Utah THOMAS F. EAGLETON, Missouri FRANK MURKOWSKI, Alaska ERNEST F. HOLLINGS, South Carolina ARLEN SPECTER, Pennsylvania DAVID L. BOREN, Oklahoma CHIC HECHT, Nevada BILL BRADLEY, New Jersey MITCH McCONNELL, Kentucky ROBERT DOLE, Kansas, Ex Officio ROBERT C. BYRD, West Virginia, Ex Officio BERNARD F. MCMAHON, Staff.Director ERIC D. NEWSOM, Minority Staff Director DORTHEA ROBERSON, Clerk (II) SOVIET PRESENCE IN THE UN SECRETARIAT1 SUMMARY The Soviet Union is effectively using the UN Secretariat in the conduct of its foreign relations, and the West is paying for most of it. The 800 Soviets assigned to the United Nations as international civil servants report directly to the Soviet missions and are part of an -organization managed by the Soviet Foreign Ministry, intelligence services, and the Central Committee of the Communist Party. The Soviets have gained significant advantage over the West through their compre- hensive approach to the strategy and tactics of, personnel placement and their detailed plans for using the United Nations to achieve Soviet foreign policy and intelligence objectives. Soviet and Eastern Bloc personnel use their positions to promote a broad range of foreign policy objectives in the United Nations and its specialized agencies.
    [Show full text]