Bibliography

Concerning the Mru, very little has been published; publi• Bernot, L. I967. Les Cak, contribution a l'etude ethnolo• cations containing interesting primary data are marked by gique d'une population de Iangue loi. Paris. an asteric. Due to the political situation, reports on the Bernot, L. I967. Les Paysans Arakanais du Pakistan Grien• in general were multiplying during tal. L'histoire, le monde vegetal et l' organisation sociale the last years; here the bibliography is far from exhaustive; des refugies Marma (Mog). Paris/La Haye. but all important older sources (in European languages) on *Bessaignet, P. I95 8. Tribesmen of the Chittagong Hili the ethnography of the hill tribes have been listed. Tracts. (Asiatic Society ofPakistan Publications I). Dac• ca. Abdus Sattar. I97L In the Sylvan Shadows. . *Brauns, C.-D. I973· 'The Mrus, peaceful hillfolk of Bang• Aggavamsa Mahathera. I98r. Stop Genocide in Chittagong ladesh'. National Geographie Magazine I43,2: 267-286. Hill Tracts (). Calcutta. *Brauns, C.-D. I977· 'Das glückliche Leben der Mru'. Ahmad, N. I958. An Economic Geography of East Paki• GEO-Magazin 3: 58-76. stan. London. *Brauns, C.-D. 1983. 'Les stirpe dei uomini fiori'. Airone Ahmad, N./Rizvi, A.I.H. I95 r. 'Need for the Development 23: 86-Ior. of Chittagong Hill Tracts'. Pakistan Geographie Burger, J. and Whittacker, A. (ed. ). I 984. The Chittagong Review 6,2: I9-24. Hili Tracts - Militarization, Oppression, and the Hili Amano, Toshitake (ed.) s.a. The Hillmen ofthe Chittagong Tribes. (Indigenous Peoples and Development Series 2). Hili Tracts in . (Report of the Scientific London: Anti-Slavery Society. Mission of Osaka University to East Pakistan I964). Census of Pakistan, I96r. District Census Report Chitta• Osaka. gong Hill Tracts. Amnesty International. I986. Bangladesh. Unlawful Kill• FORESTAL. I966. Chittagong Hili Tracts Soil and Land ings and Torture in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. London Use Survey I964-I966. 9 vols. Vancouver. *Ba Myaing, U. I934· 'The Northern Hills of Ponnagyun Government of British IndiajPakistanjBangladesh. The Township'. Journal of the Burma Research Society 24: Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulations I9oo (I of I9oo). (Re• I27-I48. issued several times with new amendments, but difficult *Ba Thin, U. I93 r. 'The Awa Kharnis, Ahraing Khamis, to locate and retrieve). and Mros in the Chin Hili Area (Saingdin) Buthidaung Grierson, G.A. (ed). I904. Linguistic Survey oflndia, III 3· Township'. Census oflndia I93I, vol.II,I: 248-256 Calcutta. Bangladesh Groep Nederland. I 98 r. Moord op Minderhe• Henes, U. I 98 I. The Secret War in Bangladesh. (Interna• den in Bangladesh. Chittagong Hill Tracts. Amsterdam tional Fellowship of Reconciliation, Report). Alkmaar. Bangladesh Groep Nederland. I988. 'Bangladesh: Refugees Hughes, W.G. I88r. The Hill Tracts of Arakan. Rangoon. from an unknown war. Bangladeshi tribals in .' Hunter, W. W. I 876. A Statistical Account of , IWGIA Newsletter 53/54: 33-p Vol. 6. London. *Belitz, Harry. I987. 'Im Schatten des Waldes. Naturvölker Huq, M. M. I982. Government Institutionsand Underdeve• in Bangladesh.' Delta I: p-43. München. lopment. A Study of the Tribai Peoples of Chittagong Bernot, D. I 9 58. 'Rapports phonetiques entre le dialecte Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Birmingham. marma et le birman'. Bulletin de la Societe *Hutchinson, R. H. S. I 906. An Account of the Chittagong Linguistique 53: 273-294. Hill Tracts. Calcutta. Bernot, D. I 960. 'Deux lettres du vice-roi d' Arakan au sujet *Hutchinson, R. H. S. I909. Chittagong Hill Tracts. (East• du rebelle King-Bering'. T'oung Pao 47: 395-422. ern Bengal and District Gazetteers). Allahabad. Bernot, D. and L. I95 7· 'Chittagong Hill Tribes'. In: Jana Samhati Samiti. I987. Persecution of Human Rights in S. Maron (ed.), Pakistan Society and Culture, 46-6r. Chittagong Hill Tracts. s.l. (Chittagong Hili Tracts). New Haven. I

Glossary of Terms related to the Administrative Structure

Cross references are marked with *

Chief British designation for the *raja under the principle Karbari: (Bangla) 'manager'- head of a hamlet, informally of indirect rule. The Chiefs were authorized to adjudi• elected by the villagers and acknowledged by the ad• cate in triballegal matters and to nominate the *head• ministration; responsible to deliver the field taxes to men of the *mouzas within their respective *Circles. the *headman; has no official power or authority and For his services a Chief was entitled to keep a quarter receives no renumeration for services rendered. of all field taxes collected by the *headmen. Their Mouza: (Bangla) smallest regional unit of fiscal administra• rights were abolished in I 98 I, but revived in I 989. tion; in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, under the authori• Circle: a territory whose inhabitants were placed by the ty of a *headman; conceived of as the equivalent of British (I873) under the subordination of a *Chief. In the 'village' on the , but normally made up of I 892 the borders of the Circles were definitively several small, independent villages (hamlets) admin• drawn, and in the following years the three Circles, istratively united irrespective of ethnic composition. which were named after the Chakma, Bohmong, and Raja: (Bangla) name of the traditional head of the Chakma, Mong Chiefs, were divided into *mouzas. Between the Marma, and the Tippera; as *Chiefs, entrusted by I89I and I9oo the Chittagong Hill Tracts temporarily the British with the collection of taxes and the adjudi• had the status of a Subdivision; after they were re• cation of minor legal matters among the indigenous elevated to the district level, they were again in 1919 population of a *Circle; places of residence ("rajbad') subdivided into three areas roughly corresponding to in Rangamati (Chakma), Banderban (Bohmong) and the Circles. These *Subdivisions were named after the Manikchori (Mong). three administrative centers, Rangamati, Banderban, Ruatsa: (Burman) "village-eater" (in English literature, and Ramgor; and each was placed under the jurisdic• generally written 'Roaja' and described as *headman); tion of a Subdivisional Officer of the colonial adminis• old term for the tax collectors subordinate to the Mar• tration. When the political power and rights of the ma *rqja (Bohmong); in the meantime, however, only *Chiefs were clone away with in 1981, the Circles were a title (devoid of function) which the Bohmong con• likewise abolished; and the Subdivisions were elevated fers- for a fee- on the *headmen and the *karbari. to Districts (now known as Rangamati, Banderban, Subdivision: cf. *Circle and Khagrachori District). Superintendent: 1860-1867 and 1900-1919, the title ofthe Depu(y Commissioner: cf. *Superintendent highest administrative official of the Chittagong Hill District: cf. *Circle Tracts; between 1867 and 1891, and since 1920, title Headman: originally an English term for a dewan of the replaced by "Deputy Commissioner"; since the former Chakma or a ruatsa of the Marma who was subordi• Superintendent also commanded the police force, the nate to the *raja; from 1892 on, the indigenous head termstill designates the highest police official ("Super• of a mouza, appointed by the *Superintendent (Deputy intendent of Police"). The office of the Deputy Com• Commissioner) upon the recommendation of the missioner was split into three with the upgrading of *Chief. He is responsible for the keeping of tax lists, the former *Subdivisions to Districts; in 1989 the the handing over of field taxes to the *Chief (part of Deputy Commissioners formally ceased to be the which he is allowed to keep for himself), and the administrative heads of the Districts, becoming rather upholding of order. In legal matters, the headman is the ex-officio secretaries (still appointed by the govern• empowered to adjudicate in disputes according to cus• ment) of the newly instituted local councils. tomary law. The position of headman is often taken 247 over by the headman's son. Glossary of Mru Terms

Mru is a tonallanguage; however, no indication of the offering places, performed on specific occasions only: tones is given. k, t, and p arenot aspirated (they are pro• harvests, funerals and cattle feasts; for young people nounced approximately as in French); wherever an aspira• !arger cattle ceremonies are the only occasions for tion occurs, I write kh, th, ph (ph is, therefore, not spoken dancing like /f/), and tsh (often spoken like jhs/); r is always rolled; plong-rau: lovesickness, lit. "livcr pain" y and w are pronounced as in English; vowels have the plung: a wind instrument, so-called cheng or mouth organ Italian quality, but e and o are always open (e, therefore, (not to be mistaken for the harmonica); of various like the German jäj). In addition, Mru has two vowels for types, all consisting of a number of pipes inscrted in which we have no signs: I use ö and ü to indicate these two rows into a gourd bottle; similar instruments are vowel sounds. Like o and u one forms them in the back of to be found in Thailand, Laos, and southern China, as the mouth cavity, but without rounding the lips. weil as with the Dayak of Bornco. sra: (word borrowed from Burman) mastcr of certain activ• bong-kom: the ceremony of binding (kom) a thread around ities, usually in the area of religion the right wrist (bong) of all family members tai-nau: older (tat) and younger (nau) siblings of thc same hom-noi: a mixture of water and cooked rice (hom); serves sex; in a broader sense, also the members of clans as a substitute for beer on ceremonial occasions which are considered to be in sibling relationship kimma: literally "main house;" the smaller room of the tsar: open platform of the village house or ficld house house which serves as a bedroom for the married cou• tu: single-pipe, gourd mouth. organ; according to the dic• ple and small children; also used as a storeroom for tates of certain poetic verses, a set of three tu is blown possessions and food supplies; off-limits for strangers for funerals and !arger cattle feasts; used also as a cere• kim-tom: the !arger room of the house; common living monial item on other festive occasions, although it is room where the family cooks and eats, and where not played tools are kept; sleeping quarters for the older children; tur-tut: ritual spot on a slashed and burnt field; here field room in which guests are accommodated cultivation is begun and sacrificcs arc offered klai-puk: a standing basket of the smaller type, without a tutma: "ancestors" from thc female point of view; Iid; used daily and in ceremonies members of the wife-givers' clans, particularly a man's köm-pot: small portions of food wrapped in pieces of mother's brother or a man's father-in-law leaves which are offered to the spirits tshai-ria: in former times thc chicftain of an important clan kua: hamlet, settlement with the southcrn Mru groups long: a length of bamboo; a verse of poetry (sung or played tshüng-nam: spiritual beings who control the traditional on an instrument) order of life in the hills; they are called upon to parti• meng: song; a modern, short piece of sung poetry or a cipate in feasts and to partake of sacrifices in case of long, traditional bailad illness pen: "descendants" from the female point of view; üa: swidden; field under slash-and-burn cultivation members of the wife-takers' clans, particularly a man's wak: a corpse sister's son or a man's son-in-law wan-klai: woman's skirt, consisting of a double layer of plai: dance, in particular the ritual circumambulations of homespun material ro inchcs wide

Pietute Credits

All maps, as weil as the following pictures and drawings, The pictures on pages 3 I, 32 left, and I 88 are taken from are by L. G. Löffler: Pages 6, 28, 30 right, 35 left, 38 publications of A. B. Rajput; thosc on pages 3 3 right and right, 6 3 above, 64 right, 68, 69 above, 8 5, I I I, I I 3, I I 6 39 were published by institutions of the Government of left, I q, I I 8, I I 9 below, I 20 below, I 2 I below, I 27 right, Bangladesh. J3I, 135, I43 left, I7o, J7I, I72, I76, I82, I83, I84, I89, All other photographs and drawings are by Claus-Dieter I92 above right, I93 right, I94 below, I95 above, I96, Brauns. His drawings on pages 74/75, q8/39, I40, I8o/8r, I97, I99, 227 above, 229, 2pleft, 233 right, 234 above, and 2 32 below, as weil as the reproduction on page I3 6 236, 237, 239. The same author also supplied the photo• below, are based on photographs of objects collected by graphstaken by H. Löffler-Wolf (pp. 33 left, I I4 above), L. G. Löffler in I964 for the Linden-Museum (Staatliches A. Mey (p. 32 right), H. J. Spielmann (p. 3 5 right), and J. Museum für Völkerkunde), Stuttgart. These photographs P. Mills (p. 24), as weil as those taken by H. E. Kauffmann were kindly made available by the museum. Thc drawing and published by courtesy of the Institut für Völkerkunde, on page I93 above left and the reproduction on page I36 University of Munich, on pages 30 left, 34 right, I 37, 226, above are based on objects in the private collection of 234 below. L. G. Löffler. Additional material from Mru Hill People on the Border of Bangladesh, 978-3-0348-5696-6, is available at http://extras.springer.com