Volume 42, Number 1 January 1971 Field Museum of Natural History
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BULLETIN
Volume 42, Number 1 January 1971
2 The Primitive Basis of Our Calendar Van L. Johnson a study of the Roman calendar explains why our present calendar Is In Its current form
8 Tapa Cloth W. Peyton Fawcett a generous gift of a catalogue of tapa cloth specimens is described
1 Space Biology and the Murchison IMeteorite Dr. Edward J. Olsen a recent discovery of amino acids in meteorites is discussed
1 2 Portrait of a Naturalist-Explorer Joyce Zibro Dr. Emmet R. Blake, curator of birds, is profiled 17 New Books
18 Letters
19 Field Briefs
Calendar
Cover: reproduction of a specimen of tapa cloth) from A Catalogue of the Difterent Specimens of Clotti Collected in the Three of \ Voyages Captain Cook, to the Southern \ Hemisphere.
Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber
Editor Joyce Zibro: Associate Editor Victoria Haider: Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker: Photograptiy John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans.
The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, Illinois, 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year: $3 a year for sctiools. Members of the Museum subscribe througti Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at Second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605.
Bulletin January 1971 The Primitive Basis of Our Calendar Van L Johnson
Bulletin January 1971 Why does the year begin on January or Roman weekday system first led me cycle—a term which means that the first? Why are there twelve months in to assume the existence in primitive cycle is completed and begins again a year and why is the twelfth month times of this four-month year. Yet its every time the two intervals in question December when its very name means existence can be detected quite simply coincide: this would have been on "tenth month"? Why does a week have in our present names for the months: March first in the four-month year under seven days, a day twenty-four hours, December, our twelfth month, really discussion. However, the focal point in an hour sixty minutes? A study of the means "the tenth month," and this each month was not the Kalends as Roman calendar can lead to answers to count goes back in an orderly way to the first day, but the Ides or "Divider" questions like these and uncovers September, our ninth month, which which always came sixteen days before the primitive basis of our calendar, an really means the "seventh month." We the end of the month, because half of institution that has become a silent know too that August and July, our thirty on the duodecimal system used dictator of our life's pace in so-called eighth and seventh months, were by the Romans in computing fractions is civilized times. originally the "sixth" and "fifth" months not fifteen, but sixteen. (Sextilis and Quintilis) renamed in still the calendar The Ides of March was We are using Roman honor of Augustus and Julius Caesar in particularly after the first except for minor changes made their own lifetime. All this implies that prominent because March was Caesar's reform in 45 B.C. This is rather month. In a month it must the year once began with March, that thirty-day the have fallen on the fourteenth of the remarkable considering revolutionary January and February were added at day changes made in the calendar up to some time to a ten-month calendar, and month and on the sixth day of a Roman Caesar's time. A of the week. The Ides was study origins that there was an original cluster of eight-day of our calendar faces the obstacle that celebrated as New Year's with four named months—March, April, May Day the Roman calendar was not published and June—to which six numbered great festivities for Anna Perenna, the until 304 B.C. and the oldest extant months were added to form the "Unending Year-Cycle." Festivals like that of Antium, back this were known as feriae, so that the calendar, goes only ten-month year. to sometime in the early first century Ides of March is a ferial day or, as of four B.C. However, evidence for the primitive It appears that this cluster abbreviated in Latin, an F-day. The Ides was an calendar does exist, for the Roman named months actually original was also, I think, a nundinal or three four-month calendar was basically a list of festivals, four-month year. Since market-day, for the great fair in honor one anniversaries and annotations which years would just about complete of Feronia, the market deity, would the best included matter of great antiquity. solar year this was probably have fallen on this day in a four-month Also, the Romans, great conservatives calendar the Romans possessed and year. Moreover, all other market days until Caesar's reform of the especially in their religious concerns, used were reckoned progressively from this in B.C. For most often preserved what they no longer calendar 45 primitive date, so that all fell on the sixth day of a the understood and primitive elements peoples, the sun measures only Roman week and the earliest calendar and the with its distinctive persisted—thanks to this conservatism day; moon, was probably simply a list of these is the first of — in most of the great festivals still phases measurement nundinae. They were also festival or celebrated in Imperial times. Through a periods beyond that. In addition, ferial days for the first recognized often market study of these obsolete factors primitive people designate divinities, so that these days were when to preserved in the written calendars and days (the days they gathered labeled F. Other days of the week, if with intervals the later festivals, we are able to exchange goods) regular they had to be identified, were simply seem reconstruct the earlier history of the between them. The early Romans referred to by the remaining letters of calendar and to form some notion about to have followed this pattern and a the alphabet from A-H. what lies hidden in the prehistoric four-month year may be their attempt as to darkness from which the calendar to combine a thirty-day lunation with an Days of the month, opposed Their market of the week, were numbered, I emerged. eight-day market-week. days days were called nundinae or "ninth believe, by counting up to and down In research of this kind, complete days," but this means "eight days" by from the Ides: two vestiges of this
is but I certainty usually impossible, our mode of reckoning which is not practice survive in the name "Nones"
believe that I have found a clue major inclusive like the Roman. The meshing for the ninth, i.e., the eighth day before to the solution of of many perplexing of these two time-units—thirty and the Ides, and in the name a festival, an unrecorded to problems: namely, eight—could be soonest accomplished the Quinquatrus which seems mean four-month A of the nundinal fifth of year. study in four months of thirty days each, i.e., the day after the Ides March. a year or cycle—that is what the Latin This practice was abandoned in later This is a Iragment ot the calendar of word for year, annus, seems to calendars when the Nones and the Praeneste lor the beginning ot Inarch. mean—of 120 days. This is what Kalends became reference points in Fragments ol this calendar have been call with the Ides. coming to light since the litteenth century. anthropologists a permutation counting, along
Bulletin January 1971 3 Calendar
The primitive calendar was a permanent of Mars in the festivals of this primitive This new year of ten lunations, or 300 calendar, of course—something which March; and June, if named for Juno by days, corresponding roughly to the calendar reformers are again striving Latin peoples, would have been called gestation period in cattle and in human for—since a new year began Junonius, not Junius. The first of June beings, was augmented by four days automatically whenever the first day of was always known not as the Kalends to give a multiple of eight for the total the week and the first day of the month of June but as Kalendae Fabariae, the number of days in a year, 304, so that coincided. The permanent nature of the "Kalends of the Bean" and here, I the eight-day week would still mesh calendar is nicely illustrated in think, we have a vestige of the earlier with months. These four extra days a phrase which runs through ancient month-name, Fabarius, the month of were added, one each, to the months literature on the subject, the annus the "bean," a staple diet for hogs in — of March, May, July and October which vertens or "turning year." Commentators early Italy. The month we call Marchi continued throughout Roman history to have seen a reference to the turning because the Romans named it Martius have their Ides or full moon reckoned heavens and other celestial matters; later on when the cult of Mars was on the basis of a 31 -day month. but at a primitive level, it must have introduced—may have received its Since the months now varied in their meant something more recognizably original name, Caprotinus, from a very number of it was to physical, and I suspect that it refers to important festival which later was days, necessary a of which actual four-sided stone calendars with attached to July and appears there in inaugurate system dating indicated one month on each side. These were all the extant Roman calendars as how many days there were in the month at hand. The Nones was no doubt turned, perhaps on a pivot, to Nonae Caprotinae, the Caprotine made a of and face the viewer as the months changed. Nones. In a four-month year this would point reckoning, the Kalends was introduced to "call" the I would think that we have relics of have been the Nones of what we call Nones. these in the four-sided rustic month- March. This illustrates how festivals or When the Nones took on this
new for it counters, the menologia rustics, which parts of festivals were dispersed over importance dating, was to it carried a twelve-month calendar with an ultimate twelve-month year—an necessary distinguish carefully from "nundinae" a word which means three months on each side. These important phenomenon in the study of the same as "ninth stones—of Imperial date—have been the calendar. For example, if we exactly thing Nones, days," because there was one regarded as seasonal calendars, but identify the Caprotine Nones as only Nones in a month whereas there that is an odd seasonal arrangement originally the Nones of March, it is might be three or four "nundinae" in the of months for Italy. They are more likely concurrent with some interesting rites same Hence the reformer was an adaptation of an earlier four-month for Vediovis, a god usually described period. in a nundinal calendar. as a youthful Jove to whom a capra scrupulous avoiding Nones and later confirmed was sacrificed. Capra is the root of superstition If this four-month effort we analyze calendar, Caprotina and in developed Latin his by suggesting that a nundinal
it and the rituals it Nones was The force of this the units contained means "goat," so Nonae Caprotinae is unlucky. embraced, we can form a clear picture usually translated "Nones of the Goat." scruple explains why "Romulus" added
it served and the a to alternate months until he of the community But we can go even further than this, day got to he economy it reflected. The eight-day for capra is the cognate of a Greek September; skipped September and to market-week probably reflects the word kapros which means either "sow" added a day October because in would length of time it took (eight days) to or "boar" and accounts perhaps for thirty-one days September — have produced a nundinal Nones. process goat cheese in ancient Italy. the name of the island of Capri The length of the year, 120 days, irreverent thought! Since both words Numa, the second king of Rome, is matches the gestation period of the pig. are also related to Latin aper (boar), credited with instituting the first lunar Two of the primitive month-names, with a "k" prefix, it is probable that year by adding fifty days to the April and May, I would derive from capra in Latin originally referred to a calendar of Romulus. To equalize the aper "boar" and from maia, sow and not to a Therefore meaning she-goat. distribution of 354 days over twelve tRe name of a which I think the month of is another goddess Caprotinus months, he subtracted one day from means "sow." Maia is certainly related month named for the pig, and all four each of the thirty-day months, added to malalis, the Latin word for a gelding months of the primitive contain some these to his new fifty days and divided boar, and its derivative maiale which is reference to this animal or its food. the sum, 56, into two new months of still the Italian word for The "pig." twenty-eight days each: January and of this sow or maia was To the four months, six quality original February. maiestas, so after all, "majesty" turns months, simply numbered from five to out to be only "pigness." March and ten—Quintilis, Sextilis, September, Since fifty-six is a multiple of eight, June, in myopinion, were not so named October, November and December— both January 1 and March 1 were in the beginning, for there is no trace were added, tradition says, by Romulus. A-days (first days of a Roman week)
Bulletin January 1971 DC
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This is the fragmentary calendar ot Antium discovered in 1915 by the Italian scholar G. Mancini. This inscription records the oldest extant Roman calendar unearthed to date. The thirteen months is represented by a column with the abbreviations tor the name ol the month at the top, and includes the intercalary month. The first column of letters under each month indicates the eight days of the Roman weefc lettered from A to H. The second column of letters abbreviates the legal status of certain days and the abbreviated words indicate the dates ol festivals or dedications.
Bulletin January 1971 Calendar in the first year of this reform; but to keep them so, since 354 is not a multiple of eight, it was necessary to add days to one week toward the end of the year. This was accomplished, I believe, by lettering three days, namely December 17-19, all as F-days. This was done by instituting the Saturnalia on December 17 and connecting its ferial functions with those of the Opalia on December 19. Thus a tradition for a three-day Saturnalia developed and we find the real origins of intercalation in this very simple device to make the year end with an H-day (the last day of a Roman week). Meanwhile, the reformer neatly contrived to leave it an open question as to when the year really began. March first was still an A-day, but so was January first.
Reforms, however, can be over- ingenious and that proved to be the case with the calendar of Numa. The intercalation was immediately neglected or misunderstood or even resented (since January first had no sanctity as an A-day) and people went right on lettering December 17-19 in the normal way. This produced a nundinal Nones in January—or would have done so if new measures had not been taken. The same reformer, or a new one whom I label Numa II, found a solution by During the Republic, intercalation came observations; then, on January 1, 45 adding a day to January; thus removing to be used for a different purpose: to B.C. he introduced a solar calendar of the Nones from its unlucky nundinal bring the lunar year into accord with 365y4 days: the fourth parts were position and giving the year 355 days, the solar year of 365 or 366 days. An allowed to accumulate and produce a a number achieved in this simple way intercalary month of twenty-two or year of 366 days once every four years. and not because of any superstition twenty-three days, called Mercedonius, To achieve the ten new days of a against even numbers (the ancient was added in alternate years after normal year (365 minus 355), Caesar explanation). But 355 is not a multiple February 23, the day of the Terminalia, added two days each to January, of eight either, so a new method of and the last five days of February were August and December, one day each to intercalation had to be devised. This absorbed as the last five days of April, June, September and November; consisted of adding five days to the Mercedonius, a vestige of Numa's five and the extra day for leap years was calendar between February 23 and 24, unnumbered days. This device was so inserted after February 23 as February all lettered in the normal way, but this often neglected, however, or corrupted 24 repeated, i.e., bissextilis the "twice time unnumbered. Here we have the by priestly or political abuses that the sixth-day" before the first of March. origin of two interesting festivals, the calendar had very little relation to the So it is we speak of a bisextile year. Terminalia of February 23 and the sun's course when Julius Caesar and his Regiiugium of February 24, as well as learned adviser, Sosigenes, introduced Caesar's calendar was eleven minutes, the origin of intercalating at this point those reforms which are still the basis fourteen seconds too long, so Pope in the calendar. March 1 thus resumed of our calendar. Caesar first extended Gregory made a slight adjustment in its old sanctity as the one true New the year 46 B.C. to 445 days, thus 1582 A.D., dropping ten excessive Year's Day and remained so for some bringing the old calendar into days at once and stipulating that leap purposes down to 153 B.C. agreement with astronomical year be observed in centesimal years
Bulletin January 1971 only when they are divisible by 400. of the third day, and so on until each sixty minutes is the result of Hellenistic These corrections were not accepted "planet" has been associated with that computations worked out o« the in Great Britain and the American day of which it marks the tirst hour. sexagesimal system first devised by the colonies until 1752 A.D. Thus the seven "planets" name the Babylonians about 1800 to 1600 B.C. seven days of the week in this order: Thus the sixty-minute hour, the twenty- The seven-day planetary week was not Saturn, Sol, Luna, Mars, Mercury, four hour day, the seven-day week, the common in Rome or the West until the Jupiter and Venus. In this sequence twelve-month year—all represerU third century of our era although it these seven celestial bodies still name, centuries of development from a appears to have existed alongside the with minor exceptions, the seven days primitive mixture of superstition and Roman eight-day week in a Sabine of our week; French preserved the acute observation to the system now calendar in the first century after Christ. Latin names while German and English ta4 Bulletin January 1971 The Museum has received with the greatest pleasure another gift from Mrs. E. W. Fuller of Sussex, a rare and interesting book titled A Catalogue of the Different Specimens of Cloth Collected in the Three Voyages of Captain Cook, to the Southern Hemisphere. This volume, from the library of Mrs. Fuller's late husband Captain A. W. F. Fuller, is one of the curiosities of literature and is of great ethnological, artistic, and historical value. It is a most welcome addition to the Library's collections. The volume was published in the year 1787 in London and is illustrated with actual samples of the tapa or bark cloth collected by Cook and his companions during that great explorer's three voyages. The text is brief, consisting of some observations on the manufacture of bark cloth in Polynesia, and chiefly taken from the journals of Cook, Anderson, and John Reinhold Forster. Appended to this are "the verbal Account of some of the most knowing of the Navigators" and "Some anecdotes that happened to them among the Natives" in the form of notes on the items listed. Oddly enough the author is not known and his dedication, in vigorous, picturesque, and charming English, is to a person not named: Sir, these are only select specimens for a IV. Fawcett I Cloth Peyton few friends, but if was capable to give the Tapa a of the manner of public particular account manufacturing cloth in every part of the world, I would not hesitate one moment to dedicate it to you, as there is none more ready to feed the hungry and clothe the naked: would to God it was as much in your power as it is in your heart to wipe the tear from every eye, but that is impossible; for while you was teaching Indian nations how to be happy, you was as much wanted at home, where it is our constant wish that Heaven may long presen/e you the support of science, and idol of family and friends . . . Henry Usher Hall, In his description of the copy of this work in the Pennsylvania University Museum ("A Book of Tapa," The Museum Journal, Bulletin January 1971 to this cloth was vol. 12, no. 1, 1921), argues very capable of emotions quite other than The uses which put plausibly that this person is Warren fierce." A good example of this is the were many and varied. Its principal Hastings, the first titular Governor of description of cloth number 34 of the use was for clothing, chiefly in the forni India, whose impeachment was pending list: of loin cloths for men and women, at the time the dedication was written. breech cloths for the men, and mantles From Otaheite [Tahiti], wore as garments by and cloaks for both sexes. It was also the ladies. A number of the natives being Another curious feature is the disparity on board of the Resolution, one of the chiefs an important medium of exchange and between the number of specimens as look a particular liking to an old blunt iron, an element of wealth. As such it was which one of the officer's chests, to visitors as a given in the list and the actual number lay upon presented distinguished and taking hold of a boy about nine years of favor. It had uses of tapa specimens and in their mark also many of age, offered him in exchange, pointing connected with and arrangement. Our copy agrees with religious to the iron. The gentleman, although that in the Pennsylvania University ceremonial occasions. he knew he could not keep the youth, yet Museum in 39 items on the list having willing to see if he would willingly stay; or if but the The Museum owns other pieces of tapa and 43 actual specimens, any of the rest would claim him, took the cloth from the Fuller collection, arrangement seems to differ. Hall notes child and gave the savage the iron; upon one lot of historical that the Peabody Museum of Salem which a woman, who appeared rather young including great significance. Captain Fuller, speaking copy has 56 specimens and a list of for the mother, sprung from the other side of the and with the emotions of it in 1958, said; 39. The copy described by Dr. W. T. ship, highest of grief seemed to bewail the loss of the Brigham in his book on tapa making This is a little collection of seven pieces . . . infant: but the lieutenant, with a true Ka Hana Kapa (Memoirs of the Bernice from I don't know [where]. Some look British took him the hand and spirit, by others look This is the P. Bishop Museum, 3, Honolulu, 1911) Hawaiian, Tahiti[an]. him to her, upon which, after presented in the Fuller it was has 39 actual oldest piece collection; apparently only putting her hands twice upon her head, she a collection made by my great or my specimens, but again the arrangement unbound the roll of cloth which was round great-great grandfather on my father's side, is different. Captain Fuller had her body, and from which this specimen Richard Fuller. It was a little lot kept in a his with others and was cut, and having spread it before him, compared copy microscope box. We used to play with these seized the boy, and jumping into the sea noted that "The printed descriptions pieces when young. There were a great both swam ashore, nor could he ever learn are totally unreliable and have no deal more then. They got lost and smaller whether she was the mother, sister, or relation to the specimens." I should as a result. A wonder any remain. It is relations, and this he lamented the more, as like to remark in passing that Captain inscribed by my grandfather, Richard Fuller, such affection was very seldom seen Fuller was a man who knew his books Jr. of Chichester . . . '0-Tahiti, tapa cloth, among those people. made of the bark of trees brought to and collections intimately and who kept England by Captain Cook.' That being so, it copious and meaningful notes on the number 34 in our volume is Specimen must have been a gift to one of my relatives, provenance, history, peculiarities, and thin of a dark color. very and ivory great grandfather, etc., or one of my great other features of his materials. I have Number 34 in the Brigham copy is uncles—one was a wealthy old chap, and had the of a pleasure cataloguing described as "A thick coarse, ribbed helped to finance Cook, it is not generally number of his books and have much cloth painted in triangular patterns of known. admired the fullness and of his depth orange, red, brown, with black dividing It is that, the researches. The present volume is no lines. So far as the diminutive fitting through generosity and is enriched with a of Mrs. Fuller, these specimens and exception specimen shows the design, it was number of valuable notes. the tapa cloth volume are together gaudy rather than artistic." Hall believes that number 37 of the again. The difficulties in identifying particular Pennsylvania University Museum copy W. Peyton Fawcett is Head Librarian specimens as they stand with the is the same as 34. From the Brigham's at Field Museum. which is not in numbers of the list, any plate in Hall's article it appears that real sense descriptive, are very great; Qur number 11 is the same. the actual specimens are unnumbered. As Hall points out, "The original Of the accounts of the manufacture of compiler's chief concern, apart from bark cloth three are well known and that in the methods of manufacture, the one from an anonymous navigator seems to be with the human interest is rather too long for quotation. evoked through contact by the proxy, so Basically, the manufacturing process, to speak, of their intimate belongings similar to making felt, consists of with the simple people of the South stripping off the bast and soaking, then Seas. It is with a kind of pleased beating it to cause the fibers to surprise that he finds these people interlace and achieve proper thickness. Bulletin January 1971 Space Biology and the Murchison Meteorite Dr. Edward J. Olsen Over the Field Museum has but significant differences. The most past year way (d), and half form the other way (I). acquired over 60% of a new meteorite interesting of these is the group of When, however, the same amino acid which fell on 1969 near called amino acids. Amino September 28, compounds is formed by a living organism the the small town of Australia, acids consist of chains of Murchison, carbon, organism imposes a pattern upon it in about 60 miles north of the of and city hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen atoms. such a way that all the molecules twist Melbourne. the first it was Different internal From very arrangements in only one way. Most organisms clear that Murchison was an constitute the different acids of the produce entirely l-type amino acids, meteorite. Initial research An amino acid chain has an extraordinary group. though some of them produce d-type work, principally at Field Museum and interesting property. Because of the acids. No organism produces half National revealed carbon atoms link to other atoms Argonne Laboratory way l-type and half d-type. it to be what is called a Type II of carbon, hydrogen, etc., an amino In carbonaceous chondrite, of which only acid chain has a twist to it, somewhat the mid 1950's Dr. Stanley L. Miller fourteen exist out of the almost 2000 like a spiral staircase. The spiral can performed an experiment based on an known meteorites. These carbonaceous twist either clockwise (which is called idea conceived by Prof. Harold C. Urey, meteorites are unique in that they d, for dextral), or counter clockwise a Nobel Prize laureate in chemistry. in is contain about 13% water (combined (which called /, for levorotatory). Both were at the University of Chicago some of the minerals that compose at the time. It is known that the earliest Which a amino acid chain them), and 2% to 2.5% carbon, a way given atmosphere of gases surrounding any twists is immaterial, it takes as small portion of which is combined in just planet, including the young Earth, much chemical to form one a large number of different organic energy way four-and-one-half-billion years ago, as compounds. Because of the presence the other. Thus, when a chemist is consisted of the gases methane, some amino acid in the of these organic compounds this group synthesizing ammonia, hydrogen, and water (as the : of meteorites has excited a great deal laboratory chances are 50 50 that opposed to our present atmosphere of molecule will form as a of research activity especially over the any given past 20 years when instrumentation has d-type (or as an l-type). This is exactly A piece of ttie Murchison meteorite tall. This particular piece is about seven inches been that permits extremely how it turns out. With a device called developed long and shows the black fusion crust sensitive examination of them. a polariscope this can be measured around the outside. Part of this crust is with great accuracy and, as predicted, flaked away revealing white mineral tragments scattered in a black matrix. The It has been known for almost a century a laboratory-synthesized amino acid matrix contains organic compounds in small that numerous organic compounds can shows that half the molecules form one amounts. Argonne National Laboratory Photo. be produced without the intervention of any form of living matter. Many of them can be fairly easily synthesized in the laboratory. For some of them there is absolutely no difference between the synthesized compounds and the same compounds that are made biologically. for others, however, there are small. 10 Bulletin January 1971 ANNOUNCING A NEW SUMMER TOUR SCANDINAVIA: REFRESHING LANDS OF FJORDS & MIDNIGHT SUN JUNE 8 - JULY 2, 1971 mainly nitrogen and oxygen). Urey newest of these, Murchison, has been Fjords, outdoor museums, gardens, wiidflowers. birds, archaeological sites, reasoned that simple electrical the object of this search since it fell architecture, design. Linnaeus' gardens, discharge (lightning) in such a primitive late in 1969. great cathedrals, historic palaces, sun in atmosphere could opera, midnight Lappland, produce simple reindeer: Bergen, Oslo, Helsinki. Tapiola, organic compounds that might be In early December 1970 national Lake Inarl, Stockholm, Gotland Island, Uppsala, Gothenburg, Kattegat, for forms. attention (Time Magazine, New Yorl< progenitor-molecules living Halsingborg, Norrviken. Sofiero, Miller set up a chamber that contained Times, National Observer, Chicago Bosjokloster, Lund. Helsinfors,Copenhagenr focused on the WRITE: these gases and w/ired it to produce Tribune, etc.) findings FIELD of of Dr. Cyril Ponnamperuma, who is a MUSEUM WORLDWIDE discharges appropriate energies. NATURAL HISTORY TOURS The of the researcher at the NASA establishment analysis results proved to ROOSEVELT RD. AT LAKE SHORE DR. at Moffet California. be vastly better than expected. In Field, He reported L CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605 addition to some simple organic isolating seventeen different amino compounds, nine different amino acids acids in minute amounts from the were formed and identified, and Murchison meteorite. He went on to fourteen others were detected but not report that these showed just about a specifically identified. Because these 50:50 split between I- and d-types. This of were produced by a strictly physical, means, course, they are the non-biological process, these acids products of a non-biological process— a showed the characteristic 50% l-type, purely physical process. Were these due to it 50% d-type distribution. Thus, it was contamination would be almost clear that some quite significant organic impossible to accidentally obtain such a compounds could be formed by a very 50:50 distribution. Contamination by simple process. When several amino humans, or bacteria, etc., would create acids combine they can form a huge preponderance of l-type chains. combinations called proteins. The This, along with other lines of evidence, simplest living thing of which we know seems to rule out contamination as a is a type of self-reproducing protein factor. molecule called a virus. Thus, amino The consequences are clear. A acid formation is only a step away simple process, such as that of the from possible simple life forms. Urey-Miller experiment, operating in a primitive at the After this experiment there were atmosphere very start of the solar is of grounds to carefully examine the system capable producing the basic blocks of life. How carbonaceous meteorites. They show building it took for such amino acids to little sign of having undergone any long link into and more serious change since they were formed proteins complex forms no one knows. more in the solar system 4.5 billion years yet Perhaps important is the fact that the initial ago. It is possible they might contain formation of amino is so remnant amino acids, formed by a step, acids, It what is Urey-Miller process, among the organic relatively simple. is, called, an event of compounds in them. high probability. This means that life may be vastly more in the universe than we ever A search of this kind is not easy prevalent because the chance of contamination imagined. by terrestrial amino acids is great. Amino acids are present on our hands Dr. Edward J. Olsen is Curator ot and skin, and the air is rich with Mirieralogy in Field Museum's Department ot bacteria and viruses that contain them. Geology. Because of this the first finds of amino acids, in the 1950's, proved to be false alarms due to contamination. The search has gone on intermittently ever since among the small number of carbonaceaus chondrites, always with negative or equivocal results. The Bulletin January 1971 11 Portrait of a Naturalist- Explorer Joyce ZIbro "I can think of a lot of easier ways to accounts for more than one-third of the Graduating from Presbyterian College slide through my final years," says world's species. The Manual, in effect, at 19, Blake, with $2.65 in his pocket, Field Museum's Curator of Birds, Dr. will be an elaborated synopsis of this hitchhiked to Pittsburgh, where he Emmet R. Blake. "But somewhere avifauna in several volumes." hoped to get a job and work his way along the line, perhaps while being through graduate studies in order to on the Manual in weaned back in South Carolina, I Blake began work "muscle into museum work." Having a from the became infected with that dread virus late 1965 under grant won the ROTC light heavyweight boxing known as the Protestant Ethic which National Science Foundation. The first championship of eight states in college, holds that everyone should strive to volume, now near completion, probably Blake was able to tie down a part-time will in 1971. Work on the 'amount to something' and to justify his be published job as boxing and swimming instructor existence by some work of value to Manual is being continued under a for the local YMCA. Concurrently he posterity." recent grant from the Irene Heinz Given worked in a settlement house. These, and John La Porte Given Foundation. combined with an eight-hour night job The work of value which Dr. Blake is The final work, consisting of several pumping gas supported him in graduate for is the Manual of preparing posterity volumes, is scheduled for completion school at the University of Pittsburgh. Neotropical Birds, a monumental in 1984. "It life ^ was with a big 'L'," says Blake, which will for the undertaking provide "and I had a ball. With all those jobs first time and under one cover, "It's hard to say where it all began," money simply poured in. It totalled taxonomic Blake, back over what is information, descriptions, says looking almost $150. A month, that is," he and the distribution of as an career in appropriate keys recognized outstanding added with a wry smile. more than 3,200 species and over museum ornithology. "I've always been 8,500 races or subspecies of Central interested in birds and other animals One of "the breaks" came in 1930 and and South American birds. and especially enjoy studying them in Blake interrupted his studies to assist their natural habitats. Even as a young experienced South American explorer The natural culmination of a I I to and long boy knew what wanted do and professional ornithologist, Ernest career that has combined I professional prepared myself the best could in G. Holt, on a yearlong expedition for to an unusual both degree laboratory every way I knew. But the rest was the National Geographic Society up the research field and Blake's I studies, pure luck, the breaks. Somehow just Amazon and into the unexplored Manual will a source book for provide happened to be in the right places at jungles and mountains of the Brazil- the in diverse professional biologist the right times more often than not." Venezuela boundary. specialties. Perhaps its greatest of potential applied value is in the field of The youngest of a large family Back in the States and nearly penniless in South tropical medical research. The virologist modest means Abbeville, again, Blake for a time became a for and parasitologist, especially, will find Carolina, Blake's enthusiasm biology private detective, pick and shovel in it a convenient means of identifying has been described by a boyhood construction worker and professional host of friend as "a case of the fixed idea." species medical interest. prize fighter. And back at the University the Preston Turned journalist, friend, of Pittsburgh, at age 22, Blake was "The bird fauna of the Neotropical Grady, wrote of Blake in the Greenwood region," says Blake, "far exceeds that Index-Journal of August 16, 1932: of any other zoogeographical entity and As a small boy he compiled notes and sketches of his observations which he still proudly exhibits. He held an intense interest in natural history studies and wild life from his earliest youth, and spent most of his boyhood afield, preferably alone. He usually had a menagerie of local wild pets ... At 15, he entered Presbyterian College, Clinton, and during the next four years flunked at one time or another most courses given there except biology. Biology and kindred subjects were so much pie . . . Much of his time was spent afield, carrying taxidermy to some degree of perfection and becoming locally famous as the catcher of snakes and birds. 12 Bulletin January 1971 Holding a Two-toed Sloth, Dr. Blake had this photo taken in Orinoco Delta, Venezuela while on the Mandel- Field Museum Venezuela Expedition in 1932. would be the Sewell promoted to graduate instructor in Avery Zoological of Field Museum to the zoology and continued his studies. Expedition Acarai Mountains in southern Guyana ^^- "In December of 1931," recalls Blake, (formerly British Guiana) in 1939. "came a call from Field Museum of Schomburgk, the German naturalist, Natural History asking if I would had preceded me by a century but at accompany and supervise a hiunting the time of my visit the Brazilian in trip to the Orinoco River and remain frontier of the Guianas was still Venezuela to do some intensive uninhabited, even by Indians, and collecting for the Museum." Sailing for virtually unknown to biologists. I South America aboard the sponsor's remember it as a region of jumbled yacht, Blake supervised jaguar hunting mountains and turbulent streams in the Orinoco delta region for several blanketed by a trackless forest; a 'lost weeks before taking on the real work world' if there ever was one. Access of the expedition—alone. Penetrating to that remote area was possible only the Venezuelan coastal range from the by canoe or small boat, first by port of Cumana, Blake succeeded in ascending the treacherous Courantyne reaching the 9,000-foot summit of River, which forms the boundary Mount Turumiquire where in a period between Surinam and Guyana, and of 35 days, working 18 to 20 hours then its tributary, the New River. each day, he collected 803 birds, 96 "I arrived at of reptiles and 37 mammals, perhaps a Georgetown, capital on 12 with six hundred record collecting performance for one Guyana, August man. The collection included several pounds of carefully selected collecting and field Blake. "A forms new to science, including a equipment," says chartered flew a lizard, Anadia blakei, named for the small, hydroplane collector. native taxidermist and me into the interior. After a flight of several hours were on the In 1932 a headline in Blake's hometown with the rank of captain and several we deposited Courantyne River above Frederick William newspaper summed up his career thus medals, including the Purple Heart, he just King far: "At 23, Emmet Blake of Greenwood resumed his work at the Museum and IV Falls, and so avoided weeks of Is a Veteran Scientific Explorer." was promoted to Assistant Curator of dangerous river travel. At the falls Birds in 1947. He has served as were Richard Baldwin, an experienced "as best Having thus prepared himself Curator of Birds since 1955. riverman who was to serve as assistant I could in every way I knew," Blake for the expedition, twelve Indian and was offered and accepted a position as Referred to by a colleague as "one of Negro boatmen and the expedition's Assistant in the Division of Birds at the hardiest field men ever," Blake has 32-foot boat, the Oronoque. It was Field Museum in July 1935. "I had participated in eight tropical expeditions powered by an outboard motor been following the activities of Field to collect specimens and has seen the supplemented by Indian paddlers, and Museum staff scientists ever since I Museunf's collection of birds increase was capable of surviving all but the was able to read," says Blake. "It is from 75,000 in 1935 to well over worst rapids. one of the really great natural history 300^000, making the Field Museum "All of our heavier and museums and, in a way, perhaps the collection one of the largest and supplies had to be the goal toward which I had been moving certainly among the most important equipment relayed up and often around all my life." research collections in the world. river, through innumerable rapids, to the head of Blake interrupted his museum career in "It's hard to select what might have navigation on Itabu Creek where a 1942 to serve with the U.S. Army been the most exciting expedition I've base camp was established. Traveling Counter Intelligence Corps for more been on," says Blake. "The West light, we then pushed on for days in than three years in North Africa and Indies, Mexico, Guatemala, British dugout canoes until they, also, had to Europe. Returning to the United States Honduras, Venezuela, Colombia, the be abandoned. Finally the long, long Guianas, Brazil, Peru, they were all wonderful experiences. If you have to pin me down to one trip I guess it Bulletin January 1971 13 This photo of Dr. Blake holding a Margay Cat was taken in 1932 at Mt. Turumiquire, Venezuela during the Mandel-Field Expedition. trek overland with heavy packs until we the salvaged tarpaulin and the bark of reached our objective, the crest of the a 'purpleheart' tree. Acarais where Guyana and Brazil meet. "With the return of our 'rescuers' from A crude camp was rapidly thrown up we formed a flotilla. Its and intensive collecting, almost around up-river quite arrival at La a Surinam the clock, began some five weeks after Tropica, police and farthest interior of joining the boat crew. outpost point civilization on the Gourentyne, created "With three collecting guns in use from quite a sensation. In fact, it was a dawn until dark, extensive trap lines near disaster. We showed up set for small mammals each night, and unannounced at about 2 a.m., were several men scouring the forests for mistaken for attacking escapees from specimens of all kinds, the collections Devil's Island, and were very nearly grew rapidly. More than 2,000 shot before identifications could be specimens of birds, mammals, reptiles established. All in all, it was quite an and fish, not to mention insects, were experience. Wouldn't care for a repeat collected in the space of a single performance every day before frantic month. We reluctantly broke breakfast, but in hindsight I wouldn't camp in mid-October and raced for the swap the memory for—well, you coast. To have remained in the name it." mountains longer would have left us stranded by the shrinking streams of Letters written to a museum colleague the dry season. by Blake when on an expedition to hours after pushing off we struck a Peru in 1958 give an insight into some "Rivers had dropped about fifteen feet submerged rock and were capsized in of the lighter episodes which make up our month in the during mountains, mid-river. Suddenly it was every man a part of any natural history expedition and stretches of water which had been for himself. I found myself under the and reveal Blake as a man of wit and relatively placid during our ascent were overturned boat struggling frantically to humor. He gives us this account of with now seething rapids, often avoid being enveloped in a tarpaulin his reception at Hacienda Villacarmen whirlpools. Many channels which had that had been used to cover the cargo. on the banks of the Pena Pefia River been difficult before were potential It was a close call, almost as bad as in Amazonian Peru: death traps that we approached with that little affair at Anzio Beachhead dread. Disaster an "This the of the was imminent ... but that's another story. being height dry possibility as our dugouts were run or season there were several all-day 'streaked' through interminable rapids. "Well, to make a long story short, all deluges that gave me a 'breather'— Any serious accident could be fatal. In of us managed to reach an island in and also the two-day celebration in the Guyana hinterland you can't just mid-river, but without food, equipment, honor of Saint Garmen, patron Saint of walk out; you move by boat or not at or even clothes. A few things were the Hacienda. For the Indians it lasted all. We abandoned the dugouts above salvaged from pot-holes later, 56 continuous hours of dancing and of King Frederick William IV Falls and including some of the specimens. I drinking raw cane alcohol. The rest thereafter were dependent on the sent some of the men to the Surinam us— I couldn't avoid becoming Orinoque for the final dash home. shore and they managed to make their involved—settled for a single night of way back to King Frederick William IV dancing and weak, but seemingly "After the caulking, Orinoque was Falls, a ten-day trek, to retrieve several again launched and we had visions of dugouts that we had abandoned. civilization within a week or reaching Meanwhile, the rest of us scrounged so. But while running rapids only for food, alternately baked under the tropical sun or froze at night, slapped mosquitos, dried remnants of the collection and painstakingly fabricated a couple of serviceable canoes from 14 Bulletin January 1971 In 1958, Dr. Blake was on the Boardman Conover- Field Museum Peruvian Expedition. This photo was taken in Rio Madre de Dios. inexhaustible beer. Our party included visitors from neighboring haciendas and apparently all leading citizens of a nearby village who either owned or could borrow shoes. By secretly fortifying myself with half a cup of cooking oil 'El Doctor Americano' responded to each and every 'Salude' and lasted the full stretch to 4 a.m. My probably elephantine endeavors In the realm of the tango, samba and mambo were much admired and produced roars of 'Ole.' In brief, I think I succeeded in maintaining the honor of the Museum and integrity of the U.S. "While at Vlllacarmen," Blake continues, "there was one bit of excitement that did scare hell out of me. An Indian was brought in who had been bitten by a snake believed to be invariably deadly. He had already slashed the wound and was wearing a vine ligature. 'El Doctor' was hurriedly summoned to take over and that poor devil hadn't previously insisted it was the deadliest of all In still another letter from Peru, Blake taken the trouble even to read the snakes; the only explanation I have is tells about his expedition cuisine. "I complicated directions with his that possibly they had confused it with came out (from Manu) in a magnificent anti-venom equipment. I was really on a bushmaster. OK. They had their 40-foot cedar dugout as the 'paying the spot, however, and with an way, but I decided to have myself a guest' of a man named Trencoso, an audience of 20-30, had to go through ball with some pseudo-medical older brother of my hunter. The trip with it. I soon had the victim's leg so mumbo-jumbo and reap the rewards. took six days (Manu to Pilcopata) and loaded with suction cups that it looked Old Doc Blake swung into action by it rained most of the time. We always like a lemon tree and was about to keeping the suction cups going for broke camp early, were on the river by give him an injection when it dawned another half hour while he took the 5:30 or 6:00 and didn't stop until on me that the leg wasn't even patient's pulse, listened to his heart, nightfall. Meals were simple: coffee— beginning to swell. I sent for the dilated his pupils and took his sometimes with cold monkey and rice snake. It was brought in, headless, temperature every five minutes. This soup for breakfast, crackers— but to me quite obviously only an last inspiration gave me a wonderful sometimes with sardines or smoked eight foot boa. The women began to opportunity to show varying degrees of fish for lunch, and coffee with hot weep, there was quiet discussion of a consternation. Finally, I announced the monkey and rice soup for supper. The burial detail—they don't waste time in man was going to recover, but must soup was very good and usually one these latitudes—and even the victim have a week's complete bed rest could chew on the hunk of meat all began to look thoughtful. They still wrapped in blankets, five bottles of the next day ... As the paying guest beer every day (dilutes the venom, I rated the best and first of everything. enriches the blood and tones up the My plate was the top of the stew pan and I system), and no sex for a month. I usually got the one spoon for my don't know about the patient's soup instead of the one fork. Palm subsequent love life but I do know he leaves served as plates when the followed the other directions because I visited him every day to check his pulse and help him with his beer!" Bulletin January 1971 15 At Field Museum in 1971 Dr. Blal Utensils were in use otherwise, it's remarkable how easily one can accept these conditions as the way of life, and really enjoy them. Although wet, hungry and bug-bitten the whole way I had a hell of a good time." Again writing from Peru, Blake shares some of his leisure-time thoughts with his colleague at the Museum. "Almost any night while listening to my men snoring," says Blake, "I could lie in my hammock, close my eyes, and in a moment go back 40 years and 3000 miles to the Greenwood of my youth and see once more (for free!) the circus parade as it formed in the vacant lot next to shanty town beyond the Seaboard Airline Tracks. Here it comes now, up Maxwell Avenue, past the Bijou Theatre and water tank to make its turn for the Fair Grounds at Ellis's Funeral Parlor. First comes a calliope, followed by the elephants . . . "But expeditions are only a part, albeit an essential and exciting part, of Out of Blake's explorations and In his personal life Blake, like museum work," says Blake. "On many laboratory research have come over of his museum colleagues, is still very returning from any expedition, one hundred articles and books, both much the outdoorsman and specimens, often in the thousands, technical and popular, on birds. His naturalist-explorer. Vacations usually must be identified and catalogued, the best-known Birds of Mexico, A are and on wilderness new forms described and named, and book, spent camping Guide for Field identification is now in canoe trips which over the past twenty the entire collection studied critically its sixth printing and is recognized as years his wife and two daughters have as steps in the preparation of the final an authoritative work on the rich and also shared and enjoyed. Mrs. Blake technical report." Blake sums his varied bird fauna of that country. recalls a wonderful that business up this way: "In this manner, honeymoon Written primarily for the bird watcher, included a "pack-back" camping trip little by little, slowly and sometimes its 650 pages treat all of the 967 along the Appalachian Trail in the painfully, we learn more about the species that have been recorded from Great Smoky Mountains. world around us and the myriad the Mexican mainland, the adjacent creatures that inhabit It." waters and associated islands. "My ambition now," says Blake, ornithologist, explorer, researcher, writer, one-time spy-catcher and boxer, "is to live long enough to become a garrulous old man with scads of boring stories. Sometimes I suspect that goal might be nearer than I realize." Joyce Zibro is Editor of the Field Museum Bulletin and Public Relations Manager. 16 Bulletin January 1971 The Year of the Whale Museums and Antiquities in Denmark, who grain acreage. Cereal production is established that the was that of an in By Victor B. Scheffer. Decorations by body increasing spectacularly Pakistan, India. man who had been into the and the and Leonard Everett Fisher Iron-Age flung Ceylon, Philippines, other 2,000 and countries are to New Yorl<, Charles Scribner's Sons bog years ago preserved through quickly beginning capitalize the action of the water. on the new (01969). $6.95. tanning grains. This intriguing volume is the story of In the last 200 years about 700 such bodies This timely and useful book is designed to twelve months in the life of a young sperm have been found in bogs all over help us understand the significance to the whale and is, as the author points out, northwestern Europe, most showing signs agricultural revolution the development of "fiction based upon fact." The story of of violent death. Prof. Glob became these "miracle" strains has brought about, "Little Calf" is interspersed with information interested in why so many people—men, and to bring to our attention its implications about the study of whales, about whaling, women, and children—had been slain and for the future. The author points out that past and present, and about conservation cast in the bog and the present volume is "The breakthrough in cereal production is and other related matters. This information the fruit of his researches. meaningful because it represents at least is printed in different type from that used the beginning of a solution to the problem on data and classical for the story. The reader follows Little Calf Drawing archeological of hunger, which until recently was regarded written the month by month from his birth in the sources, author constructs a as nearly insoluble" but notes that "As the northeastern Pacific and in the process picture of the way of life, culture, and new seeds and the associated new of these and concludes that learns much about the life history of the religion people technologies spread, they introduce wide the bodies in the victims of ritual whale and about how men feel about whales, bogs were and sweeping changes, creating a wave of murder and sacrifice to the what they do to whales, and what whales Nerthus, expectations throughout society and of do to men. goddess fertility. placing great pressure on the existing social order and political situation." The "second The author is an Professor Glob's book is most authority on the biology interesting generation" problems produced by the new and some of the of marine mammals and is a biologist with readable, though technologies present us with a number of the United are not for the tender-minded. States Fish and Wildlife Service. photographs choices and the wisdom of our choices will His book is well written extremely and determine, the author argues, whether the documented and is with "a Seeds of Change; the Green Revolution provided special revolution will fulfill its promise of ensuring of and In the 1970'8 kind bibliography, confined to some Development a better life for those who inhabit the rural classic works in the literature of whales and By Lester R. Brown areas of poor countries or whether it "will The volume is whaling." attractively Foreword by Eugene R. Black aggravate the job shortage and accelerate illustrated and the and are printing binding New York (etc.). Published for the Overseas the exodus from the countryside to the done. In an very nicely every way, Development Council by Praeger Publishers already overcrowded cities." These choices, excellent work. (1970). $6.95. he feels, are political in nature rattier than agricultural or scientific, and consequently The Bog People; Iron-Age Man Precerved In the late 1950's, Rockefeller Foundation addresses his book to all those "whose scientists in Mexico succeeded in developing (By) P. V. Glob. Translated from the Danish opinions and actions may affect future plan? a new variety of wheat that yielded twice by Rupert Bruce-Mitford and political decisions": concerned laymen, as much grain as traditional varieties. Ithaca, Cornell University Press (1969). academicians, and humanitarians as well. $7.50. A few years later a similarly fruitful rice was in the Within less developed Philippines. The author is a senior fellow with the This and illustrated than a decade these and other new varieties fascinating profusely Overseas Development Council and served, volume had its in 1950 when two of wheat and rice had been refined so that beginning between 1964 and 1968, as special adviser men, cutting peat in a Danish bog, came could be successfully in a wide they grown to the Secretary of Agriculture on foreign upon the of a man with a noose of climatic and soil conditions, body range agricultural policy. His book is concise and around his neck. Believing him to be a particularly in the impoverished tropical well written. I recommend it highly. recent murder victim they called in the police areas of the world. Their success has been who in turn called in two representatives phenomenal. Between 1965 and 1969, for by IV. Peyton Fawcett, head librarian. of the local museum. These gentlemen instance, land planted with these seeds In Field Museum. consulted the author, an eminent Asia expanded from 200 acres to 34 million archeologist and now Director General of acres, about one-tenth of the region's total Bulletin January 1971 if LETTERS To the editor: more chaotic than was the original problem? To the editor: In October, 1970 Bulletin, have inhabitants in an Let me admiration and your you My wife and I are the only express my devoted space to an article on the area of about 75 square miles. As far as I congratulations on the new Bulletin format. population crisis, by Dr. Paul Ehrlich. know, the entire area is clean. Each year Enclosed are a few items I thought might the licenses certain citizens to properly belong in your magazine. There is, a government I would not deny that there may be come into the area to hunt wildlife. Beside after all, a world of humor which is unique crisis in of the world, but population parts to the world of natural killing off the wild life, the area looks much history. is in our I do question whether there one like a garbage dump after the hunters leave. James G. Kazanis United States. I certainly would not deny It is not the number of hunters that create River Forest that there is a pollution crisis. In either the filth, but it is the kind of people they are. crisis, population or pollution, I have if Dr. voice to serious doubts Ehrlich has the Ehrlich is for a decrease in our population, a be heard. He seems more propagandist and he is equally against the use of DDT. than a scientist. Your Bulletin has dropped But he's against DDT because it is in its of his glory by your fostering thesis; decreasing our population. I do not believe that we must our of control a bit change system I like his system of population to some form of government dictatorship, better than DDT. In fact, I don't like it at all. change our free market philosophy to a Let us and take some other socialist economy, give up our high forget Ehrlich, route. standard of living in favor of something like that which existed in the United States Robert B. Ayres around 1840. Sedona, Arizona To the editor: Ehrlich did not paint such a picture in so To the editor: Congratulations on the Bulletin's changes in many words, but is this not where his With its excellent combination of scientific content and format. There is no reason I paradoxical solutions take us? and public relations facilities, the Field can think of why a museum publication The United States now has two hundred Museum is in a unique position to inform should be either dry or stuffy; and it is a million people and any of the two hundred the public about the great ecological pleasure to see that this feeling is shared million who will work can eat better than the problems facing us—problems more urgent by the editorial and design staffs for the few thousand Indians who lived in the same than any other, except the threat of nuclear Bulletin. In an age where so much is area in the year 1500. We eat so well, in war. The article by Paul Ehrlich in the communicated, it becomes almost a matter fact, that our Government is paying farmers October issue of the Bulletin was most of public trust that content be relevant and to remove land from production and informative, and at the same time a communication be fluent. The fresh of the Bulletin the othenwise limiting agricultural production. challenge to us all to face up to the difficulty approach conveys feeling that the about this cares. of protecting our environment from the museum knows and Ehrlich decries the ghetto. Who makes the of deterioration which threaten processes Charles L. Owen ghetto but the folks who live there? New to become irreversible. Associate Professor York is a dirty city, but it is New Yorkers Institute of Design, IIT I there will be more articles of who make it dirty. Surely if they did not hope many sort in and that the choose to live in such filth they'd clean it ttiis the future, Museum will exhibits which will on up. It is not the number of people but the stage some pass Please address all letters to the editor to all visitors to the of the kind of people living in New York that make to Museum some of of their city a slum area. To clean it up they sense importance ecological problems Bulletin so well must change their living habits and not which was communicated by Field Museum of Natural History necessarily their sex habits. Dr. Ehrlich. Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive With best wishes for the continued success Chicago, Illinois 60605 In his solutions, Ehrlich turns to of the Field Museum. government and to politics. Where in history The editors reserve the right to edit has government involved itself in a social Alan Garrett letters for length. problem where the end result has not been Winnetka 18 Bulletin January 1971 In making the presentation, Gunness said, Completed in 1920, the present Museum "Standard Oil Foundation is pleased to be building with the terrace and surrounding able to support the famed Field Museum. grounds occupies an area of thirteen People everywhere are reconsidering the acres, the building itself measuring 706 extent of their dependence on the natural feet long and 438 feet wide and 105 feet world and in the process of seeking a high. The building houses over 10,000,000 broader understanding of man and his specimens which make up the Museum's relation to his environment. The Field world famous research collection and Museum has a vital role in discovering new contains ten acres of space devoted to information essential to that understanding exhibition purposes. through its scientific programs and an "Soaring operating costs over the past equally important role in transmitting that several years," said McDowell, "have information to the community through its made it impossible to make any but the educational programs. We are perhaps most minimal of repairs or improvements rediscovering the significance of the Field to the facilities of the building." Museum to our community and we look to physical it for as we seek a continuing leadership "We are extremely grateful to Standard Oil better of man and his appreciation (Indiana) Foundation for this very important environment." "The millions of New Assistant Curator of Insects gift," said McDowell. people who will visit the Museum in the "The contribution, to become available to Dr. John Kethley has joined scientific the annual over a said coming years, including staff of Field Museum as Assistant Curator the Museum five-year period," visitation of 400,000 school the to approximately of Insects. Dr. received his BS McDowell, "will help Museum Kethley children in study groups, stand a of organized in 1964, and his PhD in embark upon long postponed program degree Entomology to benefit from the improved facilities in 1969 from the of capital repairs and improvement. During University Georgia. which the Foundation's the from 1940 generous He the past at Ohio State thirty-year period through spent year contribution will us to provide." 1969 some was for help University on a post-doctoral fellowship $3,081,000 expended "Of this from the National Institutes of Health. major repairs," said McDowell. amount, $1,470,000 went for building improvement and $1,611,000 for equipment and repairs. However, architectural estimates show that over twenty million dollars could have been effectively spent for these purposes if funds had been available. In appraising the Museum's capital requirements for the next five years some $25 million dollars will be needed." Blaine J. Yarrington, president of American Oil Foundation and a trustee ot Field Museum E. director ot the (left to right), Remick McDowell, Museum president, Leiand Webber, Museum, and Robert C. Gunness, president of Standard Oil (Indiana) Foundation, are shown at a recent luncheon where a capital contribution of $500,000 was made to the Museum from Standard Oil (Indiana) Foundation. The gift is the largest corporate foundation Dr. Kethley is particularly interested in contribution to the Museum in its 77 year history. mites, especially the classification and population dynamics of the family Syringophilidae. These are little-know/n mites that live only inside the quills of bird feathers. He has written several scientific papers on this subject and on other aspects of biology. $500,000 Standard Oil Gift Field Museum of Natural History recently received a capital contribution of $500,000 from Standard Oil (Indiana) Foundation. Announcement of the gift, which represents the largest corporate foundation contribution to Field Museum in the Museum's 77-year history, was made at a recent luncheon at the Museum attended by Robert C. Gunness, president of Standard Oil (Indiana) Foundation; Blaine J. Yarrington, president of American Oil Foundation and a trustee of Field Museum; John H. Lind, executive director of Standard Oil (Indiana) Foundation; E. Leiand Webber, director of Field Museum and Museum President Remick McDowell. Bulletin January 1971 19 other forms of life in our fields and forests. Museum Receives NSF Grant And because are faced with extreme they The Museum has received a grant in the as a result of their small size, problems amount of $18,600 from the National their can into study provide insights Science Foundation for continuing research of general biological interest." problems entitled, "Herpetology of Seasonal and Aseasonal Tropical Forests," under the In addition to his work at the Museum, direction of Dr. Robert F. Inger, chairman Mr. Dybas is Research Associate in the of scientific programs. The grant, which is Department of Biological Sciences at to run until approximately January 31, 1972, Northwestern University and Lecturer in the will permit Dr. Inger to complete research Committee on Evolutionary Biology, underway since July 1968, on the University of Chicago. He is a member of organization of animal communities, the Entomological Society of America, the particularly reptiles and amphibians, in American Mosquito Control Association, the tropical forests. "The research when Ecological Society of America, the Society completed," said Dr. Inger, "will permit us for the Study of Evolution and other to estimate the amount and pattern of professional organizations. genetic variation in different kinds of animal populations in terms of different types of Henry Dybas New Head of Insects Given Foundation Grant distribution patterns. Our ultimate aim is to determine how ecology affects genetics and Henry Stanley Dybas has been appointed Field Museum has received a $35,000 grant in effect, how the organization of natural Head of the Division of Insects in Field from the Irene Heinz Given and John communities affects evolution. Museum's Department of Zoology. A native LaPorte Given Foundation, Inc. The grant Mr. joined the Museum will be used as a in the Chicagoan, Dybas subsidy completion The project is being carried out in staff in 1941 as Assistant in the Division of and of the Manual of publication Neotropical conjunction with Dr. Harold Voris at He was named Assistant Curator Dr. R. curator of Insects. Birds, which Emmet Blake, Dickerson College, Carlisle. Pennsylvania. in 1947 and has served as of Insects birds, is currently working on. Dr. Voris's prime concern will be the Associate Curator of Insects since 1950. analysis of blood proteins to determine A in the systematics of the The Manual is a long-range project which specialist genetic constitution. smallest known beetles, the featherwing started through a grant from the National final has been carried beetles {Ptiliidae), and the population, Science Foundation in late 1965. The Field work on the project Thailand. These ecology and evolution of the 17-year and work will consist of several volumes, and is out in Malaya, Borneo, and Asia were selected, said 13-year periodical cicadas, Mr. Dybas has scheduled for completion in 1984. A areas in Southeast residue of National Science Foundation Dr. Inger, because they contain an Photo by Edumud Jarecki funds will see Dr. Blake's work through the abundance of different kinds of environments. to for first volume, exclusive of its publication. Dr. Inger will return Malaya The Given Foundation grant will ensure the additional field work in July, accompanied continuity of work on the second volume. by Dr. Voris. Field Museum's geology preparator John Harris demonstrates the technique of model-making from to Museum visitors. Shown with him are Hisatoyo Ishida (lett) and Jo Okada (third left), At the is Masataka of the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Education, Tokyo. right with various staff Uehara ol the office ot the Consulate General of Japan in Chicago. They met natural members to learn about the Museum activities for the purpose of establishing a history museum in Japan. Henry S. Dybas carried out field work in the United States, Mexico, Panama, Colombia and Micronesia and authored numerous scientific papers and popular articles on insects. Speaking of the relevance of studying such tiny insects as the featherwing beetle (a dozen or so small featherwing beetles could be placed on the head of a pin), Mr. Dybas said: "They are important in their own right because of their activities and because of their complex relations with 20 Bulletin January 1971 Hours 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., Monday-TJiureday 9 a.m. to 9 p.m., Friday 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.. Saturday and Sunday The Museum Library Is open 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Monday through Friday CALENDAR 7 Throuflh January 15 Through February ChlM Go«a an exhibit of and Com Blight, an exhibit of current Interest A Forth, toys Field Museum's The effects of a virulent new strain of games, looks t>eyond the superficial nature Worldwide Natural Southern Com Leaf disease, of playthings and into the influence thay Blight Tours responsible for a predicted 18% decrease may have upon a child's cultural History In the nation's com crop, are shown. development Hall 9. Gardens South Lounge. Wild flowers Continuing Birds Winter Begins January 16 "Exploring Indian Country," Archaeology for The tour CatalogiM of (fM DHtmnnt Spodrnvu ol Journey Children. self-guided Congenial travel companions enables to see American Indians Cfotfi Collected In tha 7hr— Voytgt youngsters Interpretalions by experts environments as the 0/ C»pialn Cook, to (f»« Southarn of three early explorers The unhurried approach saw them. All and who can read Homlaphon, London, Alexander Shaw, 1787, boys girts Travel w^ith all dimensions and write in the free on display In the South Ljounge. The rare may participate copy consists of actual tapa cloth specimens program. Journey sheets are available at THE INCAS EMPIRE entrances. 28. collected during Captain Cook's voyages Museum Through February & DARWIN S GALAPAGOS to the South Seas (1768-1780). The volume John Jamas Audubon'a elephant folk), Is the gift of Mrs. A. W. F. Fuller. Through "The Birds of Amertca." on display In ttia February n-March 5. S2,807 includes S600 March 21. North Lounge. A different plate from tha "Ufa In Othar Woildar* an exhibit of the rare, first-edition set Is featured each day. i22 days o! Andes, S2.457; 1 1 days ol Murchison meteorite, a Type II carbonaceous 7Sth Araihreraary Exhibit: A Sense d Galaragos cruise ?. Ouilo, $1,190— ' .. - -• . of which fourteen exist out ^. chondrlte, only Wonder, A Sense of History, A Sense of seB.i:.-::ol.) ,,^g^ of the almost 2,000 known meteorites. n Faz, Q',, chu, Discovery, continues indefinitely. Exciting Ct ^n Ch.in , :irquilla, amino acMs, Recently, possibly building display techniques offer a new experlertca to O'linj.ayt.irnbo. Cuzto, LaKe Trlicaca, blocks of have been in this Tia'-.uanaco Spanish Colonial art & irfe, reported museum-goers. Hall 3. arcbiteclure in Colombia. Peru. Bolivia meteorite. March 21. South Through Lounge. and Ecuador. Maatlnga January 17 January 12, 7:45 p.m.. Nature Camera Club TOUR ARCHAEOLOGIST: Dr. Carlos R. Free concart by the Youth Mexican Metropolitan of Chicago Margain. prominent archaeologis! and ollicer ol Mexico's Museo Naciohal Symphony Orchestra. 2:30 p.m., James January 12, 8 p.m., Chlcagoland Glkter do Aniropologia. specialist in Mexican Simpson Tftaatre. Council and Andean archaeology 31 13, 7 p.m., Chicago Ornithological January January ; NATURALIST with Fre« WndlHa Film. "Everglades Safari," Society uf and -n Tcur-cJor. I offered t>y th« Illinois Audubon Society. January 13, 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto— 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre. National Speleological Society January 14, 8 p.m., Chicago Mountaineering Begins February 7 Club l^A^^^R ON ALL TOURS. PHIL CLAR 26lh Intamanonal ExMMtloii of Chicago ' ildilor ol Horlicullure magazine 7:30 Area ' Naiura Photography featuring award-wlnnUfg January 19, p.m., Chicago -^r Garden Editor of The News, Camera Clubs Association Mexico: author, "A Guide to Mexican photographic prints, sponsored by tfie Flora": Field Museum Natural History Nature Camera Club of Chicago and February 9, 7:45 p.m.. Nature Camera Club Tours rt-.^i Field Museum. South Lounge. Through of Chicago February 28. AM aondi.uM^, iu riL'i^i Viuiieurn aro 9, 8 Glider February p.m., Chlcagoland tax deductible. Council February 7 Rates are from Chicago: may be ad 7 Irom olt.er points. A showing o( priza-winnlng transparandaa February 10, p.m., Chicago Omithotoglcai Write: Field Museum from the 26th International Society Chicago Worldwide Natural History Tours Exhibition of Nature Photography, 2:30 p.m.. February 10, 7:30 p.m., Windy City Grotto- Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. James Simpson Theatre. National Speleological Society Chicago, IM. 60605 o Number 2 197! ay2, February- Natural Fiel^)(/luseum of History ^r:'> ¥£ fimj •" ^w ^m^. v'M# ^&'li£:r" BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 2 February 1971 2 Canning a Legend Patricia M. Williams a warning that man—for the second and last time— is extirpating the wild horse from North America 6 Algae Are Man's Best Friends Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki the importance of algae for life on earth 10 Scandinavia: Lands of Fjords and the IMidnight Sun Phil Clark there's something of interest in Scandinavia for every natural history traveler 13 Bool( Reviews 1 4 Letters 15 Field Briefs Calendar Cover: Two red marine algae from the Monterey Peninsula, California. The lacy Microcladia coulteri is growing on Gigartina harveyana. Illustration by Richard Roesener. Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at second-class postages rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Bulletin February 1971 1 v- Canning a legend Patricia M. Williams An American World War II song traders in the Santa Fe area brought ot the classic form of the Spanish confidently proclaimed "We did it more horses which, in turn, were stolen horse. Nevertheless, the wild horse still before and we can do it again!" With or escaped. It may be romantic to retains the wide assortment of colors dubious distinction, man can now sing believe that our bands of wild horses while the spotted or patterned form was the same song about the elimination of derived from those of DeSoto, particularly cherished by some Indian the wild horse from North America. Coronado and other explorers. In fact, tribes. they did not. As George Gaylord Some 50 million years ago in what is Simpson states in his book Horses, The mustangs or mestenos were now the western United States the tiny, "The feral herds—the 'wild horses' of originally the horses of the wild herds four-toed Eohippus was busily western history—arose from horses that that belonged to no one. Eventually, beginning that process of evolution escaped from the missions, ranches the term mustang included the that resulted in today's large, single-toed and Indians, and not from those ridden cowponies taken from these herds. horse, Equus caballus. Abundant fossil by the explorers." Indian ponies usually contained much remains of the horse have been mustang blood and a little of any and unearthed from several areas in the Clearly then, our American wild horse every other kind of horse as well. west, especially in Texas and Wyoming. is not technically a wild animal. A truly Today's cowponies have been wild animal is one whose ancestors extensively crossed with other breeds Ten thousand years ago Pleistocene have always been wild. As our "wild" and the original mustang is all but man entered and crossed North horses are all derived from imported gone here in America. America. Two thousand years later the domesticated stock, they are properly But in 1680 bands of horse was extinct on this continent. called feral horses, but through large mustangs were across the 1900 The theory most widely supported by common use "wild" has become racing plains. By their numbers had swelled to an the scientific community contends that accepted. million man in his search for food killed off the estimated two horses, ranging the from west of horse. Others suggest that man in fvlost of the early wild horses were throughout grasslands combination with a virulent epidemic descendants of an old Andalusian the Mississippi to the Rockies, past the Continental Divide and the did the job. Whatever the cause, there breed. These Andalusian horses, through deserts to the Pacific Coast. were no horses on the North according to Simpson, "were jennets Today, ot merciless American continent when Columbus or jinetas, descended in part from following years depredation, there are fewer than "wild" arrived in 1492. older, even prehistoric Spanish races 17,000 horses on lands in the United but with a predominant Barb element public States. If these horses were The horse was brought back to brought in by the Arab conquerers from simply continental North America in 1519 by North Africa.' being eliminated by the forces of the Spanish conquistador, Hernando nature, man's responsibility would be Cort6s. Cortes departed leaving behind The classic Andalusian was rather less grave. Over the years, however, only one colt. Next, according to small, generally built close to the the white man has had a variety of legend, DeSoto's men set free "six ground with a wide chest, a muscular reasons for eliminating herds of wild great horses of Spain" and these rather short neck, and a low-set tail. horses. Little-known casualties of World thousands of horses were sold horses are said to have sired the great It displayed the whole range of equine War I, wild race that replaced their kin which colors, including spotting. to the allies to aid in the war effort. To were lost to America thousands of break the Indian's will, their precious years earlier. In his poem "The Distant After years of fending for themselves, herds of horses were decimated. Runners" Mark Van Doren celebrates the modern offspring of the proud Cattlemen, anxious to preserve the this event with the lines, "Four and Andalusian retain the almost incredible grazing land for their own livestock, twenty Spanish hooves/Fling off their stamina and endurance of that breed actively persecuted the wild horses. iron and cut the green, /Leaving circles but have lost many of the physical Hope Ryden, in her book America's Last that new and clean/While overhead the characteristics. They are still generally Wild Horses, writes between 1900 and wing-tips whirred." small, but too often border on the 1926 the wild horse runty. Their scant and limited diet of population on public lands declined At about this time Coronado and his grasses has contributed to their small from two million to one million. men were also riding horseback across stature and sometimes scrawny the continent. The conquistadors appearance of today's wild horse. Today wild horses are being treated the Plains Indians cruelly and, Cross-breeding, whether uncontrolled slaughtered for dog food. Not only in return, the Indians often stole the or through attempts to improve the wild swaybacked nags, weary after years of explorers' horses. Early settlers and horse, has resulted in the disappearance pulling a plow or wagon, but young. Bulletin February 1971 3 finest of its kind, a domestic strong, free horses are being hounded established on government land and specimen horse will ever lack that magic and to exhaustion by siren-howling planes. says, "You need every spear of grass indescribable charm that beams like a halo Low-flying horse-hunters dive over the for deer, antelope and cattle. I don't around the simple name of freedom. The panic-stricken herd blasting it with have any ax to grind either way. But I'd wild horse roving the prairie wilderness buckshot to it moving in the much rather have wild game than a keep knows no master . . . has never felt the desired direction. Some horses bunch of horses can't do nothing you . . drop whip . never clasped in its teeth the bit dead from exhaustion, their lungs with" {New York Times, Nov. 15, 1970, to curb its native freedom, but gambols, bursting from the strain, but others are p. 62. "A Devoted Few Strive to Save unmolested over its grassy home where driven madly on into the corral where, Wild Horses"). Nature has given it a bountiful supply of provender . . . We might have shot him filled with fear, they often fight, pile up from where we stood, but had we been and trample each other to death. Even Dr. C. Wayne Cook, head of starving, we would scarcely have done it. Range Science Department of He was free, and we loved him for the very Those who survive the hideous chase Colorado State University and chairman, possession of that liberty we longed to take are into trucks for to the packed cross-country Advisory Committee Department from him ... but we could not kill him." shipment to the meat cannery. In her of the Interior on the Wild Horse Range book, Hope Ryden states: in the Pryor Mountains, cautions that Philip Hershkovitz, research curator there should be some control over the of mammals in Field Museum's Once the truck was loaded, ttie door was numbers of wild horses lest they Department of Zoology, believes that not opened again during the long haul to multiply too quickly and become too "few things in man's world equal the the packing plant and the horses were competitive for lands. But Dr. beauty of a racing herd of wild neither watered nor offered food. A grazing Cook the emotional and horses." As a taxonomist, he also transportation regulation known as appreciates historical factors in the movement out that, the "killer-rate" exempts truckers carrying too, points "By destroying livestock to market from a law which to preserve the wild horses. horse we will have extirpated from the requires that in transit animals must be fed American continent an entire family of and watered at intervals. It is its wild — regular Historically, the wild horse played a fauna for the second and last that animals en route to a argued packing major role in the development of the time." Hershkovitz went on to observe plant are condemned cargo anyway, and west and was a positive aid to that while many dog lovers may the transporter need not spend time and expeditions such as that of Lewis and protest cruelty to animals they money maintaining their physical well-being. Clark. It helped the early trappers, unwittingly condone it by purchase of Yet, though "killer-rate" unfortunately ranchers and the the of a base and ruthless applies to all livestock, domestic animals pioneers, fledgling product do not suffer the kind of maltreatment cattle industry. The wild horse was an policy of extermination. inflicted on the wild horse during its ride integral part of the culture of American For whatever reason, to slaughter. Indians and was incorporated into their emotional, or are myths and ceremonies. historical, scientific, many The truck leaves in its wake unweaned joining the growing movement to protect colts doomed to starvation, stallions the last of the once numerous bands of The unquestionable emotional appeal blinded with buckshot, and wretched wild horses. Mrs. Velma (Wild Horse of the wild horse was perfectly animals whose hoofs were worn down Annie) Johnston, president. International expressed by Matt Field's description to bloody stumps during the Society for the Protection of Mustangs deadly of one he encountered along the Santa race. And this to fill Rover's dinner and Burros, is one of the forces just Fe trail in 1839, as related in America's prime bowl. in this movement and it was largely Last Wild Horses (pp. 125-128): through her efforts that "The Wild This is not without " Horse Annie Bill" dog-eat-horse policy 'Twas a beautiful animal ... a sorrel, (Public Law 86-234) its not in supporters, obviously. Although with a jet black mane and tail. We could was passed September 1959. This all agree with the methods by which see the muscles quiver in his glossy limbs bill prohibits the pursuit of unbranded as he the horses are exterminated, many moved; and when half playfully and horses or burros by aircraft on public half in he tossed his mane people feel that if economic gain fright, flowing domain. Like so many of the laws and in the air, and flourished his long cannot be derived from them, then the silky regulations affecting the wild horse, tail, our admiration knew no bounds and horses have no right to exist. Mr. this one, too, has a loophole. According we longed . . . hopelessly, vexatiously Chester (Chug) Utter, an airplane pilot to Mrs. Johnston, hunters get around longed to possess him. and mustanger, claims to have captured this law by putting a branded mare 40,000 horses over 14 years for the into the wild horse herd and then Of all the brute creation the horse is the Bureau of Land which the Management, most admired by men. Combining beauty gather up whole group a year sold the animals at auction. Mr. Utter with usefulness, all countries and all ages later. Obviously, then, further legislation advocates wild horse preserves yield it their admiration. But, though the is needed. Bulletin February 1971 A bill introduced by U.S. Senator Hansen of Wyoming would have given the Department of the Interior custody over the wild horses. Although the bill died in committee last year, Mrs. Johnston and her associates still hope to secure federal protection for the wild horse and get another bill introduced this year. There are now two wild horse preserves on federal land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management. One, in the Pryor Mountains of Wyoming, was the result of the efforts of a group of concerned citizens dedicated to saving a herd of 200 wild horses. The other federal preserve is less than ideally situated on the Nellis Air Force bombing and gunnery range and the Nevada test site of the Atomic Energy Commission. Twenty years ago, Simpson noted that herds of wild horses were relentlessly hunted and diminished. He commented on the loss of the historic mustang and noted that in the Argentine a breeding stock of ponies similar to our mustangs had been gathered from remote parts of the country and Photos from Hope Ryden's America's Last WUd Horses. preserved in "an admirable, increasingly valued registered breed, the Criollo." Brislawn began to search the wild his simple tools to kill the wild horses. His point was, of course, that a similar bands for pure-blooded Spanish horses Today, sated with an abundance of project could be undertaken here. to form the foundation of what would artificially sweetened, seasoned, colored become the Spanish Mustang Registry. and preserved foods, we use our Although they do not all agree on The non-profit association was formally sophisticated, motorized skills to kill goals, there are groups here in the established in 1958 to perpetuate the the wild horse for food. United States interested in the wild legendary dog mustang and establish a permanent horses, such as the American Mustang reserve for the animals. Eighty-year-old Association, the National Mustang BIBLIOGRAPHY Robert Kid" Brislawn Association and the "Wyoming Spanish Mustang "A Strive to explains, "We are trying to restore a Ripley, Anthony. Devoted Few first seeks to Registry. The improve the Save Wild Horses." The New York breed, not create one." For this reason, Times, wild horse for of by breeding purposes November 15, 1970 (p. 1). the Spanish Mustang Registry cannot competition and marketing; the second be looked to as the salvation of all is concerned with the sport of Ryden, Hope. America's Last Wild Horses. wild In horses. the past 50 years only New York: E. P. 1970. "mustanging"—running and capturing Dutton, about 200 horses have qualified for the wild horses for personal and recreational and few roam the Simpson, George Gaylord. Horses. New as well registry today 3,000 purposes, as educating the York: Oxford 1951. acre Brislawn Ranch. University Press, public on the conservation needs of the wild horse. The third group, the As bills are discussed by committees, Spanish Mustang Registry, is out for the grim hunt for dog food relentlessly blood—pure Spanish blood. goes on. Thousands of years ago, Patricia M. Williams is Managing Editor Fifty years ago Robert and Ferdinand driven by hunger, primitive man used of Scientific Publications at Field Museum. Bulletin February 1971 Algae Are Man's Best Friends Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki If an extraterrestrial could giant come of seemingly strange objects, and in to the earth and stand over the greater production of heat and locomotion. Chicago area, he would notice many unusual things. When the sun first falls If our giant strides away In his upon the earth the biomass begins seven-league boots to follow the sun flowing towards the center of the west, he may step over some forest megalopolis, and when the sun goes and wonder over its tranquillity and the down the same biomass leaves the purity of the air above it. He will notice city to disperse itself into the periphery. that oxygen is produced by plants The giant would postulate his first law— during the day and little waste is that the solar energy controls the manufactured. He may pick up the tree movements of the biomass. If he could from its bed and meditate over it pick up a car in his colossal fingers under the scrutiny of his instruments. the occupant would either jump out, try He will neither be shot at, nor to hide, scream, panic, freeze, or screamed at, and he will, therefore, his simply die of fright. If, nevertheless, modify second law by adding that the giant would succeed in holding up plants are more stable and less the driver, he no doubt would squeeze neurotic than animals. When examining all life out of the poor man and he the air around him, and measuring the would postulate his second law—that production of sugar and carbohydrates, Acetabularia crenulata. One of the most life is a fragile thing and very difficult he will postulate a fourth law—that beautiful algae, often referred to as mermaid's wineglass or mermaid's parasol. to study. He may further add that life plants provide all the food and all the The disc at the of the indeed top plant manifests unpredictable behavior and oxygen, and that animals simply eat looks like a shallow cup or inverted movements. The while and burn it. He consider animals parasol. Because it grows easily in captivity, giant, examining may it is a much-studied alga. The recent and testing the physical environment, studies are concerned with the particularly would formulate his third law—that the role and function and interrelation of cell .nucleus and the protoplasm. biomass releases great wastes into the atmosphere and into the water in Illustrations by Richard Roesener the complicated process of manufacture Bulletin February 1971 degenerate organisms unable to process known that steadily reverses of life are examined. While our Titan produce their own foodstuffs and the results of decomposition and can tell the difference between a dog dependent upon plants to do it for provides for the continuity of life on and a rosebush, the placement of them. He may even think of man as a earth is photosynthesis. In the process certain microscopic flagellate capricious parasite of the earth. He will of photosynthesis, plants harness solar organisms within a kingdom will be see plants as benefactors that alter the energy and produce organic matter more difficult for him. In order to simple Inert matter into the complexity which, after being used by animals. Is resolve this problem of placing and dynamism of life. Our other-world dissipated and is mostly lost as heat plant-animal-like creatures in giant may go further to the great into the interplanetary space. Our classificatory schemes that would ocean where he will find out that most indicate their relationship he would of this activity of food and oxygen expand the two kingdoms into three. production and cleaning the air of In time, this system too would carbon dioxide is conducted in the sea become inadequate, and soon four by "simple" organisms called algae. and even five kingdoms would And so he will put forward his fifth law have to be recognized. The five —that algae, indeed, produce most that kingdoms concept of organisms has is needed for life on the earth. been suggested by Professor R. H. Whittaker of Cornell University to Our will marvel at the giant efficiency consist of Monera (for example, of and will discover that the algae blue-green algae and bacteria). well-known photosynthetic equation Protista, (unicellular forms such as light euglenoids, golden algae and + H,0 -> CH,0 O, CO2 + Plantae green plants protozoans), ("conventional" as red and means that one molecule of carbon plants such green algae vascular dioxide combines with one molecule of and plants). Fungi (absorptive organisms such as fungi and slime water in the presence of light within and Animalia animals). the pigment of green plants to produce molds), (the carbohydrates and oxygen. In a more The system of five kingdoms of living sophisticated way he can say that in things appears to be gaining some the process of photosynthesis the acceptance and seems to serve best atoms of hydrogen from water are our present knowledge of the living used to transfer carbon dioxide into world. Within our five kingdom carbohydrates and at the same time classification algae are assigned to the free oxygen from the dissociated Cyclocrinites dactioloides. This marine calcareous green alga of Silurian age was three of these kingdoms: Monera, water is released. Our Gargantuan, just for a time considered a long problematic Protista and Plantae. The word alga like Professor Eugene I. Rabinowitch of sponge. Its fossil remains are commonly is to as our found 450-million-year-old subject change the University of Illinois, will calculate among coral reefs in Illinois and Iowa. understanding of the interrelationship that each year plants of the earth between various groups of algae combine about 150 billion tons of changes. It is now believed that the carbon with 25 billion tons of hydrogen, colossus will be astonished to realize algae represent a great variety of and set free 400 billion tons of oxygen! that when photosynthesis ceases, life of diversified the will lose all organisms evolutionary Throughout the last three bdlion years, stops and atmosphere plants have been continuously dying its free oxygen. and organic matter has been In the past there has been a vigorous continuously decomposing. The only discussion in scientific literature of what constitutes the plant kingdom and of what constitutes the animal kingdom. The differences between these two groups disappear when "lower" forms Bulletin February 1971 origin and not of a single common and are extensively studied by lineage. Algologists use the word alga paleontologists. to indicate several groups of as a the earliest organisms having similar reproductive Algae group provide mechanisms. evidence of life on earth, and are the most ancient group of living things The problem or problems of known. The oldest algae-like fossils classification of algae are very are about three billion years old! Since technical, particularly since algae they represent the first documented constitute a loosely-knit group. The life on earth they are from the main characters used in their evolutionary viewpoint extremely classification are biochemical: algae important. are separated on the basis of their If our could search the pigments, the nature of their cell v\/all, only giant of rocks and find the the products of their photosynthesis, outcrops places where remnants of life are and the nature of their flagella. past preserved, then he would rejoice in the Algae lack true leaves, stems, or roots, discovery of the past history of our and for this reason have been planet and the life which existed on it. considered "primitive." This concept But, by a singular paradox, the is, however, now losing support. Algae processes which gave us the lands represent a great diversity of forms. also turned the sediments into rocks, Some are microscopic; others, as changed their composition and made Pacific kelp, may reach a length of 150 them into marbles and schist, hiding feet. Reports of kelp 600 feet long the records from the seeker, and from Brazil need confirmation. Certain Halicoryne wrightii, "sea-club alga." A altering the organic remains into their marine green alga from Dutch East Indies algae are single cells that may be byproducts. Thus, all but scanty and from the Philippines. The genus is filamentous or branching. There are known throughout the warm, tropical seas evidence was destroyed. those that are membranous, or some and four species are found in the Caribbean. The body of the plant is even be tubular. some And yet, when we look, when we may Although covered with a thin layer of carbonates. the we find species are terrestrial, most are aquatic carefully comb rocks, that and are found in all waters, seas, shapes are varied, some of sloths in Central America be with forms lakes, streams and ponds. They can may recognizable, some strange distinguished by the different species that not exist more. of float as plankton or they can exist do any Some of algae that grow on their hair. these finds are fossils of a common attached to substrate or to other plants obtainable the or animals. Some algae inhabit the nature, abundant, by that and Algae precipitate calcium are soil, others live on bark of trees or "bushel," others are rare. Some so carbonate ions from the sea water delicate that even on rocks, and recently algae have they require special build These hard, limy coverings. algae are so that been collected from the atmospheric treatment; some preserved are extremely important as rock-building currents. There are even those that they need the strength of machines organisms and are responsible for the thrive on snow or within other and endless hours to prepare for formations of many limestones organisms, or as lichens, the composite throughout geologic history, especially organisms consisting of fungi living reef deposits. In addition to forming together with algae. Even two species their own masses they also act as the cement that binds together the skeletons of invertebrate animals. It is no surprise, therefore, that these plants have left an extensive fossil record Bulletin February 1971 study. Among many fossils some He will learn now that nature manifests become more important—because they beauty of the highest degree in a explain more, they possess some multitude of forms—beauty of structure characteristics absent in other and shape. And he'll pause over this specimens—and hence instantly for awhile. Life is a short business become more interesting and when dealing with an individual meaningful. The fossil, in brief, reflects organism. It is somewhat longer when the image of life as it once was. dealing with taxonomic units like species and genera. Man has existed Algae in the 19th century, and among for time long enough to have a many persons even today, have been geologic past—but yet, life is still a considered less vital than most other very fragile thing. Life is difficult to plants and animals, and are usually study, because the process of study deprecated as seaweed, pond scum, itself may modify or kill the organism. and kelp. But algae as a group are But life on the geological scale is important, as we have seen, not only different; the organisms are gone, but because they represent the first hard skeletal parts remain. Sometimes documented life on earth but also unaltered, but in most cases replaced, because they produce most of the recrystalized—but yet often retaining food and oxygen necessary for life on most of the original details, even the earth. In addition, algae are becoming color pattern may be preserved. How economically important and great many of us have stopped to think that quantities of them are used for human we are dealing with life when studying consumption particularly in Japan. fossils? Here the wonder is that we They may possibly become a future have in front of us the record of life, Neomeris van-bosseae. When examined in source of food for the ever-growing represented by fragments, from which the Museum dry collection, this alga and human we choose to reconstruct the whole of hungry population. They does not look like a plant at all because are already used as a source of its attractive white outer calcareous cortex the evolutionary path of organic resembles an animal's exterior skeleton. history. The past is nebulous and we Under this hard covering are whorls of are it. else can white branches that expand at their ends. penetrating What give greater joy than to unveil the unkown? potassium and iodine, and for treatment of sewage in certain localities. On his long way home, our extraterrestrial visitor will in hold his Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki is Associate possession a few vials of small, barely Curator of Fossil Invertebrates in Field green, calcareous, tubular, whorled Museum's Department ot Geology. algae from the tropical seas of the earth. And he'll wonder over these strange benefactors of apparent simplicity and beauty that together with untold numbers of other algae since time immemorial have endlessly and f^h'.i I \ ,. i i continuously provided the source of food and oxygen to the inhabitants of ^^^^ the earth. Calathella anstedi. A half-billion-year-old (Lower Ordovician) green calcareous alga from Newfoundland. This fossil is one of the oldest "higher" forms of algae found. Its outer structure is very complicated and advanced, and the alga can be easily placed in a class of well-known living green algae. Bulletin February 1971 SCANDINAVIA: lands of fjords and the midnight sun Phil Clark Most persons, in quest of natural —little rocky islets from which clouds history novelty and nuance, think of of Lesser Black Back, Herring and exotic lands in southern hemispheres, Black Headed Gulls rose to meet us with their gaudy flowering trees and over dark seas. Liver-colored Calluna brightly plumed birds. heather hugged the wet, black rocks. And at one islet I glimpsed a pair of But I found a refreshing view of flora, Golden-eyed Ducks, spending the and fauna, and peoples during summer, plump and happy. a month's visit to Scandinavia, where I programmed a natural history tour for As our ship neared the Sognefjord It in our next June. sharpened my joy straits, the islands grew larger and northern American flora and own finally we steamed through a great subtle avifauna; there was so much rocky gateway, its sides fleshed with contrast in the two basically similar deep green spruce and white-boled ecological systems. Betula pendula. Finally, near the fjord's inland end, a day's voyage from Other sharper contrasts were stimulating Bergen, I spent the night at a small inn too. The great Scandinavian spruce-pine in a village which clustered at the foot forests and the birch-beech-poplar of towering, spruce-green cliffs, a nest woodlands still stand, even though they of white-painted, green-trimmed houses. have been a judiciously used source of wealth for generations. Rivers are Wandering by foot and by bus the next relatively unpolluted and buildings, two days brought many a thrill, as plant from medieval to Victorian, stand well communities changed from flowery kept in mellow, unsooted harmony with meadows edged with birch, mountain handsomely modern architecture on ash, willow and pine in the valleys, to clean city streets. forests of spire-tall Norway spruce on the mountain sides and to ground- The most exciting fjord I saw was the hugging silvery-leaved willows and greatest of them all: Norway's dark junipers, dwarfed both by Sognefjord. At first the scenery was mountain winds and by inherent traits. similar to that from Stavanger to Bergen These fringed the bald, gray tundra, where glacial snows gleamed in cold ovals and dark lakes gushed into streams that tumbled, foaming over rocky cliffs and down to the fjord, miles below. In Oslo, the folk museum made me feel that I had known this well-kept land for generations. Here I walked through a spruce-birch forest from one village to another, each typical of an era and an area—and all the buildings, planks, tiles and all, brought from sites throughout Norway. The idea of the midnight sun moved me as little as some remote solar eclipse . . . until I experienced its surprising nocturnal light. This was in a ship on cold Lake Inari, far north of the Arctic Circle in northern Finland. Here was a different and an exciting Thirteenth century Norwegian stave church of their in Oslo's Folkmuseum. world the mysterious Lapps and 10 Bulletin February 1971 Gustav Vigeland nudes in Oslo's Frogner Park. great herds of reindeer wandering buildings of the last century and its free over vast nniles of gray tundra. architecture of the twenties—clean-lined yet resonant of the national past: all Connprehensive exhibits at Helsinki's these exist in lovely harmony with National Museum added the glass and steel modern buildings. And knowledge-dimension that only actual they front on mostly broad, clean objects can, to my understanding of the avenues, frequently interrupted by prehistory, history and art of a creative parks and squares—flowery, green, people, the Finns. Their origins rich in sculpture and furnished with shrouded in a mystery lighted only by inviting benches and outdoor linguistic connections with the Magyars restaurants. and the Esthonians, the Finns came early to this northern land, then peopled All this architectural harmony and only by the primitive Lapps, from beauty is no accident, for new Esthonia across the Bay. construction or demolition of old buildings in Stockholm must first be Feeling for design is everywhere evident approved by a committee charged with in Helsinki's architecture, from its protecting and increasing the city's classical central square to the romantic beauty. buildings of the early part of this century and climaxing in the For the artist and the garden lover, magnificent garden suburbs which Stockholm offers an unusual joy in cluster on Helsinki's outskirts: in Mines' Garden, on the rocky cliffside of particular, elegantly simple and the Island of Lidingo. functionally practical Tapeola. On the Swedish island of Gotland, I But In prosperous, sensibly-ordered found something of interest for every Sweden is what I believe the most natural history taste. At the wildflower beautiful temperate world city: preserve of Allekvia, midst pines and Stockholm, spreading from Baltic flowery meadow, grow several species islands to mainland. Its copper-green, of terrestrial orchids including Orchis spike-spired churches, its medieval sambucina, Habenaria bifolia and and revival castles, its elaborate pubHc Cypripedium calceolus—closely related Bulletin February 1971 It to our large yellow moccasin. Bronze botanic garden which has been age man, about 1000 BC, in forested carefully kept as he knew it. In nearby glades and near tfie sea, built great Hammarby, Linnaeus' gracious country rock outlines of sfiips over burials— home and woodland is maintained. The magic vessels to bear tfie departed to botanic gardens of Uppsala, given by Aasgaard. On Stora Karlso island off Gustav III to the University in 1786, are Gotland, New Stone Age man, 2500 today immaculately kept and artistically BC, left cave dwellings. On the same designed. island, I found many sea birds, Further across from including colonies of guillemots, shags south, just is are and razorbills. Gotland's principal city, Denmark, Helsingborg. Nearby some of the most Visby, has some handsome medieval beautifully designed ruins. gardens in Europe: Norrviken Gardens at Bastad. The gardens' creator, Rudolf Abelin, was a landscape architect and at the turn of the century he began developing these varied gardens for his own pleasure. All undisguisedly Swedish, they nonetheless convey the moods of Japanese, Cloister, Baroque, Renaissance and Romantic gardens. The exotic moods are there, but they link to the Swedish setting of sea and rolling hills. Another masterful garden, this is Helsingborg itself, is the royal garden of Sofiero, where sprightly, 87-year-old King Gustav VI Adolf often indulges in his gardening hobby (he is also an active archaeology buff). A few minutes by ferry and I was in Denmark, at Elsinor, where Shakespeare set his tragedy at Kronberg Castle, but this turreted 16th Century Dutch Renaissance castle was built by of Visby, capital of the Swedish island Frederik II centuries after the historical Gotland. Hamlet. In Copenhagen I found another impressive castle, this the creation of Few Gothic cathedrals equal the Christian IV in 1606. Its gardens blend majesty of Uppsala's great Cathedral, from one style to another, herbaceous where the bones of St. Erik the King, border, knot garden and park-estate. martyred in Uppsala in 1160, lie in a box in the altar. The 13th golden high But garden landscaping isn't the only Cathedral stands over what century thing that rivets the eye in Denmark. was the probably greatest religious The design of jewelry, tableware, glass, center of Scandinavia, when the pagan chairs—almost everything that beguiles one-eyed god, Odin, reigned supreme from the shop windows along traded the for the of (he eye gift Copenhagen's pedestrian street wisdom). shopping area. And what can compare for gaity to an evening in the Tivoli This also is a place of university city Entertainment Park? almost reverent inspiration for botanists. It is here where Carl von Linne (founder of the Linnaean system of nomenclature and classification) lived Phil Clark is Chief of Field Museum and carried out his studies, using a Natural History Tours. 12 Bulletin February 1971 stating in this review: (1) The oceans quantitative information available this are not a "cornucopia" of mineral book is highly recommended. The wealth, and never will be. (2) Contrary pessimist will find here a great deal of to popular opinion, the oceans will quantitative justification to fortify his never be a major world food supply. gloom; however, the optimist will not They can supply at most only 2.5 times find himself vanquished by the data. their present output of food products. A few gleams of hope are seen: falling At best they can become a birth rates in some Asiatic countries : supplementary source for much-needed over the last decade; possibilities for protein, but never for food calories (i.e. increased yields of some crops in some carbohydrates and fats). (3) Petroleum places in the world; nuclear fission and natural gas will be expended in (breeder) reactors, and eventually about 100 years. Coal could last 400 fusion reactors, which are capable of years, unless we use it to replace providing energy for literally thousands petroleum, in which case, it would last of years. at most 200 years. (4) The only long-term source of energy will be The introduction (unsigned) to this book should read both before and Resources and Man nuclear power but only if we redesign be again our present power reactors to after completing the book. In it are by Committee on Resources and Man breeder-types. detailed twenty-six very specific of the National Research Council of the recommendations to establish policies National of Sciences. Academy Some of the authors in this book that will wisely stretch resources as far San Francisco, Freeman & Co. (1969). clearly have worked harder at their as possible into the future. $5.95. respective contributions than others. The chapter by Thomas Levering on Many years ago Winston Churchill "Mineral Resources from the Land" is posed a question regarding the fall of Britannia as a world With each new famine somewhere in disappointing because he spends most impending in the uncontrolled the world, with each new medical of his time in a belabored discussion power. If, end, cause mankind to advance that adds a new control on on the problems involved in making population demands outstretch its resources and death without a commensurate control mineral-resource projections. This earthly Civilization herself tumbles, we will on birth, the specter of world identical kind of problem is, of course, have cause to ask the same overpopulation becomes more and faced by most of the other authors, again — more evident even to the most who, nevertheless, state their methods question: "Did she fall or was she oblivious observer. Will mankind and limitations and proceed to their pushed?" choose quantity of life at the expense respective assignments. The chapter by of its quality, or the reverse? Indeed, is Marston Bates on "The Human there still a chance to make such a Ecosystem" is completely qualitative choice? Over the past few years these and is more philosophical in approach. Its as 1 Dr. Edward J. Olsen, curator of questions have been bandied about position, Chapter , however, by mineralogy, Field Museum with a high degree of emotionalism on serves to delimit the areas to be both sides. This book, Resources and considered. Chapter 2, "Interactions Man, details, with almost complete between Man and His Resources," lack of emotion, the hard numerical consists of a series of vague, facts on both sides of this issue. Eight qualitative, sociological generalizations experts have teamed together, each and is entirely out of place in a book contributing a chapter, to address the of this kind. The chapters by question of how far the Earth's S. Hendricks, P. Cloud, N. Keyfitz, and resources will stretch to accommodate W. Ricker are excellent and workmanlike. a population that is presently doubling The final chapter (8) by M. K. Hubbert itself every 35 years! on "Energy Resources" is outstanding and is the finest exposition on this The book examines four major areas: subject available to the general reader. food (1) projected population, (2) It covers all possibilities for large-scale resources, (3) mineral resources, energy generation (except wood-burning (4) energy resources. Each question is and wind) in a thorough and handled in a careful, analytical manner quantitative manner, and draws together with hard numbers and definite a huge range of source material on conclusions based on these numbers. this subject. Thus, it is not a book for casual reading, nor is it for the person who For the reader who is critically seeks vague generalizations. Some of interested in these questions and wishes the specific conclusions are worth to have the best summation of Bulletin February 1971 13 LETTERS in often To the Editor: not yet a man (that is, of the genus tomb walls and funerary papyri, Homo). One must be arbitrary in drawing illustrated by the deceased spearing a in I believe you have made a mistake your a line between man and apes, and for turtle. According to Dr. Henry Fischer's story of the Origin of Skeletons in animals this reason the date of two million years excellent study Ancient Egyptian In the December Bulletin on the chart. It on my chart is also only approximate Representations ot Turtles (New for says man has been on the earth and arbitrary. York 1968), the turtle was cast as the Sun's two million years. Well, you may be antagonist because of the exceedingly mistaken, man has been on the earth As to his other point, man was certainly furtive and somewhat nocturnal habits of between eight and 15 million years ago, in the Americas well before the 9,000 year the Egyptian river turtle Trionyx niloticus, date to the La Brea skull, but and I have proof. assigned which eventually impressed the people here we are talking of thousands, not more than the sturdiness and renewing. On 4 2 In the 1970 of page paragraph Young millions, years. (Dr. Fischer finds one anti-turtle spell Peoples World Book Science Supplement in the Coffin the Middle Robert H. Denison already Texts, examination of fossil teeth quotes "after Kingdom predecessor of the Book of the and which had lain in the collections jaws (Dr. Denison recently retired from Field Dead, just as we have seen a recollection of the Calcutta and British Museums for Museum, having served as Curator of Fossil of that reptile's originally good role in the Drs. L. Simons and many years, Elwyn Fishes in the Museum's Department of latter body of texts.) David B. both of Yale Pilbean, University, Geology for the past 22 years.) assigned them to a manlike homonid Turtle amulets had been discontinued that lived in India and Africa between eight during the early New Kingdom (indeed, To the editor: and 15 million years ago." They took some old ones were disfigured upon radiocarbon tests on the bones in rediscovery); they were resumed c. 700 The Bulletin's recent article on turtles in California in 1969. BC, but these were made to ward off mythology and folklore contained much turtles. The late period featured many but it did not Dr. Ales Hrdlicka of the interesting material, explore In California, charms of dangerous and noxious beasts convinced that the roles of the turtle in ancient Egyptian U.S. National Museum was based on a common ot from magical principle man had not reached the Americas religion. Apparently, prehistory (before homeopathy, or like guarding against like. c. 3000 BC in the Middle earlier than 2,000 years ago. Researchers Egypt) through and troubled interlude at the Los Angeles County Museum of Kingdom subsequent Edmund S. Metzer (c. 2000-1575 BC) turtles were good luck; Natural History announced in 1969 that a Chicago turtle were made skull of a woman in the La Brea tar pits many figurines throughout that some used as burial had been tested by means of radiocarbon. span, objects. the protective shell and ability to It turned out that the skull was 9,000 Probably withdraw and caused turtles to be years old, more than four times more than emerge associated with and what Dr. Ales Hrdlicka had said. preservation resurrection; this idea survived in a I the later of the I hope this will prove what have said, passage from Book Dead, we should keep our minds open for further "I have become Khepri (rising sun). I have proof of man's existence. germinated as plants; I have covered/ clothed myself as a turtle." Charles Matza, Jr. Please address all letters to the editor to Chicago That was written when the turtle had spell Bulletin already been redefined as an enemy, and Field Museum of Natural History it shows the conservative tendency of The author replies: Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive Egypt's faith which resulted in the retaining Chicago, Illinois 60605 Charles Matza has been misled by some of contradictions! During the New Kingdom tricky terminology. The "man-like homonid" and later periods (from c. 1575 BC) the The editors reserve the right to edit he refers to has been considered to be formula "May Re (sun-god) live and the letters for length. a member of the same family as man, but turtle die!" was constantly reiterated on 14 Bulletin February 1971 Dr. Lewis Back from New Ireland variety of geological phenomena will be studied in the field, and fossils and minerals Dr. Phillip Lewis, curator of primitive art and can be collected in the mines and Melanesian ethnology at the Field Museum quarries. of Natural History in Chicago, has returned Anyone interested in joining this from a yearlong expedition to the Melanesian nontechnical field trip should phone Mrs. Island of New Ireland in the Territory of Maria Matyas, University of Chicago Papua and New Guinea, where he was Extension, at Financial 6-8300 for further studying art in its social context. This trip information. Members of the Museum are was sponsored jointly by the Museum and eligible for a discount. the National Science Foundation. This is Dr. Lewis' second trip to New New Hall of Jades Ireland, the first having taken place in Field Museum's famous collection of 1953-54, when on a Fulbright Scholarship Chinese jades will again on in to the Australian National University in go display October in a its as Canberra, he was enabled to study art in setting befitting standing one of the finest in the United States. Mrs. context in New Ireland. Since 1954 he has John L. Kellogg, who has contributed so been studying museum collections from much to the cultural life of the is New Ireland in European, Australian and city, the new installation U.S. museums, those of the Field making possible through Lester 1895 - 1970 including Armour, her generous gift. In appreciation of her Museum, which has the second largest New and as a memorial to her husband, this Lester Armour, long-time banker and Ireland collection among world museums— gift hall will be named "The John L. and Helen philanthropist, and a member of the Board about 2700 pieces. In 1970 he showed Kellogg Hall." of Trustees of Field Museum since 1939, photos of these museum specimens, which passed away on December 26 at the age of had been collected over the past 100 years, During the past year and a half that the Hall 75. Through the years, he served as a to New Irelanders in order to learn more of Jades has been closed to the public, member of the Building and Nominating about them, he observed modern versions extensive remodeling plans have been Committees, and since 1962 on the Finance of their major memorial ceremonial, called underway for the new hall. Mrs, Thomas Committee, offering his help and guidance malanggan, and he studied social changes Yuhas, who her M.A. in Asian art In matters the completed many vitally affecting in the same village visited in 1954 and history at the University of Michigan, spent Museum. He vi^as a Corporate Member, Life again in 1970. one at Field Museum and Member and Contributor of Field Museum. year researching the collection under the Lewis found that the art of making the authenticating supervision of Dr. Kenneth M. Starr, former In 1935 Mr. Armour retired from the meat carved and painted wooden images (called curator of Asian archaeology and ethnology. packing business founded by his malanggan, also) is virtually dead, but that grandfather, where he had held the position the ceremonies still flourish, but without the Hundreds of the choicest and most of Executive Vice President. Later he carving. Concrete gravestones are now representative jades from the Neolithic became Vice Chairman of the Board of the made and they are supplanting the formerly period through the Ch'ing Dynasty Harris Trust & Savings Bank, a post he held made wooden carvings. "A sad fact is," (1644-1912 AD.) were selected. They will until 1963. said Lewis, "that just at the time [now] be installed in recessed display areas that when New Irelanders are affluent enough to are specially lighted to bring out the details sponsor large and complex memorial and subtleties of each object. celebrations, there aren't enough carvers still operating to be supported by the new Porcelains, bronzes, scrolls, rubbings, wealth, so it goes into the expanding system ceramics and poetry will supplement the of new-style memorials, i.e., with concrete jades in the new hall, putting them into grave markers." proper historical perspective and showing how the symbolism of a dynastic period Dr. Lewis is planning a book on New carried through in various art forms. Ireland art which will incorporate the field Carpeting and teak walls will set off the observations of modern social context which displays contribute to a contemplative have a direct bearing on how the art was ^nd atmosphere. made and used in earlier times. Lester Armour Geology Field Trip to Ozarks Mr. Armour was one of three prominent Dr. Matthew H. associate business men appointed public advisers to Nitecki, curator, of will conduct a field the Midwest Stock Exchange In 1965 by Department Geology, to the Ozarks 4-10. members of the Exchange's Board of trip April This region that Governors. cuts across parts of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma is a diversified geological area of Among his many humanitarian activities, Mr. igneous and sedimentary rocks, some at Armour supported the Salvation Army for least one billion years old. The sea covered many years and was a member of its the area many times, depositing advisory board. He was former Chairman of predominantly limey sediments which later the Board of Trustees of the Illinois Institute became sedimentary rock. Other geological of Technology, and a member of the Board processes produced deposits of mineable A sensitively carved small jade horse from the Sung Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) is Infused with a feeling for at the time of his death. ores, particularly lead and iron. A wide the spirit of the animal. Bulletin February 1971 15 The Institute will have six One NSF Grant for "The Flora of Guatemala" components. r to conduct basic SCANDINAVIA: will be a laboratory LANDS OF Field Museum of Natural History tias been the REFRESHING ecological research of scope beyond FJORDS & MIDNIGHT SUN a of $44,000 by the National awarded grant of existing agencies. An office of capacity 8 -JULY 2, 1971 to JUNE Science Foundation support continuing and will assist other forecasting planning A $500 research entitled "The Flora of Guatemala." $2,405 (INCLUDES agencies, public and private, in use of TAX-DEDUCTIBLE DONATION) The to run two years, is under the grant, existing ecological knowledge to predict Fjords, outdoor museums, gardens, direction of Dr. Louis O. Williams, chairman and thus make practical plans to avoid wildflowers, birds, archaeological sites, of Botany. architecture, design, Linnaeus' gardens, of the Department localized ecological problems. A division of great cathedrals, historic palaces, research will work to bridge the gap in According to Dr. Williams, when completed. policy opera, midnight sun Lappland, between fundamental ecological knowledge reindeer: Bergen, Oslo, Helsinki, Tapiola, "The Flora of Guatemala" will be the first Lake Inari, Stockholm, Gotland Island, the and responsible public policy and social comprehensive and modern account of Uppsala, Gothenburg, Kattegat, action. An office of information resources Halsingborg, Norrviken, Sofiero, life of any large region of the plant Helsinfors, will be a centralized clearinghouse Bosjokloster, Lund, Copenhagen. American tropics. It will serve as important library services, WRITE: reference material for scientists in other providing comprehensive computational services, and inventories of FIELD MUSEUM WORLDWIDE fields who need to know about the NATURAL HISTORY TOURS ecological research in progress. A division vegetation of the area. ROOSEVELT RD. AT LAKE SHORE DR. and education will build of communication CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605 Eleven volumes of the flora covering lines of two-way communication between are flowering plants, ferns and mosses ecologists and all segments of the public, finished at present, representing thirty years including other scientists, public and private more of research. It is estimated that four decision-makers, and the general public. A the final four years are needed to complete division of biome modeling and synthesis volumes. will have primary responsibility for planning and coordinating scientific activities, and will provide research assistance to outside Launched National Institute of Ecology scientists. Detailed plans for a National Institute of A mixture of public and private funds Ecology were presented to a meeting of the derived from both grants and income from Institute's founders at Field Museum, contractual services will support the December 30, 1970. The Institute, as a Institute, so that it can be independent of research, policy study, information clearing- any governmental or private agency house, and public education institution, (including its parent organization, the should strongly advance our understanding Ecological Society of America). of ecology and help us reverse our increasing degradation of the environment. The Museum is one of the founders, along Student Program with some thirty-five universities, other Anthropology natural history museums, laboratories, Field Museum has been awarded a grant of and research and development institutions, $8,705 from the National Science Dr. Robert F. oceanographic institutes. Foundation for support of its Student has Inger, chairman of scientific programs, Science Training Program in Anthropology, work, been deeply involved in the planning scheduled for June 28 through August 6. committee of the begun in 1968 by a study The course is under the direction of Miss with financial Ecological Society of America, Harriet Smith of the Museum's Department Science support from the National of Education. Foundation. Henry S. Dybas, head. Division of Insects, has been appointed Museum The six-week program is a unique one in Dr. in the representative to the Institute, and that it provides a sound foundation Rupert L. Wenzel, chairman. Department of various fields of anthropology and is Zoology, is alternate. designed to assist students in testing a career interest. It is open to 27 high-ability The Society had been concerned since high school students who have just 1965, well before the term ecology became completed their junior year. Selection will be an word, about the fact that everyday on the basis of academic achievement, information concerning the existing recommendations of teachers and personal hazards of much public and ecological interviews. to private activity is not getting through or the either governmental agencies public. In its eighth year, the training course about the It was no less concerned present includes lectures by outstanding authorities, and future needs for new knowledge to seminars, workshops, research projects, of new predict the ecological effects study of Museum collections and almost has technology. Since then everyone participation in an archaeological at least become aware that large-scale use excavation. of herbicides in Vietnam, SSTs in the skies, forms are available from and oil spills in any body of water must Application high and must be have immediate, probably enduring, and in school officials or Miss Smith Field no later than the long run possibly unendurable returned to Museum environmental consequences. March 15. 16 Bulletin February 1971 Hours Coming in March 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Monday-Thursday in an exhibit of broad 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday Color Nature, scope, the color dimension of Field 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturday and Sunday investigates and February 1 and 15 Museum's huge collections. The varieties of color in nature and the meaning of The Museum Library is open coloration in plants and animals are closely 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. examined. March 10 through October 10. Monday through Friday CALENDAR Hall 25. "To See Or Not To See," Spring Journey Begins February 7 for Children, begins March 10. Youngsters learn about the diversity of colors and color 26th Chicago international Exhibition patterns of selected animals, as well as of Nature Photography, featuring the advantages of mimicry and pigmentation award-winning photographic prints. changes, with the aid of a questionnaire. Sponsored by the Nature Camera Club of All boys and girls who can read and write Chicago and Field Museum. South Lounge. may participate in the free program. Journey Through February 28. sheets are available at Museum entrances. Continuing Through May 31. of the Different of Catalogue Specimens February 7 and February 14 Cloth Collected in the Three Voyages of March 6 Captain Cook, to the Southern Hemisphere. A showing of prize-winning transparencies London, Alexander Shaw, 1787, shown in from the 26th Chicago International the South Lounge. The rare copy consists Film-Lecture Series resumes with Exhibition of Nature Photography, 2:30 p.m., Spring of actual tapa cloth specimens collected James Simpson Theatre. "The New Israel," narrated by Ray Green. during Captain Cook's to the voyages A vivid and up-to-date portrayal of this South Seas (1768-1780). The volume is the ancient land and its people, that is a blend of Mrs. A. W. F. Fuller. gift Through of the past and the present. 2:30 p.m., 7 IVIarchSI. Through February James Simpson Theatre. A Child Goes Forth, an exhibit of toys and games from around the world, examines Life in Other Worlds? An exhibit of the March 13 their importance in the cultural development Murchison meteorite, a Type II carbonaceous of children. Hall 9. chondrlte, of which only 14 exist out of the almost 2,000 known meteorites. Spring Film-Lecture Series continues with "The Call of the Tide," narrated Recently, amino acids, possible building Running Stanton Waterman. in the blocks of life, have been reported in this Meetings by Photographed islands of French much of it on meteorite. South Lounge. Through March 21. Polynesia, sea bottom and along barrier reefs, it is a February 9, 7:45 p.m.. Nature Camera Club revealing study of the inhabitants and the of Chicago many forms of sea-life surrounding them. John James Audubon's elephant folio, February 9, 8 p.m., Chicagoland Glider 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre. "The Birds of America," on display in the Council North Lounge. A different plate from the February 10, 7 p.m., Ornithological rare, first-edition set is featured each Chicago day. 20 Society March February 10, 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto— National Speleological Society Spring Film-Lecture Series presents "Exploring Indian Country," Winter Journey "Uganda—Land of Stanley and Livingston," for Children. The free, self-guided tour February 11,8 p.m., Chicago Mountaineering narrated by William Stockdale. Scenes of enables youngsters to see American Indians Club wildlife, the wonders of national parks and of three environments as the early explorers the in the cities and remote 14, 2 p.m., Shell Club people saw them. All boys and girls who can read February Chicago areas. 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre. and write may participate. Journey sheets February 21, 2 p.m., Illinois Orchid Society are available at Museum entrances. Through March 9. March 9, 7:45 p.m., Nature Camera Club of Chicago March 27 March 9, 8 p.m., Chicagoland Glider 7Sth Anniversary Exhibit: A Sense of Council Spring Film-Lecture Series offers "Sweden Wonder, A Sense of History, A Sense of Year Around," narrated by Ed Lark. All March 10, 7 p.m., Chicago Ornithological Discovery, continues indefinitely. Exhibits four seasons are encompassed in this Society relating to Field Museum's past and present motion picture journey to the land of the and current research projects are shown March 10, 7:30 p.m., Windy City Grotto— midnight sun. 2:30 p.m., James Simpson in a new and different way. Hall 3. National Speleological Society Theatre. y .^ 11^ 1 jiume 42, Number 3 iield Museum q|lif»tural History {h |k^>rthe patterning of '^Fiuntan behavior might be explained by the archaeological record. BULLETIN Volume 42, Nunnber 3 March 1971 2 The Revolution in Archaeology Paul S. Martin it may yield results that help to explain contemporary world problems 8 International Nature Photography Exhibition William C. Burger nature's beauty and diversity on film 12 Fieldiana Patricia M. Williams the Museum's contributions to science that the public seldom sees 14 Field Briefs 16 Letters Calendar Cover: The Revolution in Archaeology. Photo at right courtesy Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology. Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Bulletin March 1971 The Revolution, Up to and including 1960, I pursued four goals: (1) the application of palynology; (2) thie closing of the gaps in the archaeological record by working in relatively unexplored areas; (3) a historical reconstruction of the relationship between the prehistoric "cultures" of eastern Arizona and the historic Hopi and Zuni cultures; and (4) the establishment of a stratigraphy of traits for the area. In connmon with most of my colleagues, I had emphasized culture traits, trait lists, histories of sites and/or areas— all organized in a time-space dimension. I entertained the illusion that the facts would speak for c themselves. I was carrying on "normal science," or solving jig-saw puzzles. Since 1960, my goals and interests have been modified by the trend that is spreading across the country—a trend that symbolizes a shift from .a emphasis on particularisms to an K<^ imaginative era in which we build a cultural-materialist research strategy that can deal with the questions of 1^. causality and origins and laws. The trend toward a re-examination of goals, research methodology, and paradigms seems apparent in other fields— sociology, linguistics, geology, biochemistry, and physical anthropology —to mention only a few. As a result, I have substantially altered the bearing, emphasis, and procedures of my research. Thus, a conceptual transformation, a revolution, has taken place for me. In 1961-62, the subject matter of my researches changed slightly—to wit: I developed the desire for information on cultural ecology of eastern Arizona; but I was still concerned with the L^^^^ n Archaeology Paul S. Martin to recalls the then- It I now feel in a better position make especially when one adaptive strategies occur? appears contributions to anthropology. I now current definitions of archaeology: that strategy shifts occur when there regard the use of logic and of scientific —Archaeology, the science of what Is are major changes in population, methods as the minimum acceptable old In the career of humanity, integration, technology, or differentiation — I standard for good archaeology. By this especially as revealed by excavations particularly, the latter two. began to I mean the procedure of advancing a ot the sites of prehistoric occupation. feel that our research was futile; we hypothesis (defined as a statement of Archaeology, of course, Is a sort ot were, in fact, not increasing our or it relationship between two more unwritten history. knowledge of the past nor applying to observed data or to of our variables) explain —Archaeology deals with the contemporary problems behavior. the of By interchange beginnings of culture and with those society. deduction and the induction, hypothesis phases of culture which are now must tested with At this time, a crisis took place in my can and be extinct. independent but relevant data. Thus, professional career. I had been vaguely — reconstructs human Archaeology aware of new of fresh breezes by taking as our hypotheses general trends, from earliest times to the history that were propositions concerning causes for disturbing my mouldering present. It Is concerned with the culture change, we shall be able to ideas. I finally awakened to the fact beginnings of culture and also with make contributions to anthropology, to that I had to resolve this crisis either cultures and civilizations that are now with what was formulate probabilistic laws of cultural by catching up going extinct. dynamics, the results of which may be on, or by resigning myself to becoming relevant to world a fossil. I must admit that at first the contemporary In general, then, there was agreement different ideas and approaches problems. among most American archaeologists outraged me. I was hostile to them, that archaeology was concerned with probably because a 35-year reconstruction of culture history and professional investment was at stake. lifeways as well as with the delineation In describing this adaptation to my I was afraid of things strange and new. of cultural processes. We had a model physical, social, and intellectual It is not uncommon for scientists to tor working out culture history, but environment, I shall try to explain resist scientific discoveries. lacked a model for explaining culture how this revolution came about. I do change. We were slowly realizing the this, not because my metamorphosis Long before my dissatisfaction and importance of understanding cultural is important to anyone but myself, but unfulfillment became articulate, a few processes over vast periods of time. because the changes that I describe archaeologists and anthropologists are the of the dissatisfactions from 1930 on had concluded that our product These goals of archaeology had at one shared This traditional methods were them by many archaeologists. time been satisfactory as paradigms; leading be of to down dead ends, and essay may help younger, but, gradually, the mortar fell out of astray, up creative men who that blank walls. It was recognize the joints of our "edifice"! Crucial against borne in on these disaffected students something is lacking in their research questions arose which could not be but do not that is of strategies who quite know answered with the existing models. archaeology part anthropology and a social science. As how to remedy it. For instance, why did the mobile is, therefore, however, it was at best a hunting-gathering culture of the practiced, stunted and of Southwest change to a sedentary one; history presentation facts for their own at or why did cultures of fVlesoamerica sake; and, worst, Some Robert a kind of The years ago, Maynard become urban? These are specific stamp-collecting pursuit. Hutchins is to have described of of alleged instances of a more general question: interpretation interrelationships as a "tool course" events, and could on archaeology that Under what conditions do changes in time, space go belonged in the curricula of vocational ad Infinitum and never get anywhere. schools and not in those of a university. As one archaeologist put it, our accomplishments were "sterile This scornful evaluation really racked me, but it had enough truth in it to make it impossible to disregard. Actually, he was not far off target, Bulletin March 1971 Archaeology methodological virtuosity." We were in the origin and antiquity of the American that was to bring me hope of renewed a cul de sac because comparing forms Indians; it had demonstrated the progress and meaning in archaeology. and systematizing our data were not separate development of cultures in the Lewis R. Binford, a student of Leslie leading to an elucidation of the Old and New World; it had outlined the A. and his students were structure of social systems any more evolution of cultures, the origins of White, what others had stumbled than did the ordering and taxonomy of agriculture, and the development of discovering on, that the traditional of life forms by Linnaeus explain the systems of writing; it had aided in the namely ways were and process of organic evolution. destruction of many myths and much archaeology unpromising ineffective. were not folklore concerning giants, races, and Fortunately, they We were confronted committed to the archaeologists human origins. deeply establishment; with the bewildering and perplexing they perceived that the old rules no fact of a disparity between what we I do not disparage or belittle these longer "defined a playable game." wanted to accomplish—an explanation achievements. They were not, however, It is interesting to note that, as was true of why cultures change—and what we explaining, predicting, or clarifying of other great innovators, they were were actually doing—histories of sites. cultural phenomena; they were not young. For example, we recognized, though concerned with contemporary problems At this time, four of Binford's students dimly, the desirability of explaining of behavioral science; and, finally, they —James A. Leslie G. past cultural processes, but a research were not helping man to understand Brown, Freeman, James N. and William A. strategy for conducting such studies and to interpret his world. Hill, Longacre —were with me in had not been developed in collaborating this be showed archaeological theory. In fact, we had Clearly, impasse would resolved archaeological analyses. They as it always has been in science—by me how we could build on what had the emergence of a new paradigm. been done and how advances could This one would not be an extension of be made. They were kind, patient, the older models that had guided us, stimulating mentors. 1 perked up. 1 but would be, rather, a reconstruction listened. I attended seminars. I reread. of the field from new fundamentals. As 1 found most of the theories and I look back with the benefit of practices of the past obsolete. I slowly hindsight, I think we began to realize became acquainted with new concepts that goals (explanations), investigative and with the need for employing new techniques, and collecting of data are and methodologically sophisticated no theory and we lacked goals. We not independent variables. On the techniques of data acquisition and were in a vexing and painful contrary, they stand in a dependent analysis. I began to perceive what is predicament. We were digging up sites, relationship, one to the other. After meant by the nature of scientific and towns, cities; classifying pottery that, a temporary agreement about explanations and devices for and tools with a fatuous obsession; what constitutes good research strategy systematizing knowledge. Hence, a dating places and things; writing and what results were acceptable small group of archaeologists in and nowhere. reports arriving Rarely came slowly into being. various parts oi' the country accepted were and explanations predictions cultural-materialism as a valid strategy. in I attempted; seldom, generalizations or Then, 1961, by good fortune was They rejected historical-particularism; launched into a probabilistic laws. new stream of events they stressed the need for devising a research design that would conform to True, had contributed archaeology uniform or accepted rationales on significantly to general knowledge: it which to base acceptance or rejection had established the probable antiquity of hypotheses. This group, and I now and origin of man; it had contributed consider myself part of it, has substantially to the delineation of re-oriented its theoretical and Biblical and Grecian history; it had made a significant start toward defining Bulletin March 1971 whereas the Chinese methodological systems. These men and white keys, strange looking knobs as immutable; astronomers the same centuries are creating a new paradigm. en masse, a bench, and a rack. They during are not both visually aware of the (prior to A.D. 1500) had recorded the This change may not seem to some so same object. The non-organist must appearances of new stars (novae), profound as the shift from geocentrism learn music and study the organ comets, and sun-spots. In other words, to heliocentrism or those changes before he can see (hear, feel, sense) the Ptolemaic model held by western what the organist sees. Thus, the two astronomers prevented them from men may be said to have vastly actually observing what was there to different conceptual organizations and, see. Their model blinded them. By the since their visual fields have a different same token, our models and our organization, they observe different hypotheses must be created in such a things. way as to include multi-variate explanations in order that we may not it is that the armed So archaeologist be blind to reality. The paradigm within with a different conceptual organization which we work determines what one is and a new paradigm can now see in going to "see"—to observe. familiar what no one else has brought about by Kepler, Newton, or objects seen before. He has a new of Thus, as a result of a new I paradigm, Boyle, to name but a few. The point way his he knows I live and work in a different world. wish to stress is that a new paradigm thinking about universe; now how to "see" ancient sites, The new that has permits one to see things differently paradigm emerged stone in a new and was a direct to the crisis that today than one did yesterday, even if stratigraphy, tools, response For I had arisen because the traditional and when looking at the same meaningful perspective. example, was askew. phenomena. used to be a virtuoso of pottery types. archaeological paradigm Given almost any sherd from the This kind of crisis leads to a scientific Let us consider two men looking at the southwestern United States, I could revolution. console of a large pipe-organ. One place it spatially and temporally. But I What, then, are some aspects of this man is an organist; the other, was unable to tell you a thing about and how unlearned musically. The organist the interrelationship of shapes, designs, revolution-inciting paradigm is archaeology redefined? instantly "sees" many things: the types, and functions. I had not "seen" various manuals (keyboards) as that a given pottery type x might have To claim that some archaeologists representing separate organs—the been used almost exclusively for ritual have adopted a new paradigm is solo, the swell, the great, the choir, or burial purposes. Nor did it ever and the pedal keyboard, on which the occur to me to postulate that pottery feet play; the stops, each controlling a was more than a type or that it single rank or multiple ranks of pipes; represented part of an articulated the couplers, the thumb pistons, toe system that had been adapted by man studs, expression pedals, and more. to his environment in order to carry on The non-organist is looking at the the business of living. I was unable to same details, but is not seeing that a see that the patterning of human certain stop will produce a loud tone behavior might be explained by the or one of a deep pitch or that one's variability in the archaeological record. feet can "play" the pedals as nimbly to that when The force of what I am to make equivalent asserting they as one's fingers. All he sees is a trying clear about the to "see" be look at their world they see something complex looking "thing" with black ability may new and different. If the claim is true, made clearer by examples. It is said that prior to the time of Copernicus, western astronomers, obsessed by the Ptolemaic model, regarded the heavens Bulletin March 1971 Archaeology of in time and at one and then I should be able to specify some reports included a history the region point place, of the principal changes in their or a reconstruction of the history of a how it is transformed into a different conceptual organizations and the site. In a sense, it was at best highly system in the same area at a later of —not different things they observe. I think it sophisticated antiquarianism. time. The comparison— systems is possible to point out some of the individual "traits" provides data for function of major differences. In the new view, the understanding trends and for — of — science and hence archaeology comprehending regularities. Once these According to the old view, archaeology is to establish general laws covering are comprehended, one can make or was defined as a special kind of the behavior of the observed events probabilistic predictions. history. Data were regarded primarily objects with which the science in as the function and result of unique question is concerned. This enables us Under the old view, culture was events, and the task of the to connect our knowledge of separated defined implicitly or explicitly as a set archaeologist was to collect random events and to make reliable predictions or an association of traits, qualities, facts and create a reconstruction of about other events. Statements with a properties, or features. Arrowheads, past events and of by-gone life-ways. high degree of probability covering a pots, houses, firepits, orientation of the A whole was to be formed from broad range of phenomena are among dead, bone tools, manos, axes, random data. the important aims of science. ornaments—all of these and hundreds more are traits. Thus, archaeologists According to the new view, Our ultimate goal in anthropology and spoke of the Effigy Mound "culture," archaeology is a science, for "science" archaeology is to formulate laws of the Desert "culture," the Beaker includes not only physical and cultural dynamics; to seek trends and "culture," the Megalithic "culture." biological fields but also the social causes of human behavior; and, as Each of these was characterized as sciences— to anthropology, sociology, noted above, make probabilistic possessing certain traits that set it off economics. Even historical inquiry predictions. from all other neighboring or distant does not differ radically from the "cultures." Archaeologists even spoke To this to an generalizing natural or social sciences, apply archaeological of certain tribes as being the in to either situation is neither difficult nor respect the logical patterns "brown-ware (pottery) people." Minute of its or Human behavior is patterned explanations the logical impossible. differences in projectile point shapes and and structures of its concepts. (demonstrable demonstrated); were thought of as being important in if the has not been disturbed Archaeologists must now regard data patterning distinguishing one people from another; as erosion, or it unique expressions of recurring by plough, pot-hunters, and whole migrations of people were can be recovered proper techniques by postulated on the basis of a single trait of limited excavation, that is, an by or a unique association of traits. adequately designed sampling procedure. Data relevant to all parts of Under the new view, culture is thought the extinct socio-cultural system are of as man's extrasomatic adaptation to preserved. We have only to devise a his total sociological and ecological proper definition of culture and environment. Prehistoric communities appropriate techniques for extracting (sites) are studied as whole systems this information from the extant data. each subsystem—technological, Thus, a systems approach to culture sociological, ideological—of which is cultural data processes. Understanding permits us to view a site at a single a closely knit, interrelated set of is worthwhile as a means of in time. primarily point When one system is functional parts. Patterns of significantly understanding these recurring to we compared another,— perceive co-varying clusters of stylistic processes. process at work that is, change with categories and attributes of data or without continuity. By process, I derived from all subsystems are sought. In the old view, reports or monographs mean the analysis of a system at one concerned with archaeological survey From the old view, insofar as and/or of all complete descriptions archaeology held any logical structures, recovered data from a site were it was thought to be inductive. To considered such all-important. Usually, some, it demonstrated a kind of mysticism in that artifacts recovered Bulletin March 1971 from a dig were assumed to speak to colleague describe the data from an human behavior. Archaeology is the archaeologist who thereby impressive series of excavations and anthropology because it uses the identified himself with the objects then tell his audience that he did not concept of culture. Because these (supplemented the real with the ideal). know what to do with these data!) goals are accomplished by using data However, facts cannot be expected to from the past, the science is most have unscramble themselves and produce a Actually, archaeologists archaeology. Using data from the past, prior or implicit ideas and theory in the same way as scrambled postulates however, does not make it a type of and even derived theories, but letters in an animated cartoon they history. It is not history because often fail to make these unscramble and form a word. Random explicit. They archaeology deals with general shrink from the ridicule that facts were avidly collected in the belief might relationships between variables of beset them if were to make that this was good procedure and that they human behavior, and not with known these It would take the end (reconstructing prehistoric hypotheses. explaining sequences of unique events. but little intellectual shift to train life-ways) justified the means themselves in the not resolve (haphazard collecting of data, with no hypothetico-deductive The new paradigm does would then realize that Its in goals or hypotheses in mind). approach. They any problems. value rests the hypotheses are formulated or invented fact that it revolutionizes our methods From the new view, the time to retool to account for observed facts and not of thinking and permits us to view our is here. It is the consensus that the the other way around. inquiries in a different way and with fruitful approach to a science of the greater scope. It is a new way of past (as in all sciences) lies in those Our knowledge of the past can only be regarding the problems of archaeology. systems of logic in which deduction increased by these procedures of It is high time that archaeologists make and induction interplay. interplay and feedback of deduction- use of the new research tools given induction, formulating hypotheses them by the logic and structure of can be it need Archaeology structured, concerning human behavior and then science. not be or Tentative haphazard vague. testing them by relevant archaeological be hypotheses may deductively data. The only limits to increasing our formulated to direction to scientific give knowledge of the past lie in poor Such Although I have written this essay in the first person, investigation. hypotheses intellectual training and in failing to I emphasize that my efforts have been the results of determine what data should be understand that all archaeological suggestions, collaboration and cooperation v»ith young, ardent, capable, and dedicated scientists— collected at a given point in an to remains have relevance propositions Lewis R. Binford. James A. Brown, Leslie G. means of test John M. James N. Mark P. investigation by bearing upon cultural processes and Freeman, Fritz. HiU, Leone, William A. Longacre. Fred T. Plog. Edwin N. implications. It can be shown that the events of past times. The accuracy of Wilmsen—to name but a few. old method of fact is a collecting our knowledge of the past may be Adapted and reprinted, by permission of the Society sterile procedure and produces a measured the to which our by degree for American Archaeology, from American Antiquity, morass. such a will Worse, procedure hypotheses about the past are Volume 36, Number 1. January 1971. fail to reveal and will lead regularities confirmed or rejected. Dr. Paul S. Martin is chairman emeritus ol to no conclusion. (Recently, I heard a antliropoiogy at Field Museum. In the light of the above suggestions, we redefine archaeology as a discipline that deals with the socio- cultural systems and cultural processes of the past. Archaeology is a social science because its goal is to explain Bulletin March 1971 International nature photograp More photographers than ever before this year sent more photographs than ever before to be considered for the 26th Chicago International Exhibition of Nature Photography. Over 4,000 color slides and 400 prints were submitted by some 1,000 photographers from 48 states and many other countries. Field Museum and the Nature Camera Club of Chicago are joint sponsors of this biggest exhibition of nature photography in the v\/orld, held in the Museum. We wish there were space to reproduce more than the four entries shown here. No monetary awards are involved. It is a noncommercial, nonprofessional event. Most entrants are amateur but avid nature photographers. But the honor of having one's work accepted is an acknowledged standard of accomplishment that even some professionals seek. A lot of work is involved in opening boxes, carefully preparing all the slides and prints for judging, showing, and finally returning to their owners. Most of it is done by members of the Nature Camera Club, with assistance by the Museum staff in setting up the exhibit. The challenge of putting nature's beauty and diversity on film makes this hobby so exciting. The reward comes when people respond to an unusual glimpse of nature caught by your camera —something they may otherwise never have seen or noticed. William Burger President, Nature Camera Club of Chicago Bulletin March 1971 iy exhibition 7v«:t-C- ^£' W-^ ->^ ^'^ . :,^- Photos: Sand Curves (page 9), by Alexander Oupper, Lodi, California. Redwood in Fog (page 10), by Dr. Fred Modern. Long Beach, California. Caracal Lynx (page 11), by Earl Kubis, Downers Grove, Illinois. Machaeon Swallowtail (page 11), by Tom Webb, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Bulletin March 1971 11 FIELDIANA Last year was Fieldiana's 75th birthday. At that time the Museum itself was still In those 75 years Field Museum has evolving toward its present division Patricia M. Williams published over 1 ,100 issues of Fieldiana. of interests and the scientific series The list of Fieldiana titles stands a reflects this evolution. Then, as now, towering 22 feet high in the Museum's there was a Botanical, Zoological and 75th Anniversary Exhibit and Fieldiana's Anthropological Series but instead of a distribution is worldwide in scope. And Geology series the Museum offered yet, unless you're a professional both Historical and Geographical scientist, you may have never even publications. In fact, publications 1, heard of Fieldiana, let alone read "An Historical and Descriptive Account a copy. of the Field Columbian Museum" and 2, "The Authentic Letters of Columbus" Fieldiana is a continuing series of were both in the now defunct scientific papers and monographs Historical Series. dealing with anthropology, botany, geology and zoology intended primarily Fieldiana has reflected not only the for exchange-distribution to museums, growth and development of Field libraries, and universities, but also Museum, but of the various sciences available for purchase. as well. For example, anthropology was just emerging as a professional Fieldiana in is often was begun what discipline in the United States at the referred to as the "Museum Age"—the time of Fieldiana's introduction and 1800's. of this Many country's great some of the most important early natural founded history museums were anthropologists contributed to the series. in the nineteenth century and their W. H. Holmes published one of the scientific series to began proliferate world's first reports on the archaeology toward the end of that century. For of the Yucatan in the new-born Bulletin of the American example, the Anthropological Series. G. A. Dorsey Museum of Natural History first contributed several landmark appeared in 1881, the Proceedings of publications on various American the U.S. National Museum in the 1878, Indian tribes, recording firsthand details Miscellaneous Smithsonian Collections of ceremonies and myths which were in and the Contributions from 1860, impossible to obtain even a few years the Herbarium in 1891. Gray later. H. R. Voth, a missionary, recorded descriptions of sacred Field Museum's Annual of the Report American Indian ceremonies and his Director for 1895 introduced the series publications are standard references which would one day be called today. Fieldiana as "the medium of presenting world of the research to the the results Dorsey and Voth published in Field and investigation conducted under Museum's series between 1897 and the auspices of the Museum. The 1912. Around 1912 Berthold Laufer, a publications are intended primarily to convey information upon the collections and expeditions of the Museum. There is no restriction, however, as to authorship or subject, provided the papers come within the scope of scientific or technical discussion." 12 Bulletin March 1971 scholarly giant of world renown, names of outstanding scientists began to publish. His "Jade, a Study advancing new ideas, describing new in Chinese Archaeology and Religion" genera and species. The colossal (1912) was one of the first floras in the Botanical Series are known authoritative works on jade and is now to botanists the world over and a classic. In 1927 J. Eric Thompson represent the work of many men. The published a very short, very technical "Flora of Peru," begun in 1936 and still paper called "A Correlation of Mayan in progress, runs to over 6,000 pages and European Calendars." This to date. The "Flora of Guatemala," calendar, which correlates Christian begun in 1957, continues. Just chronology with Mayan hieroglyphics, beginning is a series on the flora of continues to be the standard reference Costa Rica to record the remarkable Any title of Fieldiana—dated 1895 or for in this field. botanical of that area before point workers diversity 1971 —can be examined in the Museum In 1931 L. Moodie contributed much is eradicated by encroachment Roy library. All that are not out of print Studies of of the human and its "Roentgenologic Egyptian species technology. are available for purchase. and Peruvian Mummies,"—one of of the have the first published collections of mummy Many geology publications In this age of imperative relevance, been landmarks in the study of the X-rays. Paul S. Martin, who has Fieldiana is relevant. It describes and earth and new published more on the Southwest early life, presenting interprets our world and its inhabitants concepts, data, techniques, and than any other anthropologist, authored as it was and is. For conservationists several volumes in the Fieldiana: interpretations. One outstanding of both human and natural resources, "The Anthropology series. Ralph Linton, example, Paleoecological History Fieldiana provides a record of what was of Two Black Shales" A. L. Kroeber, W. Hambley, Fay Cooper Pennsylvanlan so that we can measure what we have Rainer and S. Cole, and Alexander Spoehr are by Zangerl Eugene changed, improved or destroyed. is now used as advanced among the prominent anthropologists Richardson, Fieldiana has been pure science as in universities. who have contributed to Fieldiana reading well— irritating to those who demand in the past. "But what can you use it for?" but Fieldiana: Zoology is an abundant inspiring to those who appreciate and of Reviewed in the same the lists source descriptive and interpretative detail, desire knowledge for its own sake. material with of Fieldiana: Botany, Geology, and dealing insects, and vertebrates from Zoology are seen to be studded with the invertebrates, every area of the world. W. H. Osgood and K. P. Schmidt, both former chief Patricia M. Williams is managing editor were writers and curators, prolific ot scientific publications at Field Museum. published often in the Fieldiana series. D. Wright Davis' mammoth "The Giant Panda: A Morphological Study of Evolutionary Mechanisms" is certainly one of the most noteworthy issues of Fieldiana from a standpoint of both quality and size (339 quarto pages, 160 illustrations). It is largely through such publications that Field Museum's reputation as a scientific institution is maintained and enhanced, that its collections and staff become known to the scientific community. Bulletin March 1971 13 Francis Brenton Sails Catamaran Back from South America Francis Brenton, voyager, writer, photographer and adventurer, returned recently with more than one hundred artifacts he collected for Field Museum while exploring the jungles of South America. His journey began a year ago at the top of the Amazon, where he purchased a 20-foot dugout to traverse its tributaries. "Collecting in this region," says Brenton, "was from the Rio Ucayali and other rivers branching off the main Amazon River, such as the Mazon, Napo, Loreto, Yavari and half a dozen others. Tribes were mostly Shipibo, Jivaro, Yagua and Tucuna. The artifacts acquired included blowguns, bows and arrows, hammocks, pottery, a headdress, flutes, clothing, medicinal plants, baskets, Dr. VanStone New Anthropology bags, ankle and wrist ornaments made of Chairman Department jungle seeds, and other similar trinkets." Dr. James W. VanStone has been named Francis Brenton and Dr. Donald Collier, curator of chairman of the Department of Anthropology Obtaining another 20-footer at Belem, Middle and South American archaeology and ethnology, examine blowgun, darts, and manioc at Dr. Brazil, Brenton lashed the two dugouts Field Museum. He succeeds Donald squeezer, some of the objects Brenton brought back to form a which he Collier, who re-assumes his former position together catamaran, to the Museum from his most recent voyage. of curator of Middle and South American named the Sarape. From Belem, he sailed and The up the coast to the Guianas and continued archaeology ethnology. appointment Rock Hounds Honor Dr. Richardson to the mouth of the Rio Orinoco in is in accordance with the Museum's new Venezuela. In this area he visited the Dr. Eugene S. Richardson, Jr., curator of policy of four-year term appointments for the Guahibo, Makaritari, Piaroa, and Delta invertebrate fossils, has been honored by chairmen of its scienfific departments. Indians, adding more items to his collection the American Federation of Mineralogical Dr. VanStone is former curator of North along the way. Societies. The Scholarship Foundation of this nationwide federation of rock hound American archaeology and ethnology. He is back down the Orinoco, Brenton a member of a joint committee of the Arctic Returning groups, encompassing 60,000 members, for Trinidad. At this in his Institute of North America and the Bureau of headed point voted their annual Scholarship Foundation narration he to Land Management, Department of the stops explain, "Anyway. Award to him for 1971, "for outstanding when I reached the Atlantic from the achievement in the field of Earth Sciences." Interior, advising on environmental protection Orinoco, the started on water in conjunction with the Trans-Alaska Sarape taking by the bucketful, through the seams which Dr. Richardson will thus have the privilege pipeline. The committee, composed of seven the ants had eaten clear of calking. The of selecting schools that will receive grants northern specialists, reviews the work of the from the Foundation to assist six typewriter was thoroughly soaked and I also graduate archaeologists hired by the Trans-Alaska students for two in their felt the urge to jettison weight, for I was years each work Pipeline system. six to eight miles from land at the time." toward a master's or doctor's degree in any to the of the earth sciences. The substantial An authority on the peoples of the North Brenton was referring typewriter he resources of the Foundation that make these American arctic and subarctic, having taught was using to record daily events for his have been accumulated anthropology for eight years at the University forthcoming book. The Sarape. It went grants possible overboard without much further ado. over the years through many small fund-raising activities of the local societies The last thirty days of Brenton's voyage, and contributions of the members. from Trinidad to Miami, were relatively calm and uneventful. The Foundation president, W. H. de Neul, wrote that "Dr. Richardson's selection to Francis Brenton has soloed the Atlantic receive this honor is particularly gratifying; three times, twice in dugout canoes. He is he has done so much to further among the the author of A Long Sail to Haiti, and 'common men' the interest in paleontology, The Voyage of the Sierra Sagrada. we can think of no one that is more worthy of the Award. He regularly and frequently Even though his latest expedition is barely Dr. James VanStone lectures to Chicago area audiences and over, Brenton is plans for the busy making works closely with local club members in of Alaska and seven years at the University next one. He will leave Miami soon in the their search of the strip coal mining area of Toronto, Dr. VanStone joined Field Sarape, up the Inland to sailing Waterway southwest of Chicago, which has produced Museum's staff four years ago. Newport News, from where he will head for so many spectacular paleontological finds." Plymouth, England. He expects to sail along the coasts of France and Portugal as far as In addition to his active professional writing Madeira, photographing and writing along and other work, Dr. Richardson has indeed the way, and looking for new adventure. contributed much to the activities of these 14 Bulletin March 1971 eager nonprofessional groups. He is Wood Collection Contributed to into the prehistory of the Southwest. Each advisory editor of paleontology for Earth Agriculture Department student will conceive and execute an Science and an member Magazine, honorary independent research project. He will Field Museum transferred its tfie Midwest Federation of recently of Mineralogical generate an hypothesis, gather data to test worldwide wood collection of more than Societies, the Lake County Gem & Mineral it, and demonstrate laws concerning human 20,000 specimens to the Forest Products Society (Waukegan), the Earth Science behavior. Dr. Martin believes such laws may Laboratory of the United States Club of Northern Illinois, and the Department Chicago throw light on contemporary world problems. of Agriculture Forest Service at Rocks & Minerals Society. Madison, Wisconsin. The was made gift possible Dr. Martin has worked in the Southwest for the through efforts of Dr. Louis 0. Williams, over His on Field forty years. published reports Geology Trip chairman of the Museum's of Department archaeological sites in New Mexico, Details of the field to Botany. April geology trip Colorado, and eastern Arizona have filled a the Ozarks will be to all explained dozen volumes of Field Museum's scientific With on March this acquisition, the extensive Forest prospective participants Saturday, series Fieldiana: Anthropology. In 1968 he Products Laboratory collection, which 20 at 10:30 A.M. at 65 East South Water received the Alfred Vincent Kidder Award includes the Street. Samuel James Record for outstanding contributions to American collection acquired from Yale University archaeology. An article by Dr. Martin is in now totals about The group will fly to St. Louis on Sunday, 1969, 100,000 featured in this issue of the Bulletin. April 4 and return to Chicago Saturday, specimens of wood from every major forest in April 10. A chartered bus will transport area the world, making it the world's participants into the field. Four long hikes largest research collection of woods. McCormick Trust Gift will require hiking clothes. Tuition of The original set of voucher specimens $160 will include air transportation, the (specimens of leaves, stems, flowers and chartered bus in Missouri, and all meals. fruits mounted on herbarium for (Members of the Museum are entitled sheets) Field Museum's wood collection remains to 10% discount.) Hotel reservations will available in its herbarium for be made for the group and will be an study purposes, together with the voucher additional $5 to $8 a day. original specimens for many of the woods from the The trip is non-credit course N963 offered Samuel James Record collection, determined by the University of Chicago Extension in by Paul C. Standley, cooperation with the Department of outstanding authority on tropical American Education of the Field Museum of Natural botany who spent a "life time" at Field History. Matthew H. Nitecki, associate Museum. curator in the Museum's Department of More recent vouchers from Forest Products Geology, will conduct the course. Laboratory's valuable acquisitions in Peru Arrangements to join the group should be have been determined and the study made by calling Mrs. Marie Matyas, set and types deposited in Field Museum's University of Chicago Extension, at herbarium. of Financial 6-8300. Duplicate specimens many of these recent Peruvian collections have been distributed to other scientific Hans Visits Field Conried Museum institutions, including Peruvian, by Field Museum. Stanley Armstrong, executive director of the Robert R. McCormick NSF Grant for Charitable Trust, and E. Leiand Archaeology Program Webber, director of Field Museum, look over construction work in a A grant of $22,000 has been awarded Field light well area at Field Museum where much-needed additional office and Museum by the National Science Foundation research space is being created for the scientific McCormick for support of its "New Perspectives in departments. Trust contributed $150,000 for the remodeling, in addition to a previous gift of 1971 for Archaeology" summer program $300,000 for new facilities for the Exhibition high ability college sophomores and juniors. Department. This special program has been conducted at the Museum's field station at Vernon, Arizona since 1964 under a National TWO NIGHTS TO REMEMBER! Science Foundation grant for undergraduate participation. The project Is under the This year. Members' Night will be held on direction of Dr. Paul S. Martin, chairman May 6 and 7, to take care of over-flow emeritus of anthropology at Field Museum. crowds and to give members a chance to participate In all of the special activities. Students selected to participate In the All events will be the same for both Christopher C. Legge. custodian of anthropological ten-week session will be Involved in Be sure to mark calendar. collections, shows Hans Conried, the well known evenings. your actor, a necklace that once belonged to Quanah excavation, reconnaissance, and research Parker, one of the most warlike chiefs of the Comanche Indians. Said Mr. Conried during his recent—visit, "I have been coming here for many years whenever I am in town. Field Museum is one of the greatest museums in the world." Bulletin March 1971 15 ' ' » . ' — ; ^ To the editor: ™jr— K:anoinavia: Another vote in favor of continued refreshing lands of information about the population problems. fjords & MIDNIGHT SUN In fact two votes. My husband and I agree fjUNE 8 -JULY 2, 1971 completely with Mr. Alan Garrett's letter in $2,405 (INCLUDES A $500 the January, 1971 Bultetin. We have only TAX-DEDUCTIBLE DONATION) been readers of this publication for a year Fjords, outdoor museums, gardens, wildflowers, birds, archaeological sites, or so and look forward to issue. every - architecture, design, Linnaeus' gardens, historic LETTERS Mrs. Lawrence C. Burns ; great cathedrals, palaces, midnight sun in Lappland, j opera, Winnetka, fllinois ' reindeer: Bergen, Oslo, Helsinki, Tapiola, • Lake Inari, Stockholm, Gotland Island, Uppsala, Gothenburg, Kattegat, To the editor: Halsingborg, Norrviken, Sofiero, Bosjokloster, Lund, Helsinfors, Copenhagen. I have read the article a just "Canning WRITE: As a human and a legend." being dog FIELD MUSEUM WORLDWIDE owner and an animal lover I feel deeply NATURAL HISTORY TOURS disturbed. I hardly ever feed my dog canned ROOSEVELT RD. AT LAKE SHORE DR. food, but all the same how can I find out CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605 which firms use "wild horses?" Or do all of To the editor: them? Is there anything one can do apart I the letter written cannot help but react to from donating money when you see an R. B. in to Dr. P. by Ayres response advert in a paper? I wish one could advertise Ehrlich's article. Mr. population Ayres begins the facts pictorially on television—on the with the false assumption that the population same channels that advertise dog food. crisis is a for the rest of the problem only I think ali hunting or hounding by plane world. In that is the least of the fact, should be forbidden, but what can I do problem. A child born in the developed about it? countries (the U.S., W. Europe and Japan) Rutti Duckworth will, in the course of its lifetime, consume Chicago 50 times as much of the resources of the world as a child born in the underdeveloped Editor's note: world. Clearly, it is this country that is at the heart of the world's crisis. The International Society for the Protection of Mustangs and Burros is one organization Mr. Ayres also falsely assumes that it is the that would welcome interest and support. It of the that mal^e them such. people ghettos can be addressed in care of Mrs. Helen A. When trying to arrive at the roots of poverty Reilly, Badger, California 93603. Hope Mr. should ask the landlord perhaps Ayres Ryden in her book America's Last Wild who refuses to homes while repair ghetto l-lorses identifies several others, and also an exhorbitant profit off the peoples making prints Senate Bill 3358, introduced by to decent Or the real estate right housing. Wyoming's Senator Clifford P. Hansen last who refuse to sell or rent to blacks agents year, "to authorize the Secretary of the outside the confines of the thus ghetto, Interior to protect, manage, and control a Or the white creating trapped colony. free-roaming horses and burros on public store-owners and that corporations exploit lands." The bill was read twice and this trapped colony and remove its wealth referred to the Committee on Interior and to the suburb. Insular Affairs. All of Mr. Ayres' assumptions add up to a blatantly racist analysis of the world. One in which the white man is culturally and Please address all letters to the editor to racially superior to both the underdeveloped Bufletin world and the black colony at home. Finally, Field Museum of Natural History by denying any political role in social reality, Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive Mr. Ayres assures us of his applause of Chicago, Illinois 60605 racism, slavery and exploitation. 1 would that he has been in the suggest perhaps The editors reserve the right to edit Arizona sun too and is so far removed long letters for length. from reality that his bigotry is perverse. John L Lawrencen Associate Professor of Antfiropology U.C.L.A. 16 Bulletin March 1971 THROUGH MARCH 10 carbonaceous chondrite, of which only 14 exist out of the almost 2,000 known "Exploring Indian Country," Winter Journey meteorites. Recently, amino acids, possible for Children. The free, self-guided tour blocks of have been enables youngsters to see American Indians building life, reported in this meteorite. South Lounge. of three environments as the early explorers saw them. All boys and girls who can read and write may participate. Journey sheets BEGINS MARCH 22 are available at Museum entrances. A rare, wild albino mink, in a special CALENDAR display in the South Lounge. This almost BEGINS MARCH 11 adult female specimen is the gift of Terry L. of Johnston, Iowa, who it Color In Nature, an exhibit of broad scope Perry captured about 16 months 16. that uses examples from Field Museum's ago. Through May huge collections to explore the nature and variety of color in the physical and living MARCH 28 world around us. It examines the meaning "The Bahamas," a free wildlife film, offered of color In the reproduction, survival and by the Illinois Audubon Society. 2:30 p.m., evolution of plants and animals by focusing James Simpson Theatre. on its many roles—as in mimicry, HOURS camouflage, warning, sexual recognition 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturday-Thursday and selection, energy channeling and Meetings 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday vitamin production. Through October 10. March 9: 7:45 p.m.. Nature Camera Club of The Museum Library is open 9 a.m. Chicago (Everybody is welcome) to 4:30 p.m. Monday through Friday. March 9: 8 p.m., Chicagoland Glider Council March 10: 7 p.m., Chicago Spring Film-Lecture Series, presented at Ornithological Society 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre March 10: 7:30 p.m., Windy City Grotto— March 6 National Speleological Society "The New Israel," narrated by Ray Green. March 11: 8 p.m., Chicago Mountaineering A vivid and up-to-date portrayal of this Club ancient land and its that is a blend people, March 14: 2 p.m., Chicago Shell Club of the past and the present. March 16: 7:30 p.m., Chicago Area Camera March 13 Clubs Association March 21: 2 Illinois Orchid "The Call of the Running Tide," narrated p.m., Society by Stanton Waterman. Photographed in the islands of French Polynesia, much of it on COMING IN APRIL sea bottom and along barrier reefs, it is a The Afro-American Style, from the Design revealing study of the inhabitants and the of exhibit of A male Greater Bird of Paradise, held by Dr. Rupert Works Bedford-Stuyvesant, an many forms of sea-life surrounding them. L. Wenzel. chairman of the Department of Zoology, hand-printed textiles blending classical displays his bright colors for the favor of female birds. March 20 African motifs and contemporary design. April 7 through September 12. Hall 9. "Uganda—Land of Stanley and "To See or Not to See," Spring Journey for Livingston," narrated by William Stockdale. Children, helps them learn about the Scenes of vifildlife, the wonders of national diversity of colors and color patterns of Spring Children's Programs at 10:30 a.m., parks and the people in the cities and selected animals, as well as the advantages James Simpson Theatre. remote areas. of mimicry and pigmentation changes, with April 3: Honor day for Cub Scouts and the aid of a All March 27 questionnaire. youngsters film program who can read and write may participate in "Sweden Year narrated Ed April 17: Film program Around," by the free program. Journey sheets are Lark. All four seasons are in April 24: Museum Traveler Day with encompassed available at Museum entrances. Through this motion picture journey to the land of Journey awards and film program May 31 . the midnight sun. Spring Film-Lecture Series presented at THROUGH MARCH 21 CONTINUING 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre. Catalogue of the Different Specimens of John April 3: "Stone Age New Guiana," with James Audubon's elephant folio. The Clotti Collected in the Three Voyages of Lewis Cotlow Birds ot America, on display in the North Captain Cook, to the Southern Lounge. A different plate from the rare, Hemisphere, London, Alexander Shaw, April 10: "Rajasthan: India's Desert State," first-edition set is featured each day. 1787, shown in the South Lounge. with Len Stuttman The rare copy consists of actual tapa cloth April 17: "The Right to Live," with C. P. 7Sth Anniversary Exhibit: A Sense of specimens collected during Captain Cook's Lyons A Sense of A Sense of to the South Seas The Wonder, History, voyages (1768-1780). April 24: "Adriatic Italy," with Al Wolff Discovery, continues indefinitely. New and volume is the gift of Mrs. A. W. F. Fuller. exciting display techniques explore Field Museum's past and present and current Life in Other Worlds? An exhibit of the research projects. Hall 3. Murchison meteorite, a Type II Volume 42, Number 4 April 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 4 April 1971 2 Afro-American Style from The Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant Joyce Zibro African art from the Museum's famous Benin collection inspires designs for silk-screened textiles produced by a new community- rooted company in Brool 7 IMembers' Nights May 6 and 7 some of the exciting things in store for members of the Museum 8 The White Flowered Bottle Gourd Louis 0. Williams wherever and whenever man found this plant, he put it to use 10 Hidden Color Pattern in Fossil Shells Katherine Krueger laundry bleach plus ultraviolet light offer an exciting new way to fossil shells Cover: Flower motif found In designs on study pages 2, 4, and 5 enlarged. 12 How an Exhibit Is Made—Color in Nature Lothar P. Witteborg why a museum exhibit must be designed, not just assembled 14 Book Reviews 15 Field Briefs 16 Letters Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Bulletin April 1971 1 Afro- american style from The Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant "This is our story," reads a small, certainly over the last five centuries, quarter of the 1700s. Most scholars red card which comes with products perhaps even longer. Although some agree that the art was in a period of from The Design Works of excellent carvings in ivory and wood decline when Benin City was sacked Bedford-Stuyvesant. "In the fall of have come down to us from Benin, it is and burned by a British punitive 1969, we opened a worl — is . . designs Benin bronzes from Field wax melted away, leaving a negative specimens . was brought to the Museum's famous collection of clay impression of the original wax attention of anthropologists of Europe." Benin art. sculpture, which is then filled with collection metal. Finally, the mold is broken, The was greatly enlarged Field Museum possesses the largest leaving the positive cast in metal. The by the generous gift in 1963 from and one of the most comprehensive term "lost," or perdue, refers to the Mrs. A. W. F. Fuller of her late husband's collections of Benin art in the United collection of Benin work. original sculpture in wax which is, major private States. Mr. Leslie world-famous Fuller had been a Tillett, indeed, lost as the heat melts it away. Captain life-long textile consultant to Design Works, collector of outstanding art specimens wrote after seeing the Museum's Benin The lost wax method of casting has from Africa and the South Seas. collection, "A wide research program probably existed in Benin since at least The Afro-American in has been going on for many months to the 1300s and probably even earlier. Style exhibit, unearth the best of African art. Some of It may have been introduced from the addition to presenting the original Benin art work and the from the this we have been lucky enough to see East or from north of the Sahara, or products in Africa, but we've found the most both. Benin tradition states that the Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant which were will tell the inspiring group in the Benin collection process was introduced to Benin by inspired by it, in your museum." Iguehga, an artist dispatched from history of this new enterprise. Field nearby Ife about the year 1280. In any Museum is pleased to be playing a part, The ancient African kingdom of Benin, case, by the time the first Europeans albeit a small one. The story goes in what is now western Nigeria, is arrived in this part of West Africa in something like this. recognized as having produced art of 1485, Benin bronze casting was well is the Harlem of high technical mastery and esthetic developed. Iguehga, by the way, is still "Bedford-Stuyvesant one resident of the excellence over a long period— venerated by Benin artists today. Brooklyn," says area. Often referred to as the second The high point in Benin art was reached in the 1600s and lasted through the first Bulletin April 1971 largest ghetto in the United States, Two nonprofit corporations were after Chicago's Southside, formed: Bedford-Stuyvesant Restoration Bedford-Stuyvesant comprises 653 Corporation, whose twenty-six board blocks stretching in a nine square mile members are local residents, and area of central Brooklyn. Into these Bedford-Stuyvesant Development and blocks are crammed half a million Services Corporation, whose people, 90 per cent of whom are black. twelve-man board is drawn from the Bedford-Stuyvesant has all the nation's business establishment. problems of any big city ghetto— Franklin A. Thomas, a lifelong resident inadequate housing, poor health of Bedford-Stuyvesant and a former facilities, widespread unemployment. deputy police commissioner and former Some statistics: high school dropouts— assistant U.S. attorney from the 80 per cent of all teenagers; families southern district of New York, was hired headed by women—36 per cent; as president and executive director of families with annual income under Restoration Corporation. Eli S. Jacobs, $3,000—27 per cent; unemployment— an investment banker, took leave of 7 per cent; underemployment—28 per absence from White, Weld and cent; infant mortality rate—one of Company to direct Development and highest in country; homicide rate— Services until a permanent replacement reported as one of highest in country; could be found. Early in 1968, John rats—no one has ever counted. (These Doar, former assistant attorney general figures are based on the 1960 census. of the civil rights division of the It is likely that the 1970 census will Department of Justice, took over the job. show no appreciable change.) Restoration Corporation with its staff of Early in the century Bedford-Stuyvesant 150 local residents develops and directs was a white, upper-middle-class projects. Development and Services community. Residents lived in sturdy Corporation has such business giants brownstones, built between 1880 and on the board as IBM chairman Thomas 1930, along tranquil tree-lined streets. Watson, William Paley, chairman of The first wave of black migration CBS, C. Douglas Dillon, former reached Brooklyn during the Secretary of the Treasury, and Benno C. Charles Johnson, a resident of Depression of the 1930s, and the Lynette Schmidt, managing partner of J. B. Bedford-Stuyvesant, models a hostess gown second wave rolled in World with Ethel during from Design Works In Field Museum's Whitney & Co., along War II. War industry jobs were plentiful photography studio. Mrs. Johnson worked Kennedy, who took her husband's place part-time as a lecturer in zoology In Field then in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, just a on the board. They raise funds, Museum's Department of Education last few minutes away from the heart of winter while completing her M.A.T. at the generate ideas, bring in new Bedford-Stuyvesant. University of Chicago. Familiar with Benin businesses, and provide technical art even before coming to the Museum, in administration. Mrs. Johnson taught biology while with the expertise Many of the buildings are now for In aged —Peace Corps two years Owo, Nigeria decayed, plaster now falls from walls, just 75 miles northeast of Benin City. These two corporations working hand and roaches and rats run everywhere. in hand have produced some leader put it to like Bedford-Stuyvesant has no municipal community Kennedy impressive results in Bedfort-Stuyvesant. this: "Senator, we have been studied, hospital, and the area boasts only one More than fifty one- to four-family examined, with, and high school within its boundaries. sympathized brownstone houses have been for. What we need now is planned rehabilitated and resold to community action." Then in February 1966, the late Senator people at cost. An additional 1,828 Robert F. Kennedy took a walking tour houses have undergone exterior acted. Within eleven of Senator Kennedy months, Bedford-Stuyvesant. renovation. Over 1 ,600 new jobs have he returned to Bedford-Stuyvesant with Kennedy's tour got a lot of publicity, but been created and some 3,000 people a aimed at less than to the residents of the area he was program nothing placed in new or existing jobs. This is the total physical, social, and economic just one more in a long procession of rehabilitation of the community. By politicians who walked through their May of 1967 backed misery into newspaper headlines. One Kennedy's program, by Senator Jacob K. Javits and Mayor John V. Lindsay, was in operation. Bulletin April 1971 in addition to the work done at four Neighborhood Centers through programs dealing with health care, youth development, sanitation, and cultural affairs and education. Where does The Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant come in? It was bound to happen—a local firm that recognized the importance of Africa as a source of inspiration for the designs and manufacture of textiles. Restoration Corporation produced the idea of a textile business to develop talents of local residents while at the same time helping an ethnic minority give expression to its own cultural background. In conjunction with Development and Services Corporation, they raised some $120,000 of the venture capital. The First National Capital Corporation together with Wall Street investors Peter Loeb and Robert Tobin contributed amounts adding up to $60,000. Another $60,000 was lent by the Chemical Bank. Mr. IVIark Bethel, president of Design Works, considers the fourteen persons presently employed by the company as the "nucleus, or fiber, for future expansion." With the exception of four employees in the Print Department, all have professional experience in their respective areas. Briefly, this is how the operation works. Using African art as inspiration (in the case of this first collection, Field Museum's Benin bronzes), patterns are designed and coordinated. The design is then sent out to be photographed and made into a silkscreen, which consists of material stretched on a heavy wooden frame on which the design has been stenciled and the areas which are to remain white painted with some substance, such as gum or shellac, which will make the material impervious to the ink used. When the screen is returned to Design Works for reproduction, it is placed in contact with the fabric to be printed and a puddle of ink is scraped from one end Bulletin April 1971 on three thirty-yard-long tables. The closeness, an interest in the community large screens require two-man teams. and bettering it. Like most depressed Daily output is about 500 yards. areas, work Is hard to obtain here. Bedford-Stuyvesant Is not industrial, If the response of major department and many people have to go out of the stores across the nation can be used as borough to Manhattan to get work. a gauge. Design Works is well on its Once we and other businesses like us to success. It markets its products way — get established, it will be more in Its own boutique shops one located convenient for residents of the area to on the at 1 1 New York Avenue premises get work. A mother who wants to work, and another on the East Side of — upper for example, must travel to Manhattan Manhattan as well as In key stores and can't be home with her children at across the W. J. country. Including lunch. If she could find work in the Sloane in and New Washington York, borough, a fifteen-minute ride home in Marshall Bloomingdale's New York, would enable her to prepare lunch for in Woodward and Field Chicago, her children." Coles views his job In in and I. Lothrop Washington, D.C., Design Works as "hard work but work In California. Magnin you can see the end results of. It's something you've had a hand in," he "Our goal," says Bethel, "Is to seek out says, "and you know that you did It and develop the black talents of the with your utmost ability." community, it is projected that eventually Design Works will employ The Afro-American from The Too valuable to be included in the traveling Style 250 persons." exhibit of The Afro-American Style, Field Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant Museum's Benin bronzes have been original will remain at Field Museum through reproduced in fiber glass casts. Here, John Two hundred fifty jobs in a sea of in the Museum's September 21. Field Museum's chief Harris, preparator one-half million people may not sound Department of Geology, removes the fiber exhibit designer Ben Kozak designed like but when glass cast of a bronze cock from the mold. much, you multiply the exhibit so It can easily be The original Benin bronze cock is at left. Design Works by the fifty other local disassembled to travel and, if businesses started Restoration funding to the other by means of a rubber through can be obtained, it will travel around and consider that all The is Corporation squeegee. design reproduced the state of Illinois In the fall. In the are local residents on the cloth as the color is forced employees pouring meantime, ten smaller traveling their back into the the of the screen in areas money community, through pores exhibits have also been on another prepared. not blocked out the or shellac. the picture takes complexion. by gum These will be displayed in community One can as as The people of Bedford-Sluyvesant, with design require many centers in Inner a hand from have Chicago's city through four or five screens, one for each color helping big business, spring and summer. that proverbial bootstrap In hand and in the pattern. It is a hand process and a they're pulling hard. gives precise, clear pattern. A museum Is not often recognized as a resource that can stimulate combined Coles, a former truck Various of cotton are used for Joseph laundry w/elghts artistic and economic driver and now production foreman in development. the of the textiles, from majority This function, our applies Works sums it among many, sailcloth for and Design print shop, up drapery upholstery to some of our like this: "Businesses like The Design directly contemporary material to butterfly net for sheer Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant aid problems. curtains. In addition, three vi^eights of everyone. I feel it builds community silk are used, primarily for boutique Items such as ties, scarves, and some Zibro is editor of the Field Museum apparel. The colorist for Design Works Joyce Bulletin and Public Relations Manager. mixes all of the more than forty colors to print on the fabric. Printing is done Bulletin April 1971 MEMBERS' NIGHTS MAY 6 AND 7 OPEN HOUSE FROM 6:00 TO 10:00 P.M. Members' Nights, 1971, feature "The World Around Us." Each night will be a full, identical program of special exhibits, films, entertainment, and demonstrations focusing on this theme. Something will be happening on all four floors every moment. You can learn about how Important color is for plants and animals in their struggle for evolutionary survival. go fossil-hunting (by a film) in Illinois for Pennsylvanian concretions with a staff geologist. preview the reinstallation of Malvina Hoffman's famous sculptures of people from various parts of the world, "Portraits of Man." see (and even buy) modern Afro-American style textiles with silk-screened designs inspired by the Museum's Benin bronzes from Nigeria. shop for jewelry, textiles and coffee in "Tiendacita Guatemalteca" (a little Guatemalan store). follow the "Search for Some of Nature's Surprises" (arranged especially for children). see four films: "Patterns for Survival" (A Study of Mimicry), "Fossils: From Site to " Museum, "Malvina Hoffman: Her Travels and Works," and "Color in Flowers" (a slide-lecture). —and this is most fascinating to many people—go behind the scenes in research areas and meet the scientific staff. Some of the special offerings by the departments of anthropology, botany, geology and zoology, in addition to those shown in the photographs, include: a display of pottery recently collected in Nigeha a continuing discussion by staff members: "The Botanical Library and its uses" a display interpreting "Faults and Earthquakes" an exhibit explaining the "Water Supply of Chicago" an exhibit of skeletal materials used to make articles of personal adornment from around the world, together with specimens of the finished product and photographs of the live animals. Our membership has been growing, and so has the popularity of this once-a-year event arranged just for members. Attendance has gone from 3,000 in 1966, and 4,500 in 1968 to 8,500 in 1970. That is why this year's program will be a two-night instead of a one-night-stand. Attendance on Friday night will probably be much heavier because families with children will prefer to come then. We urge you to plan on coming Thursday night if you don't have school children. Photos, top to bottom. "Fossil Show and Tell," (or bring your own coal-age fossils and match them with ours!) with Dr. Eugene S. Richardson, Jr., curator of fossil invertebrates. Department of Geology. Left, Department of Botany herbarium assistant Ronald Liesner demonstrates how plant material is prepared for the herbarium. Right, Melvin A. Traylor, associate curator of birds, Department of Zoology, shows part of the Museum's Birds of Paradise collection. Mrs. Christine Danziger, conservator. Department of Anthropology, tells about one of the Haida model houses from the Northwest Coast, collected in the late 19th century. Mrs. Danziger is responsible for the architectural reconstruction and preservation of the polychrome sculpture of these houses. Mario Villa, tanner, Department of Zoology, and some of the animal skins he will show Museum members. Bulletin April 1971 The White Flowered Bottle Gourd Louis O. Williams Of all the plants useful to man, accompanied man on this great trek Lagenaria siceraria (N/lol.) Standley were probably his dogs, which, like must surely be one whose usefulness man, can sustain themselves on a is most obvious from just a glance. purely hunting and fishing diet. Its common English name—bottle gourd When man from Asia did reach an area —succinctly suggests this usefulness. far south to meet the bottle When the fruit of the plant is functioning enough plant in its preferred habitat, no as a utensil, it is usually called calabash gourd doubt he discovered these —calabaza in Spanish-speaking quickly countries of America. fruits which can be such useful containers for many things. And no In spite of its obvious usefulness, doubt he—or, perhaps, she—began sometimes the plant is not even selecting gourds by shape and size. Included in works on economic botany, One for a water bottle, one for a float that branch concerned with the kinds for a fish net, one to make into a cup, of plants "useful" to man. The whole and so on. He may have merely Carved gourd. Yoruba tribe, Oyo, Nigeria. of has different of the range economic plants been Collected 1970. exploited shapes gourd subdivided into categories in about as or he may have helped to establish many ways as there have been authors of course imply human use, although it different shapes by his picking and is now believed that man have writing about them. The four categories may choosing. Most likely, a little of both arrived in Peru at about set up by Dr. Albert F. Hill in his the same happened. In any event, we do have time. volume entitled Economic Botany, for many types today, in both the New Instance, are: Industrial Plants and World and the Old World. The oldest known New World bottle Plant Products, Drug Plants and Drugs, gourds associated with human use, But do we have a single species in the Food Plants, and Food Adjuncts. excavated in the Ocampo Caves in the two hemispheres or are two different The bottle gourd does not seem to fit Mexican state of Tamaulipas, have species improperly covered by the into any of the four—and indeed it is been dated at about 7000 B.C. by the name siceraria? To not mentioned in the book. Lagenaria prove carbon-dating technique. Both the Old the point one way or the other would and the New World have We assume that the bottle gourd yielded require a considerable amount of field evidence from the fourth millennium work and cultivation and originated in the Old World, although garden study. B.C. have been found in an Linnaeus, when he described the plant Specimens Egyptian tomb of the Fifth Dynasty, and in 1753, presumed that it was American. Junius B. Bird found abundant material Alphonse de Gandolle's Origin of in the Huaca Prieta midden in Peru in Cultivated Plants Is still one of the best strata dated at about 2500 B.C. sources on the origin of useful plants Thousands of indicated (my copy is the English edition of 1884). fragments various and intact attached De Candolle believed the literature to uses, gourds to nets indicated that indicate that the gourd was native to or fishing they had been used for floats, as still at least wild in Africa and from there they are today. spread to the rest of the tropical world. He did not believe that the plant If as a hunter and fisherman prehistoric existed in America before the arrival man migrated to the New World from of Europeans. We know now, however, Asia across the Bering Sea, which is that it was in America and widely the present widely held belief, it would dispersed here long before European have been virtually impossible for him man arrived. to have brought the bottle gourd, or any other plant, with him. The regions Dr. Richard MacNeish has just sent he had to traverse were far too harsh word in a personal communication of Group of eight fishnet floats dating from and the time measured in human about 1600 B.C. found together with fishnet much the oldest radio-carbon date for span, of cotton cord at Huaca Prieta on the shore generations, far too long for any plant any New World bottle gourd material: at the mouth of the Chicama Valley, Peru. life to with for it have moved him, At same excavation site, of same "Two pieces of probably wild Lagenaria pieces would have to have been type gourd found at bottom of deposit dated in dated propagated Ayacucho [Peru] complex, from about 2500 B.C. Photo by Dr. Junius B. along the way. The only commensals 12,200 B.C." This evidence does not Bird courtesy American Museum of Natural or companions that could have History. Bulletin April 1971 No modern scientific study of the systennatics of Lagenaria has been published. Dr. Alfred Cogniaux, the last and great monographer of the cucurbit family, considered all the bottle gourds to be a single species that were native to tropical Africa and India but were then (1881) found over the rest of the tropical world, either cultivated or growing at the edges of disturbed land. Botanists invariably complain, and I among them, that they never have sufficient material or knowledge about a plant or a group of plants under study. This is especially true of plants used by man. If two species are involved, they would have arisen independently of one another in the two hemispheres. The improbabilities are enormous that such Even if had been has that it is difficult to close convergence would have gourds transported taught me look oceanic drift, would have to at a and be sure whether or not occurred, though convergence is a well by they plant have been carried from the where it is "wild." siceraria does known biological phenomenon—that place Lagenaria stranded to a suitable niche. like disturbed land, such as at the is, two different and geographically ecological I would out that such a "suitable of cultivation. But land behind separated lines of evolutionary descent point edges niche" often occurs in the a strand is also and not becoming like each other. ecological disturbed, disturbed land right behind a strand. necessarily by human beings. Also, It seems to me more reasonable to there are several other cucurbits that I like the drift better than the assume that only one species is theory are useful to man which no one doubts because it seems to me involved and that the plant arrived in transport theory are native to America but which have that this America a very long time ago. How, probable interesting plant never, to my knowledge, been seen as established itself in the New World a then, did it get here from the other "wild" plants. They too are found in time before did. The hemisphere? There seem to be two very long man archaeological midden heaps. ocean currents that wash the western possibilities: it drifted across an ocean side of Africa flow west and wash the Thus the "useful by itself, or it was carried in a manned category plants," eastern side of South which be or empty canoe. America. (The may as old as man himself, currents on the western side mostly does not mean that the movement of Mature bottle gourds are very durable, flow outward toward the Pacific basin.) such plants is necessarily associated and they are light in weight and float Hence the possibility of gourds drifting with man. One of man's blessings is his easily. Dr. Thomas Whitaker and over from Africa has existed for imagination—which includes his ability Dr. George F. Carter in "A Note on perhaps hundreds of thousands of to recognize a good thing when he Longevity of Seed of Lagenaria years. It seems to me probable that sees it. The bottle gourd is such an siceraria (Mol.) Standi, after Floating in they did so many times. If they were obviously "good thing." It is easy to Sea Water" (1961) reported that after transported in man-made craft, they believe that wherever and whenever he they floated bottle gourd fruits for 347 could hardly have come over more found it, man would soon begin to days and then stored them for six than 15,000 years ago, and probably use it. years, 24 per cent of the seeds finally a lot more recently. Whatever sea-going germinated. These tests indicate that craft man might have made that long Lagenaria siceraria fruits could have ago could hardly have sustained the Dr. Louis 0. Williams is chairman ol the been distributed from continent to trip. Department ol Botany at Field Museum. continent by oceanic drift. Of course There is the if the there is still no proof that they did. argument that, bottle gourd is so old here, we should Whitaker and Carter point out that the find it growing wild. I would reply that bottle gourd is not a strand plant. much field experience in the tropics Bulletin April 1971 Hidden color pattern in fossil shells Modern species of seashells display groups, unaided by the additional factor distinctive colors, shapes, and surface of color pattern that helps biologists ornamentation. Ivlost buried sfiells, classify the often brightly colored living during the processes of fossilization, forms. Katherine Krueger become dull white. With rare Some groups of shells may occur in exceptions, even the most perfectly both modern and fossil collections, preserved fossil specimens lack color. since present-day molluscan Therefore paleontologists have had to many families were already in existence as rely on the small variations of much as 70 million years ago. So that ornamentation and sculpture to the relationship between modern and differentiate species within the larger fossil specimens can be firmly established—the true evolution of a species traced —the paleontologist studying the Ice Age or older shells would like to use the same guidelines as the biologists. In the last ten years one such guideline, the color pattern, has been developed. Some fossil shells will, under ultraviolet light, show fluorescence wherever former coloration occurred on the shell. Thus the paleontologist can observe a color pattern almost as readily as can a biologist. This fluorescence phenomenon is being actively investigated by Drs. Harold E. and Emily H. Vokes at Tulane University in New Orleans and by Dr. Axel A. Olsson of Coral Gables, Florida. They have worked out techniques for photographing the shells under ultraviolet light and are using the color patterns as important, definitive data in their studies. tVlost of their research has been on fossil shells of the southeastern United States from the dawn of the Tertiary, approximately 70 million years ago, to Recent time. fVlany correlations had previously been drawn between fossil species and their Recent relatives, but evolutionary paths mm of groups have always been littered with problems of "missing links" or ,....:'.v:f.'.'.f!: poor specimens. Every new method of establishing a relationship between shells of different geologic epochs is welcome. The fluorescence phenomenon promises to be a highly significant method. What one sees under the ultraviolet light is not really the color, but rather Top to bottom: Conus spurius (Recent or the color pa»em of a shell. It was modern), Conus spurius (fossil), Conus 20 spurius (fossil under ultraviolet light). Alex Comfort who, only years ago. 10 Bulletin April 1971 Left to right: Scaphella junonia (Recent or modern), Scaphella floridana (fossil). Scaphella floridana (fossil under ultraviolet light). Photos courtesy Drs. Harold E. and Emily H. Vokes, Tulane University, Department of Geology. pointed out that when a living mollusk appear to glow against a purple secretes shell material from its mantle background. This fluorescence occurs ultraviolet it introduces pigmentation into certain when the light excites certain zones of the developing shell. The electrons in the pigment molecules, pigment-producing cells, called which are still locked in the shell chromatophores, vary in position. As material. Though these pigments were their position changes, the pigmented rendered colorless by chemical zones they produce narrow or expand alteration after burial because of the into stripes. If the chromatophores action of ground water, their basic move back and forth, zigzags appear. molecules are still there. Intermittent activity of the But the shell must be properly prepared chromatophores produces a series of before the ultraviolet will reveal dots. A continuous band of the cells light the position of the pigment. Many produces the background color of a shells to on shell. The location of these naturally exposed sunlight the fossil outcrop for a length of time chromatophores and their range of will, without any further treatment, movement are determined by the fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Shells genetic code of a species. The patterns that have remained buried since their they make constitute as distinctive a original deposition millions of years ago feature as the various ridges, nodes, or will fluoresce if first soaked in strong whorls of a shell, although often they laundry bleach for a minimum of three are highly variable within a species. days. In some cases the bleach will even a rust-colored The actual color produced by these produce pattern chromatophores, which we don't see where the pigmented regions occur. under ultraviolet light, usually is not Probably the ultraviolet light technique significant for taxonomists, since the reveals the of certain animal's diet can influence the color of position only pigments and not others. But this kind its shell, and its growth rate can affect of research is very new, and its full the intensity of this color. Therefore, capabilities have yet to be learned. It is the color patterns that we do see under an exciting new tool for tracing the ultraviolet light in some cases convey of mollusks in fossil more useful information than the actual ancestry living specimens. colors of the shells, which we don't see. Katherine Krueger is assistant in paleontology Under ultraviolet light the patterns in Field Museum's Department of Geology. Bulletin April 1971 11 How an exhibit is made — Color in Nature Lothar P. Witteborg industrial "mass" society. And both What is behind the Museum's ideas represent challenge within the presentation of a new exhibit like Color walls of a natural museum as in Nature in Hall 25, which was opened history much as in the "outside world." A to the public March 11? natural history museum is now an It started as one item among many essential part of the mass education in a list of suggested 1971 exhibits framework necessary to support a assembled early in 1970 by Solomon modern society. It must certainly Smith, the Museum's coordinator of continue to develop further its capacity temporary exhibits. It emerged as one to generate new knowledge and of the four selected by the Museum's understanding through research, but its ten-man exhibit committee—composed unique responsibility—different from of the director, chairmen of the four that of all other institutions in our divisions (anthropology, botany, society—is to make knowledge about geology, zoology), chairman of the our natural world concrete, accessible, education dpartment, planning and and understandable to everyone. A development officer, building museum is truly the most public of all superintendent, business manager, and educational institutions. The challenge chairman of the exhibition department. is to educate by conveying of the of these Bob Martin, designer of the exhibit. understanding patterns It was those chosen because among complex, dynamic interrelationships. color, as one of the fundamental One is about the nature of learning, of the of nature is a flow dimensions of nature, is also one and one is about the art of design. The design dynamic main dimensions of the Museum's with many dimensions. Our designs for collections. We know that the Old ideas about both learning and explaining it in exhibits must flow too evolutionary function of color in plants design usually involved static facts or and must combine as much concrete and animals is often a critical aspect of objects or pieces. New ideas about demonstration as possible with only as their total character. We are aware of both involve a sense of dynamic flow. much abstract explanation in words as color in inanimate nature, but little For instance, knowledge was often — necessary. The whole must create a more than some physical facts about thought of as accumulation of facts synthesis of visual appeal to both the the mind how it is produced are understood. orderly, but in an essentially emotions (by its interest) and encyclopedic kind of order. "Furniture (by its logic). execution of the The choice and of the mind" was a favorite metaphor, Color in Nature exhibit demonstrates To attempt to achieve such a grand but it did not mean the kind of exhibit must think first, two exciting modern ideas in operation. comfortable furniture that invites one to goal, designers slouch in it with shoes off. Knowledge Exhibition illustrator Assistant graphic designer Kathleen Department often of as Kuhlman. is now more thought systems Zbigniew T. Jastrzebski. and subsystems of relationships with which we interact. Unless "pieces" of information can be assimilated into patterns, little "learning" occurs. Similarly, the old concept of design was based on arrangement of static elements around an axis, a kind of "middle," so as to produce a sense of equilibrium or symmetry. Design was often thought of as decoration for its own sake, to satisfy an esthetic appetite. Design is now more often thought of as a means to improve the effectiveness of communication and the flow of information. Both of these new ideas are rooted in the fast, complex flow of modern 12 Bulletin April 1971 work later. They must thoroughly model maker, the sculptor, the understand the Information content and taxidermist, the audio-visual expert, all the interrelationships in order to find and numerous other specialists. the "storyline" pattern around which Most of the chosen were they can build to satisfy the three specimens rather so Bob Martin had to fundamental design principles—function, small, a to flow, and form. develop method protect them that would not interfere with easy viewing or In the case of Color in Nature, the would not distract from the storyline Museum's first sizable interdisciplinary continuity. The solution was to place the exhibit, the several "storylines" worked specimens behind a large expanse of up by each of the scientific staff glass that did not determine or in any concerned had to be woven together. way interfere with the way they were The exhibit is probably the most arranged and displayed and that did comprehensive assemblage of not seem to be a barrier to viewers. information about color in nature that were taken of has yet been attempted anywhere. Photographs Rupert L. Wenzel, chairman of the supplementary items, graphic panels were and hundreds of Department of Zoology, was the overall prepared, 35 mm. color transparencies were edited. scientific coordinator; Donald Simpson A segment of the finished exhibit. the to contributed for Botany; Edward J. Olsen Eventually specimens be used exhibit took a were removed from various halls in the for Minerals; Melvin A. Traylor for Birds; shape. Eventually rough scale model was made that divided the and in Hymen Marx for Amphibians and Museum placed their new available in Hall 25 into broad in Hall 25. Reptiles; Loren P. Woods for Fish; space temporary setting areas and a visitor flow Alan Solem for Invertebrates; Philip subject path. The composite result drew all the Hershkovitz for Mammals; and John upon The designer always has these new forms of visual communication Kethley for Insects. performance standards in mind: (1) to technique, which newspapers, visual interest to attention Bob Martin of the Exhibition Department, provide gain magazines, television, and even and start the viewer's eye moving; (2) in and assigned to the project as main packaging have, fact, pioneered to visual representation and learned to for the designer, and Solomon Smith did simplify exploit purpose of organization for speed in viewing, mass to a mass Our extensive background reading in the selling society. reading, and understanding; and (3) to is to transmit information subject matter and met frequently with purpose by provide visual continuity for clarity in means of visual mode the scientists as a general plan for the every appropriate To these criteria in sequence. satisfy simultaneously, and to do it simply, the realm of exhibition Bob Martin and student helper Dale Lehman museum design, clearly, and fast. This purpose can be install some of the larger specimens first. into two we divide the design problem achieved only by design, good distinct areas of specialty. The "information design"—which doesn't or three-dimensional, exhibit, designer just happen by accident. Sure formulas, works with space and structure plus smart gimmicks, short-lived fads like color and lighting. The graphic designer "Cadillac tail fins" or novelty type faces with works one-dimensional forms, have no place. The principles of color, typography, and projected visual information design being developed images (in this case, slides). The two today are a response to a need of must work in close specialists harmony modern society. They aim always and in order to achieve the desired results. above all for comprehension. Don Skinner came into the project as graphic designer at this stage, when the When the final installation of Color in general spatial arrangement of the Nature was completed, the scientific exhibit and the specific areas of content staff had logged over 500 man-hours were being tied down. and the Exhibition Department over 2,000 man-hours. Design is expensive, After decisions were made about the but we know now that it is necessary. specimens and objects to be used, we needed also the specialized artistic and Lothar P. Witteborg is chairman of the technical skills of the illustrator, the Exhibition Department at Field Museum . Bulletin April 1971 13 majority of this land is nontaxable. At the emerges as being far more extensive, same time, suburban residents find that complex, and interlocking than even the they are driving more and everyone is highway systems which it promotes. enjoying it less. Needless to say. the "Road Gang" is demonstrated to be extremely powerful. Everyone is suffering the consequences of Senator Tydings of Maryland wrote to one noncomprehensive urban planning. Charles of his complaining constituents: "We must Haar of the U.S. Department of Housing recognize the fact that for all practical and Urban Development is quoted: "It is purposes the industries and interests difficult for the central resident "t- V n- ;: poor city constituting what is commonly known as ILL ! without an automobile to persuade himself "the highway lobby" have sufficient political that a new superhighway which he will influence to prevent any diversion of the not use, but which requires him to pull highway trust fund before the completion up roots and find a new home, is a of the present interstate highway program." beneficial improvement—particularly if the alternative modes of transportation he Mrs. Leavitt concludes her book with some depends upon, buses or subways, give suggestions for positive action. She " increasingly poorer service at higher costs recommends banning automobiles from And from Professor Ian McHarg, certain core-city areas; instituting free Superhighway-Superhoax University of Pennsylvania: ". . . the tax-supported public transportation; By Helen Leavitt. New York, Ballantine problem about highways is [that] we permit applying the full resources of modern Books, 1971. 311 pp. $.95 engineers to have a profound effect upon technology to development of efficient, cities and, in fact, design them." quality public transportation; and levying with of There can be few arguments any tolls on autos entering the city. (To elaborate of Leavitt in the statements Helen on the I a toll which What is the underlying cause for "highway last, suggest system Superhighway—Superhoax. or with the facts in direct to planning" of the cities—indeed, of the computes charges proportion she draws upon to support them. Urban or in inverse to the nation? The purpose of the book is to horsepower, proportion transportation, she says, is sinking into a number of or answer this question by demonstrating how passengers, both.) morass of public transportation costs, higher an overemphasis of national economic lower quality and service, and greater All of these suggestions follow from the priorities on highway transportation has street and highway congestion. In 1907, observation that the transportation system loaded the transportation balance almost to horse and buggy travel in New York City creates its own demand much more than the the point of excluding alternative modes averaged 11.5 mph; in 1966, motor vehicle demand creates the system. The consumer of transportation. "Since 1956 American travel averaged 8.5 mph. uses what is available, particularly when taxpayers have spent $196 billion in he has no practicable choice. federal, state and local taxes on highway Homes and businesses continue to be construction. In the same period, we spent paved over with expressways, interchanges, The book Superhighway—Superhoax is a a total of $33 billion for all other modes, and parking lots. A 1966 relocation study persuasive outgrowth of Helen Leavitt's including the Coast Guard." In 1956, with through the Federal Highway Act predicted effective actions in Washington. DC. to stop the passage of the Highway Act, two of that between 1967 and 1970, 146,950 construction of a freeway destined to the commitments made were these: $27 additional persons, 16,679 business and replace her home and neighborhood. Mrs. billion for 90 percent federal funding of the non-profit organizations, and 4,890 farms Leavitt has mobilized her data with great 41,000 miles of interstate highway (this would be uprooted. ability as well as conviction. figure was raised to $41 billion within two and establishment of the Highway Air pollution—60 percent produced by years); in which internal combustion —continues to Trust Fund (to expire 1972), engines by Jonathan Taylor, coordinator of N.W. funnelled all federal taxes on motor vehicles, rise to more and more intolerable levels. Harris Extension, Department of Education, and into a Carbon monoxide concentrations commonly gasoline, ancillary equipment Fietd Museum. account "to meet those reach peaks in metropolitan rush-hour special obligations of the United States incurred under the points of 100 parts-per-million and more, Federal-Aid Road Act attributable to enough to cause headaches, physiologically federal-aid An web impair vision, and affect the heart and lungs. highways." interlocking of interest this Lead content in blood for metropolitan special groups supported measure and have acted to dwellers averages 2.5 parts-per-million or subsequently the Trust Fund from one-third the way to "classical lead protect Highway any encroachment of other poisoning," as defined by the U.S. Public by proponents "auto manufacturers, Health Service. Tests of traffic policemen transportation systems: labor road contractors, and toll-booth operators in Europe have unions, engineers, truckers, steel, rubber and recorded concentrations significantly above petroleum busline and the threshhold level for lead poisoning. producers, highway officials, and congressmen." The "urban sprawl" of parasitic suburbs is levelled at crippling the central city that it feeds upon, If any criticism could be Helen by draining the core city's lax base and Leavitt's book, it would be the extent to sharply decreasing downtown retail which she dwells on this conglomerate business. More than 60 percent of the land "highway lobby," which she calls the in the central business district of the Road Gang." Two complete chapters nation's capital is devoted currently to the (4 and 5) and extensive portions of the rest moving and storage of automobiles. The of the book deal with this group, which 14 Bulletin April 1971 Large Piece of Rare Meteorite Found uses of plants—for foods, for drugs, and for industrial purposes. All meetings of the Society will be held in Field Museum with the exception of the final meeting which will be held at Morton Arboretum on April 28. A symposium entitled "Search for and Introduction of Economic Plants," to be participated in by eleven well known plant scientists, will be held on April 27. The meetings on April 26 and 28 will be given over to research papers on many aspects of useful plants. Mr. M. J. Wells of the Botanical Research Institute. Republic of South Africa is the member coming the greatest distance to participate. He will give a paper on "Economic Botany in South America." Museum Acquires Rare Shell Famous Potters of San lldefonso Honored at Acquisition of a perfect specimen of Conus Luncheon gloriamaris. the most famous sea sfieil and one of the world's rarest, was made possible recently through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Moulding. Although first described in 1777 and Dr. Edward J. Olsen. curator of mineralogy represented by about 25 specimens in in the Museum's Department ol Geology, Europe prior to 1800, only four additional holds a 103 pound mass ol a rare iron specimens were found between 1800 and meteorite called Campo del Cielo. The 1957. meteorite is 4 billion, 550 million years old and originally weighed about 15 tons. Pieces Since have been 1957, living specimens ranging from a tew pounds up to a tew collected in waters off the the Philippines, tons in weight have been lound scattered Bismarck and the Solomon Archipelago over several square miles in the Gran Islands. Chaco Region ol Argentina. The meteorite was first found in the year 1576 by Spanish This beautiful shell, approximately four explorers. This particular piece, discovered inches long, will be on display in the South by Dr. T. Bunch of NASA's research Lounge May 17 through July 11. lacility at Ames Research Center, Moflett Field, California, is a new find. Tours to India and Scandinavia, Most ol the larger pieces ol this meteorite Ceylon, Africa were found long ago. Dr. Bunch and Field Museum's Worldwide Natural History Dr. Olsen have been working together tor E. Leiand Webber, director ol Field Museum, Tours will visit Scandinavia, June 8-July 2, nearly five years on rare iron meteorites of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph F. Estes, and Popovi India and Ceylon in October, and in 1972 this type. Da (top) and Mrs. Maria Martinez and two tour groups will visit Africa, January 14- This from Dr. Mrs. Clara Montoya (front) photographed at a February 6, and February 11 -March 5. piece, shipped Argentina by Bunch, has been cut into several slices by recent luncheon at the Museum honoring A slide lecture on the India and Ceylon tour International Harvester Co. in Hinsdale. Mrs. Martinez and her son, Mr. Da. will be given by Tours Chief Phil Clark at Dr. Olsen sought the aid of International More than fifty years ago, Mrs. Martinez and 8 p.m. on Friday, June 4 in the Field Harvester because their heavy industrial her husband, Julian, began experiments Museum lecture hall. Mr. Clark is presently shops in Hinsdale had metal-cutting saws that resulted in the renaissance ot pottery in India preparing the tour. capable ol slicing such large pieces of iron. making at San lldefonso Pueblo in The purpose of slicing is to provide The African tours will visit Cameroun New Mexico. she and her son Nigeria, specimens lor research and exhibit. Today, (featuring the Sultanate of Bamoun), and continue to make the pottery much as Kenya. In Kenya, the January group will their ancestors did. Society for Economic Botany Meeting visit Tsavo, Lake Nakuru, and Nairobi game In introducing the lamous potters ot San reserves. The February group will visit The Society for Economic Botany will hold lldelonso. Dr. Donald Collier, curator ot Samburu, Lake Nakuru, and Nairobi game its annual meeting and symposium in the Middle and South American reserves. Field Museum lecture hall April 25-28. Archaeology said have Dr. Louis O, Williams, chairman of the and Ethnology, "They changed and elevated traditional Indian and Information on the tours may be obtained Department of Botany and a founding technique and have created a new which by writing Natural History Tours, Field member of the international organization, is style, style Indian. Their achievement Museum, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore coordinator of the meeting. is yet truly Drive, Chicago 60605, or by telephoning epitomizes the history of the Pueblo peoples 922-9410 and asking for the Natural History The members of The Society for Economic and cultures in this century and during the " Tours office. Botany are interested in all aspects of man's past 400 years Bulletin April 1971 15 protection of the wild horses and burros. It is SCANDINAVIA: devoted to the creation and encouragement REFRESHING LANDS OF of an awareness among the people of the FJORDS & MIDNIGHT SUN need for such protection and preservation. - JUNE 8 JULY 2, 1971 $2,405 (INCLUDES A $500 The first Wild Horse Refuge was set up in TAX-DEDUCTIBLE Nevada where there are about 200 head DONATION)^ Fjords, outdoor museums, of wild horses on this 435,000-acre Refuge. gardens, wildflowers, birds, archaeological sites, There is also a Wild Burro in LETTERS Refuge architecture, design, Linnaeus' gardens, Inyo County in California of 3,600,000 acres. great cathedrals, historic palaces, opera, midnight sun in Lappland, In of 1968 the newest Wild September reindeer, Bergen, Oslo, Helsinki, Tapiola, Horse and Wildlife Range, lying along the Lake Inari. Stockholm, Gotland Island, Uppsala, Gothenburg, Kattegat, Montana-Wyoming boarder, was designated Halsingborg, Norrviken, Sofiero, by the Secretary of the Interior. None of Bosjokloster, Lund, Helsinfors, Copenfiagen. these but were "just happened," established WRITE: in to the of thousands of response pleas FIELD MUSEUM WORLDWIDE individuals throughout the nation. There NATURAL HISTORY TOURS must be more refuges set up in our Western ROOSEVELT RD. AT LAKE SHORE DR. States and laws enacted to provide humane CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605 To the editor: and wise control of these wild horses and burros that receive the I thought that matter of the wild horses was they may protection so deserve—a under control, and I was very distressed they richly legacy for future to read this article about them in the generations to admire as the before them have done. February Bulletin. What can one do to help generations the brave Mrs. Velma Johnston? Additional information about ISPMB may be Karl Menninger, M.D. obtained by writing to Mrs. Velma B. Johnston, president of ISPMB, at 140 Greenstone Drive, Reno, Nevada 89502 Mrs. Velma Johnston replies: Thank you for your interest and concern in To the editor: behalf of the wild horses of America. Congratulations to Patricia M. Williams on There are now so bills many protective her article on the wild horses in the February wild horses introduced in concerning being Bulletin. I have been in correspondence Congress, there is little that can be done to with Hope Ryden after her Today show. further the cause during this interim between introduction and committee I like the new format of the Bulletin. assignment. Henry Field of As soon as a decision is made concerning Department Anthropology Harvard which bills the International Society for University the Protection of Mustangs and Burros will (ISPMB) support, bill numbers are To the editor: designated, and the names obtained of Having seen occasional copies of your committees to which the bills are assigned, magazine during the past few years, I was a directive will be sent out informing you greatly the new of the action to be taken. impressed, recently, by format and by what seemed to be so much more articles. It is a I would suggest that you see the January interesting, timely and as a school 1971 issue of National Geographic and, if great improvement, high teacher I in possible, read the book. Mustang, Wild would be interested how a school be obtained. Spirit of the West, by Marguerite Henry. subscription may Miss Hope Ryden has also written a fine Michael E. Goldwasser book on the entire subject—America's Palfrey Street School Last Wild Horses. Watertown, Mass. Velma B. Johnston President, ISPMB Editor's note: A school subscription to the Bulletin may be Editor's note: obtained by writing to Publications Office, Field Museum of Natural For our readers who may not be aware of the History, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, purpose and activities of the International Chicago, III. 60605. Subscription rate for schools Society for the Protection of Mustangs and is $3 a year. Burros we reprint the following from a summer recent ISPMB news bulletin: ISPMB is a non-profit organization having as its objective the preservation and tourr 16 Bulletin April 1971 CALENDAR HOURS the free program. Journey sheets are "The Eruption of Kilauea," a dramatic available at Museum entrances. Through documentary of the active Hawaiian volcano, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturday-Thursday May 31 . follows. 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday A rare, wild albino minic, in a special The Museum Library is open 9 a.m. to display in the South Lounge. This almost Spring Rim-Lecture Series, presented at 4;30 p.m. Monday through Friday adult female specimen is the gift of Terry L 2:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre Perry of Johnston, Iowa, who captured it April 17 about 16 months ago. Through May 16. CONTINUING "The Right to Live," narrated by C. P Lyons. A film using the great outdoors and Color In Nature, an exhibit of broad scope, BEGINS APRIL 7 animals in their natural environment as nature and of color in explores the variety subject matter, to stress the need for the world around The Afro-American Style, From the Design the physical and living us, preservation of wildlife and natural Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of and how it functions in plants and animals resources. textiles classical in their struggle for survival, reproduction, hand-printed blending African motifs and April 24 and evolution. Using specimens from the contemporary design. The original Benin art from Field Museum's "Adriatic narrated Al Wolff. Museum's huge collections, it focuses on Italy," by which of these A motion to the little known the many roles of color, as in mimicry, collection, inspired many picture journey is shown in with the scenic East Coast from Brindisi to camouflage, warning, sexual recognition designs, conjunction Trieste, textiles. 12. Hall 9. with at Venice and Florence. and selection, energy channeling, and Through September stops Rome, vitamin production. Hall 25. BEGINS APRIL 18 COMING IN MAY John James Audubon** elephant folio, The Birds of America, on display in the Portrait of the Chippewa, a collection of "Portraits of IMan," a group of sculptures North Lounge, with a different plate featured 100 photographs edited from over 5,000 by Malvina Hoffman, permanently reinstalled each day. negatives taken on the Red Lake Indian in the corridors overlooking Stanley Field reservation in Northern Minnesota. The Hall and in the North and South Lounges 75th Anniversary Exhibit: A Sense of exhibit portrays the Chippewa in his culture beginning May 7. These bronze and stone Wonder, a Sense of History, A Sense of and shows him in relation to his family and sculptures of people from various parts of Discovery, continues indefinitely. Field his way of life. Through May 15. South the world are some of the finest Museum's past and present, and some of Lounge. representations of Malvina Hoffman's work its current research projects are presented in Field Museum's collection. in a new and exciting way. Hall 3. Free Spring Children's Programs at 10:30 A Specimen of the Conus gloriamarls, the "To See or Not to See," Spring Journey for a.m., James Simpson Theatre most famous sea shell and one of the Children, helps them learn about the world's rarest, shown in the South of colors and color of Lounge diversity patterns April 17 May 17 through July 11. Acquisition of this selected animals, as well as the advantages in Nature is the theme of Color the perfect specimen was made possible of mimicry and with pigmentation changes, which includes a film to program, journey through the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. the aid of a questionnaire. All youngsters the wilderness country of the American West Arthur Moulding. who can read and write may participate in to observe the life and habits of the elk, grizzly bear, and mountain sheep. April 24 Museum Traveler Day, with presentation of awards to youngsters participating in the Journey program. A color motion picture. Volume 42, Number 5 May 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN J ^ V V ^ L^ '^ BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 5 May 1971 2 Color in Flowers William C. Burger and Ronald Liesner why many plants Invest a large amount of their energy in flowers and color 5 The Great Frigate Bird Melvin A. Traylor memories of a flamboyant GalSpagos pirate 6 Color in Animals Rupert L. Wenzel and Solomon A. Smitti its many functions in patterns for survival 1 1 High Hopes to Fallen Dreams Alan Solem flow two rare and valuable shells differ from several similar but common Cover: Color in living forms reveals as often species as it —conceals. Tfie ultimate end is the same perpetuation of tfie species. 14 Color in the Non-biological World Edward J. Olsen color is in the physical nature of light as well as in the eye of the beholder Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Beclcer; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year; S3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Cover printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lal Bulletin May 1971 Color in William C. Burger and Ronald Liesner Flowers Perhaps we should explore the why of It takes more than mere color to insure colors and that the absence of color flowers before we examine flower color. that animals will transport pollen from (or of light) is black. We see color Plants without flowers, such as ferns flower to flower. The main reward for when we see only part of the light and mosses, have swimming sperm. these animals is usually sweet nectar spectrum. Color can be produced The sperm must swim through water or nutritious pollen; color and odor are physically, as when a prism refracts a or across a surface film of water to the signals that tell them where it's at. beam of sunlight and disperses it into achieve fertilization. Part of the life Color, odor, and nectar are expensive, its components, from blue through cycle of these plants is thus tied to the but this is the price the plant must pay green and yellow to red. Many things presence of water or wet conditions. for the service of pollination. The can break up white light similarly, such These plants cannot reproduce sexually currency of living things is energy and as water droplets making a rainbow, in places that aren't moist for at least it requires a lot of energy to make atmospheric particles making the sky a short period of time. colorful petals, attractive aromas, and look blue, or the scales of some of the sweet nectar. We can think of a living most spectacular butterflies. But the Flowers were invented as of a part thing as having two energy budgets: color of flowers is not this type of for grand new strategy reproduction one to keep itself alive and the other "physical" or structural color. Flowers which made water no longer necessary to reproduce and keep the species usually produce color with pigments. for fertilization. That was strategy alive. Flowers, fruits, and seeds are the Pigments are compounds that absorb fertilization It is the function by pollen. investments a plant must make to keep some part of the spectrum; it is by of flowers to and receive produce its particular species going. reflecting back the rest that they pollen. Pollen grains arriving at or near produce their "color." Thus, a toward their the female organs grow But why all the trouble of flowers and compound that absorbs blue, red, and fertilization. not small goal, pollination? Why just have yellow will look green. One that absorbs parts that could form new plants? everything but red will look red. But now there is the problem of Wouldn't it be simpler for an organism Pigments of many kinds are responsible If the can't swim, transportation. pollen to produce young all by itself? Many for the colors of flowers. who will it? There are two carry plants can produce new plants by obvious solutions: the wind and the themselves. Why bother with pollination The how of color also requires wildlife. between distant plants, which is one of understanding how color is seen. the major results of having colorful People with good color vision can Plants like oak trees and grasses and flowers? If there were no advantage, distinguish between hundreds of colors, many others have chosen the wind. all this energy spent on fancy flowers but experiments with honeybees This is a chancy business, a statistical would be a waste. There does seem to indicate that they can see only about problem: how to make sure the pollen be an advantage. This advantage is a four distinct colors. Moreover, the will reach its proper destination. more variable population resulting from honeybee can see part of the spectrum Invariably these plants produce a lot the mixture of hereditary material. that is not visible to us. How can we of pollen. Almost as invariably, the discuss what the bee sees when its flowers of wind-pollinated plants are The more variable a population, the vision is so different in both sensitivity nothing worth admiring. Their flowers for greater is its potential improved and ability to discriminate? How can are small and inconspicuous. usually adaptability to its environment and its we understand the effect of flower But that makes sense—the wind can't chance of surviving if the environment color on animals whose vision differs see. These are in plants investing changes or catastrophe strikes. so much from our own? Perhaps the pollen, not makeup. We want to talk Pollination between distant plants best way to approach the problem is about those plants that have invested in variable results more offspring. This to think in terms of contrast. After all, in color to insure their pollination. is what flowers are for. the flower has a simple message: These are the plants that have chosen "Here I am." The function of of prime the wildlife. We explored the "why" flowers; let's now take a look at the "how" of color. We all know that white (and white light) is a mixture of all the Photo: Looking deep into the flower of a common hollyhock. Althaea rosea, which belongs to the family that also includes cotton, okra, hibiscus, and the mallows. Photo by William C. Burger. Bulletin May 1971 find a flower. A The bees distinguish between white used to particular that includes ultraviolet and white that straight flight path to the flower does not—something we cannot do. indicates that the visitor has used vision, but a crooked flight into the Yellow and orange are apparently very wind indicates that aroma is the clue. attractive to a wide range of insects. found the They are common flower colors. Our Once the insect has flower, it receive further visual cues. goldenrods, dandelions, and butterfly may flowers have weeds can often be seen with visiting Many bee-pollinated or of color, bees, wasps, hover flies, and even a stripes patches contrasting few beetles. known as honey-guides. These help the insect find the nectar. Experiments Bees have been shown to be blind to have shown that bees usually land on red. Nevertheless, the red poppy of the edge of an evenly colored area Europe and our gardens is often visited and move in from the edge, even if by honeybees. This apparent food is always in the center. However, contradiction is explained by the fact when stripes or patches of contrasting that the red poppy also reflects color are in or point to the center of ultraviolet light. Again, the bee the area, the bee lands directly on the distinguishes a difference that we center. Thus, the white petals (called cannot see. rays) of the daisy serve to center the The lower petal of the iris provides a disc. flowers have broad landing field and distinct lines that yellow Many special with guide the bee to nectar. Red flowers, especially those lines or colors that indicate the nectar- are visited narrow tubes, regularly by producing areas; these are the guide flower color is to stand out in bold red flowers birds. These apparently lines and target colors. contrast against its surroundings. stand out in bold contrast to the background greens for the birds as The next time you see a pretty flower The most against a contrasting image they do for us. How different from you might ponder its meaning. Not the of mixed browns and background Rover, who has a lot more trouble poetic purpose of song and fable, but be wliite. The white greens may pure fetching a red ball in the green grass the business of enticing animals to help of flowers is due to the air spaces than a blue one. Getting back to it in that universal biological goal: within cells rather than to a white flowers, typically bird-pollinated flowers procreation. This white is formed in the pigment. lack fragrance. This is not surprising as the white of snow and same way since birds have a very poor sense of foam: the air cells scatter and reflect smell (differing again from Rover). Dr. William C. Burger is associate curator the light falling on them. White and the ot vascular plants in the Department of very pale colors are characteristic of Quite a number of flowers pollinated Botany at Field Museum. Ronald Liesner flowers pollinated by moths at dusk flies and beetles and having very by is herbarium assistant. the and dawn. These light colors are disagreeable odors (to us) are very most efficient in reflecting the dim light. dark brown or deep red-purple. Early Bees are attracted to white flowers, but experiments indicated that flies were only if the ultraviolet wavelengths are not attracted to these colors. But later not reflected. Similarly, bees can be work showed that flies which normally taught to visit a white disc, but only if prefer yellow and orange shift their that disc does not reflect the ultraviolet. preference to brown and purple when exposed to the odors of decay. The insects require two signals in this instance: sight and odor. Odors play an important role in many other flowers, and it is often difficult to distinguish which clues the visitor has Bulletin May 1971 THE GREAT FRIGATE BIRD Melvin A. Traylor Courtship ot Great Frigate Bird, by Grant Halst, Rochester, New York, selected as best print in the 26th Chicago International Exhibit o( Nature Photography. These courting Great Frigate Birds raising a family begin. A male with a from other birds. At Tower Island the turn back ttie clock thirty years to brilliant pouch is almost invariably on victims were usually the boobies that two exciting days spent on Tower an empty nest, while the subdued shared the rookery. When the boobies Island in the Galapagos, when I saw ones, with shriveled pouch, are had young in the nest, they would feed this magnificent pirate for the first time. incubating an egg. well out to sea and return only when As our ship approached the cove at their crops were full. Then they had to When incubating, the frigate bird is the head of Darwin Bay, we were run the gauntlet of the frigate birds comparatively unimpressive. Being struck by the numerous bright red soaring high above the island, waiting primarily an aerial machine, its legs spots like flowers scattered through the for them. Although to us the boobies' are short and its feet weak, good only brush. When we landed we could see flight seemed fast, it was no match for for perching. If forced to move about, that each splash of color was the the speed of the men-o-war. The it hops and flops and appears throat pouch of a courting male frigate frigates would dive-bomb and harass singularly inept. However, as soon as it bird. The majority were alone, sitting on the boobies, even snatching them by lifts its wings and rises from the nest, a nest to guard it from rapacious wing or tail tip and flipping them over the frigate becomes a new being, the neighbors, but occasional ones had to make them disgorge part of their absolute master of the air. No other their mates beside them. Some pairs meal, which a frigate would seize bird combines such ability to soar for sat quietly, others fenced with their triumphantly in the air. Not that it could hours on motionless wings with such bills and croaked love songs, and necessarily enjoy its loot, for other speed and agility. Its flight is deceptive, recently reunited pairs were, in William frigates would chase the pirate in turn, for the slow wing beats give no hint of Beebe's immortal words, "going through and a fish might change beaks three great speed. Only when the frigate various forms of dying ecstasies." or four times before a lucky thief swoops down to catch a flying fish in succeeded in swallowing it. the air does one realize its power and The bright red pouch of the male is control. a worn strictly courtship ornament, Melvin A. Traylor is associate curator of night and day during mating, but folded The frigate, or man-o-war, earned its birds in the Department of Zoology at up and tucked away when the trials of name from its habit of pirating food Field l^useum. Bulletin May 1971 Color in Animals Rupert L. Wenzel and Solomon A. Smith Bulletin May 1971 The glorious spectrum of a rainbow, the there was life, and thus before there "dump" such wastes this way than to flaming colors of a fall landscape, the were any eyes to sense them. excrete them through special organs. softly sensuous hues of the Grand Some biochemists believe that ultraviolet Because of local differences in Canyon, the dazzling blue of a Morpho light provided the needed for biochemical in the it is butterfly; all evoke a variety of energy activity skin, life to emotional responses in man—wonder, originate. Certainly light in its possible that such pigments were often colors has been woven into the fabric to surprise, joy. They may even give him deposited unevenly, produce of life and evolution ever and life Even of pause to reflect on their meaning, and since, patterns, though seen as tones as we know it would not otherwise exist. other on his own place in the universe. gray by color-blind animals, these patterns could increase an animal's The earliest animals could not see. At Both primitive and civilized people have chance of surviving and reproducing if some—like minute used colors in many ways—to identify best, protozoa, they helped camouflage it from an one-celled animals—could sense group, to symbolize status, to present only enemy, or rendered it easily an awesome visage in combat, to light and shade. Primitive light receptors recognizable by others of its kind, evolved in conceal soldiers from the enemy, to some animals, and later including potential mates. This is true these were elaborated into attract the opposite sex, to enhance complex for many living animals. that could objects, to interpret the world around eyes distinguish form and tones of and at The extent of color vision in the animal them, to give pleasure, to calm the ill. light gray, fuzzily first, "as a has not been Interestingly, some of these uses are through glass darkly," more kingdom sufficiently similar to functions of color in nature. sharply in higher forms. investigated for anyone to make more than a few generalizations. some lower animals have Yet, man is so conditioned by color, Although may Although the origin of color vision is been sensitive to a narrow of both in nature and culture, that he tends range unknown, it is clear that it evolved light wavelengths, none had color to take it for granted. Although he more than once, independently, and vision that could all the easily adjusts to the black and white or distinguish that its history is interwoven with that colors of the intermediate grays of non-color light spectrum. of adaptive coloration in plants and television and photography, he may animals. At some unknown time and place, some find it difficult to imagine living in a animals first achieved the to ability In animals which are active in world without color. That is, unless he general, colors— to distinguish perhaps help the or in the dark, like is blind or completely color-blind, for evening owls, them or recognize enemies, mates, prey lack color vision. also tend to be in a psychological or physiological They other food. Color then took on new colored or to match sense, color "exists only in the eye of somberly mottled, for dimensions, even plants, which the on which rest the beholder." In this sense, there is no backgrounds they themselves cannot see. And natural the Moths which are color without color vision, that during day. selection served to combine vision, nocturnal are excellent remarkable ability of eye and brain to chiefly color, form, and behavior into patterns of respond to different wavelengths of examples this, though day-flying well suited for survival. unbelievably moths be brightly colored, like light by perceiving the sensations as may color. butterflies. But it would be a mistake to assume that colors in animals and plants had no Most diurnal birds have excellent color Physically, colors are simply various significance before the evolution of wavelengths of that segment of the vision, much like that of humans, but color vision in animals. For even though tend to be sensitive to reds electromagnetic spectrum that is some more no creature could see them as and the flowers reflected from objects and perceived by oranges. Significantly, colored, pigments were present in many and seeds of that creatures as light. The physical basis many plants depend and animals. Unlike the of color has existed since radiant early plants upon birds for pollination or dispersal inorganic pigments we use in paints and are often red or So are the energy burst forth in the universe many orange. most dyes, the pigments of plants and colors of insects— like billions of years ago. These energy warning many animals are chemical — waves of colors were reflected from organic the monarch butterfly that may be compounds. Many are either essential distasteful or to bird the sky, the waters, and the rocks and dangerous to life processes of the organism that minerals of our planet earth long before predators. produces them— like chlorophyll in — Little is vision in Photos: Top—Phylobales bicolor with tadpoles on photosynthesis or are important in known about color its from back, Cordillera, Azul. Peru: body length intermediate stages of metabolism, or reptiles and amphibians. Probably all 1% inches. Bottom—A crab spider which has caught it is a long-horned beetle by imitating its buttercup are waste end-products. Some of these tortoises and turtles have it, and from Marin California; yellow background; County, may be deposited in the shell or skin clear from inferred evidence that at body length V2 inch. Copyright by Dr. Edward S. Ross. California Academy of Sciences. of an animal. It requires less energy to least some lizards and toads do too. Bulletin May 1971 Animals Many fish have excellent color vision, dark pigment is important in heat thought that predators like birds and confronted such as one would expect from the bright regulation in many cold-blooded desert lizards retreat when by as colors which they display. animals, especially those that are active imitation eyes, responding though during cool hours of early morning they were confronted by some larger Interestingly, most mammals appear to and evening. creature. The front end of the caterpillar have poorly developed color vision or of one moth found in Trinidad actually to be color-blind. But man and other Eumelanin is the pigment which is resembles the head of a small snake, in dark-skinned primates, like the chimpanzee, have conspicuous peoples. complete with eyes, and "strikes" at excellent color vision. Their color By screening out excessive ultraviolet intruders. The false eye of one sphinx eumelanin maintain a sensitivity may have evolved in tropical light, helps moth caterpillar may actually "wink." favorable level of vitamin D regions of the world as a means of production in the skin of in False also function as recognizing highly colored fruits which people living tropical eyes may where ultraviolet radiation is coloration to divert the attack were important in their diet and thus latitudes, deflective to their survival. intense. An excess of the vitamin is of an enemy. A predator often strikes toxic. Conversely, the light skin of at its prey's headr and the illusion of Although there is evidence that birds originally northern peoples permits reversed posture created by false and many other vertebrates discriminate maximum absorption of ultraviolet in eyes and stance causes the enemy to colors in much the same way humans northern latitudes, where the radiation lunge in the opposite direction to that do, this is not true for all animals that is low. Coupled with a high intake of in which the prey will move in have color vision. vitamin-D-rich food, like fish, this helps attempting to escape. prevent rickets and other bone is no For example, a flower that has pigment disorders which result from a But conspicuous coloration by which reflects ultraviolet means confined to light may deficiency of the vitamin. predator-prey appear to man to be entirely yellow; relationships. It plays a wide variety of but to a honeybee it may appear to be But most coloration in animals roles in reproduction and social largely deep purple with a narrow functions either to conceal them or behavior. It may aid in establishing and For lighter yellow margin. Bees can sense make them conspicuous. maintaining breeding territories. ultraviolet; man cannot. On the other Conspicuous coloration tells something example, the familiar red-winged hand, bees are blind to red, which about an animal to other animals. In blackbird displays his bright shoulder see. to attract females and to man can other words, it is a form of markings communication—between prey and discourage other males from Colors in plants and animals be may predator, rival males, opposite sexes, approaching his territory. The bright either structural or or a skink pigmentary, or other members of the same species, blue tail of the young five-lined combination of the two. Structural that it is including parent and offspring. shown here apparently signals colors are produced chiefly by juvenile and thus inhibits attack by an ultra-fine structures which break up Warning coloration may tell a predator aggressive male parent, which resists and reflect of various light wavelengths that a creature possesses bad taste or intruders into its territory. colors— does. These much as cut-glass smell, a sting, or a poison, like the or of like the colors may be iridescent, scarlet tree frog Phylobates bicolor, The males some species, their non-iridescent like the dazzling blues whose bright color advertises the fact Bird of Paradise, display bright of whose colors all to for the many morpho butterflies, that it is poisonous when eaten. The together compete This sexual wings have been so commonly used to orange-reds of ladybird beetles and favor of the females. make butterfly trays and pictures. In milkweed bugs advertise their selection by the female perpetuates the form of brilliant and these, the tiny scales which the distasteful qualities. colors the most "powder" of the wings have complex pleasing males. structures which reflect wavelengths of Animals quickly learn to avoid what is colors of either male or blue light and absorb others. unpleasant, through tasting. A Conspicuous readiness to laboratory toad, for example, may be female may signal mate, on Pigmentary colors are produced by conditioned to avoid the conspicuous like the yellow markings that appear or the various molecules of organic pigment banded patterns of a bumblebee and the female Spotted Turtle, bright the chest and rear of the compounds which absorb certain its mimics after only one unpleasant red patch on or the red wavelengths of light and reflect or experience. female Hamadryas Baboon, transmit others. breast pouch of the Frigate Bird. Many small animals, like the caterpillar Coloration in animals plays many roles. of the swallowtail butterfly shown here, Conspicuous color markings may of Because of its heat-absorbing qualities, have conspicuous false eyes. It is "release" or trigger other kinds 8 Bulletin May 1971 Photos: from top to bottom—Peplllo larva (caterpillar of swallowtail butterfly), from Krachong Forest in Thailand; body width H inch. Horned lizard, from El Rosdrio, Baia California; body length 5 inches. Five-lined skink. from Marin County. California; body length 6 inches. Nymphalidae anaea itys (dead leaf butterfly), from Tingo Maria. Peru. Copyright by Dr. Edward S. Ross, California Academy of Sciences. behavior patterns too among small sample of mimics. Mimicry has individuals of the same species. for decades provoked much thoughtful Display of a red spot on the bill of the speculation as well as uninformed adult Western Gull (Larus occidentalis) nonsense. causes the hungry chicks to peck at 19th naturalist the parent, w/hich then regurgitates food The famous century for them. Experimentation has shown Henry Bates puzzled over the fact that in a the Amazon that if the red spot is covered with given locality along River several unrelated of paint, the chicks do not peck and the species adult ignores them. butterflies and day-flying moths were almost exact "look-alikes," even to Concealing coloration is widespread in many minor details of their complex the animal kingdom. Its camouflage color pattern. He concluded that one may conceal an animal from its of the species was a "model" enemies or from its prey, or both. The mimicked by the others and that the color of some animals may impart a conspicuously colored model was general resemblance to the distasteful to predators like birds, surroundings, like the white of the which, through unpleasant taste trials, arctic fox or the green of many insects learned to avoid it. He reasoned further and tree snakes in rain forests, A few that the mimics were palatable species animals, like chameleons, can change and that when predators learned to their color to match the background. avoid the models, they also avoided In many sea animals, such as sharks the mimics. The mimics' resemblance to and other large fish, the form of the the models thus conferred a degree body is obscured by counter-shading, of protection on them as well. the color being darker on top and lighter on the bottom. Disruptive The naturalist Fritz Muller sought to coloration, like the bold stripes of add another dimension to the Bates many tropical fish, may break up the mimicry theory. He found mimicry outline of the body so that it is not groups that included more than one— easily seen. Coloration may also often several—presumably distasteful resemble special characteristics of the "look-alikes." He reasoned that if it background, like the mottled pattern of was advantageous for a palatable the horned lizard or the color and species to mimic a distasteful one, it texture of the crab spider pictured was also reasonable to expect that here. The special resemblance of some different distasteful species would gain animals to inedible objects in their an advantage if they resembled each environment, like dead leaves or bird other. Not only would the losses droppings or twigs, is achieved through suffered through taste trials by young a combination of coloration, form, and birds be divided among the several behavior. There are even insects that distasteful species, the predators would camouflage themselves by carrying learn to avoid them all more effectively debris around on their body. because they needed to learn to avoid only one rather than several color Mimics are among the most patterns. This kind of mimicry is now "unbelievable" examples of adaptation called Mullerian mimicry. There may be and evolution. Their resemblance to Batesian mimics of the MiJIIerian other animals or plants, which are mimics too. called models, is a special kind of deception. The preying mantis that Over the years there has been much closely resembles the orchid on which argument about mimicry. Few it rests, the robber flies which resemble denied that Batesian and MiJIIerian bumblebees, and the moth whose color mimicry did indeed exist, but the pattern is nearly identical to that of a explanation was open to question. It butterfly in the same habitat are a was necessary first to demonstrate that Bulletin May 1971 Animals the models were actually distasteful. Many animals exhibit easily survival values of the dark and light Ttiis seemed dubious when early demonstrable individual variation in forms when exposed to predation by experiments and observations with the structure, ecological tolerance, birds. Breeding experiments then common Monarch Butterfly, which was behavior, physiology, and coloration. demonstrated a simple genetic basis supposed to be unpalatable and Much of this variation is due to for the dark and light forms. mimicked by the palatable Viceroy, inherited—that is, genetic—differences. When one reflects on this indicated that Monarchs were readily An animal that may, to quote Darwin, simple of natural it is much eaten by birds. This evidence caused "vary however slightly in any manner example selection, easier to understand how such biologists to discredit Bates' and profitable to itself under the complex marvelous as Muller's hypotheses and to give and sometimes varying conditions of adaptations those exhibited in alternative explanations, some of which life" will have a better chance of mimicry, concealment, and coloration could evolve. now seem quite ridiculous. surviving. In other words, an animal conspicuous For of these with a superior genotype (its total many genotypes represent an accumulation of or The classic experiments by Dr. and hereditary material or genes) will have "superior" "successful" which survived and Mrs. Lincoln Brower of Amherst a better chance of surviving than an genes were on College and their co-workers and inferior one. But, what is more passed through many than survival itself is thousands, even millions, of colleagues clearly support the original important the means of natural theses of Bates and Muller. They also contribution that will be made by the generations, by selection. showed that the conclusions regarding survivors of each generation to the of the next the Monarch's edibility were based on genetic pool and As Charles Danwin wrote in Origin of incomplete evidence. It had been subsequent generations. Species: ". . . whilst this planet has assumed that the distasteful qualities The history of the Peppered Moth gone cycling on according to the fixed of the "model" butterflies were due to {Bislon betularia) in England is one of law of gravity, from so simple a substances ingested by the caterpillar the most convincing examples of beginning endless forms most beautiful when feeding on plants like milkweeds natural selection that has been and most wonderful have been, and and that these poisons were carried witnessed as well as verified by are being, evolved." through in the adult butterfly. This is experiment. now known to be true for the Monarch as well as for other "models." The Before the Industrial Revolution, pale problem was that in some areas the lichens covered trees over much of Dr. Rupert L Wenzel is chairman of the Monarch feed on caterpillars species England. When light-colored Peppered Department of Zoology, and Solomon A. of milkweed that do not contain the Moths rested on such a tree trunk they Smith II is coordinator ol temporary exhibits at Field Museum. distasteful or poisonous components, were almost invisible to bird predators. and in these areas Monarch Butterflies With the Industrial Revolution, the are indeed eaten by birds. But lichens near many cities either butterflies from caterpillars that fed on disappeared or were darkened by soot milkweeds containing certain heart deposits. In 1848 a dark form of the poisons were not just distasteful to Peppered Moth was first observed. birds, they actually made the birds ill This form was inconspicuous and thus to the of Birds which point wretching. protected from predation when it experienced this in the laboratory rested on the darkened tree trunks. at sometimes wretched the very sight It gradually increased in numbers while of if it a Monarch was offered to them the light form, now conspicuous, a couple of days later. suffered heavily from predation. By 1900 the ratio of dark to light forms Although the suppositions of Bates and was 99 to 1. This ratio is now shifting Muller were valid and explain why back as pollution control in Britain is to the mimic, mimicry advantageous eliminates much of the soot deposition they do not explain the mechanism by and more of the lighter forms of the which the mimic comes to resemble Peppered Moths survive. the model. Natural selection provides what is to most biologists not only the Dr. H. B. D. Kettlewell of England most reasonable explanation, but the performed a series of wonderfully only one which has experimental and designed experiments— in natural observational evidence to support it. habitats—to demonstrate the different 10 Bulletin May 1971 Alan Solem One of my more irreverent colleagues Hopes grow that a specimen of the divides the birds into big white birds, treasured shell is in hand. Pride of little bitty brown birds, and owls. For ownership, a sense of discovery, my own part, I think of Illinois visions of unexpected wealth, and, mammals as foxes, opossums, skunks, above all, the scent of treasure trove squirrels, deer, raccoons, and squeaky mingle. Calls to local colleges, bird things. Since professional systematists watcher clubs, natural history societies, can view common animals in this and aquarium stores fail to yield an cavalier fashion, it is no wonder that authoritative answer. Eventually either things so far out of the ordinary the Shedd Aquarium or Field Museum experience as sea snail shells become is suggested. A short time later my clumped and confused in the eyes of telephone rings or a letter comes to the average person. my desk. More often than not this is followed by a visit to my office. Field A few sea shells are genuinely rare, Museum has just obtained a specimen y. quite beautiful, well and publicized, of Conus gloriamaris. Of Cypraea eagerly sought by shell collectors. leucodon we have only good color Individual have sold in specimens photographs. We have several hundred recent for $2,000 to a rumored years specimens of the species that are $4,000 each. Two of these rarities, generally confused with both of them. Conus gloriamaris and Cypraea A glance at the proffered shell tells me leucodon, have been widely publicized. that the high hopes are in vain. A Blurred of Conus photographs walk to our collection cabinets, an gloriamaris have appeared in popular opened drawer, a few words pointing while The Guinness Book magazines, out that we have from 40 to 200 of World Records lists C. leucodon as specimens that are the same as the "the rarest shell in the world." visitor's shell, an explanation as to Accompanying this totally incorrect how it differs from the pictures of the listing is a small black and white rarity—and the dreams have fallen. photograph. More than ninety per cent of the Two or three times a month I receive mistakes involve the same common a telephone call or a letter from a shells. Since the rarities are person who is certain he has one or surrounded by both history and the other of these very rare shells. It romance, a brief review of their may have come down through the background and the points of generations in a box of shells collected difference from the common species by a New Bedford whaling captain or seems of general interest. been bought in an antique shop or while in the South picked up serving Cypraea leucodon, sometimes called Pacific World War or even during II, the white-toothed cowry, was found discarded a by janitor cleaning discovered in 1828. This three-inch up an apartment for new tenants. shell with white spots on a light brown background was known only from a Often the person will have seen a single specimen until 1960, when a magazine or newspaper picture of second shell was reported. It had lain these rare shells and his memory will be triggered. The shell in a box in the attic will be remembered, and casual curiosity brings shell and picture together. They look the same. Excitement mounts. A trip to the local library to look through its few shell books is of little help. If these rarities are illustrated in the books, no mention is made of similar looking shells. c Bulletin May 1971 11 Top row: Ollva porphyria: Conua textile; Conua glorlamaris. Bottom row: Cypraea maurillana: Cypraea tigris; Cypraea leucodof}. (Cypraea leucodon reproduced by permission from Van Nostrand'a Standard Catalog ol Shells, 2nd ed., 1961, Var> Nostrand-Reinhold Books.) unrecognized in, first, the Boston Society of Natural History, and then the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. The shell had been collected about 1840 and had remained incognito for 120 years! In 1965 another specimen was recovered from the stomach of a fish caught in the Sulu Sea off the Philippine islands. Examining Philippine fish stomachs promptly became a popular pastime. At least slight success has resulted, because the Hawaiian Shell News for January 1971 announced that two Cypraea leucodon were being displayed at a Philippine shell show. Obviously now five shells are known, and very probably a few more rest unpubllclzed In Philippine private collections. Public recognition of C. leucodon as a "most rare" shell rests solely on the listing in the Guinness book. Literally hundreds of molluscan species are known only from single specimens, yet excite no Interest. They are small, colorless, or unpubllclzed. The two species normally confused with C. leucodon are the Tiger Cowry (C. tigris) and the Humpback Cowry (C. mauritiana). Both are worth 25« to 50* at most. Color differences, which can be seen In the picture, are from The Action Line, Chicago Today . . . "I've been saving a sea shell I found in the summarized In the table on the next South Pacific in 1943 as a souvenir. But after reading the Guinness Book of World The easiest distinction Is that Records, it appears it might be a rare type of cowrie and I might part with it for a price. page. only Do you know of a good conchologist who could advise me?"—Frank Svihula the rare shell has white spots on a brown background. Action Line: Alan Solem, Ph.D., believes you are the proud possessor of a very common species of shell that has a value of approximately 25 cents. The curator of invertebrates Conus gloriamaris has been famous for at the Field Museum, however, cannot be absolutely sure. Here's what to do next: more than 200 This 4" to 6" If the coloring on the shell's back consists of brown spots on a white background you've years. got the 25 cent variety. If there are light spots on a dark background, turn the specimen tapered shell with white and gold over. Along the edge of the shell opening are a series of "teeth." Again, you're stuck markings was a source of frantic with the if the of the teeth is dark brown and the intervals between them cheapie top part bidding at shell auctions in the late are whitish. A brownish color to the teeth means that Solem will gladly set up an 18th century. We do not know where appointment for you to verify its identity. these early specimens were collected. Only when Hugh Cuming picked up two live shells on a reef at Jacna, Bohol Island, Philippines in the fall of 1836 was a locality identified. 12 Bulletin May 1971 Tradition has it that Cuming "fainted Species with delight" at this find. The historical picture of Cuming as a hard-headed businessman suggests rather that he capered in glee at the potential profits. These plus two other specimens collected from Indonesia during the 1890s were the only four specimens found between 1800 and 1957! C. gloriamaris shells have sold for as much as $2,000. A specimen stolen from an exhibition case at the American f^useum of Natural History in New York has never been recovered. Only 22 examples, including the stolen shell, plus a few records in the early literature that could not be traced to known specimens were listed in a catalog of known specimens published in 1949. In the early 1950s a few additional shells were located in small provincial museum collections in Europe. Late in 1956 a live specimen was dredged off Corregidor Island in the Philippines. In 1963 a specimen was found near Rabaul, New Britain in the Bismarck Archipelago of the South Pacific. Others had been collected a few years earlier but not publicized. The next few years saw many specimens collected in the Bismarcks and Solomon Islands, and in the summer of 1970 over 100 specimens were collected off Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. As a result, the price for a good specimen has dropped from about $1,500 to $500. It's still an expensive item, but in this day of inflation not nearly as valuable as before. A grim and snowy February day was greatly brightened by a small package from Guadalcanal. Inside was a 104 mm. long specimen of Conus Color in the Non-biological World This discussion should begin by saying restricted to light. There are, for what but this is not light really is; possible, example, very minute particles called since light is essentially more primitive than electrons. are any of the terms that might be used in an These definitely particles. effort to explain It. —sir charles oarwin In all normal experiments electrons behave like tiny, electrically charged of This view the physicist grandson of particles. If, however, they are the author of Origin of Species fairly accelerated to very high velocities, they well sums up the current state of exhibit wave like characteristics. Upon understanding of the phenomenon of slowing down, they cease acting like light. For at least 2,500 years Western waves and once again act like particles. man has wrestled with the question of Now what do you make of that? what light "really is." If you are not a physicist you must In the Classical World several fanciful remain baffled. If you are a physicist views were held. One explanation you must become mentally regarded light as a stream of minute, ambidexterous: when it is necessary to invisible particles fired like projectiles treat light as a wave, you do so; when from any light source. Isaac Newton, it is necessary to treat it as a stream twenty-one centuries later, came to the of particles, you do that. At the present same conclusion. He developed the time then you cannot ask what light Idea and expanded It Into a physical "really is." This essential duality of light Edward J. Olsen theory of the mechanics of motion of (and matter) is today the major the particles, and it came to be called metaphysical frontier in the natural the corpuscular theory of ligtit. sciences. During his own time, however, and in In our exhibit Color in Nature it is more the following two centures, an convenient to treat light as waves. impressive body of experimental data Waves have three basic properties. is the measure of the accumulated indicating that light could Wavelength length only be explained as a wave-like of a wave from the top of one wave phenomenon which is propagated away crest to the top of the next crest. is a of the from a source much like ripples on the Frequency measure number surface of a pond into which a pebble of crests that appear to pass a given has been dropped. The hypothetical point in one second of time. Thus, if 60 crests in one the medium through which it was pass second, propagated was called the ettier. The frequency is called 60 cycles per or 60 Hertz 60 wave theory of light became extremely second, (abbreviated, successful in predicting its behavior Hz.). The cycle-per-second unit was under all known conditions, and the named "Hertz" to honor a 19th century corpuscular theory gradually dropped German physicist. Amplitude measures is a into disuse— until the early part of this the height of the crests and of the of the century. It was then that certain measure energetic power experimental results arose which could wave. It is possible to have two waves of the and only be explained when light was same wavelength frequency, treated, again, as having the properties but very different amplitudes. of particles (that is, corpuscles). When white light shines through a prism Thus arose a good deal of or reflects off a finely ruled grating, it is broken into the visible consternation in the world of physics up spectrum of colors: over this puzzling dual behavior of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. The light. Was it made up of waves or of wavelengths range from 27-millionths of an inch at the particles? red end to 15-millionths of an inch at The puzzle was compounded by other the violet end; the corresponding new experiments which suggested that frequencies are from 430 trillion Hz. to this kind of dual behavior is not 770 trillion Hz., respectively. This is 14 Bulletin May 1971 the range of frequencies visible— to the even the greens cannot be seen and there is less dust in the air at sunrise. human eye. Some animals bees, for the water appears gray, even black, Also, the dust from the previous day — of example are capable seeing due to the weak light. has settled during the night and night beyond the violet into the ultraviolet. breezes are commonly less gusty, a rain the air is filled with During raising less dust. This again is different the ultraviolet, at of water, and because it is Beyond droplets in populous areas. In large cities it is the ever-decreasing wavelengths, necessarily always cloudy during common to burn trash during the continues storms, the is dark. If, spectrum through X-rays, sky however, nighttime hours, giving the air an and cosmic there should be a break in the clouds gamma rays, finally rays, abundant supply of fine particles that which are of short and the streams we extremely sunlight through, scatter the morning's rays, producing trillionths of an and obtain one of Nature's most wavelengths, inch, may — redder sunrises than might otherwise hence very high frequencies. Beyond spectacular color displays a rainbow. be the case. the red end of the visible spectrum, at A water droplet at a certain angle ever-increasing wavelengths, are the between the sun's rays and your eye Most of us are not accustomed to infra-red, which we cannot see but can can act like a prism and break up the thinking of color in the space away sense as heat waves, radar waves, sunlight into the spectrum of colors. All from our earth. It is there, albeit it is television waves, and ultimately radio the raindrops in the air which are not especially spectacular. The planet waves, with wavelengths that range located at the proper angle act Mars is a definite rusty red color; Venus over ten miles long and hence have cooperatively, each contributing its is snow white; Mercury and our moon extremely low frequencies, under small share, producing the strong and are gray; the planet Neptune is pale 10,000 Hz. bright spectrum which we observe. green; and Jupiter has a huge, bright red spot in its upper atmosphere that This whole expanse, from Sunrises and sunsets gamma usually present revolves around the giant planet. waves to radio waves, is called the the most memorable of color displays Beyond our solar system the stars so called — electromagnetic spectrum, in the sky red, yellow, orange, pink, themselves show a range of colors— because a ray of any of these waves and These colors blue-greens, greens. some red, some yellow, some brilliant has associated with it an electrical field become prominent because the sun's white. and a magnetic field. rays are passing through more of the earth's atmosphere when the sun is In the natural world we are deluged close to the horizon. So, before it with the visible colors. When sunlight reaches your eye most of the blue end our it is impinges upon atmosphere of the spectrum has been removed by refracted (scattered) the atoms of by scattering downward and upward. In the air as well as water by suspended addition, because of daytime winds and and fine dust. Because droplets very animal and human activities during the blue is more scattered light strongly daylight hours, many particles of dust than other of the color wavelengths have been lofted into the air. These aid spectrum, the blue; some of sky apears in scattering the blue wavelengths out the blue wavelengths in the sunlight of the sunlight making it appear redder. are bent downward toward the earth's The more such dust in the air, the surface. The other colors are less more spectacular the sunset. This is affected and on generally pass through why sunsets are often redder in our This effect is atmosphere. strongest populous areas, around cities, where at to the when the right angles sun; there are a great many more dust and sun is low, the from whitish sky goes smoke particles in the air than in to pale blue around the horizon to isolated places. It is also the reason blue, almost overhead. The color of any mineral is purely an deeper violet, that sunrises are usually less accidental feature of it. This is in spectacular than sunsets; animal and The blue of the sea is the blue of a contrast to plants and animals where human activities are much diminished cloudless sky reflected in the water. coloration usually plays a significant during the dark hours of the night, so When the sun is covered by clouds, role in several aspects of survival. For the sea appears due to the a mineral, whether it has one greenish Photos: At left—Nortti American Nebula in Cygnus; given microscopic plants, phytoplankton, that from Hale Observatories, Pasadena, California; color or another is purely immaterial copyright by California Institute of Technology and float just under the surface. These faint and irrelevant from the mineral's point Carnegie Institute of Technology. At right, from top — a uranium greens are swamped out by the blue to bottom Novacekite, mineral; of view, if an inanimate object can be Smithsonite, a zinc mineral, which comes in several on of as a of view. sunny days. On very cloudy days different colors; and Cuprite, a copper mineral. thought having point Bulletin May 1971 15 The origin of colors in most minerals is Heating a mineral in air can sometimes One could say that if so little is known only poorly understood. It is not cause mild oxidation to take place. about coloration in minerals, perhaps uncommon for a specific mineral to This principle has been used for the mineralogist ought to devote some show a wide variety of colors in its centuries in the gem industry. When effort to a study of it. Mineralogy, like different occurrences in nature. The gem quality green beryl is mined, it is most of the geological sciences, common mineral fluorite, for example, routinely heated in air for a period of depends heavily for its advances in has been found in twelve different days. This sometimes converts it to a understanding upon advances in the colors. In some instances fluorite will medium-blue color, and it is then disciplines of physics and chemistry. show a color change within a single called aquamarine, which is a good Mineral color is the result of the crystal—a matter of an inch or less. deal more valuable than green beryl. interaction of light upon solid matter— There is no clear explanation of the Similarly, colorless to pale pink the chemical compounds we call wide variety of colors in this mineral. spodumene can be converted to the minerals. Search for a real deep rose-colored gem kunzite, and understanding of color production in color can be Occasionally, however, gray zoisite to a deep blue gem called these solids leads us immediately back related to the chemical of composition tanzanite. to the question of the nature of light a mineral. minerals are Manganese itself. And that, as we have seen, often red; cobalt minerals often It has long been known that exposure pink; leads right back to the dual nature of minerals often and so to radioactivity and X-rays can change copper green, light as a form of electromagnetic forth. It not the color of a mineral. Quartz becomes is, unfortunately, always radiation—one of the major unresolved that Some minerals are smoky, white topaz becomes brown, simple. copper questions of the physical universe today. blue; some manganese minerals black; white fluorite becomes purple. Such some cobalt minerals silver colored. radioactively induced changes are not There are no perfect rules in this always permanent, however. Once the regard. mineral is removed from its radioactive Dr. Edward J. Olsen is curator of mineralogy surroundings it will often gradually minor can sometimes in the Department of Geology at A impurity cause revert to its color. original Field -Museum. a mineral color to change. The mineral called microcline is normally creamy In some rare instances a mineral will white. With a small impurity of lead change its color when the atoms that (about 0.03 percent), it is a startling compose it are geometrically blue-green color that is attractive rearranged. The best examples of this enough to create a demand for the phenomenon are the minerals mineral as a semi-precious gemstone composed of simple carbon. When the —called Amazonstone. The mineral carbon atoms are arranged in stacks of sphalerite, a compound of zinc and planar sheets, the mineral is black and sulfur, in its pure form is pale amber shiny, almost metallic in appearance. in color. A few tenths of a percent of It is called graphite. When the same iron impurity cause it to darken to a carbon atoms are relinked into a shiny black, called blackjack by miners. three-dimensional network, the mineral is transparent, clear, and brilliant— The chemical addition of oxygen to a diamond. mineral always alters the color and properties. Minerals that contain small Probably the questions that are most amounts of iron become pink or often asked a mineralogist by the public reddish-brown by oxidation. In the pertain to why minerals exhibit the extreme case, a mineral can be often striking colors they do. These are, completely converted by this process regrettably, just the questions that to a new mineral with a very different cannot be answered. One can appearance. The mineral galena, for occasionally produce a weak reply, . example, is a lustrous metallic gray. It knowing that the "answer" is really no is a combination of equal parts of lead answer at all. A great deal is known and sulfur. When it is oxidized with about the properties of mineral four parts oxygen, it becomes the structures—their physical and electrical mineral called anglesite, which is clear, properties, geometrical properies, etc. transparent, and colorless—very Unfortunately, these are not the aspects different from galena in appearance. about which most people are curious. 16 Bulletin May 1971 sculptures are some of the finest representations of Malvina Hoffman's work in Field Museum's collections. THROUGH MAY 15 Portrait of tfie Cliippewa, a collection of 100 photographs edited from over 5,000 CALENDAR negatives taken on the Red Lake Indian reservation in Northern Minnesota. The exhibit portrays the Chippewa in his culture and shows him in relation to his family and his way of life. South Lounge. THROUGH MAY 16 A rare, wiid aibino minit, in a special display in the South Lounge. This almost HOURS adult female specimen is the gift of Terry L. Perry of Johnston, Iowa, who captured it 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Saturday-Thursday about 16 months ago. 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday The Museum Library is open 9 a.m. BEGINS MAY 17 to 4:30 p.m. Monday through Friday A Specimen of the Conus glorlamarts, the most famous sea shell and one of the CONTINUING world's rarest, shown in the South Lounge through July 11. Acquisition of this perfect Color in Nature, an exhibit of broad scope, specimen was made possible through the examines the nature and variety of color generosity of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Moulding. in the physical and living world around us, and how it functions in plants and animals in their struggle for survival, reproduction, THROUGH MAY 31 and evolution. It focuses on the many roles "To See or Not to See," Spring Journey of color, as in mimicry, camouflage, warning, for Children, helps them learn about the sexual recognition and selection, energy diversity of colors and color patterns of channeling, and vitamin production, using selected animals, as well as the advantages specimens from the Museum's huge »f mimicry and pigmentation changes, with collections. Through October 10. Hall 25. the aid of a questionnaire. All youngsters The Afro-American Styie, From the Design who can read and write may participate Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of in the free program. Journey sheets are hand-printed textiles blending classical available at Museum entrances. NIGHTS ^ ' African motifs and i contemporary design. MAY 6 AND 7, 1971 The original African art from Field Museum's to BEGINS JUNE 1 6:00 10:00 p.m. Benin collection, which inspired many of the designs, is shown in conjunction with "Dinosaur Hunt," Summer for Journey Exhibits, films, entertainment, and special the textiles. Through September 12. Hall 9. Children, seeks out Museum exhibits and events focus on "The World Around Us." paintings with the aid of a question and Jolin James Audubon's elephant folio. answer sheet, to acquaint youngsters with The Birds of America, on display in the -S:^^fi^ the prehistoric animals. All boys and girls North Lounge. A different plate from the This is a once-a-year opportunity to meet who can read and write may participate in rare, first-edition set is featured each day. with the members the free sheets are program. Journey of the scientific staff 75tli Anniversary Exiiibit: A Sense of available at Museum entrances. Through in all the departments— Wonder, A Sense of History, A Sense of August 31. anthropology, botany, geology, Field Museum's Discovery, explores past and zoology—and to see the and present and some of its current MEETINGS unusual behind-the-scenes displays and *i research in a new and projects exciting demonstrations they have arranged for you. manner. Continues indefinitely. Hall 3. May 11: 7:45 p.m., Nature Camera Club of Chicago BEGINS MAY 7 May 11: 8 p.m., Chicagoland Glider Council Programs for both evenings are identical. May 12: 7 p.m., Chicago Ornithological "Portraits of Man," a selection of sculptures Friday night >* attendance probably Society by Malvina Hoffman of people from various will be much 1\ heavier, since families May 13: 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto- parts of the world, on permanent display in with children \\ prefer that evening. National the second floor corridors overlooking Speleological Society You are urged r>\, to plan on coming Field Hall and in the North and May 16: 2 p.m., Illinois Orchid if Stanley Society Thursday night y^^S you don't have South Lounges. These bronze and stone 23: 2 Shell Club school children. May p.m., Chicago ]}__/j: j,__ JJ,.^,^ Volume 42, Number 6 June 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 6 June 1971 2 Color and Sex in Gibbons Jack Fooden gibbons vary in hair color, much as do human beings; an evolutionary theory of variation is now being worked out which involves some interesting relationships between sex and color 8 (Members' Nights 7,205 members visit behind the scenes; are you among them? 10 Forward and Bacl(ward Glances John R. Millar May 2, 1971 marked fiftieth birthday of Museum building on the lake front 12 The Campo del Cielo Meteorite Edward J. Olsen a new-found piece of an old meteorite presents some special problems Cover: Gibbon species show three different patterns of color variation; monomorphism, all the same color; asexual dimorphism, 13 Book Reviews color unrelated to sex; and sexual color linked to sex. dimorphism, 14 Field Briefs 16 Letters Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscrip- tions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Bulletin June 1971 \* * Color and sex in gibbons Jack Fooden Gibbons are small thickly furred apes describe the animals in some detail to But there is another, non-behavioral, that live in the dense tropical rain the West. His information was a characteristic of gibbons that is most forests of Southeast Asia. They are by-product of French colonial incursions interesting to me as an evolutionary the smallest of the four so-called into the gibbon's native regions in zoologist. The color of the dense fur anthropoids or apes—the tailless Southeast Asia. But the Chinese have that covers the body of gibbons varies non-human primates that most closely long known and been fascinated by strikingly from one species to another, resemble the human primate, us. The gibbons. The history of their interest and in some species from one gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan are in gibbons was recently documented by individual to another. The colors range the other three. Gibbons are highly the late R. H. van Gulick, Lift. D., a from pale silver-gray to blond to skilled brachiators, unlike the larger gentleman scholar whose own affection medium brown to dark brunet or apes (and virtually all monkeys). That is, for the animals developed in the course blackish. This coat color variation their characteristic mode of locomotion of his career in the Far East in the presents an intriguing problem for is swinging from branch to branch by diplomatic service of his country, the evolutionary interpretation. Some their arms. In fact, they are often Netherlands: interpretations can now be made, at spectacular "trapeze artists," making From the first centuries of our era on, least tentatively, on the basis of Chinese writers have celebrated the gibbon aerial leaps as wide as forty-five feet. evidence already available. in prose and poetry, dwelling in loving detail They are also highly vocal. Their loud on his habits, both in the wild and in have I first became seriously interested in singing, especially in early morning, captivity. Great Chinese painters drawn the gibbon in all shapes and the of coat colors in can be heard for more than a mile problem gibbon till about the 14th from attitudes; century 1967 as a result of an expedition to through the forest. It probably serves to living models, and when thereafter the deforestation had reduced the western Thailand that I conducted for establish territorial feeding boundaries increasing habitat to southwest China, with of a between Some gibbon's basing Field Museum, the support neighboring troops. their pictures on the work of former painters grant from the U.S. Public Health species have a highly expandable and on hearsay. So important was the gibbon in Chinese art and literature, that he Service. resonating throat pouch which gives migrated to Japan and Korea together with several tones to their hoots and wails, the other Chinese literary and artistic Although our primary objective was to motifs, although I neither 1 Japan nor Korea and at a decibel level that would be study monkeys that inhabit the forests ever belonged to the gibbons' habitat. The admirers of our own appreciated by gibbon thus occupies a unique place in of this region, my field companions and echo-chamber and electronic Far Eastern culture, it to being possible I collected several gibbon specimens trace the extent of his habitat, his amplification technology. also, of the lar— appearance and his mannerisms for more species Hylobates than two thousand years. more particularly, the subspecies or Gibbons live in Many monogamous race Hylobates lar entelloides. One of "nuclear family" troops consisting of a The gibbon has been considered by the most striking things about this mother, father, and up to three the Chinese from ancient times to be the subspecies is that there are two offspring, of ages two years apart. The aristocrat among apes and monkeys; sharply defined color types—blonds, family would usually be no larger than he symbolized a "gentleman." The which are pale yellowish buff, and five because breed only every gibbons macaque, on the other hand, "was the brunets, which are blackish brown. two years, only one infant is born at a symbol of human astute trickery but The local people in Thailand call them time, and when the oldest offspring is also of human credulity and general cha-nee l The great French zoologist of the 18th Whatever mythological or symbolic When I returned to Chicago and began century, Buffon, was the first person to significance became attached to the to study the specimens and other data gibbon, close observation was involved that we had collected, I became also. However, thorough modern curious about color variation in other A blond H. lar an entelloides, asexualiy behavioral studies of gibbons have subspecies and species of gibbons. dimorphic subspecies. Photo by Saul Kitchener. only recently begun to be made. From one source or another—published Bulletin June 1971 Mother and infant of the H. syndactylus species, brunet and monomorphic. Photo by Saul Kitchener. zoological literature and also previously blonds, that is what they get, all adult females are blond. collected museum specimens— I found because information about color for all of the Surprisingly, all hoolock and concolor at birth seven known species of gibbons. I infants are pale colored and learned that some are like the kind we turn dark before they are one year old. — remain dark from then and collected in Thailand that is, the Males on, animals have different colors females turn pale again when they independent of age or sex; in others, reach sexual maturity, at about six all individuals of one sex are one color years of age. In lar pileatus, all infants and all individuals of the other sex are are born pale; males turn dark as they a different color; and in still others, all mature; and females apparently develop individuals are the same color. But this only dark patches, with most of their information apparently had never been body remaining pale. brought together and analyzed These color changes are a normal part systematically. My subsequent study of of development and are unique to the available information revealed a sexually dimorphic gibbons. Asexually fairly clear pattern of coat color dimorphic and monomorphic gibbons variation in gibbons. remain whatever color they are at birth. These three major categories of coat All three of the sexually dimorphic — concolor, and lar color variation just mentioned can be groups —hoolock, designated by the somewhat formidable pileatus inhabit the Indochinese technical terms asexual dimorphism, Peninsula. In Assam and Burma west sexual dimorphism, and monomorphism. of the Salween River is hoolock; These terms could, of course, apply to concolor is east of the Mekong River as a whole is different from the other other characters as well as coat color. in southern China, Laos, Vietnam, and six, and the four subgroups must be Cambodia; with lar pileatus adjacent to considered separately. Although most The term asexual dimorphism implies the west and south, in Cambodia, of the other six also have recognizable that both males and females may be Laos, and Thailand. the of coat color either blond or brunet, as in the subspecies, pattern variation is constant within each The three species H. moloch, H. populations I encountered in Thailand. and H. klossii and the The term sexual dimorphism indicates species. syndactylus. H. lar vestitus are all that coat color is correlated with sex. subspecies H. like H. lar entelloides, is agilis, monomorphic—that is, all members of The term monomorphism implies that —that both asexually dimorphic is, each at place have all members of a species or group any given males and females may be either the same coat color. The subspecies at any given place—any essentially or brunet. is H. lar lar. The blond So moloch group inhabits both Java, local population—have essentially the all of agilis species inhabits Sumatra where all individuals are and same coat color. pale grey, northern inhabits except the tip and Borneo, where all individuals are also a small area on the western coast The seven species of gibbons that brown. All syndactylus individuals are of to it on the north zoologists usually recognize have the Malaya. Adjacent blackish, in both Sumatra and Malaya. lives the lar entelloides following scientific names: Hylobates subspecies, The dwarf gibbon klossii, which is which inhabits of the lar; H. agilis; H. hoolock; H. concolor; part Malay restricted to four small islands off the Peninsula northern and western H. moloch; H. syndactylus: and H. plus western coast of Sumatra, is also Thailand. And also to it on klossii. Mostly the respective geographic adjacent blackish. And lar vestitus, in northern the east is the lar lar in ranges of these species are adjacent subspecies, Sumatra, is always medium brown. All these territories to one another and do not overlap. In Malaya. species' are shown on the Viewed overall, the color variations in Sumatra and Malaya, however, two map. a and species of gibbons inhabit the same gibbons present fairly simple H. hoolock and H. as forests. The two species regular geographic pattern, concolor and the subspecies H. lar indicated by the shadings on the map. The first species mentioned, H. lar, has pileatus are all sexually dimorphic— The monomorphic species and four subspecies: H. lar entelloides, the that is, coat color is correlated with subspecies (moloch, syndactylus, gibbons I collected; H. lar lar; H. lar sex. In each of these three groups all klossii, and lar vestitus) are restricted pileatus; and H. lar vestitus. So far as adult males are brunet and, whether to the southern part of the total range coat color is concerned, this species or not these gibbon gentlemen prefer of gibbons. The asexually dimorphic Bulletin June 1971 Distribution of Coat Color Types in Species and Subspecies of Gibbons sexual dimorphism, ^9 : H. hoolock, H. concofor, H. lar pileaius asexual dimorphism, i monomorphism, (f a : H. far vestitus, H. klossii, H. syndactflus, H. moloch Bulletin June 1971 species and subspecies (agllis, lar lar, First, at least part of the genetic basis subspecies the proportion of blond and and lar entelloides) inhabit the middle of color evolution in gibbons seems to brunet individuals varies from place to part of the range. The sexually be clear. From study of families of place. In the ag/7/s species, brunets dimorphic species and subspecies asexually dimorphic gibbons that I constitute about 50 percent of {concolor, hoolock, and lar pileatus) observed in Thailand and from populations observed in Sumatra and inhabit the northernmost part of the information provided by other about 75 percent of those observed in range. This simple geographic observers, it appears that two blond Malaya. In lar lar and lar entelloides, distribution suggests that there may be gibbon parents virtually always produce brunets constitute about 80 percent of a simple evolutionary relationship blond offspring, whereas two brunet populations in the southern part of the among the three major categories of gibbon parents may produce both Malay Peninsula, about 10 percent in color variation. blond and brunet offspring. This the northern part of the Malay pattern of hair color inheritance is Peninsula, and about 50 percent in One problem in formulating an essentially the same as in human Thailand. This also is reminiscent of evolutionary interpretation of coat color blonds and brunets. Blondness in the situation with respect to human in is to decide what variation gibbons gibbons, as in humans, appears to be hair color, if we consider, for example, or the probable ancestral primitive a genetically recessive trait, and the percentage of blonds and brunets state have been. Because color may brunetness a genetically dominant in local populations in Italy, about 45 of the 50 known major trait. In the sexually dimorphic species Switzerland, Germany, and Sweden. groups of primates are monomorphic and subspecies of gibbons, the genetic it It that color variation with respect to coat color, seems factor that controls coat color evidently seems probable probable that monomorphism is the has somehow become linked to the in gibbons may play a role in territorial primitive color state in gibbons. genetic factor that determines sex. relationships between adjacent troops. Accordingly, the simplest interpretation It is known that in some gibbons of color evolution in gibbons is that Another fragment of evidence that self-display is an important part of monomorphism is the ancestral bears on the evolution of color establishing territorial rights. This is condition, that monomorphic gibbons variation in gibbons is the fact that in evident in a report published by the gave rise to asexually dimorphic the asexually dimorphic species and American primatologist John Ellefson, gibbons, and that these in turn who studied wild populations of H. A white-ctieeked male H. subsequently gave rise to sexually juvenile concolor, lar lar in Malaya for about eighteen brunet because the is The necessarily species months. dimorphic gibbons. present sexually dimorphic. Photo by Saul geographic distribution of these color Kitchener. Adult males (from neighboring troops] in a conflict hang by one arm and swing back states suggests that the postulated and forth, and twist around 360 degrees in transition from monomorphism to either direction without changing the hand hands few asexual dimorphism took place in the grip; they change every seconds; they to be making themselves southern of the and that the appear part range conspicuous, advertising their position. They transition from asexual dimorphism to look in all directions and conflict-hoo [a characteristic vocalizationl as they swing sexual dimorphism took place in the and dangle. northern part of the range. It may only be coincidence, but territorial If the hypothesis presented above vocalizations are also prominent in the correctly interprets the direction and behavior of South American howler geography of the evolution of color monkeys, which constitute one of the variation in gibbons, the next question few other primate groups that exhibit to be asked is. Why did these coat color sexual dimorphism. Perhaps evolutionary changes occur? In other vocalization and coat color display are is or words, what the selective force functionally interrelated forms of survival value that is responsible for territorial behavior. the presumed change from monomorphism to asexual dimorphism It also appears probable that color and finally to sexual dimorphism? variation in gibbons may be Although there is no comprehensive significantly related to differences in answer to this question as yet, there troop size. The French zoologist Pierre are some clues that seem to indicate Pfeffer recently reported that troops of possibly productive directions for the sexually dimorphic lar pileatus future research. subspecies that he observed in Bulletin June 1971 Painting In Osaka Fine Arts Gallery entitled Ch'u-yiian-fu, "Picture of a group of gibbons," by I Yiian-chi, lltfi century, done on a fiorizontal silk scroll about 30 cm. fiigfi and 120 cm. long. Printed by permission of Municipal Gallery of Fine Art, Osaka, Japan. Cambodia were very much smaller than indicates that as late as 1 ,000 years ago questions. But that is part of what troops of the monomorphic moloch gibbons ranged northeastward in China keeps museum zoologists interested in species in Borneo. If these two groups as far as the Yellow River, southwest of the study of animals and their evolution. of gibbons differ in troop size, they Peking, which Is about 800 miles probably also differ In the Internal social northeast of their present northern limit organization of troops. Color variation of distribution. The disappearance of well function as some sort of social In China historic times may gibbons during REFERENCES signal within a troop. presumably is the result of deforestation of their habitat, which Is correlated in Comte George Louis Leclerc de Buffon. Another fact Is that intriguing coat color China, as elsewhere, with development Histoire Naturelle, vol. 14. Paris: 1766. is related to mate selection in asexually of advanced agricultural civilization. Jotin Oscar Ellefson. "A Natural History of dimorphic gibbons. Gibbons of the Gibbons in the Malay Peninsula." Ph.D. in Sumatra tend to select The of Chinese agilis species early depictions gibbons dissertation, University of California, mates with coat colors opposite to their in scroll paintings are lifelike, detailed, Berkeley, 1967. own. In almost all troops in this and apparently zoologically accurate. Jack Fooden. "Color-Phase in Gibbons," in species, blond adult males are mated To judge from these paintings, the Evolution, vol. 23, no. 4, December 30, 1969, to brunet adult females, and brunet that Inhabited eastern gibbon formerly pp. 627-644. males are mated to blond females. China was agilis, the asexually Jack Fooden. on Primates Collected But in the lar entelloides subspecies, dimorphic species now confined to "Report in Western Thailand, January-April, 1967." the situation apparently Is exactly the Sumatra and northwestern Ivlalaya, Fieldiana: Zoology, vol. 59, no. 1, March 31, reverse. In vast of 1 of If the majority troops ,000 miles south China. this 1971. observed by myself and others in identification Is correct, the puzzling R. H. van Litt.D. The Gibbon in Thailand, mated pairs were either both geographic history of asexually Gulick, China—An Essay in Chinese Animal Lore. blond or both brunet. In sexually dimorphic H. agilis Is one more element Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill, 1967, released will to dimorphic groups (concolor, hoolock, that eventually have be 1969. and lar pileatus) males and females are incorporated into a comprehensive "Considerations sur of course oppositely colored In all account of the evolution of coat color Pierre Pfetfer. I'Ecologie-lorets Claires du Cambodge matlngs because all adult males are variation in gibbons. Oriental," in La Terre et la Vie, no. 1, brunet and all adult females are blond. 1969. pp. 3-24. Although the direction of gibbon coat Dr. Robert van Gulick's book The Gibbon color evolution now seems fairly clear, in China, mentioned earlier, provides at present we are still a long way from western zoologists with previously understanding the possible function of unavailable evidence concerning the color variation and the forces of natural probable past distribution of gibbons In selection that may be responsible for its eastern China, far beyond their present evolution. Perhaps future comparative Dr. Jack Fooden is research associate at Field Museum and of at geographic range. This versatile Dutch study of the behavior of gibbon troops professor zoology Chicago State College. diplomat's systematic search for which represent different categories of references to gibbons in ancient color variation may help to clear up Chinese literature and art covered the some of the unresolved problems. Of period from 1500 B.C. to the end of the course we can anticipate that new ivling dynasty (A.D. 1644). His research answers will In turn open up new Bulletin June 1971 Were you here? Members' Nights May 6 and 7 7,205 members were. Photos by Ray Burley and Fred Huysmans Bulletin June 1971 Forward and backward glances May 2, 1971 marked the fiftieth The 8,000 or more people who visited anniversary of the opening of Field the Museum on May 2, 1921, journeyed Museum's present building to the over unpaved roads, cinder paths, and public. The Museum had moved the board walks to a magnificent white year before from its first home, the marble building set apart in a kind of Palace of Fine Arts Building in no-man's land surrounded by Jackson Park, erected for the World hummocks of ungraded fill containing Columbian Exposition of 1893. The a great deal of trash and populated by moving operation had been both unique a fair number of rodents. There were and somewhat spectacular because of no other buildings. Shedd Aquarium, its size and the nature of the material. Soldier Field, and Adier Planetarium When before had anyone seen the head came much later. of an elephant riding rampant on the deck of a railroad flat car? The vast On opening day the exhibits were collections, exhibits, and library had essentially the same in appearance as been transferred to a substantial, when on view in the Jackson Park carefully designed and elegant new building. Case interiors were black and home that the ideals, crowded with specimens; exhibition Construction, May 11, 1917. fully expressed dreams, and best judgment of labels were black with silver gray experienced museum officers and staff. lettering. There was a variety of furniture, some of which was obsolete Three days before, Carl Sandburg, in an even then. There seemed to be a vast article in the Da/7y News, had written amount of space. Some departments under the title "World Wonders are in fitted rather loosely in the area assigned Field Museum:" to them. The large exhibition halls were intended for daylight illumination. The for men navy recruiting slogan young Alternate interior halls on the first floor is, "See the World." An older admonition is, "See Rome and die." But the one heard had glass skylight ceilings. There was in in recent most often this country years no individual case lighting. On dark is, "See America first." Before starting, fixtures the however, to see either the world or Rome days ceiling hardly dispelled or America first, a few good long trips gloom as black case interiors absorbed around the Field Museum are worth while. all available light. There were no The museum has a number of specimens built-in habitat exhibition and articles rather difficult to find even in groups or a trip around the world. Also there are a cases. few bits of paraphernalia not to be found in whatsoever rambles a tourist anywhere But almost as soon as the might choose to make between the equator spacious and either of the poles. building was occupied, things placed There were no other buildings. Shedd Aquarium, Soldier Field, and AdIer Planetarium came much later. 10 Bulletin June 1971 John R. Millar according to plan, and the Museum once more open to visitors, a new and vigorous growth began like that of a seedling tree in spring. There ensued a period of unusually active field and expeditionary work in all departments made possible by an enlarged scientific and preparatory staff and the generous financial support of a number of individuals, especially tvlr. Stanley Field, president, Mr. Marshall Field III, and other trustees of the Museum. Central and South America, Africa and Asia, as well as various areas of the United States and subarctic Canada were the locale of numerous expeditions that resulted in large scientific collections as well as studies and specimens for exhibition. With this impetus an accelerated program in all manner of Museum activities followed — research, publication of scientific reports, exhibitions and education—that continues to the present. When before had anyone seen the head of an elephant riding rampant on the deck of a have Along the way numerous changes railroad flat car? been made in the physical plant, in storage facilities and in exhibits. The appearance of exhibits has produced backward glances whether they are ground floor, which was largely earthen many changes. There is no exhibition taken singly as annual reports or in and unpaved in 1921, was completed hall in the Museum that has not been decades or multiples thereof for the and made into exhibition halls, storage renovated at least once since opening longer view. The slogan of the fiftieth and work areas. The flow of steam for day; some have been revised several anniversary of the founding of the heating was radically rerouted by times. Four large halls have been Museum in 1893 was, "A living museum moving the main pipes from the ground cleared, the material retired or is a growing museum." Growth in a floor to the third floor to obtain a more transferred to other halls, and the space museum implies change, certain kinds even distribution of heat and to rid the vacated is being used for work areas, of institutional "growing pains," and newly created exhibition halls of the storage of study collections, and for outmoding of vesture. A living museum unsightly pipes. With the exception of temporary exhibits. The result has been is never finished. It serves its Stanley Field Hall, all skylights in the creation of a number of exhibits for community and the natural sciences as exhibition halls have been covered and which the Museum is world famous. no other social institution can and to nearly all windows closed. Exhibits Likewise study collections and library continue this service is the purpose and were then individually lighted. Even this resources have grown to an importance function of Field Museum of Natural change went by stages beginning with and usefulness that compel History. incandescent lamps, followed through consideration as source material by the years by various kinds of fluorescent students and researchers in several John R. Millar is lormer deputy director ol as developments areas of the sciences and lights technological biological Field Museum arid lormer chief curator of in made better lamps available. Published based industry anthropology. reports botany. He joined the Field Museum stall in obsolete limits materials Now inadequate, wiring on studies of Museum have 1918. Although now retired, he works as a progress in further improvements that added much to knowledge of our world volunteer in the care ol the economic it in require more electrical power. as it was, is, and conceivably as may collections the Department of Botany. become. The continuing effort of the staff to improve the content, organization, and Anniversaries invite forward as well as Bulletin June 1971 11 the campo del cielo meteorite Edward J. Olson When the early Spanish settlers slowly blades was used first, but the meteorite pushed their way Into the Gran Chaco wore out several such blades. Then a region of north-central Argentina, some switch was made to a super-hard of them encountered huge masses of carbide-tipped blade, which completed meteoritic iron scattered over a large the job nicely. We got two good flat area. The first written report mentioning slices from the middle plus the two end the find was in 1576 by Hernan Mexia pieces. The slices were machined de Miraval, who had found a mass that smooth on one side so they can be about ton. in weighed one Much later, polished and acid-etched for study. 1788, Don Rubin de Cells wrote of finding a huge mass that he estimated Normally an iron meteorite does not excite so effort. to be about 15 tons. So it went through much This one has the 18th, 19th, and on into the 20th become a subject of interest because it centuries, piece after piece being found. is not just another common iron Pieces over a ton were seen and meteorite. Several years ago it was that found fairly readily, but as time went on found some portions of Campo del the newer finds were generally of Cielo contained, within the metal, International Harvester Co. machinery in the masses of material which are not pieces range of several hundred slices the Campo del Cielo meteorite. stony pounds. The last piece of any size was like the stony matter that makes up found in 1937—and little of most stone meteorites. Whenever there any possibly the Chicago-based consequence has been found since. As is the chance of uncovering something International Harvester Co. might be is the practice with meteorites, all these different from other parts of our solar willing to cut it in their shops where pieces, which are the broken parts of system the extra effort is well they frequently slice large metal stock a single, prehistoric fall, have been worthwhile, so this mass of iron was cut prior to machining. named after the local region where they with the hope it would contain some were — of those unusual inclusions. found Campo del Cielo, "field The question was put to Museum foreign of heaven" in Spanish. Director E. Leiand Webber and he We were pleased to see as the slices came off that each contacted Mr. Harry Bercher, one contained two In 1966 and 1967 Drs. Theodore Bunch chairman of the board of International large stony masses. and William both of the Cassidy, Harvester. They agreed immediately. National The pieces of as the meteorite Aeronautics and Space Last March we received the crated iron Campo, Administration, visited the with is fondly called, are now going to region meteorite at the Museum, marked it for modern permanent homes. One end piece and metal-detecting equipment. the cuts, and sent it on to Harvester's located three additional one slice will be returned to Dr. Bunch They large plant in Hinsdale, Illinois. pieces, which were buried from view at the NASA center in Moffett Field, under the soil. California. One end will to These were excavated Slicing up meteoritic iron is generally piece go and one of 103 Dr. Cassidy at the of them, weighing pounds, a bit tougher than slicing man-made University was crated and to Pittsburgh, where he is now located. shipped the steels. Steels are usually chemically United States. And one slice will here in the compounded (alloyed) to make them stay meteorite collection of the harder and somewhat more brittle than growing To do research at all on a meteorite Field as a "for services any meteoritic iron. Also, steels are made Museum, gift specimen it is to cut it rendered." The most services necessary open of numerous microscopic metal crystals. important and flat surfaces. little of rendered grind Very Iron meteorites, however, commonly were, course, by useful information can be from International Harvester and Field gained consist of only a single huge metal Co., the outside alone. With Museum owes them a debt of any large piece crystal, which causes them to be more gratitude of iron there is the of for their skillful always problem tenacious than steels. Consequently help. how to cut it. Since most meteorite meteorites cannot be cut quite as fast are under 50 specimens pounds, as man-made steel. As a rough laboratory is sawing equipment usually comparison, it is like the difference small. During a meeting in Virginia in between a wet board as hand-sawing Dr. Edward J. Olsen is curator ot mineralogy October of 1970 Dr. Bunch asked me if opposed to sawing through a crisp, dry in the Department ot Geology at Field the Field Museum had large enough one. Museum. equipment to cut slices from an iron of this size. We don't. But we thought A large band saw with hardened steel 12 Bulletin June 1971 An excellent map on the inside cover shows clash, out of ignorance, with Eskimo breeding sites and migratory routes to aid traditions. the reader in following the story. The At all well the line-drawing text figures are adequate, but first, goes as whalers, each photographs of the seals and their rookeries in his own way, attempt to adjust to this would have been welcome. An appendix new, difficult and, at times, totally mysterious life. liaisons with includes a brief history of seals, their origin They form willing young and evolution, and a selected bibliography. girls and this is encouraged by Eskimo :; I The comprehensive index provides quick hospitality. Eventually, however, y ;: access to a wealth of information on seals. misunderstanding and distrust arise out of the pride, greed and lust of both Eskimos The author is an outstanding authority on and whites. Once these forces are freed, marine mammals. Although guilty of some the protagonists careen toward inevitable anthropomorphisms, he uses the facts— destruction as carefully balanced many of them of his own discovery—to interpersonal relations disintegrate and weave a sound, sober, highly readable, basic conflicts between the two cultures are fascinating, and factual story designed for revealed. the layman. The compelling narrative is set against a The Year of the Seal by Barbara Brown, volunteer assistant, background of Eskimo life on Baffin Island Division of Field By Victor B. Scheffer. New York, Charles Mammals, Museum. that is authentic in virtually every detail. Scribner's Sons, 1970. 205 pp. $7.95. You experience the isolated, self-sufficient world of the Eskimos and rapidly come to The Year of the Seal is a month-by-month appreciate the precarious nature of their The White Dawn chronicle ot birth; growth rate; maternal existence as they move from spring to fall care; breeding; behavior of mature bulls, By James Houston. New York, Harcourt, to winter camps in a never-ending search young bachelors, mothers, and pups; Brace, Jovanovich, 1971. 275 pp. $6.95. for food. Hunting techniques, the facts of feeding habits of mature seals; and herd life and death, entertainment and religious James Houston's novel about Eskimos and social hierarchy. ceremonialism, all are woven skillfully into one early, tragic contact with white men is the story. tale set the The story begins in July with the arrival of an exciting, moving along the "Golden Seal," a female with a rare isolated, windswept coast of Baffin Island, At intervals, the artist-author (who yellowish coat who has come to bear her where the author served the Canadian introduced the successful marketing of pup and to breed again, like thousands of government as an area administrator for Eskimo stone-carvings to Canadian and other Alaska fur seals, on St. Paul Island, many years. . American cities, to augment the income of the most northerly of the Pribilof Chain. needy Eskimo villages) provides accurate The narrative with extracts from the begins drawings of Eskimo artifacts as they appear of a New England whaling ship that A few days after the whelping, the females log in the story. Through his narrator, a describe on a in are ready to breed again with the mature how, spring day 1896, sympathetic and sensitive young man, several men in a small boat become bulls who had returned to the rookeries in missing Houston not only evokes the Eskimo while towed a whale. June to fight for breeding territory and await being by harpooned life-style, but creates the special atmosphere scene then shifts to the winter of their harem. The pups remain on the island The camp of a culture where man and nature exist in until November, as do their mothers, who a band of Eskimos who are excited and harmonious balance. amazed the arrival of three until then leave only for periodic hunting by strangers, who are near death from starvation and Houston has us a dramatic trips in the Bering Sea. James given exposure. The families in this camp, led by novel—but his achievement is greater than The Golden Seal migrates southward in the elderly and strong-willed Sarkak, a that. He has created a vibrant microcosm November and remains at sea until her renowned hunter, have heard of such within which his characters, Eskimos and return to St. Paul Island to begin the annual foreigners, whom they believe to be whites, enact to the bitter end the tragic cycle anew. Her pup and other yearlings, descended from dogs, but most have never consequences of culture-contact whenever no longer sheltered by adults, set out to sea before seen such wondrous beings. The it has occurred. For this little band of on their own. The seven months from three whalers, a sensitive white officer, a Eskimos, as it was for all the native December through June are covered by an black harpooner and a hot-tempered white peoples of North America, the "white dawn" account of the adaptive characters of seals seaman, are nursed back to health and truly meant the beginning of the end for which enable them to survive and reproduce: gradually accepted into the small community respected values and meaningful life-ways the delayed implantation of the fertilized of igloos. that were as cherished and deeply rooted egg; the migratory route of the Golden Seal; as life itself. Houston's a Book-of-the- the fish she eats; and the predatory sharks, absorbing novel, Month Club is based on actual Dr. James Van killer whales, and humans she meets selection, by Stone, chairman, ot and fears. events which have become part of Eskimo Department Anthropology, Field Museum. folklore. Avinga, a crippled member of the Reprinted with permission from the Chicago Daily The background is filled with interesting camp who thus cannot participate fully in News. facts about commercial sealing, naturalists an Eskimo man's arduous activities, tells who devote their lives to the study of seals, the story. Since the Eskimos cannot the role of the government in controlling understand their language, the white the seal fisheries, and the history of native strangers are presented only as the Eskimos Pribilof Islanders, whose lives are bound up see them and as Avinga recounts the tale. in sealing under the watchful eyes of the Yet their personalities emerge as we see United States Fish and Wildlife Service. them through Eskimo eyes and as they Bulletin June 1971 13 Field Museum Building Fifty Years Old ""."I"' '""r i. k"'! mg, M., 2, m oloblished in 1893, «i>iy Field Museum ?^^lo,-Uint| Hugo J. Melvoin Elected Trustee Prominent Chicago attorney Hugo J. Melvoin, a partner in the law firm of Mayer, Brown & Piatt, has been elected a Trustee of Field Museum. Remick McDowell, Museum president, made the announcement following a recent meeting of the Board of Trustees. Mr. Melvoin received his L.L.B. from Harvard Law School in 1953, where he was winner Floyd Catten^ 0, Illinois and Darrell Sutton of East Moline, Illinois accept congratulations from of the Barr James Ames award. He is a Museum Director fc. Leiand Webber (right) upon winning free memberships in Field Museum. 1950 honors graduate in accounting from Field Museum celebrated the fiftieth the University of Illinois. birthday of its present building recently with NSF Grant for Teacher Training Active in national, state, and local bar a public birthday party in Stanley Field Hall. Program associations, Mr. Melvoin is a member of A giant seven-tiered cake, a gift from Burny the Executive Council of the Chicago Bar Bros., was enjoyed by Museum visitors and Field Museum has been awarded a grant of ten free memberships were awarded through $47,200 from the National Science a drawing. Foundation for support of a program entitled "Instructional Use of Community Mr. David of Benton Harbor, Goldberg Resources." Its purpose is to help thirty whose name was drawn Michigan, first, teachers from Chicago public schools became the 64,397,029th visitor to the design curricula that make use of Museum present building, which opened its doors to exhibits as resources. the public on May 2, 1921. The nine other people to win free memberships to the School use of Field Museum facilities is Museum are: Mrs. James Barushok, increasing, and both new and experienced Evanston, Illinois; Terri Castleberry, Joliet, teachers feel a growing need to learn how Illinois; Floyd Catterton, Moline, Illinois; they can interpret the Museum's exhibits to Antonio Cuevas, Chicago, Illinois; Kitty their classes, and how their field trips to Hugo J. Melvoin Petry, Delphi, Indiana; Reed Scudder, San the Museum can be made an integral part Francisco, California; Darrell Leon Sutton, of their curricula. Field Museum is Association Committee on Federal Taxation East Moline, Illinois; Lisa Simonson, assuming leadership in training teachers to and vice chairman of Division A, dealing Chicago, Illinois; and Duane H. Willhard, prepare pre- and post-field-trip instruction with estate and gift taxes and related Springfield, Ohio. that uses visual aids, written materials, and problems. actual objects or models of specimens An article by John Millar, former deputy from the Museum. In addition, Mr. Melvoin lectures to bar director and former chief curator of botany, associations and tax conferences, including The recalling the past fifty years in the present participating teachers will be selected the University of Chicago Tax Conference, Museum building, is featured in this issue jointly by Museum staff and Chicago public the Illinois Institute for Continuing Legal of the Bulletin. school administration personnel. Donald C. Education, and De Paul and University, Edinger, chairman of the Museum's writes articles for law reviews. He is a Department of Education, will direct the member of Beta Gamma Sigma, commerce six-week workshop program, which begins honorary fraternity. June 28. 14 Bulletin June 1971 Successful Bid for Museum Associate IMembershlp professor o( zoology, Chicago State College. Publication Number 1123. $3.00 Fieldiana is a continuitig series of scientific papers and monograpfis dealing with anthropology, botany, geology, and zoology published by Field Museum. Prices cited above do not reflect the 30 percent discount available to Members of the Museum. Publication Number should be used when ordering. New Membership Rates Effective July 1, new Museum membership rates will be $15 for annual membership and $150 for associate membership. This is the first increase in membership fees since the founding of the Museum in 1893. Persons who are presently members may renew annual membership for one year at the current rate of $10 or may obtain a permanent associate membership at the current rate of $100 up until December 31. The life membership rate will remain at Mr. and Mrs. William J. Puda, successful bidders for tfie Museum associate membership auctioned recently on WTTW-TV. learn fiow plant material is prepared for tfie herbarium from Botany herbarium assistant Ronald $500 and contributor membership at $1 .000. Liesner (left). The occasion was Members' Nights, the once-a-year opportunity when all members of the Museum can behind the scenes into the scientific research areas. The associate go membership auctioned on Museum membership now totals 20,189. television was the gift of Mr. Edward J. De Witt of Chicago. It extends membership benefits for life to Mr. and Mrs. Puda. CNA Foundation Support for Children to Hunt Dinosaurs the north door. When completed, the Afro-American Exhibit question sheet should be deposited in A Dinosaur Hunt is the Summer Journey for marked receptacles near the north or south Boys and Girls this year. Perhaps no more doors. There is no charge for taking any of fascinating prehistoric creatures ever lived the Museum Journeys. on Earth than the dinosaurs. They roamed every continent but Antarctica between about 200 million and about 65 million years ago New Fieldiana Publications years ago, and ranged in size from the The following issues of Fieldiana have been largest land-dwelling animals to no bigger recently published and are available for than a chicken. Not all are represented in from the Museum's Publications the Museum, of course. purchase Division. The Journey is designed to let youngsters Botany: Volume 34, No. 2. "Re-evaluation try to find those we do have, either as actual of Syagrus loetgrenii Glassman and S. fossils or in the Charles Knight paintings in racltidii Glassman," S. F. Glassman, Hall 38. A question sheet gives the professor of biological sciences. University necessary clues by describing significant of Illinois at Chicago Circle and research features of each animal. When the youngster associate. Field Museum. Publication then locates the fossil or painting, he can Number 1122. $1.00. answer the questions by studying the specimen or painting. Geology: Volume 23, No. 2. "Amphispongieae, A New Tribe of Paleozoic "Dinosaur Hunt" is Journey number 66 in a Dasycladaceous Algae," Matthew H. Nitecki, series which the and the Museum Raymond Visiting Afro-American Style from The Design Works associate curator of fossil invertebrates. Foundation began in the spring of 1955. of Bedford-Stuyvesant exhibit in the Museum's Hall Field Museum. Publication Number 1124. 9 are from left E. Leiand Webber, director of Field After a child a series successfully completes David executive director of $.50. Museum; Christensen, of four Journeys, he or she is presented with CNA Foundation and vice president of CNA Financial Corporation; Mark Bethel, president of The Design an award at a special program the Museum Zoology: Volume 59, No. 1 . "Report on Works; Remick McDowell, president of Field holds each spring. Write to the Museum's and a director of CNA Primates Collected in Western Thailand, Museum; Anthony Jackson, Education Department for more information — Foundation and staff assistant to director of January April, 1967," Jack Fooden, personnel, CNA/lnsurance. about the Journey program and awards. research associate. Field Museum and Silk-screened textiles produced by The Design Works, a new community-rooted company in This summer's Journey runs from June 1 to Brooklyn, are exhibited in conjunction with African art from the Museum's famous Benin collection August 31. Journey question sheets may be which inspired many of the textile designs. CNA at both the north south picked up and Foundation provided financial assistance in support entrances and at the information booth near of the exhibit. Bulletin June 1971 15 Dr. Eugene Richardson replies: of the House Interior and Insular Affairs Committee, who had introduced almost I congratulate you on finding such a tiny Identical bills. fossil in your alley. I'm sure that most people wouldn't have noticed it at all. Representatives from a large number of interested and affected groups testified You thought that the fossil was some kind of before both Committees. Though one would tooth. When letter was before the your put expect widely diverse opinions, nearly all members of the this Geology Department those who gave testimony agreed that LETTERS morning, at least two of the men remarked, legislation must be enacted to protect, "It seems to be a tooth of kind." some manage, and control the wild horses and burros in the public interest and as a Actually, when we had a look at it with the symbol of the freedom that is our heritage. microscope, it turned out to be a fossil coral. I am quite unable to what kind of coral, say This does not mean, however, that victory since it is such a small but coral fragment, will be easily won, for powerful and it is. I that will find other suspect you pieces unidentified opposition surfaced through a of coral in the same area if you continue few key legislators. That is why it is so looking, and will find that hardly you any urgent that you continue letting your views two of them will resemble each other. To To the editor; be knov/n to the lawmakers. begin with, there are many different kinds of fossil coral that can turn in limestone If have not In the 1 years we have belonged to the up you already written to your two in Indiana—and then, to make it Senators their of the Jackson Field Museum I am sure that I've nodded gravels asking support more the corals can be broken or off reading the Bulletin many times. difficult, Bill, S. 1116, and to your Congressman in different dissolved many ways. asking his support of the Baring Bill, H.R. Not so with the May Issue! It's great! 5375, please do so immediately so that they As have already discovered, there is a you will vote for passage when the bills come The new format is excellent— deal that can be seen if you keep contemporary great to the floors of both houses of Congress. while much more readable. The content looking, and it is not necessary to go far and style of writing is suddenly so much places to find interesting specimens. All Senators may be addressed: c/o Senate more communicative. Office Building, Washington, D.C. 20510 Eugene S. Richardson, Jr. And the liberal use of really fine color Curator of Fossil Invertebrates All Congressmen may be addressed: c/o Field photography makes it handsome enough to Museum House Office Building, Washington, DC. keep on our coffee table for many weeks to 20515 show guests. Matt Pesch replies: Velma B. Johnston (Wild Horse Annie) Someone—most likely you and your President Thank you for your reply. I enjoyed immediate staff—deserves to be International Society for the Protection of getting it. congratulated and encouraged. Mustangs and Burros When I grow up I want to be a geologist. You have done everythmg right. Add a center-fold "Animal of the Month" and Editor's note: It wasn't hard not to see it because I was Hugh Hefner will have some real on my hands and knees. Patricia M. Williams' article a competition in this town! "Canning Legend" in the February issue of the Bulletin Then I went out in my alley after I got your called attention to the fact that wild horses Thank you. letter and found these croinds or what ever are in North America. you call them for you. Thank you. rapidly being extirpated Eugene A. Peterson Many of our readers have since indicated Illinois Chicago, p.s. Tell the members of the Geology that they wanted to be kept informed of Department that I say thanks. progress toward legislation to help save them. Matt Pesch To the editor: While on a fossil hunting expedition in our alley, I found this item which appears to To the editor: Please address all letters to the editor to me to be a tooth of some kind. the wave of Following Congressional Bulletin I would appreciate it very much if you can to save the wild horses and burros support Field Museum of Natural History more definitely identify it for me. Enclosed America from harassment and of Western Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive is a stamped envelope, for your reply, and hearings were held in the House slaughter, Chicago, Illinois 60605 if you don't mind please return the tooth. of Representatives and in the Senate on April 19 and 20, 1971, respectively. This The editors reserve the right to edit Thank you for anything that you may be' was accomplished through the efforts and letters for length. able to do for me in this matter. dedication of Senator Henry M. Jackson of chairman of the Senate Insular Matt Pesch. Age 9 Washington, and Interior Affairs Committee, and Plymouth, Indiana Congressman Walter S. Baring of Nevada, chairman of the Public Lands Subcommittee 16 Bulletin June 1971 CALENDAR HOURS A Specimen of the "Glory of the Sea," BEGINS JUNE 1 one of the world's most famous and rarest 9 a^. to 6 p.m. Saturday-Thursday sea shells (Conus gloriamaris), shown in "Dinosaur Hunt," Summer Journey for 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday the South Lounge. Acquisition of this perfect Children, acquaints youngsters with specimen was made possible through the prehistoric animals in Museum exhibits and June 26 to September 6 generosity of Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Moulding. paintings through a free, self-guided tour. 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Wednesday, Friday, Through July 11. All boys and girls who can read and write Saturday, and Sunday may participate. Journey sheets are Free Natural History Film "Patterns for available at Museum entrances. Through The Museum Library is open 9 a.m. to Survival" (A Study of Mimicry) presented at August 31. 4:30 p.m. Monday through Friday 11 a.m. and 1 p.m. on Saturday, and 11 a.m., 1 p.m., and 3 p.m. on Sunday in the second floor Meeting Room, through COMING IN JULY The half-hour film offers an CONTINUING September. overall view of protective coloration in Free Guided Tour of Field Museum exhibit insects and provides visitors with an insight Color in Nature, an exhibit examining the areas leaves from the North information into the "Color in Nature" exhibit. nature and variety of color in the physical booth at 2 p.m. Monday through Friday, and living w/orld around us, and how/ it beginning July 6. A color motion picture, functions in plants and animals. It focuses "Through These Doors," focusing on on the many roles of color, as in mimicry, behind-the-scenes activities at the Museum, camouflage, warning, sexual recognition is shown at 3 p.m. in the Lecture Hall and selection, energy channeling, and following the tour. Through September 3. vitamin production, using specimens from the Museum's huge collections. Through Free Summer Children's Movies at 10 a.m. November 28. Hall 25. and 1 p.m. on Thursdays in the James Simpson Theatre. The Afro-American Style, From the Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of July 8—"Zoos Around the World" textiles blending classical African motifs and a visit to some world-famous animals in contemporary design. Artifacts from Field world-famous zoos Museum's Benin collection, which inspired many of the designs, are also shown. July 15—"Adventures of an Otter" Financial assistance for the exhibit was the delightful story of a mischievous otter received from the CNA Foundation, Chicago. Through September 12. Hall 9. July 22—"Living Jungles" animals and plants of a tropical rain forest John James Audubon's elephant folio. The Birds of on in the North America, display July 29—"The Red Balloon" A different from the Lounge. plate rare, the adventures of a big red balloon and first-edition volumes is featured each day. his pet, a little boy 75th Exhibit: A Sense of Anniversary Deersldn Jacket with painted decoration Wonder, A Sense of A Sense of History, SUMIMER JOURNEY FOR BOYS AND GIRLS depicting warriors on horseback, displayed Discovery, offers a many-dimensioned view in the South Lounge July 12 through of Field Museum's past and present, and September 5. A recent gift of Mrs. Richard some of its current research projects. D. Stevenson, the jacket was collected by Continues indefinitely. Hall 3. her grandfather. Carter H. Harrison, III, in the early part of this century from the Sioux, probably of the Pine Ridge Agency. Volume 42, Number 7 July/ August 1971 Field Museum of Natural History ^m.. i ^'^'*^^^" 'St,^ BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 7 July/August 1971 2 Radiocarbon Dating —Twenty Years Later Willard F. Libby new refinements in the carbon 14 archaeological dating technique upset old ideas about our cosmic and cultural history 6 IVIuseology—IMeeting the Relevance Problem Jonathan Taylor Field Museum develops a unique course that teaches high school students how to conceive, design, and build museum exhibits 8 New Pride in Blacl( Africa Phil Clark African governments and scholars are actively involved in conservation of their indigenous cultures and wildlife Cover: The carbon 14 technique of dating 1 1 Ecology and Economics archaeological material invented by Dr. Willard F. Libby is based upon the known disintegration rate Robert F. Inger of this radioactive element, which is called its an about between "half-life." New evidence from growth rings in ecologist speculates possible parallels bristlecone pine trees, which can live for thousands natural and human economies of years, confirms the method and corrects the dates. 1 4 Book Reviews 15 Field Briefs 16 Letters Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leland Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis. Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly except August by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscriptions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their ovjn and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are w/elcome. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lal Bulletin July/August 1971 One of the first publications on the and brought out its latent capabilities The new method of radiocarbon dating, radiocarbon dating method was by more clearly. Dr. Willard F. at developed by Libby Donald Collier in this magazine tvi/enty the Institute for Nuclear Studies of the A basic assumption which we made in years ago. It described in clear, lucid University of Chicago, promises to developing the method was that the language the nev^^ly born physical revolutionize dating problems In cosmic that created carbon 14 had technique for determining the lapse of rays archaeology. This method determines the bombarded the earth's atmosphere at time since death of living organisms. of things that lived during the past age fixed intensity for the last 50,000 years Donald Collier and I were firm 20,000 measuring the amount of years by or and that we would be in collaborators the so, justified carbon 14 they contain. during gestation assuming that at the time of death the period and he helped deliver the baby. material being measured had the same Carbon 14 is an unstable (radioactive) He served with Richard Foster Flint, the form of carbon with an atomic weight proportion of radiocarbon content as heavy geologist of Yale, Fredericl< Johnson of of 14. Normal, stable carbon has an atomic does modern wood or any living the Phillips Academy, and Froelich weight of 12. The half-life of carbon 14 modern material. It has been found, Rainey of the University of Pennsylvania is This means that an about 5,500 years. liowever, that this is not true. tvluseum to guide Dr. Arnold, Dr. strictly ounce of carbon 14 is reduced by decay Anderson, and myself in the actual to half an ounce in 5,500 years, that half The first hints of discrepancy were the remainder the next research. decays during disagreements with the Egyptian a of an 5,500 years, leaving quarter historians. Dr. Paul Damon at the ounce, and so on. Furthermore, he developed the University of Arizona noted that even technique of persuading museum half-life of Carbon 14 is formed in with a lengthening of the constantly being keepers that they should give us the earth's as the result carbon 14 from 5,568 to 5,730 upper atmosphere materials to measure. This was no small years, of the bombardment of nitrogen-14 atoms the dates for the First Dynasty were achievement since our method is by cosmic rays (neutrons). The carbon-14 later than the historians would have destructive—a sample from the material atoms thus created combine with oxygen them be from their historical records. to be dated had to be burned—and at to form carbon which becomes dioxide, Of their dates were that date were course, quite mixed in the earth's with the early we requiring atmosphere uncertain since these records were for vastly greater proportion of carbon dioxide samples as large as one ounce among the oldest written history on containing ordinary carbon atoms. The measurement. earth. carbon 14 then enters all living things, which, through the life process, are in 1 recall well when he gave us a sample There was no proof that a correction exchange with the atmosphere. This from the deck plank of the solar boat at was necessary until a new development exchange is carried out through the Field Museum, the funeral ship of occurred and Dr. Damon and Dr. Hans photosynthesis in plants. . . . the Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris III, Suess of the University of California at which we dated at 3,750 years using When a plant or an animal dies, it ceases San and workers at the the half-life we had then of Diego Douglas to be in exchange with the atmosphere adopted Tree Ring Laboratory in Arizona, and hence there is no further intake of 5,568 years. We now know that the Wesley Ferguson in particular, applied carbon 14. But the carbon 14 contained at half-life should be 3 percent longer as a new method of checking. This new death goes on disintegrating at a constant the result of further studies by others, method assumes that the wood in an rate, so that the amount of carbon 14 so something like a century should be a remaining is to the time ancient tree which constitutes single proportional added to the time to make it perhaps elapsed since death. Given the carbon 14 ring is itself datable by radiocarbon. 3,875 years. I understand that the solar content of contemporary living matter and In other words, it assumes that the boat is being redated at the Applied the disintegration rate of carbon 14 (the wood has not been altered since the Science Center for Archaeology at the it is to calculate the half-life), possible age rings were laid down during growth and University Museum in Philadelphia of an ancient organic sample from the by that, with chemical purification to and I am told that a amount of carbon 14 it contains. Henry Michael, remove humic acids and other soluble portion of the same plank used twenty materials, it can be burned and years ago and again now is being dated its radiocarbon reserved for future radiocarbon daters successfully by —from "New Radiocarbon IVIethod for content. Thus, who may want to check the age of this by systematically Dating the Past" by Donald Collier, the radiocarbon content in priceless artifact. measuring Chicago Natural History Museum Bulletin, ring after ring of trees of consecutively January, 1951. During the past twenty years several greater and greater age, both living and things have happened which have dead, this new way to check has than modified the radiocarbon dating method already been carried back more Bulletin July/August 1971 A portion of the same plank from tills solar boat used twenty years ago and again now is being reserved for future radiocarbon daters. 8,000 years. The bristlecone pine trees shown that the sun is constantly in California and Nevada, which can emitting ionized matter which is racing live for several thousand years, have outward, and cosmic rays are deflected provided the material to work with. to a considerable extent by this solar wind. We now know that there is a correction to be made in the direction that modern Most cosmic rays originate outside the radiocarbon is less abundant by several solar system in an as yet unknown percent than it was in these ancient source, so we have the exciting times. Apparently at that time the possibility of relating our climate to the cosmic ray bombardment rate was deviations if there be a correlation higher and caused the concentration of between the total emission of energy radiocarbon in all matter from the sun and the of the living Mesopotamia to the Aegean and then strength the world to be several solar wind, which seems throughout north and west through the Balkans to entirely than A 1 reasonable on Of percent higher today. percent the rest of Europe. Likewise, the custom physical grounds. to 83 so this course, such a correlation has to change corresponds years, of burying the dead in monumental yet amounts to several centuries. A be established, but it seems tombs was thought to have traveled a correction curve has been deduced reasonable, in fact almost that similar route. But the whole matter is certain, from this tree research. With it in such a correlation must exist. ring apparently up for reassessment in view hand and used to recalculate the Some evidence has been obtained of the corrected radiocarbon dates. by Egyptian problem, we now find that the studying the magnetism induced in historical dates fit well with ancient brick kilns which have corrected A third point is the value of the been radiocarbon dates. corrections themselves for the radiocarbon-dated. The magnetic minerals in the bricks were in understanding of geophysical oriented A second result is that the major phenomena. Something caused the direction by the magnetic field then corrected dating seems to require some when the bricks were last fired. cosmic rays to vary—and we now have present fundamental changes in archaeological So the the direction a record of the extent to which they did by studying bricks, evaluation in prehistoric Europe and the of the ancient field can be vary—for the only way the concentration magnetic [fiddle East. This result is just coming obtained. Its also can of radiocarbon could have changed intensity be out in the open, as I learned from obtained the of the was that its rate of production in the by intensity Professor Colin Renfrew, of the atmosphere must have changed. The magnetization, at least roughly. Now, Department of Ancient History at the the direction of the field volume of the ocean is known to have magnetic has University of Sheffield in England. Two little on the since varied only to a very slight extent over bearing question lines of in thought European prehistory the last several tens of thousands of radiocarbon mixes over Earth's have come into conflict recently. One surface in a matter of a years, and the ocean is the main quite rapidly, adheres to the diffusion explanation few hundred but the is diluting reservoir of the atmospheric years, intensity for the of the other spread skills; radiocarbon. indeed a serious question, as was postulates independent invention. The pointed out many years ago by Elsasser corrected dates at present point There are several possible explanations and others. At the present time the in favor of the latter view. In strongly for cosmic ray variation. One is that source of Earth's magnetic field is other as I understand words, it, Earth's magnetic field was somehow unknown, though we have begun to Professor Renfrew is that maintaining weakened, letting more cosmic rays hit suspect that Earth's field must be even invented in though writing was the atmosphere. At the present time connected somehow with its rotation. and such matters Mesopotamia Egypt, about half the cosmic rays which would This suspicion is based on the fact that as the of and development copper otherwise hit Earth are deflected away Venus, which in other respects is very bronze have metallurgy may developed by Earth's field because cosmic rays similar to Earth, has no magnetic and have coexisted in independently are charged particles. So if Earth's field field and does not rotate. Of course, we the in prehistoric period several places. became weaker, more would come in know that the rotation of Earth has not it had been that Previously thought and produce radiocarbon and thus raise changed abruptly in the last several came first from and metallurgy Egypt the modern concentration. thousand years, so if there was a the ancient Sumerian civilization of Another possibility is that the sun was somehow less active in emitting solar wind. Studies in recent years with space satellites and space probes have Bulletin July/August 1971 A single specimen of brisllecone pine, PInus artstata, growing at an elevation of 10,800 feel In the White Mountains of east-central California. Photo from Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University ol Arizona. weakening of Earth's magnetic field, we are essentially in the dark as to the geophysical mechanism. But the important point is that radiocarbon dating has given an additional set of data on the history of the intensity of Earth's magnetic field, if it indeed can be shown that this is the cause of the variation in cosmic rays; or, alternatively, it has given additional data on the history of the sun. It is difficult at this point in time to know which the true explanation of the variation is, but we have every reason to hope that further research will settle this uncertainty. It may well be that both factors are involved, as Dr. Suess has suggested. Another benefit which has come out of the twenty years' experience with radiocarbon dating is the clear demonstration of the ability of the physical scientist and the archaeologist to collaborate wholeheartedly and successfully; of the ability of each to learn the other's trade and to understand the difficulties in the other's field. It is clear that interdisciplinary science and interdisciplinary collaboration throughout all fields of knowledge are essential for the problems associated with the protection of our environment, and I take pride that radiocarbon research was one of the first collaborations to demonstrate in modern limes that this melding together of specialists in widely different disciplines can be done successfully. Dr. Willard F. Libby is now at the University ol Calilornia, Los Angeles, Department ol Chemistry, and Institute ol Geophysics and Planetary Physics. He won the Nobel Prize lor Chemistry in 1960 "lor his method to use carbon-14 lor age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches ol science." Bulletin July/August 1971 Museology- meeting the relevance problem Jonathan Taylor Field Museum was faced with the communication from their peers and problem of how to determine what respect it. An index of this respect is kinds of exhibits would be most the excellent condition of the exhibit exciting for high school students. after a year's use—much better Many institutions have attacked this condition than one might reasonably "relevance" problem by inviting their expect. It is a walk-in exhibit with audiences to communicate with one every part exposed, yet it has another via the modes of remained completely clean of any communication of those institutions. scratches or markings. Newspapers and TV, for example, have been used by high school students to After the 1970 pilot run of Museology, speak to other students. Could this Donald Edinger and I began some approach be equally effective in extensive redesign of the course. exhibition? Field Museum is finding out Objectives were outlined and arranged through a recently initiated program in sequence, and appropriate entitled "Museology" which involves instructional materials were written for Chicago high school juniors and each step. The final plan for a full seniors in using the exhibition medium school-year course was then to communicate with other high school considered by various educational students. agencies in Chicago. The Chicago Public Schools' Programs for the The from program actually developed Gifted liked the plan and sponsored a of a number of related wedding Museology for the school year ideas. In October of 1969, 1970-71. They selected students from Donald chairman of the Edinger, a diversity of ethnic backgrounds and of Elizabeth Department Education, from different parts of the city and Traveling exhibit produced by high school students Goldring of the Raymond Foundation, credit in both Social in pilot Museology course given by Field Museum's arranged and I started extensive discussions and Department of Education, in 1970. The exhibit was Studies and Science for the course, and constructed Francis W. Parker evaluations around a series of designed by School students Lawfnin Crawford, Hal Gerber, Bill which runs nine hours per week. They Could we involve Lawton, Peter Lewis, Steve Prins, and Mindy Schirm. questions: high assigned Mrs. Sue Maxwell to assist school students in the Museum? How me in teaching it, and this past year's do we produce exciting traveling has her well for If the original meeting was smoky, the experience prepared exhibits for high schools? Can high of course was a forest fire in comparison. teaching any subsequent offerings school students act as consultants for As with many pilot projects, the time Museology. these exhibits? Could high school devoted to this one expanded far students be trained to make a museum This second group of students started beyond our expectations, for both exhibit? we came to last October with a outline of Gradually Exhibition and Education. The students complete recognize that all these questions the course they were to follow. First spent four months trying to refine their added up to a unique idea for observed and analyzed the own ideas to an exhibitable level, and they museums. The outcome of our Museum from a number of points of finally compromised on a spin-off discussions, and view: the of audiences which strugglings, searchings exhibit from the Museum's temporary types was Museology. come here; where most visitors go exhibit "Illinois by the Sea." They within the Museum; what disciplines rewrote a segment of this exhibit, then In while still January 1970, we were are in Museum exhibits designed and constructed their final represented refining the plans, six seniors from and the of exhibition area product. In June 1970, "Death by percentage Francis Parker School came to our devoted to each. Each student then Crowding," a traveling exhibit designed Department of Exhibition to ask if they and evaluated one for schools, was finished and studied, analyzed, could make an exhibit. interested high The exhibit its intended went on display in Field Museum. by identifying members of the Education and message, writing an audience test, and Exhibition met with the six departments The exhibit then traveled to several applying the test to an actual audience students in a long, smoky, productive Chicago high schools and to Malcolm to determine the "success" of the session which concluded with the X College during the 1970-71 school exhibit. Museum agreeing to teach a pilot year, and was very well received by course in museology and the students both students and faculty. High school The next step was a month of work in to act as for agreeing guinea pigs the a of for students recognize it as a department the Museum each test run. 6 Bulletin July/August 1971 of the students, with two objectives. One was that each student experience directly what working within a specific scientific, exhibition, or educational discipline is like. The other was that each student record and assess the "functions of his particular department on a basis of observed activities" plus any other means he could devise to obtain this information. Three of the students were placed outside Field Museum, two in Shedd Aquarium and one in Adier Planetarium. Following this month of "apprenticeship," the students reconvened as a class to pool their information and construct from that a description of the Museum. This was an important assignment, for the exhibit which they were ultimately to produce must be consistent with the functions and disciplines of Field Museum. The students then wrote a schedule of the sequence of events necessary for production of an exhibit, including defining the limits of a traveling exhibit—size, weight, number students in ttie 1970-71 Museology program working on ttieir extiibit. From lett to right: Walter Whitford. of etc. pieces, durability, Lindblom High School; Kathy Gunnel!, Fenger; Mrs. Susan Maxwell, teacher from Chicago Board of Education; Alisa Swain, Lindblom; Leslie Biernat, Kelly; Jonathan Taylor, teacher from Field Museum. Students in the class not shown: Robert Brown, Hyde Park; Susan Fleishman, Waller; James Hisson, Kelly; Gail at this point were they ready to Only Isenberg, Kenwood; Joan Iwatake, Senn; Judith Nelson, Harlan; Nia Parfenoff, Waller; Felice Shiroma, Senn; start the long process of painstakingly Thalia St. Lewis, Tuley. planning and constructing their exhibit. Following their own sequence, they successful in evoking the intended Jonathan Taylor Is coordinator of N. W. identified their exhibit researched topic, response from the audience. Harris Extension, Department of Education, the subject, wrote the script and labels, Field Museum. built got photos, designed and finally Our rewards are several. There is the the exhibit. This last of the segment satisfaction of working out an exciting the most arduous and time- course, cooperative program with Chicago takes more than half the consuming, Public Schools plus the satisfaction of For school year. thirteen highly sending contemporary and "relevant" Editor's note: The Museology course has intelligent, individualistic young men exhibits to schools in high Chicago. been included in a compendium of museum and from a of women diversity In addition, our Museology course can outreach pi^ograms compiled by "Museums to to a Collaborative," sponsored by the New York backgrounds come consensus now provide a continuing output of Council for the Arts, which will be published on an exhibit on and on topic, design, high school students who have had this summer. It can be obtained from: the content of that exhibit well might very real and in-depth experience with Assistant Director, Museums Collaborative, of Cultural Affairs, 830 Fifth be one of the most difficult tasks they a and who Department museum, might seriously Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10021. have ever attempted. But their reward consider museum careers as a result. is an ultimate product—a traveling exhibit—that is a very satisfyingly We would like to see this program tangible communication of their ideas to expanded in at least two ways. It could other people— in this instance, "the be duplicated by other institutions establishing of masculine and feminine interested in establishing meaningful roles in contemporary society." To get contact with their high school feedback from this communication, communities. It could also be they must also write an evaluation broadened within Field Museum to instrument to test whether the exhibit is include other educational agencies. Bulletin July/August 1971 New pride in black Africa Phil Clark Winds of change are crealing not only on this innate interest, there is an new political and economic forms in the urgent need for introductory books on free countries of black Africa—they are natural history subjects. That is one of also stimulating refreshed creativeness the main reasons I've concentrated on in traditional arts and handicrafts and production of field guides." He hopes to a new pride in the great mammals, publish Swahili editions of his books. colorful birds, and unique plants of this I talked also with James Gathuka fascinating continent. This was the a black of stand-out impression of my recent study Gachuhi, leading zoologist, who has worked trip in Nigeria, Cameroun, and Kenya. Kikuyu background, and studied under Williams. For The impression was based on the Gathuka, wildlife is more than a natural number of new game reserves being resource of economic value; it is a established, on the growing official spiritual resource. He is happy over support for traditional arts, and on increasing official support for nature comments by leading black and white preserves, but worried by threats to zoologists, a sultan, taxi drivers, men them. These, I learned, reading the and women in markets, and student Nairobi press, come from poachers youths. Government and private tourism seeking pelts for the European and officers stressed the contribution to American markets, from hard-pressed their developing economies from the Masai herdsmen whose cattle also increasing numbers of tourists, who are need the reserve grasses for food, and attracted largely by the exciting from poor squatters who have moved animal life and local handicrafts. in on some reserve areas. "The independent East Africa The of birds and in fact governments," says zoologist John G. study mammals, Williams," are more active in wildlife of all wildlife, is a way of life for Gathuka. His interest in nature in preservation than the colonial began governments were." British born and childhood, but deeper knowledge came with in with a trained, Dr. Williams is the author of work Uganda German and collector of animals for the principal guides to birds, mammals, zoologist zoos. because of his wife's butterflies, and game reserves of East Later, for —"she said she Africa. (He is a former curator of birds nostalgia Kenya back to her —Gathuka at the Kenya National Museum, Nairobi, would go parents" returned to There he met and and has been in Kenya since 1945.) Kenya. "The strides forward in conservation worked under Williams, guiding safaris for interested in wildlife made since independence [in Kenya, persons He has a for 1963] are very, very remarkable. The photography. sharp eye three East African nations have set a birds and mammals, even when their makes them invisible good example to all of Africa." Williams camouflage to the untrained. their added that Nigeria, Cameroun, and Knowing habits, he also knows where and when to find Ethiopia are now developing new game reserves. them for revealing, candid photos. With his help, I was able to photograph In part this interest in conservation a nauseated lioness being sick, a pair was triggered by the success of East of lions mating, a gaggle of reticulated Africa in attracting tourist dollars. It giraffes huddled under an acacia tree is also a result of the burgeoning during heavy rain, and a timid dik-dik national pride all over free black Africa peering nervously from thornbushes a in the uniqueness of their wildlife and few feet away. Progress is real— it in the attention it receives from seems to me—when the pith-helmeted travelers and the world's press. Dr. "white hunter" is replaced by a gentle Williams continued. "More important, zoologist leading a photo safari. though, the African is fundamentally Gathuka, looking ahead, hopes his interested in nature," he said. "To build son, Gachuhi, will be a zoologist too. Bulletin July/ August 1971 Photos by the author. Dr. Louis S. B. Leakey, the noted occasionally takes a visitor to Bamoun paleontologist, with whom I talked in personally from shop to shop. He Nairobi, pointed out that East Africa's showed me some of the expressive great game reserves are vital to newly brasses, with pride almost approaching developing knowledge about animal that of the sculptors themselves. These behavior. This study based on intimate Muslim brassworkers make figures of observation of reserve animals is sprightly musicians, pendant heads of beginning to reveal whole dimensions of past sultans, and crucified Christs, animal intelligence that had not been which, besides having the Semitic suspected. features appropriate for Jesus of Nazareth, are vividly the Man of In West Africa, my strongest impression Sorrows. is the human—so spontaneous, outgoing, smiling, and colorful. This Traditional dance is another of the arts excitement carries through to flourishing in Bamoun. During archaeology, anthropology, and the celebrations at the Feast of Ramadan, related arts, crafts, and customs. The which marks the end of the long Muslim artist Picasso credits an exhibit of West period of fasting, I saw at least eight different folk — African art in Europe with triggering the dance groups sword whole abstract art movement, so vital dancers clashing flashing blades; warriors with were the African sculptures. They are feathered headdresses old still vital and are helping black Africans and muskets which were to rediscover themselves even as they dangerously discharged at a dance helped white Europeans to express climax; spearmen in a dancing charge. themselves. Prince Zounedou impressed me as part of the new Africa—as did his I talked about arts and crafts with the royal father also. Both were Sultan of Bamoun, El Hadj Seidou vitally concerned with for their land—ruled Njimoluh Njoya, who visited Field progress by the Sultan's line — Museum in 1964. Our talks were in the since 1431 but at the same time are intent that Sultan's capital city of Foumban, set equally not the essential in the sere, red clay hills of middle change uproot that make Bamoun Bamoun. Cameroun. The Sultan expressed to me qualities his conviction that growth of traditional In Lagos, Nigeria, that capital of the handicrafts is a key to both cultural arts for black Africa, handsome and economic development in his traditional African dress is dominant— Sultanate. Bamoun has for centuries colorfulflowing robes and many exotic been a source of unique folk art, which caps and hats. This too is an indication stems from the vigorously individual of the revitalized national spirit surging hybrid black Cameroun and Arab in the arts. No matter what the class— culture. With the Sultan's worker, farmer, businessman, encouragement, a whole street of government official, or student—the artisan establishments has sprung up long gown, or at least the colorful shirt, —foundries for the brass lively figures, is worn. looms for colorful textiles, kilns for potters, and shops for woodcarvers and At Ibadan and Ife, heartland of the furniture makers and those who deal Yoruba, I found carving in the style of in hides and antiques. Besides the twin figures still being done and providing jobs, pride. in local arts, and some antique figures available as well. cash income, the artisan street is The museum at the University in Ibadan, intended to draw tourists to this still one of Nigeria's most modern, little known section of Cameroun. emphasized the Yoruba music, arts, and So intense is the Sultan's interest in crafts in its curriculum. And, of course, the artisan project that young and at Ife Museum it was possible to join handsome Prince Zounedou crowds of Africans to see the Bulletin July/August 1971 magnificent and mysterious brass and shook traditional African life with the terra cotta heads, the oldest probably coming of the white colonialists. It is sculptured in the eighth century. These through such understanding and works are as sophisticated as anything re-agonizing through what happened to created in the ancient worlds of Europe their societies that Africans are and the Middle East, yet they are an rediscovering themselves. Novels of enigma because they are an isolated this kind help Africans to evaluate the African flowering of naturalistic foreign patterns that were imposed on sculpture rather than the more abstract them and to revivify and continue the style typical of other black African evolution of their traditional ways of life. cultures. They include lifelike replicas As a botanist-horticulturist, I was also of the heads of Onis (Ife kings) and members of their courts. The latest naturally much interested in Africa's flora. It was to see of the were believed sculptured in the thrilling many wild ancestors of which thirteenth century. plants originate in Africa. Clerodendron splendens, that In the market of Ibadan I delighted in flame-flowered vine popular in tropical that charming cultural charcteristic so gardens, grows wild on hillsides in conspicuous in West Africa—the "body Cameroun. In the lush, heavily forested talk" that adds to communication a areas near Benin in Nigeria and in dimension at least as important as the western Cameroun, the stag-horned verbal; the conversations are fern (Platycerium sp.) flourishes as an punctuated by the hand-slapping, epiphyte on the tree trunks. Several shoulder-clasping, and hand-holding pride In indigenous culture is the new species of Erythrina make scarlet gestures that maintain a sense of museum just being completed in Benin patches in the jungle that can be seen physical communication. This is as true City; it is a round tower with a snail from the air. Africa's most beautiful in the lobbies of the prestigious hotels spiral exhibit area within, similar to the species of this coral tree group, as in the markets—another indication Guggenheim Museum in New York City. £. abysinica, with flame-red balls of of a people again at home in their own bloom, is particularly common at In the form of wood work in the land. It is part of the warm humanness carving, Samburu in Kenya. same and in modern naturalistic that continues among American blacks styles —most of whose ancestors came from is coming from the presentday shops in It is clear that the African governments Benin. Here tourism and local are concerned about this part of West Africa. agai.i protecting plants pride, each stimulated by the other, as well as animals. The damage to trees There is a reverse cross-fertilization encourage more development, more by elephants is sad, though— evident in Nigerian and other West renewal of old cultural styles, and their particularly to the impressive, fat-boled African popular music: it is clearly evolution into changed but related baobob (Adansonia digitata). The great influenced by musical styles originating forms. pachyderms delight in tearing off the with American blacks, yet has its own outer bark in order to eat the inner Nigeria also has an literary uniquely African flavor. While I was in outstanding layer. And sometimes, apparently just contributed to numerous Nigeria, concerts given by the American culture, by for fun, they push over these black musician James Brown were writers of various tribal backgrounds. shallow-rooted trees. I was the everywhere attracting immense crowds. especially impressed by novels of Chinua Achebe, an Ibo. His Benin, seat of a culture which achieved Arrow of God (Anchor, 1969), which a high level between the fourteenth to won the New Statesman novel award in seventeenth so I discovered at a in centuries, impressed a 1965, bookshop Phil Clark formerly directed Field Museum's It is not Dutch visitor in 1602 that he compared Lagos. only some of the finest Natural History Tours. He is now heading it to Amsterdam: rare praise from a English prose in contemporary writing, his own lour business at 520 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60611. Netherlander of any day. Its art, it provides a gifted and lively particularly the carved ivories and cast ethnographic presentation of the Ibos. bronzes depicting the Obas and their Like the excellent book The River warriors, continue to astound art Between (African Writers Series, specialists today. Heinemann, 1965) by James Ngugi (of Kikuyu background), Achebe's novel Another indication of the awakening tells the story of the shock waves which 10 Bulletin July/August 1971 ecology & economics robert f. inger — — In olden times about five years ago For example, there is a network of Communities that differ in diversity also before ecology became popular, it relations in every community called a differ systematically in other ways. The was defined by biologists as tfie study food web. Green plants produce food, species that live in communities of low of thie relations between living things animals feed on the plants, other diversify have higher reproductive rates and their environment. That typically animals feed on those animals, and and shorter life cycles than do the stuffy academic definition was probably scavengers clean up the dead and species that live in communities of of the designed to keep the bums out dying. The food web is part of a high diversity. The old pasture has park. In my opinion, it is more system of cycles within a community. more annual plants than does the interesting to refer to ecology as the Plants convert carbon dioxide into food more diverse forest, and the perennial study of the natural economy of living and give off oxygen as waste, which non-woody plants and shrubs of the things. I prefer that definition because animals breathe, giving off carbon pasture do not live as long as the the word "economy" often stimulates dioxide as waste, which the plants use, trees in the adjacent forest. The same an idle ecologist into all sorts of wild completing the cycle. Chemical patterns apply to the animals in these speculation—he can become for a nutrients (nitrogen, sulfur, etc.) are also communities. while an armchair economist. You will essential for proper growth of plants soon see where that can lead. and animals. All these materials are similarly cycled, with bacteria playing a key role in the process. The cycles are not perfect. That is (all materials circulating in a given community do not remain within the community. There is some leakage, some movement of material from one community to another, across both space and time. One community differs from another In a simple community there is more in various ways. The most profound basic production of food by plants per unit of material in difference, in the sense that it affects living than a so many other features, is in internal complex, diverse community. Picture for a moment the old at the diversity. Diversity, though it can have pasture The first of this article concerns of —there are a few shrubs part many meanings, usually refers to the end winter some current ideas in ecology. In the number and relative abundance of and some seedling trees and below second a amateur economist shallow small part strictly species. A cornfield, though it is ground relatively roots; takes over and about the leaves stems of the speculates man-made, qualifies as a dead and between these ideas do not amount to parallels ecological plant-and-animal community. It is a non-woody plants human economics. the field in and My musings very simple one with very few species much. Then picture same will be unfettered the usual restraints near the end of the by of plants, one of which is abundant September growing But it's season— all the mass of imposed by knowledge. and others not at all (if the farmer is virtually harmless one sees was that relatively speculation. tending to business). Its few species vegetation produced ratio of that mass to the of animals show the same pattern of season. The devote their research Many ecologists relative abundance—one or two kinds amount of living vegetation present in time to investigating the structure of March is let's of insects are very numerous (pests, very large. Now, go natural communities and trying to the same with the in fact) and others are scarce. An old, through procedure understand the factors that account for forest. an abandoned pasture nearby will have mixed By September differences between communities. A enormous mass of leaves has been more species of both plants and natural community is simply an But the ratio of that mass to animals and no single one will be produced. of and animal — assemblage plant dominant. A hardwood forest in the the great weight of living vegetation species that occur together—the group and roots same area will have still more species trunks, branches, large of species that live, for example, in a — at the start of the season is of plants and animals and a still more present farm woodlot in the Midwest, typical even distribution of numbers. much smaller than the same ratio in or in a of or in a or patch prairie, lake, the less diverse old pasture. along a rocky coast. These species interact in set ways repeated in all If we think of the living material communities. present in March as biological capital. Bulletin July/ August 1971 11 production relative to capital is low in short while the herbivore population the more diverse community and high decreases, which then causes a drop in the less diverse one. Very little in the population of predators. If these of each season's production becomes checks and balances did not operate, converted into capital in the less the herbivore population would soon diverse community. increase to the point at which it would literally eat itself out of house and home and the entire population would starve to death. The predator population would then become extinct. Each successive increase or decrease is not perfectly geared to the preceding change. Consequently, a community that has only a single for the feedback loop is subject to an Now armchair, amateur occasional over-response by one economics. I hope that everyone who reads this will population that cause disruption beyond point keep The final ecological quality associated may several in mind. these of the entire system. But if a number things First, with diversity that I want to discuss is ideas are tentative. I offer not of feedback loops exist, they may them, stability. Communities of low diversity intersect to buffer over-response by a because I think they are "true," but are less stable than those of high link in one for because they are interesting. Maybe a no natural single loop. If, example, diversity. Although economist can demolish jackrabbits become scarce, coyotes genuine population is constant, those in them. But . . .? will start concentrating on mice, giving supposing Secondly, complex, highly diverse communities if are the rabbit population a chance to even my generalizations experience relatively minor variations recover. reasonably close to correct, there are from year to year. Populations in certain to be exceptional cases. Not simple communities, on the other hand, Each species has its own characteristic even genuine economists can claim tend to oscillate radically over short way of life, using certain resources in absolute universality for their concepts. periods of time, and thus be exposed a particular fashion and providing Finally, I intend no moral judgments in to local extinction. This fundamental resources in turn for certain other my statements. Of course, like any difference is related to another feature species. Therefore, the more species other person I have feelings about the of natural communities, namely, the existing in a community (that is, the ways in which people interact. But existence of feedback systems. more diverse it is), the more those are personal matters, and I will complicated the relationships among try to prevent them from obtruding Imagine a community with one species species. This is another way of saying here. of plant, one species of herbivore, and that increasing diversity increases the one species of predator. These three number and connections among the Human communities, whether we mean links form a feedback As loop. long or entire differ feedback loops. And, as we have just neighborhoods cities, as the numbers of herbivores and themselves in as seen, that in turn increases the stability among diversity just within certain predators remain bounds, do natural communities. One of a community. This is why highly city might the as a system will work. community diverse communities are more stable be dominated by a single type of That is, enough plants will be eaten to than less complex ones. industry, say aerospace, as in the case allow room for and growth of Seattle. Another might have a but not too reproduction, many. number of kinds of industry with no will killed to Enough herbivores be one of them dominant in the sense of them from their prevent eating up being the major base of the but not too Let one food, many. community's economic life. population—say the herbivore (a jackrabbit—get out of balance by a Or suppose we compare smaller sudden increase, and the feedback loop human communities. Let's take two begins to have an effect. The predator samples from a large city, each typical —a coyote (unless some federal agency of certain kinds of neighborhoods. And in its infinite wisdom has poisoned instead of talking about species of them all) —begins to kill more and its plants and animals, we will use population begins to increase. In a occupations to give us a measure of 12 Bulletin July/August 1971 diversity. Combining neighborhoods, production) is expended and converted attention of ecologists. The concern of we find production line wori network, but the neighborhood or city or country of low diversity is usually affected first and usually experiences more unemployment, more disruption, than the more diverse community. In natural plant and animal communities we found a high ratio of We do not yet understand all the production to capital associated with underlying causes of the economic low diversity. The same is true of relationships within and among natural human communities of low diversity: communities. This problem area is most of the income (the equivalent of increasingly attracting the active Bulletin July/August 1971 13 microbreccias, and "soils" are treated in publication costs force editors and authors detail in separate chapters. Clear to eschew tentative models, historical comparisons and contrasts are made reviews, and educated guesses. In the between the somewhat different rocks of the Altmanns' book, the basic materials are two different collection sites, 11 and 12. succinctly offered, but are also subjected to The verbal descriptions are augmented by statistical analyses, model fitting, and many well-chosen figures, both graphs and comparisons with general behavioral and photos. The latter are printed with a very ecological principles. Questions for the fine screen which makes for excellent future are noted throughout the book, and definition and detail. Chemical abundances a chapter at the end speculates on a few and known isotopic abundances are laid special topics. The book could be a out by increasing atomic number over the considerable education to many a student whole stable portion of the periodic table. confident that all is known or predictable, Finally, the several hypotheses regarding the and to young researchers unsure of where interior makeup of the moon and how it to start in a field. formed as a sister planet to Earth are I would not recommend this slim volume to reviewed and evaluated in the light of the evidence from the rocks. the general reader as a comprehensive treatise on baboon ecology, for it is not, Lunar The Rocks The book has only a few shortcomings. The despite the title. It is, rather, a detailed in technical account of the By Brian Mason and William G. Melson. puzzling large discrepancies ages yellow baboons of between the solid rocks and the the Amboseli Reserve in and their New York: Wlley-lnterscience, 1970. 179 fine-grained Kenya "soils" are treated only briefly; there is no relations to the environment. covered pp. $8.95. Topics discussion of the several theories which include population dynamics, activity cycles, Whether scientifically inclined or not, one is attempt to resolve this serious difficulty. The group movements, wafer and food, bound to be at least curious about the original worry over organic forms and predators, and other associated animals. results of the costly current Apollo lunar compounds in lunar materials necessitated A goodly amount of material from the program. Most taxpayers fail to see that the the elaborate and much-publicized isolation literature on other baboons is sprinkled main purpose of the program is simply to period for both astronauts and samples, but through the text. The book is essentially a demonstrate the successful engineering the results of organic studies, though by-product of the main thrust of the authors' systems that permit us to send men to the admittedly all negative, are treated only field studies, the social behavior of the moon and bring them back alive. This was cursorily within the discussion of the baboons, an account of which the authors the original impetus and motive of the element carbon. The geophysical promise will be forthcoming. and seismic program—to show that it could be done experiments puzzling properties of the are not discussed at nor Primatologists are apt to finish the book technically. Thus it is similar in its purpose moon all, with a stimulated for more to the climbing of Mt. Everest, which was are the interesting thermoluminescent and highly appetite data and answers. the authors done "because it was there." related optical features. Presumably will provide more material as a result of It seemed desirable to have the men do The book is an excellent distillation of the work following their one-year period something on the lunar surface once they voluminous geological-geochemical data (1963-64) at Amboseli that is the core of got there, and the sampling of lunar rocks which make up the bulk of the Apollo this study. Since this initial research, the was the most obvious something. Originally reports thus far. It serves as a concise area and the animals have come under a the geological profession was overjoyed reference for persons in the geological set of stresses that should be most with the whole idea. It could not have been profession, and for those in physics, interesting for a long-term dynamic view of foreseen that years later, when criticism of chemistry, and astronomy who are willing to the ecology. The stresses include the the cost of the program would arise, the wrestle with a few new terms. The very decimating effects of virus diseases on the geological results, although secondary in the astute and deeply involved amateur rock baboons and predators, a salt-brush project, would have to bear the brunt of the and mineral collector will also be able to succession in Amboseli with a rising water scrutiny of critics, who would ask questions glean some useful material here. The table, and mounting human environmental like "What are the results worth?" On earth, general reader, unfortunately, will find it pressures, increasingly meaning those from geologists have always been able to point tough sledding, and might do better to go to tourism. to practical achievement in petroleum and other books such as Moon Rocks by Henry The situation could mineral production. With lunar geology, any S. F. Cooper, Jr. (Dial Press, 1970, 144 present-day potentially tell us much about limits of the such practical results must obviously be pages, $4.50). yellow baboon's niche. the lacking. ecological Presumably by Dr. Edward J. Olsen, curator ot animals do have considerable evolutionary Be that as it may, Drs. Mason and Melson mineralogy in the Department of Geology, resilience, but a combination of adversities (both of the U.S. National Museum) have Field Museum. may outstrip their capacity for adjustment. succeeded very well in distilling the For such a fuller understanding we need thousands of pages of technical data that further studies at Amboseli comparable to Baboon Ecology—African Field Research have been published in several journals on this sophisticated baseline and to the Apollo 11 and 12 specimens. Their By Stuart A. Altmann and Jeanne Altmann. complementary work elsewhere (like the book hits the middle ground between a Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970 investigations of the Transvaal baboons in popularized account of the science writer (publ. date, Feb. 23, 1971). 220 pp. $12. South Africa by Stolz and Saayman). and a highly technical report of the specialist. I would recommend this book to certain by Dr. George Rabb, associate director, Descriptions of all individual minerals kinds of readers as an example of how research and education, Brookfield Zoo, determined in all lunar samples and of the good scientists think. It is unlike most Brookfield, Illinois, and research several rock types, solid rocks, papers in technical journals today, in which associate at Field Museum. 14 Bulletin July/August 1971 data pertinent to the unraveling of the Atlantic Richfield Gift deformational history of a structurally complex metamorphic area in central Vermont. Dr. Rainer Zangerl, chairman of the Department of Geology, and Dr. Eugene Richardson, curator of fossil invertebrates, will present a paper on paleoecology at the Seventh International Congress of Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Geology at Krefeld, Germany August 23 to Sept. 3. Enjoy, Enjoy Summer is an especially good time to see what's happening at Field Museum—special exhibits, films, guided tours. Please take note of our special long summer hours for Who's Where This Summer both the Museum and cafeteria, listed in Calendar. Be sure to bring your membership Dr. William Burger, associate curator of card. Remember that admission is free at vascular plants, leaves for Costa Rica in all times to Museum members, their families, early July to continue collecting the flora of and guests. Edward J. Gazelle, ol Public that country. The expedition is financed by Manager a National Science Foundation Relations, Midcontinent Area, Atlantic grant. This is a combined July/August issue of Richfield Company, shov/n with Museum the Bulletin. The next issue will be Dr. John Clark, associate curator of Director E. Leiand Webber (right) foflowing published in September. sedimentary petrology, is studying presentation ol a check for $2,500 biostratigraphic structures and the representing an unrestricted gilt Irom the environment of deposition in South Dakota, Workshop for the Blind Atlantic Richfield Foundation to Field Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado. Orville Museum. Gilpin, chief preparator, is accompanying Dr. Clark. Atlantic Richfield, a New 'York based firm, Is now active in the Chicagoland area lollowing Dr. John Kethley, assistant curator of a merger with the Sinclair Oil Company. insects, will be conducting field trips in Illinois and the central Midwest area to Unrestricted contributions totaling $616,000 collect mites found on millipedes. He will are needed by Field Museum to meet its also give some lectures at Ohio State operating budget of $3,919,000 lor 1971. University while taking a course there in This amount is over and above anticipated parasitic mites. income Irom tax support, memberships, admissions, and other available funds. Dr. Paul Martin, curator emeritus of anthropology, is in Vernon, Arizona continuing his "New Perspectives in Phil Clark's Natural History Tours Archaeology" summer program for high With termination this summer of Field ability college sophomores and juniors, Museum's Natural Phil conducted under a National Science History Tours, Clark, who has headed the program since its Foundation grant. inception in 1967, will set up his own Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki, associate curator of program, Phil Clark's Natural History Tours, fossil invertebrates, will be doing at 520 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, 60611. biostratigraphic and paleoecologic collecting of Receptaculitids in the Midwest and Mr. Clark led tours for Field Museum to Southwest in August and September. Guatemala, Mexico, Brazil, northeast India • Dr. Alan Solem, curator of and Nepal, British Gardens, the Andes and invertebrates, will attend the Fourth Galapagos Islands, and Scandinavia. He Fifty individuals Irom the Illinois Visually also served as Public Relations Counsel for European Malacological Congress in Handicapped Institute visited the Geneva, Switzerland September 5-12. recently Field Museum from May 1966 to the fall of Museum to explore some ol the artilacts in 1969. Before coming to Field Museum, he Dr. William Turnbull, associate curator of the Department ol Education's teaching served as Public Relations Officer for the collection. discovered such as fossil mammals, will continue his collecting They objects New York Botanical Garden, as Editor of of fossil vertebrates of the mid-late Eocene lions' teeth, talking drums, .and shells. Horticulture Magazine, and as Garden Editor a interacts v/ith a in the Washakie Basin of Wyoming and Above, young lady for Mexican publications. Colorado. contemporary African talking drum Irom Ghana. "Thank you," said one ol the He will lead tours for his new firm this Dr. Bertram G. Woodland, curator of igneous visitors, "I have never seen these things fall to South India, and in winter 1972 to and metamorphic petrology, will collect before." Africa, East and West. Bulletin July/August 1971 15 LETTERS To the editor: would laugh at any honest joke or light To the editor: flippancy. He gave parties in Haskell Hall life a veteran As a member tliis past year (and former at the end of each course (entertainment by As visitor of the halls of the annual one) I get the Bulletin and enjoyed himself and volunteer students), and always Museum of many years' enjoyment, I want to the recent issue [March], especially the served cake and ice cream at the end of compliment you and your staff on the recent Paul S. Martin. After of the of the Bulletin. long article by reading the evening. The ice cream, made by a improvement format it and turning thru the rest of the publication, local well-known outfit named Morse, was I note from the letters that you have had I came to "Fieldiana" by Patricia M. always the same, bricks of five colors and many compliments, and I affirm that they Williams. flavors to resemble, as he said, the five are well-earned. races of Man. (I could never figure out Your reference to G. A. Dorsey (whose first For some time I have been holding the more than four.) When he retired in the name I recall as George) brought back old March Bulletin on my desk as a reminder to 1920's, his former students got together and memories. While he may never have been write. 1 first was struck by the brilliant gave him a cash purse of $15,000. No more on the faculty of the U. of Chicago, his spread on the photography show. I like the tangible evidence of devotion was ever name was well known there, in calendar— I immediately found what 1 was especially shown than that. With the money he bought the of and related looking for—an evening 1 can meet Department Anthropolgy a home in Seattle, where he lived out the my sciences. I took two courses there, between daughter at the Museum. rest of his days. I used to hear from him 1910 and 1913, from Frederick Starr, an almost annually, a card sometimes from far Cliff G. h4assoth associate professor since 1891 in that field, from the time I in 1913 places, graduated Director of Public Relations and who was never made a full Advertising professor until near his end. All other former students Illinois Central Railroad because, it was generally said, he was more got the same communications of a character than an acknowledged Chicago authority. He had brought some of the But to return to Dorsey. He wrote a weekly aboriginal exhibits to the World's Fair 1893 column in the Sunday Tribune, and when on its famous that led to "Midway." Maybe World War I started in August, 1914, he his appointment in 1893 and not 1891. analyzed the causes in one of his first articles thereafter. As he put it, it was a Starr was a lovable man and his wise struggle between Pan-Slavism and sayings on innumerable subjects may have Pan-Germanism. That was from his own Please address all letters to the editor to been worth more than what he was particular point of view. Actually, it was a supposed to teach. His courses were struggle between "Who gets, or wants, Bulletin generally considered "pipe" ones, havens what" as Dorothy Thompson was to say in Field Museum of Natural History for members of the football team, etc. Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive a speech I heard, about World War II. All (Shades of Amos Alonzo hymn-singing wars are for such ends, no matter what Chicago, Illinois 60605 Stagg!) No one was ever flunked by Starr, "idealistic" claims are made by the and he would stand for everything but The editors reserve the right to edit letters contenders. We entered World Wars I and II downright rudeness by a student. Then he for length. only when they began to hurt us. The would wither his taunter, but otherwise he Lusitania was sunk in 1915 and we did nothing. Wilson told us to remain neutral. But when our money, already loaned, was seen likely to go down the drain, we got into the fray. The same 25 years later. Hitler's atrocities did not force us in, but his victories and consequent ultimate threats to us. So much for poor old Dorsey and his narrow theories of causes. Alan D. Whitney Winnetka, Illinois 16 Bulletin July/August 1971 CALENDAR Exhibits Children's Programs Meetings Begins July 12 Free Movies at 10 a.m. and 1 p.m. on July 14: 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto, Thursdays in the James Simpson Theatre. National Speleological Society Deerskin Jacket with painted decoration depicting warriors on horsebacl<, displayed July 8—"Zoos Around the World" August 11: 7:30 p.m., Windy City Grotto, in the South Lounge. A recent gift of A visit to some world-famous animals in National Speleological Society Mrs. Richard D. Stevenson, the jacket was world-famous zoos. coliected by her grandfather, Carter H. Coming in September 15—"Adventures of an Otter" Harrison III, in the early part of this century July from the Sioux, probably of the Pine Ridge A delightful story about a mischievous otter. "Between the Tides," Fall Journey for Agency. Through September 5. Children beginning September 1, takes them 22— July "Living Jungles" shell hunting for exotic and beautiful All about animals and in a Continuing plants tropical specimens in the Museum exhibit areas. All rain forest. youngsters who can read and write are Cotor in Nature, an exhibit examining the welcome to join in the activity. Journey nature and of color in the July 29—"The Red Balloon" variety physical sheets are available at Museum entrances. The adventures of a red balloon and and and how it functions in big living world, Through November 30. its a little plants and animals. It focuses on the many pet, boy. roles of color, as in mimicry, camouflage, "Dinosaur Hunt," Summer Journey for warning, sexual recognition and selection, Children, acquaints youngsters with energy channeling, and vitamin production, prehistoric animals in Museum exhibits and using Museum specimens as examples. through a free, self-guided tour. Through November 28. Hall 25. paintings All boys and girls who can read and write Houra participate. sheets are available The Afro-American Style, From the Design may Journey 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday; at Museum entrances. 31. Museum cafeteria open 9 a.m. to 2 P m. Worl Volume 42, Number 8 September 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 8 September 1971 2 New Ireland: Coming and Going 1970 Phillip H. Lewis an anthropologist of today revisits a Melanesian village after sixteen years and finds much change in traditional art and ceremony 10 Why Was William Jones Killed? Barbara Stoner an anthropologist of yesteryear meets disaster in the Philippines after sixteen months of field work 14 Book Reviews 15 Field Briefs Cover: Montage of photos taken by Dr. Phillip H. Lewis in New Ireland In 1954 and 1970. Above 16 Children's photo from montage shows strong Western influence Workshops on malanggan ceremonial art of 1970. Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leland Webber Editor Joyce ZIbro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly except August by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscriptions; $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy ot Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster; Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 new Ireland: coming and going 1970 phllllp h. lewis BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 An anthropologist's view of the people northeast coast of New Ireland in I was also able to observe present-day he studies is complex. First of all, he Melanesia in order to continue my survivals of the malanggan ceremonials comes to them with previously study of New Ireland art and its social (memorials for the dead, for which acquired scholarly knowledge of their context. I had begun this work in much of the art was made) and to history and their culture, both material 1953-54, when my wife and I lived in study social change since 1953 and and nonmaterial. Second, the Lesu for seven months. In the earlier in my home village, Lesu. anthropologist has often learned more intervening years, I had studied about certain aspects of their life than collections of art and other cultural As I drove toward Lesu my feelings many members of the society objects from New Ireland found in were a mixture of excitement and themselves know. This is particularly museums in several parts of the world. anticipation at seeing the village and true when he has gained an historical When I returned to New Ireland in its people again after sixteen years view of their culture or a regional 1970, sponsored by the National and some apprehension about possibly overview, neither of which is usually Science Foundation and Field Museum, unpleasant changes. I hadn't written possible for people who live in a it was with a suitcase full of ahead, and no one knew that I was small, nonliterate, and isolated society. photographs of those specimens to returning. I wasn't particularly worried Third, the personal relationships the show to New Irelanders, in an attempt about that— I knew that I could just anthropologist develops while living to learn more about this fascinating arrive and be welcome—but I wasn't with a people may lead to knowledge art and the social and ceremonial sure about what temporary difficulties and feelings that differ from his prior system within which it functions. would arise; for example, in the kind of scholarly knowledge and expectations. housing I could obtain, and the kind of New Ireland art consists mostly of life I'd have to lead in the first few For these reasons (and many others) fantastic, filigreed, painted wood days. In 1953 I hadn't had a car, and is often an an anthropological field trip sculpture representations of human, my wife and I had arrived with many emotionally moving, even trying, animal, and supernatural beings, often cases of supplies on a truck owned by experience. Perceptions shift as intertwined with floral designs. They a local villager. We lived in the haus abstractions and personal involvements range from relatively simple figures to kiap (Pidgin for government rest must be accommodated. Besides this exceedingly complex multiple images house). By 1970 the system of difficult intellectual adjustment, the carved on "totem-pole"-like columns administration had changed in that the anthropologist must also adjust from to masks and various minor government official, the kiap, drove living an urbanized Western life to accessories such as dance everywhere, making rest houses in culture living in a tiny village a close paraphernalia, musical instruments, obsolete. I knew that there was a to subsistence level. During my stay in canoe ornaments, and house Women's Clubhouse in Lesu in which I to New Ireland last year had make ornaments. All this is known to the I might be able to live, but that had these adjustments and at the same Western world through over 15,000 not yet been arranged. I had been in time compare my current observations objects in various museums, most of Kavieng, New Ireland's principal town with my recollections of life in New which were collected while New and port, for a few days, where I took Ireland in 1954 when I had last been Ireland was a German colony from delivery of the car I was to use and there. 1884 to 1914. The majority of New bought supplies, before heading for Ireland art objects are in German Lesu down the East Coast Road. about these My feelings adjustments museums, the largest collection in most acute two seemed during Berlin's Museum fur Volkerkunde, and The road had been built in German One was the first particular periods. second largest in Field Museum. colonial times, before 1914. In 1953 it few of the the last days arrival; other, was narrow and barely passable, with few as I left to return home. days It is too soon to write here of the deep ruts and potholes. The These were of periods heightened results of showing the museum eighty-mile trip to Lesu then seemed for in that were sensitivity me, they photographs. I have yet to complete like a day's uncomfortable drive. In like through rites of transition passing analyzing the many responses, 1970, however, I found myself passing between our two cultures. searching for the meanings of the the villages of Tandes and Libba many different statements about (eight and six miles north of Lesu) in From January 3, 1970 until December specific objects, sorting out and under two hours, so improved had the 7, 1970 1 lived in Lesu (official reconciling contradictions, correlating road become. a on the spelling, "Lossu"), village responses from the various informants and data from the literature, 1 drove these I had known Karake, left, and Biga, right, performing Pondewasi published by villages dance at author's farewell party. Their kapkap and relating everything to my ideas of thinking the houses looked small and breast ornaments, formerly made of shell, are Lesu to look now made of paper. how the whole system worked. weatherbeaten. Was going BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 new Ireland difficult to that way, too? I thought glumly of the scanned their faces, not recognizing much more recognize, as possibility of Lesu with rusting iron anyone. Could they all have changed were persons who had been of roofs and other unlovely results of so that everyone was unrecognizable? middle age in 1954. "progress." Would the people still be I began talking in rusty Pidgin English, were as cheerful and positive and outgoing casting about in memory for names. My perceptions rapidly shifting. The difficulties in I anticipated as I remembered them, or would they Faced with a half dozen Lesuans, the and the have become reserved, withdrawn, couldn't think of a single one. recognizing village people, in arriving too and sullen, perhaps even hostile? I had Suddenly the name Biga came to suddenly were in the warm seen some signs of that in the bigger mind, possibly because I had turned unexpectedly, fading of and I towns such as Port tvloresby and into Lesu right where his house had glow friendship hospitality. found that I had been to Rabaul. been in 1953. I asked for him. Some reacting in the the children indicated him approaching. It superficialities village, Soon! was passing the entrance to houses, and the The was indeed Biga, tall, spare, people. village No. 2 Lesu (the Catholic half of the had but bespectacled (nickname. Eyeglass). He plan changed somewhat, was village), just north of No. 1 Lesu (the had been the Methodist minister of beginning to look familiar again. I Protestant United Church half). There found later that the was No. 1 Lesu in 1953, and here he shifting simply was the new brick primary school and the result of came, walking over to see who was continuous replacement finally there were the houses of No. 1 of the coming to visit Lesu. I involuntarily ever-and-quickly deteriorating Lesu itself. I stopped at the side of the houses. Each built glanced at his eyeglasses, even before new house was road and looked. Nothing looked as I next to the old which was greeting him, to see if they were the existing one, remembered it. The layout of the when the new one was same pair I had left with him in 1954, destroyed village was different and the houses when he had complained of poor completed. The houses, which at first all seemed to have shifted position. seemed so eyesight and had asked for my spare glance tiny and battered, Tree-bordered paths had changed to to assume a more reasonable set. These were different, I was began an In open treeless plaza. 1953 many didn't seem so relieved to see. But it was Biga, appearance. They of the houses were raised a few feet off small as I closer and marvelously recognizable, and as we got could the ground on piles. Now they looked measure their size their greeted each other, with tears in our against close to the tiny, squat, ground, only a and as the memories of eyes, I knew I was home again in Lesu. occupants, few of them raised on short posts. Soon other old friends came forward American and Australian skyscrapers to fade from mind. and the welcome deepened. wife, began my Indeed, I had just traveled through many large My the whole was and and I had been village large metropolitan centers—Honolulu, Sally, especially with a of school spacious, and house sizes and land Auckland, Melbourne, Adelaide, friendly group high in 1953-54—Kuba, Karake, coverage would compare favorably Sydney—and had come from Chicago. boys Marangot, Emos, and others—and here with many an American suburban In contrast, Lesu looked tiny, its men in their thirties. town plan. In the days and weeks to houses seemingly too small to house they were, young follow I could not account for my full-sized people. The houses did Where was Sally, many people asked? initial view that Lesu was other than seem mostly to be made in the style I I showed photographs of my family, the neat, clean, and beautiful village remembered from 1953, with peaked, which proved to be a favorite subject which it was. sago-leaf-thatched roofs and split for the next few days. But the bamboo walls nailed to sapling initial of the openness, amiability, and hospitality of Similarly, my perception frameworks. That hadn't changed, Lesuans came to the fore. No people changed. I had plunged although I saw a couple of houses arguments or recriminations. (Why directly into the village, unannounced with flat, sloping iron roofs. didn't you write? What were you and unexpected, in late afternoon, when knew it was rather a many people were just returning I pulled into one of the openings in the doing?) They from their and had not time since 1 had been but gardens yet low stone wall between the village long there, taken their in the sea. here I was and daily dip Many and the road, unwittingly using the again they seemed at the idea. were wearing their working clothes, not very one I would use often during the pleased their better clothing. Also, before I coming months, the one leading to the Other people began to appear, and I recognized many people, I had been Women's Clubhouse. I stopped the to old friends, scrutinizing their exterior appearance car and got out. began recognize especially younger men and women in a way one does not see a friend or Some people approached, and I who looked in 1970 not unlike the way acquaintance. One does not look at began to regret not having written they did in 1954. People who had debris or leaves or dirt in the hair or ahead to say I was coming as I been infants or young children were on the clothing or faces of people one BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 knows. One looks instead at the on the battery-powered radio and The main task was to begin showing of tine listens to to expression face, what tuned Radio Rabaul, which photographs to informants who, I they are saying, or notices their furnished a background of string-band hoped, could tell me something of the gestures. And so indeed did it go. As music. Among the groceries I had objects pictured. Since most of the we became reacquainted, as we began brought with me from Kavieng was a objects in my photos were collected in to recall old times and to talk about case of beer, which I had naively German times—that is, prior to 1914— those not present, my family in thought to consume slowly during the that meant that ideal informants would Chicago, Lesuans away at school or following weeks. But the occasion be people who were adults at that working or who had died since 1954, seemed to demand otherwise, so I time, who could have seen similar we found ourselves responding to opened it up and it was all gone in a objects (or maybe even the very each other as people with shared few minutes. In 1953 alcohol had been objects I had studied in the museums), experience. Lesu and its people were forbidden to the native population, but so they would now be almost eighty beginning to conform to the basic that was definitely not so in 1970. So years old. Secondly, younger image I had taken away with me in we all sat around and talked through informants, people in their thirties to 1954, and which I had maintained over the evening, recalling Lesu of sixteen sixties, could know something too, by the years—a lovely place, with years ago. A steady stream of people hearsay from older people or by friendly, warm people. kept coming up to say hello—old having seen similar but later objects friends, and some people I had never made and used in ceremonies. The I asked where I could at least stay, seen before. people to look for would very likely be for the night. I was told I could use a men rather than women, since the men room of the Women's Clubhouse as a We that I would rent to agreed pay would have been more directly and I saw that the in the that a shower bedroom, veranda stay Clubhouse, involved with the ceremonials, although could be used an office I room would be built at one corner of as where women would not be completely ruled could interview people. The room at the house, some guttering would be out. Women tend to be somewhat the other end was in use as a run the of the roof to store, along edge retiring in New Ireland society, but it, on a lower a catch rain water, and a drum beyond level, was 55-gallon especially when talking to strange set under it. room which could be used as a A garage (haus kar) Europeans. The kind of people to be kitchen. I the would be built to the and was shown latrine, protect car, considered first were those called "big located on the bush side of the the latrine would be refurbished. All road. men," the Melanesian Pidgin English this The main thing that remained to be was roughly settled in the evening, term for traditional leaders in New done for that evening was to unload and 1 retired to spend my first night in Ireland and other Melanesian societies. my gear and supplies from the car. Lesu. I didn't sleep well, what with the excitement of arriving, the new Chieftainship is not much developed in Many people pitched in, and in a surroundings, and thinking ahead to Melanesian societies, and in New short time the of Ireland little. veranda the Women's the completion of settling in so I very Instead, certain men Clubhouse had all my gear and could get to work. emerge as leaders, to direct work supplies on it. I got out my cot and projects, to organize ceremonials, and bedding and set them up in the The next day was Sunday, and since in former days, in war. Accession to bedroom. The kerosene lamps were the Sabbath is strictly observed in such leadership positions was informal filled to light the fast-approaching Lesu, none of the proposed building and based on ability and force of dusk, and the pressure lamp was projects could proceed until Monday. personality, qualities obviously not its unpacked from carton and So I spent the day unpacking and easily transmitted by inheritance. Thus prepared also. What would in later stowing supplies and talking to people. every village had one or more "big be me in a men." Sometimes were the oldest days accomplished— by Cameras and film were put into tins they routine way filling lamps and stove, with silica gel to protect them from the men in a clan; at least, the oldest in a checking the various parts and very humid atmosphere. clan would be thought of as the most controls of the pressure lamp, keeping likely candidates. But if for reasons of house without benefit of running water, On Monday morning, the 5th of personality and ability such a man was electricity, or gas—that first evening all January, all the available manpower of unable to muster a following and had to be done at once. I felt then No. 1 Lesu was mobilized, and by actually organize and lead the various what 1 remembered from 1954, the mid-afternoon the car was under a necessary enterprises, he would not pleasant feeling of being helped, freely roof and the rest of the construction long be thought of as really a "big and generously, by Lesuans. The had also been finished. I hung my man," and someone else more able lamps were lighted, some of the gear bucket shower in the shower room and would come to the fore. Thus, seeking and supplies stowed away. We turned began to consider the work ahead. out informants knowledgeable about - BULLETIN- SEPTEMBER 1971 new Ireland malanggan—the major memorial confident New Irelander who could them. It was bad if an informant felt ceremonial of northern New Ireland, immediately enter into an intimate, he had to say something when faced and the main social context for much knowledge-sharing relationship with a with a photograph, whether accurate or of the art—meant seeking out "big strange European just because he not. iVIost informants had an uncritical men," the organizers and patrons of dropped in off the road and wanted to view of the quality of the pieces they such ceremonials. Everyone, even know about malanggan. It was saw in the photographs. They had children, knew who was a "big man," possible to get onto such a footing seen these— art objects only in not only in Lesu and nearby villages, with some individuals, but not quickly context that is, made to order for but in far-distant ones also. or easily. At best, my drop-in visits each occasion, and then destroyed. would produce over-formal but They had not seen many objects at for visits to I I was thus able to set out informative interviews. At worst, was one time, never any series of objects, other villages armed with lists of greeted with suspicion, which was and so had no basis for making names of such men. But then it was manifested by minimum information esthetic comparisons. They had never often hard to keep them aimed at my being divulged. seen a series through time or a series photos and problems and to get from different areas. Not only did the Carvers were a source information about malanggan potentially good photo interviews rarely elicit judgments of information, and, indeed, one of the ceremonials and its art. These "big of esthetic or artistic value, I felt lucky best interviews was with a carver. But men" varied in their knowledge of the if there was mere recognition of so few carvers were around in 1970 past, and in their attitude toward motifs. It was all rather sad, that the that I didn't learn much from them. being interviewed by a stranger. Some present-day descendents of the people The few I met were more were outgoing and eager to share usually who had commissioned, made, and interested in the than was their knowledge, others were photos used the marvelous art of New Ireland else. seemed better able suspicious and closemouthed. Some anyone They should know so little about it. to what were simply couldn't understand exactly appreciate they looking at—remarkable of art from Opportunity for another kind of work, what I wanted of them and continued examples the —for were the which I had little hope of pursuing, through interviews focused on ideas past they men who had tried their hand at loomed far beyond my expectations, and knowledge other than what I was actually making the even in recent however. This was the chance to interested in. But the main problem carvings, though the resultant works were not observe on-going memorial was that no one man in any locality years the of earlier work. ceremonials for the dead, which are really knew very much about qualitatively equal In the the modern successor to the malanggan in general. Some tended contrast, patrons, although they traditional ceremonials. In to be concerned with the affairs of were more important socially in the malanggan 1954, when a died, he a their own small areas. Others, not organization and implementation of the person got Christian burial, and a few days later a having had much recent experience malanggan ceremonies, and although concrete slab was over the with malanggan ceremonials, had they too were knowledgeable about poured names and of grave as a marker. Then about a year simply forgotten much and were designs malanggans, not later a malanggan ceremonial would unable to give the kind of detailed were involved with the art objects at the level of be staged which would feature a information I was seeking. form, style, technique, carved In I and execution of the objects as art. A malanggan object. 1970, found that after the burial the "Big men" were often deferred to. I patron would leaf through the grave marker was not might ask to speak to an individual photographs looking for "his" immediately constructed; rather, it was so whose name I had, and that person malanggans, while a carver seemed to delayed would think that there was another, be more aware of and interested in that its construction and erection took at the same time as the "bigger" man, or more knowledgeable the craftsmanship of the pieces. place of the about a one, but who was unfortunately not malanggans past, year The main part of research later. Also, the 1970 markers around that day. The man I was my plans grave less results than I were constructed in a series of talking to would then decline to say yielded satisfying group had for. The of work each celebrated much, in deference to the absent hoped quality projects, one by informants often turned out to be feasts and distributions of as expert. food, just different from what I had expected, malanggans used to be. In fact, the Different attitudes toward Europeans and I found that structuring the scope of the ceremonies had grown, came into play also. Most relationships interviews around the photographs was so that much larger amounts of with Europeans are not close, are both good and bad. It was good when money, foodstuffs, labor, and cement frequently suspicious, and sometimes the informant recognized the objects were going into the new grave-marker even hostile. It was a rare and very and knew something specific about system than had gone Into the BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 Christian-burial-ma/anggan system. In were decreasing to dangerously low shirts, tee shirts, rubber sandals, hats. 1954 the largest malanggan levels. Not so in 1970. Pacific area A number of battery-operated transistor celebration I had seen featured the populations are now on the rise. radios were owned and used, also killing and distribution of twenty-two more kerosene (wick) lamps and some In Lesu the is now about pigs; in 1970 two different celebrations population pressure lamps were in daily use. A 67 than it was in 1954. I percent saw had seventy pigs each. greater number of people owned bicycles. The increase between 1929 and 1954 Three trucks were owned in Lesu in I attended all funerals associated was about 5 a and only percent. However, 1970, and a fourth was paid for and in and related nnemorial ceremonials I dysentery 1948 made the epidemic on order at the time I left. Considerable it could to. I went lower than would otherwise get Sometimes as a population amounts of money circulated in the with other have been. In 1954 it was rare for a stranger, along strangers memorial ceremonial system and in who came to see the to have more than two or three large-scale family bride-price payments, and undoubtedly festivities and and there seemed to be dance presentations, but children, many money was being saved. The local I followed the lead of Lesu childless who said that mostly couples they government council has built two large as were drawn wanted children but didn't have people they frequently any. school buildings of brick. A private In 1970 there were families into participation in such affairs by with four, entrepreneur has built a number of even seven or their social and kinship relationships. five, eight children, all brick houses and a brick church in It was best to go with Lesuans, alive and well, and beginning to make No. 2 Lesu. The United Church because I could then better observe their felt in presence society. congregation in No. 1 Lesu wants to and understand the of system construct a brick church building, and The population increase must be partly contributions of food and money and some individuals would like to build explained by better health resulting involvement as it all came alive in brick houses for themselves. from better nutrition and medical terms of real people whose social and services. In 1970 general health kinship relationships I knew. For There was much more interest and seemed better and the Lesuans, there was the advantage that younger people participation in education in 1970 than seemed and heavier. A number if I went along my car furnished larger in 1954. The Territory government has of of malaria control and transportation, especially for the years spent more money on education, eradication were for women, who often had to carry their mosquito apparent, teacher training, and construction. One far fewer baskets of contributions to the feasts people seemed to be consequence of the increased level of from malaria. Increased and and distributions for distances of up to suffering education is that many Lesuans can more efficient motor ten miles; and then had to bring back transport (better speak and read English and are more more heavy loads of distributed foodstuffs. roads, cars and trucks, and a aware of the rest of the world. The bus made the in With the increased ownership and use daily service) hospital increase in radio broadcasting has also and the several other medical of trucks in 1970, often villagers hired Kavieng helped to broaden the horizon for facilities on the island much more trucks to do that, especially for longer Lesuans. On their radios they hear available than for treatment of distances, but a free ride was always formerly local and world news among other illnesses and accidents. appreciated. offerings, in Pidgin English, English, and sometimes in their own languages. Another was that the I had many opportunities to observe change people of Lesu were wealthier in 1970 because this kind of funeral-memorial complex Political activity has increased too, in of increased cash in 1970, the surviving social context of crop production. Lesu as well as the rest of New Ireland. More was and malanggan, which, instead of declining, copra being produced The government-appointed native cocoa was into was still very much alive and sold, coming officials of 1954 have given way to sale of timber apparently expanding. production, was elected officials with considerable and there was beginning, greater power over the conduct of local affairs. in A third kind of study I found myself involvement wage and salaried In 1970 there was much discussion of drawn into was of social in of various kinds. More change employment rapidly approaching self-government Lesu itself. foodstuffs are such as European used, and ultimate independence. tinned fish and meat, rice, sugar, tea, One great change was population and coffee. Consumption of tobacco in New Irelanders thus find themselves growth. Population decline in the the form of cigarettes, trade (stick) drawn increasingly into the modern Pacific has been a long-term concern tobacco, native grown tobacco, and wider world. In 1954, although they for to the in many years, point that the newspaper (for rolling "cigars") has had already considerably changed 1920s and 30s it there was worry that increased. More European style from a pre-contact condition, they was irreversible and that populations clothing was worn, such as shorts, lived close to subsistence level and BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 new Ireland knew very little of the outside world. By consisting of feasting, oratory, and his house. It started with presentation 1970 there had been a considerable singing. of gifts, many for my family in and qualitative leap into the world Chicago, especially the children, each The main on the community. For purposes of my study party began evening gift being offered while shaking hands of November a at about this meant that they were much further 27th, Friday, goodbye. We then had a feast and 8 with a band from away from the part of their past I was p.m., string spent the rest of the night singing a about miles interested in—their art and ceremonial Lamussong, village eight songs, which I recorded on the tape south of Lesu. bands are a life—but, paradoxically, a flourishing String very recorder. Tu-lait was more easily recent in the of ceremonial life continued. phenomenon Territory reached this time, it seemed, after the and New and seem to Papua Guinea, practice at the big party previously. I These changes seem one-way and have sprung up in the wake of slept a few hours on Saturday morning, irreversible. There remain possibilities spreading radio broadcasting in the and during the day took photos of area. A band consists of men of various syntheses between the string people I had missed in earlier and ukeleles—both indigenous culture and that of the playing guitars photography. On Saturday evening I wider world, so that as New Irelanders purchased ready-made and homemade talked to friends, with the sad feeling of bush materials— various other push into this world, they may yet plus that this was the next to last evening I instruments. traditional retain elements of their traditional homemade No would see them for a long time. Finally instruments are used in these bands. culture too. I retired to spend what turned out to Formal and dance presentations be my last night of sleep in New informal in the Thus my work continued through 1970, participation dancing Ireland, for Sunday night proved to be are of the seeking out and interviewing informants part string band complex. far too busy for sleep. about the old art, attending the The music is simple but engaging, and ceremonies still carried on, and the songs are in Pidgin English and Sunday, December 6th, was obviously observing the changes in Lesu society local languages and tell stories of the last day for packing, or for else. during the recent past. I was living in love, friendship, and everyday anything A recurring question the present-day Lesu, but my inquiries happenings. The dancing looks like a was, "Do you think you'll come back were aimed at a period from the past, joyous blend of the Twist and the another time?" I thought over the going back from 1970, through 1954, Hula. The Lamussong band played elements of an honest answer to that 1930 (when Powdermaker had been constantly for thirteen hours, joined question, such as research possibilities, there), and to the German colonial for a while at night by two other financing, and the like, and fell back period, back to before the turn of the bands. Tu-lait (dawn) saw many on the lame position that I hadn't century. onlookers departing but the band known I would come back when I left played till 9 a.m. After one hour's rest in 1954, and I did come back, so the last weeks of Finally, November the main program began. Feasting, maybe I would be able to come again arrived and I to for the began prepare speeches by friends in Lesu, traditional in the future. It was suggested not return — journey to disengage myself dancing, and food distribution are altogether jokingly that my son David from Lesu in order to go home again. characteristics of Lesu celebrations (now 13) could come back and live and marked this party as well. with them as a second generation If my arrival at Lesu had been abrupt anthropologist and study their and without to the of warning people the 3rd of I On December had another succeeding generations. But none of Lesu, my departure was anything but the last two crates busy day, delivering this talk really convinced any of us that. Everyone knew that I was going to the in over shipper Kavieng, turning that I thought I would be able to to leave December 7th. Weeks ahead the car to its purchaser, closing my return soon. of time started for farewell planning bank account, picking up my return and various affairs of parties, suggested air ticket, and returning to Lesu on a The problem disposing of my shook to down two: a large general truck owned by a Lesu man, Patrick household gear hadn't really been feast and and a tackled and as the afternoon wore program, smaller, De. My friends had urged me to stay yet, scheduled to I to private party by Karake, in Lesu until after midnight of the 6th on, began dismantle my living our In so I the symbolize friendship. earlier and let them accompany me to the arrangements could give away times there were no various items. the going-away airport by means of Patrick's truck. I Through evening, because no one went came and with parties, agreed to do that because it seemed many people stayed anywhere. Now more and more New appropriate to leave New Ireland me and helped in the packing. It was Irelanders from to go away home work directly from Lesu. not unlike the vigil carried out or attend school. To mark such traditionally for a person thought likely occasions, farewell parties are given. Karake's party was December 4th at to die. About midnight a group of men 8 BULLETItJ SEPTEMBER 1971 came from Tandes, to shake hands some of the children at a nearby traditional culture. My feelings were and sing a few songs. They left and I beach. Before that the people had mixed about that; I hated to see the distributed my gear, and finally I was been huddled in the open rear of the riches of the traditional past left with only my luggage, and began truck, with their flimsy shirts buttoned abandoned, but on the other hand the to await the arrival of the truck to take up against the wind and they had people of New Ireland liked many us to Kavieng. looked cold and bleak. But now with aspects of their new life, and I shared the tropical sun rising rapidly and the their pleasure. The truck was to be driven over from familiar warmth again beginning to be The from New No. 2 Lesu at about 3:30 a.m. so that felt, everyone seemed in better spirits. plane angled away and the island shrank in size the drive to Kavieng would get us to The children scampered back to the Ireland, so that what I remembered of the the airport before 6 a.m. We began to truck. We all climbed back in and luxuriant dotted with await the arrival of the truck, for at went on, to turn in at the airport at vegetation, of calm and that time I would have to say a final about 6:40 a.m. peaceful villages pleasant faded in the distance into goodbye to the majority of the Lesuans, people away I blue The routines since only a few would come with me We pulled up to the terminal, misty shapes. petty checked and I turned to of air travel to assert to the airport. my bags my began friends. We said our last goodbyes and themselves. I thought ahead to the But my sadness at leaving soon began I walked onto the plane. transits through the various increasingly to be replaced by anxiety about the large and complex and bustling air As the took and headed arrival of the truck and the beginning plane off, terminals, Rabaul, Lae, Port Moresby, south toward Rabaul, I tried not to of my fear that I would miss the plane! Brisbane, Sydney, then Honolulu, think of them there and 3:30 came, but no truck. At 3:45 I waving Los Angeles, and finally Chicago. In the vanish. I wondered began to fear that I would miss the watching plane 9 hours I landed in Sydney, and in if I would ever see them Lesu plane. 4 o'clock came and still no again. about 17 hours more at O'Hare was so far from in miles and truck, but finally at 4:20, headlights Chicago, Field in Chicago. I thought of the in difference in culture. But their lives appeared and soon the truck pulled problems of lag of one's biological would on and so would mine. up before the house. go We rhythms after being hurled thousands would think of each other often, but of miles from the other side of the communication would be slow and We shifted my luggage down the stairs world, but knew that such adjustment and into the truck. People crowded incomplete. was going to be much, much easier around to shake hands. Tears were in and quicker than learning to adjust to what of what had I to And my work, many eyes, and those who were living away from Lesu. learned in a That the come with me climbed in the truck. year? eliciting even the recent last Sau, one of my best informants and a past, relatively seven or eight decades, is not readily close friend, was crying openly. Last done, that there is much that I don't goodbyes were shouted and the truck SUGGESTED READINGS know of New Ireland art and pulled out at about 4:30 a.m. ceremonial. I the work considered Phillip H. Lewis. "The Social Context of ahead, the task of Art in Northern New Ireland," Fieldiana: I rode in the cab of the truck, grateful shaking down, from Anthropology, vol. 58, May 29, 1969. for the chance to be relatively alone. abstracting something significant the minutiae in notes. The still Fortunately Talawe, in the cab with me, my Hortense Powdermaker. Lite in Lesu. New memorial ceremonials, the chose not to say much either. We functioning York: W. W. Norton & Co. Inc., 1933; cement could 1971. concentrated on smoking cigarettes new-style grave markers, paperback N566, be considered to be of the and watching the night-time East Coast part system of art and Also Road unreel before us in the glare of ceremonial. my corpus of of the headlights. At about 5:30 we photos museum specimens evidence that there had passed a village I knew to be half provided really a rich and fantastic world of art way to Kavieng, and thus knew that been in Ireland and that it had we had a chance of making the airport New flourished as on time. as recently forty years ago. Dr. Phillip H. Lewis is curator of primitive art and Melanesian ethnology, Field Museum. At about 6:05 with the sunrise cheerily Their new interests and activities such spreading, at a point about fifteen as politics and cash cropping were miles from the airport, we stopped for signs of New Irelanders "emerging" a few minutes to wash up and toilet into "our" world and away from their BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 ^AAhy was ^A^illiam Jones killed? Barbara Stoner William Jones was born March 28, Andover in the spring of 1896 and Rideout quotes Jones on the city: on the Sauk and Fox Reservation that summer with his father 1871, spent "You know, ... the part of the city I am in Oklahoma. His mother was an canvassing the tribes of the Great in is like an inland country town with lots of open air and space; and so I never go English girl, Sarah Penny; his father, Plains for students to send to the down town into the dust, cinders, rush and Henry Clay Jones, was the son of a Indian school in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. noise, only when I have to. The Museum, Fox Indian mother and an In the autumn of 1896 he his English began you know, is on the Lake. There are green father who had gone west with Daniel studies at Harvard. plots, with trees often. For example, a Boone and fought in the Black Hawk maple comes up to my window. To smoke I One of his first mentors at Harvard must out of doors, which in one War. William Jones died in April of go way was F. W. Putnam, Professor is a hardship, but in another is quite a 1909, killed the of Luzon Peabody by llongots for the lawns and and of American and recreation; groves in the while on an Archaeology Philippines, lagoons, and big Lake are all there." Ethnology, and under Putnam's anthropological expedition for Field Museum. influence, Jones' thoughts about the At that time the Museum was housed future turned more and more away in its original quarters in Jackson Park, Sarah Penny Jones died when her son from medicine and toward Indian now the Museum of Science and summer was on was one year old. Henry Milner ethnology. Every spent Industry. Rideout, in his biography William Jones the western plains, collecting stories (1912) quotes him: and observing and noting down Jones made a last visit to the Great customs and festivals. Plains in the summer of 1907, then "My dear old grandmottier used to tell me said to his friends and Miss that I was born in the springtime, when the goodbye bluebirds were coming from the south and Recommended by Putnam, Jones Caroline Andrus, and sailed from were about in the dead trees for entered Columbia in the fall of 1900 looking Seattle in August on the Aki Maru holes to build their nests in. Grass was just and became President's University bound for Manila. coming up, and with it the flowers. She used Scholar in his first year. He received his to tell me how she would carry me about, A.M. degree in June of 1901. In July His route from Manila lay, and a whole lot more things which I according sometimes live over, though more often they he was appointed University Fellow in to Rideout, "round the north end of seem but a tale. Then the summer went by, Anthropology for the following year Luzon, by sea, to Aparri at the mouth and the winter followed, and the next spring under Franz Boas, then Professor of of the Cagayan River, in Isabela they laid my mother to rest. This is the way Anthropology at Columbia, as well as Province; thence up the river, she recorded time, and that is the way it Curator of at the has always come to me." Anthropology southward, among the hills and the American Museum of Natural History. wild hill-people." Jones' diaries and Jones lived with his grandmother, During the summer Jones again did letters, now in the archives of the Katiqua, a "medicine woman" of the field work among the Fox and Sac, Department of Anthropology of Field Fox until her death he tribe, when was and on returning to New York Museum, tell the rest of the story. nine, and it was from her that he first announced his engagement to heard the legends he was later to Miss Caroline Andrus, of Hampton, Reaching Echague on the Cagayan collect. He then lived first with his Virginia. River in November of 1907, Jones father's new family and later with his spent the rest of that year and the of 1902 and mother's people until his father sent The summers 1903 were early months of 1908 investigating the him to an Indian boarding school in spent in field work and on June 8, area around Echague and making 1904 he his Wabash, Indiana, maintained by the received Ph.D. degree. preparations to go upstream to the Summer of 1904 found him back on Society of Friends, for three years. country of the llongots. There followed three more years as a the Great Plains, but the following year there no further The llocanos in the cowboy on the Great Plains, a period was work among the living Echague Indians. for were at first less than which ended with the spring round-up He was ready now region of 1889 when Jones was 18. After permanent employment in his chosen cooperative. In March of 1908 a head field was and Jones schooling at Hampton Institute in and had wanted very much to go taken, photographed to Labrador to work with the the headless which was in a Hampton, Virginia, he went on to Naskapi body, but no in this cave. 6 he wrote of the llocanos: the Phillips Andover Academy in Indians, positions April Andover, Massachusetts in 1892. direction were open. In 1906 Dr. "These people here are also warning George A. Dorsey of Field Museum me not to go to the llongots, saying Jones began his career at Andover offered him his choice of three that we are going to certain death." with an Idea that he might study expeditions: to Africa, the South Seas, And later: "The llocanos here are medicine and go back to his people or the Philippines. He chose the pretty badly scared; they fear lest the as a healer. The idea remained just Philippines, and in June of 1906 llongots come any time to attack that. He graduated from Phillips Dr. William Jones came to Chicago. them." 10 BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 Right, William Jones, photographed in Chicago, 1907. Left, three llongot men taken into custody for the murder of Dr. Jones. The llocanos were acculturated Generally, Jones got on well with his his discipline break down and cause migrants from the llocos province and hosts, and always referred to them as him to make mistakes. were no longer headhunters. They his "friends." Jones ate with them, depended upon the constabulary for slept with them, and hunted with them. After leaving Dumubatu, he spent protection and did not make retaliatory Do you know the wild carabao, sometimes some time in the hamlet of Panipagan raids against the llongots. On April 9 called ttie wild buffalo? That animal offers and then left for Kagadyangan. Panakat, the best of out here. It is a a military expedition against the sport anything headman of Panipagan and his former fighter all the time, will often give chase like llongots was undertaken by the host, was much put out and begged the grizzly on general principles. It's all day in connection with the and bribed Jones to constabulary with a man if he wounds one and the animal stay. Jones, missing head. On the 11th the soldiers is between him and a tree or a place of however, insisted on going and was returned, having set fire to a deserted refuge. I had the great pleasure of killing a made welcome in Kagadyangan in the whopper one day. It would take pages to village and seen no one. home of the headman there, Takadan. tell of the thrilling joy an llongot and I had in doing it. On April 15, 1908 Jones was at last Wherever he went, the llongots soon on his way upstream to the country of His diaries are full of descriptions of became jealous over every little gift the llongots. The next day he reached the appearance and behavior of many Jones made, and they were also Dumubatu, and here he first individuals, and it is clear that he saw jealous of his attentions to the sick. encountered the people with whom he them and valued them as individuals. As soon as one person was given an was to live for the next year. "At Through most of his stay with the ointment or medicine, a dozen others present everything looks extremely llongots Jones exhibited kindness and developed the same symptoms. On rosy. The people have fetched me rice, a willingness, if not always the ability, July 4 a man whose arm Jones had camote [sweet potatoes], chickens, to understand. For the first few months treated previously died, apparently of and honey in bamboo tubes. I am his diaries relate almost daily his heart failure. Jones went back to sharing this food with my Christiano observations of near-nudity and the Panipagan to examine the body at Yogads, and the llongots who gave it open performance of natural functions, Palidat's house, and explained that the have invited themselves to help eat it." as well as of the bantering back and medication had had nothing to do with The llongots complained somewhat forth on sexual subjects. He did not the man's death. The explanation that about soldiers but were not unpleasant judge this behavior, but the frequency the man had died of too much basi (a about it. Here he first observed the with which it is mentioned in the local wine) seemed to be accepted, way the llongots made a formal diaries suggests that he obviously and on the advice of Romano (Jones' contract—by each party tying knots in needed to adjust to it. Only when the manservant) Jones returned to the a string called "bitals." The making of behavior of the llongots infringed on house of Takadan. On July 7 he wrote: this contract or promise was referred his ability to carry out his work and "I find that I had made a big mistake to as "making bitals." made frustrating demands on him did by coming away from Palidat's when BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 11 " I did. The mistake is not clear, but it lied to Captain Bowers. First Sunday, March 28: "Sibley got away seems to have had something to do concerning the trips to Panipagan and this noon. Before he departed, I had with etiquette. As we will see, a man Kagadyangan. Inamon said that the him and the llongots make a bital to named Palidat is mentioned by Rideout Captain was anxious to go there, and meet at Inamatan 10 days hence; they as the one who struck the first blow when Bowers asked him if it would are to leave with me four days from when Jones was later attacked and be all right to go he gave him the now for Echague . . ." killed. It is probable, although answer he wanted to hear; that the unsubstantiated, that this is the same Captain did not care to hear anything Monday, March 29: "Nine balsas have man. else ..." come and the men have lashed them together in pairs. The number is hardly The year was wearing on and Jones' Jones visited other llongot settlements, enough, but it is about all they have. patience was wearing thin. He began although he did not become as well I may be compelled to go on to to make more mistakes, lost his acquainted with the inhabitants of Panipagan after all to get other balsas temper more often, and tried to teach those villages as he did at Dumubatu, and men." the llongots "lessons" in ethics. On Panipagan, Kagadyangan, and Tamsi. July 29 the following incident took March 31: "The His diaries contain many pages of Wednesday, up-river place when a man did not like the have not arrived, and now ethnographic descriptions of houses, people yet comb Jones had given him as well as it looks as if I shall have to after tools, procedures and living habits. He go one given another man: them." was always bothered by begging. The ... I told the what I of people thought people were very jealous over his Maglern, that instead of being a man he was Rideout's biography gives March 29, presents to them and tried nearly every yet a little boy; that though he was the son 1909, as the date of Jones' death. trick at their to obtain as of Kapunwan—leading man—yet he did not disposal However, the last entry in Jones' diary know how to act like one; that he threw the much as they could. It is quite is dated 1909. It reads: comb at the teniente as he would April 2, (Palidat) understandable that they would. It must a stick at a dog; and that his whole behavior It rained far into the night and drizzled also have been a terribly frustrating was most even of a unbecoming good man, awhile this morning. About 8 o'clock it situation for Jones to deal with. not to mention that of a Kapunwan. The began to clear and at 10 the sun was out. and others at once father, uncle, Gatma By that time I was on way to Panipagan forward it came I offering excuses, saying The next few months were spent where am now. I got Pascual's banquilla was a for fun. I refused to only joke, just and Gonuat and R. At Sanbei I ran visiting and revisiting the llongot poled. take it as such. into Panakat and 5 of his men. They had villages, making notes and gathering been hunting across the river and were On 25, 1908 Jones wrote to material for the collection. On February August probably about to return home. I went ashore Dr. Franz Boas: 25, a last letter to a friend ends on a and called for them to come down. They wistful note: "And the Lord be knew why I had come and were at first slow I am writing from the country of the llongots may about coming. I then went up to a man who at a place In the mountains of Southern merciful to your sinful soul, and bring continued to work and got behind him. This Isabella ... an llongot district called you safe to Manila, where we can fetched them all down to the water. Tamsi . . . There is a nominal peace among open a cool bottle and another in the four but it is not of a kind to districts, Then I told them in what I memory of other days and of friends sharp language establish much confidence . . . The llongot thought about people who lied to me as 5,000 miles or more easily gives expression to his emotions . . . away." they had done, that they had better not I have seen little that would make me think return but go on down to Dinnabatu Isic] that ever steal. But lie as as they they easily Rideout's biography states: "Balsas— where I would see them tomorrow. they breathe . . . it is nothing, They say bamboo rafts—were needed to bring Then I had Panakat get in the banquilla and that it is the way with all men everywhere . . . Dr. Jones and his ethnologic freight come on with us to his town. We arrived here about four or little after. "Lying" occurred mostly in terms of down river to the friendly huts at Immediately arrival at house I sent for Dumubatu and the Christiano town of upon my Cipdut's time. The llongots had a poor sense of Takadan and Magin to come this evening, Two hamlets, and time in the Western sense. Theirs was Echague. Panipagan in a couple of hours Takadan arrived. A had and failed a day-to-day existence, and the Kagadyangan, promised heavy shower was pouring at the time. I then lashed him with I tried to importance of meeting on the river to bring these balsas, had promised my tongue. shame him for lying to me, for failed . . ." Jones' making bank with banquillas (dugout canoes) again and again bitals with me and not keeping them, for such an hour on such a was a patience grew even shorter. On Friday, by day ignoring my requests which he said he March 26, 1 909, he wrote from concept which they poorly understood. would fulfill, and so on. Then I told him to Dumubatu of the promised balsas: "If send runners through his district and bring me six balsas and six men tomorrow Further light is thrown on llongot lies they fail to show up then on the by forenoon; that if the balsas were not here I to white men by the entry for Friday, morning after I will go up to would take him down the river with me. He October 2, 1908: "Inamon Kagadyangan, and if I go I will make [headman tried to persuade me to let him go home of Tamsi] has explained to me why he Kagadyangan pay for it." and urge his people to comply with my 12 BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 197) Photograph taken at Tamsi, Luzon by Dr. William Jones. Adults In foreground, left to right, Wipat, a hunter from Dumubatu; Tal^adan. headman of Kagadyangan: Inamon, headman of Tamsi. allowed by their native constabulary guard to escape. Field Museum assistant curator of anthropology S. C. Simms went out to Luzon to collect the results of Dr. Jones' year and a half of work. Mr. Simms also provided for a suitable monument to be erected at the spot where the body of Dr. Jones was buried. Why was Jones killed? The evidence does not point to much premeditation, although the decision to kill him may have been made when Jones detained Takadan. Jones had been understandably irritated. Travel conditions in 1908 were not such that he could get down to Manila for a weekend respite. He had spent sixteen long and arduous months with the llongots. He had lost his temper before with no serious repercussions. But Takadan was an elder, and the llongots had a great respect—almost a reverence—for their elders. Jones, in his impatience to get downstream to Aparri, on to Manila, and then home to his fiancee and his work among the Indians, may have overstepped his bounds, crossed a line which no could let The wants, but I told him he had lied to me so were able to get Jones on board the llongot go unrevenged. often that I could not believe him lived in a world of violence. any banquilla and push off. Poisoned llongots I told him to sit not longer. go down and To kill and take a head was a of arrows shot after them as the Pung-gu sign leave the house until I gave him permission the boat and hurled manhood, a sign of a great warrior. to do so and to send anyone he wished to rapids caught Ten later have made a carry messages to his people. Tolan was in them downstream. Dr. Jones, still years may difference in —or in calling distance and he went off in the conscious, helped bind the wounds of their reactions rain and darkness with what I Jones'. it was an gathering his companions. Upon reaching Perhaps simply had told Takadan. —an old a new Dumubatu, Romano, according to impulse grudge, Rideout: provocation, a quick strike, and then The next day, according to Rideout, a death. It was over. Perhaps we'll never man named Palidat, "w/hom Jones had following orders, went up among the hovels and called the who came down to know. cured of a sickness," drew/ near, people, the shore and set a guard roundabout; for "patted the doctor on the shoulder, and the doctor's only fear had been that those smiled. 'We shall more balsas bring llongots up-river might descend and take to-morrow,' said he; and at the same his head. About an hour later, Romano put some to his who still Artifacts from Dr. Jones' Luzon instant, reaching swiftly, drew his bolo" question master, lay expedition in the boat. He received no answer. Jones be seen in cases 20 and Hall A, on and struck Jones on the neck. may 21, had quietly closed his eyes forever, while the ground floor ot the Museum. Thanks the great stream ran silent underneath him go to Mr. Christopher Legge, custodian Jones' life have been saved might and tropic stars burned overhead. ot collections, and Dr. Donald Collier, had not his holster flap been fastened. curator ot Middle and South American While he was struggling with the Dr. William Jones was buried in the anthropology and ethnology, for their help button, he was slashed across the arm Municipal Cemetery at Echague. His in researching this article. and then given a mortal spear wound murderers were captured, tried, and below the heart. Gonuat and Romano sentenced to death by the Court of Dumaliang, his faithful servants, helped First Instance, given clemency by the Barbara Stoner is a member of the staff in fight the llongots off, and eventually Supreme Court of the Islands, and the public relations office. Field Museum. BULLETIN SEPTEI^BER 1971 13 The of Moths America North of Mexico, or Most of them look a twilight. great deal seventeen name changes presented. Two including Greenland. Fascicle 21, like when are hummingbirds they feeding, new genera are created, one new species Sphingoidea since hover in front of the flower they and described, one genus is synonomized, and a extend their into the By Ronald W. Hodges. London: proboscis deep total of twelve species are reassigned to blossom for nectar. The larvae are E. W. Classey & R.B.D. Publications, 1971. quite their proper genera. This is somewhat robust in and are voracious 158 pp. $24.00. shape feeders. amazing, since sphingids are some of the All of us who have tomatoes in grown the largest and most widely collected of the summer have The first fascicle of the proposed 14 volumes probably encountered tomato moths. The only criticism accompanying of The hornworm larvae Moths of America North of Mexico, contentedly munching away these taxonomic changes is the lack of any on our The name "hornworm" including Greenland is now available. plants. comes notation to this effect in the general section from the fact that most of the larvae have a Hopefully, In a few years the monumental on classification, plate legends, or index. conspicuous or horn on the task will be complete. spinelike process It is necessary to examine each page of the top part of the abdominal eighth segment. text to discover any nomenclatural changes. Aside from numerous articles and This is only a minor point and cannot detract with restricted If this first fascicle of the series is monographs dealing families, from this magnificent work. It is merely a and of the volumes to genera, species, there has previously representative follow, matter of style. been only one general treatment of North lepidopterists have a great deal in store for American moths—The Moth Book, by W. J. them. The treatment of the 115 species and It is difficult to avoid the use of superlatives 40 of in Holland, published in 1905, long out of print, genera Sphingoidea by Dr. Hodges is trying to describe the impact and and only recently reprinted in paperback excellent in all respects. The higher significance of this series. Each fascicle will form. This included mostly common species categories are given in outline form, with be a "must" for serious students of the and selected representatives of various separate keys to the genera based upon subject, whether professional or amateur. families and genera. Although Holland's adult, pupal, and lan/al forms. Keys to the Since each group of volumes will stand as work was in itself an enormous undertaking, species based upon the adults are given in a complete taxonomic unit, the cost of the it was incomplete and quite difficult to use. the respective genera. In instances of sexual entire series (almost $1,000) will not be a But it was the only comprehensive work dimorphism, both sexes are delineated in serious burden to the specialist desiring only the available. That is, until now. species keys. All species are illustrated a few of the volumes. It should also be in color photographs that have a very high pointed out that the plan of production of There are more than 10,000 species of moths degree of fidelity to the specimens. Although The Moths of America North of Mexico calls in the fauna of America north of Mexico. subspecies are figures in the plates, they are for the publication of three or four fascicles not Every species, as well as major polymorphic delineated as such in the legends. It is each year. Thus purchase of the entire forms and subspecies will be illustrated in necessary to turn to the text for a discussion series would be spread over a period of full color. of these forms. But the series will be much more Key characters are illustrated several years. This would make it quite than merely a pictorial presentation. The text for many of the species with line drawings. feasible for many libraries to acquire the will consist of a synthesis of all revisionary Technical terms are fully explained and series, as indeed they should. studies up to the time of publication. New illustrated in a section on structural features genera and species will be described. It following the color plates. Many references will be in essence a revision of the moths of to more specific works are given at the end this region. Information on the biology, of the work. In addition to the taxonomic ecology, and distribution of the species will treatment. Dr. Hodges gives information on by Dr. John Kethley, assistant curator, be included. The mere thought of such a the distribution of the species and their insects, Field Museum. comprehensive, definitive series boggles the relative abundance, and in many cases lists mind. known larval food plants. The are Sphingoidea the subject of this first The work was designed for use by both the unit of the series to be These published. professional and the amateur entomologist, moths are also known as Sphinx Moths, as is obvious from this brief account of its Hawk Moths, or Humming-bird Moths to contents. But it is more than this alone. This name a few. These are medium-sized to fascicle on the Sphingoidea is a complete insects that large frequent flowers at dusk taxonomic revision of the group. There are 14 BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 A. Swink, naturalist. Morton Arboretum, will Collecting Fossils in Nepal show how the flora have changed profoundly because of man's activities. October 25 W. J. Beecher, director, Chicago Academy of Sciences, will compare the present ecology of the region with what it was before man disturbed it and with the ecology of other regions. November 8 Loren P. Woods, curator of fishes, Field Museum, will discuss the change of Great Lakes fish and fishing because of man's intrusions. November 15 these four specialists will summarize how conservation measures can influence the ecological future of our region. Tuition for each field trip is $25 (or $45 for both) and includes transportation on a chartered bus. Tuition for the course is Curatorial Staff New $35. Museum Members are eligible for a Two new curatorial appointments are 10 percent discount for field trips and announced for Field Museum's Department course. Call Mrs. Maria Matyas, University of Anthropology effective September 1 . of Chicago Extension, Financial 6-8300, Dr. Eugene Richardson, curator of fossil for further information and reservations. Invertebrates, and Reeve Byron Waud examine a Dr. Bennet Bronson, the new assistant two-hundred-mllllon-year-old ammonite which curator of Asiatic archaeology and ethnology, Reeve donated to the Museum. In Sympathy received his doctorate from the University died Reeve Byron Waud, seven-year-old Museum of Pennsylvania in June. He was field Carl W. Cotton, Museum taxidermist, on Member and son of Mr. and Mrs. Cornelius director of the University Museum/National July 5th after a five-month illness. He was Waud, recently donated a two-hundred- Museum of Thailand Joint Archaeological 53 years old. Mr. Cotton joined the Field million-year-old fossil ammonite to the Expedition, 1968 and 1969, and the Museum staff in September, 1947, as Museum. Reeve collected the fossil in the University of Pennsylvania Archaeological assistant taxidermist. He became taxidermist bed of the Kali Gandaki River between Program in Ceylon, 1970. Dr. Bronson's on January 1, 1952. Creative and versatile, Sikung and Larjung in Western Nepal while field experience includes excavations in Mr. Cotton was equally proficient with both on a 300-mile walking trip through Nepal England, Guatemala, Turkey, Iran, Thailand, birds and mammals. We extend our last March with his parents, his grandparents and Ceylon. sympathies to his family. Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence Reeve, and eight Dr. John Terrell, who recently received his Reeve children. Nephew of Malvina Hoffman Ph.D. in anthropology from Harvard Visits Museum The fossil was one of over thirty collected University, becomes assistant curator of by Reeve on the trip. "It was hard carrying Oceanic archaeology and ethnology. His them," says Reeve, whose total collection doctoral research includes archaeological weighs over ten pounds. "I picked up as surveys and excavations on the island of many fossils as I could carry in a day. Bougainville in the Solomons. Field research Usually, I had to carry them in my hat." by Dr. Terrell includes excavations in England, France, Neo-lndian sites in the A newcomer to rock hound circles, Reeve United States, New Zealand, the Tonga says he is going to continue collecting Islands, and Western Samoa. fossils now. "If I was just going to keep the fossils," commented Reeve, "I don't see much use in them. But using these to start Geology Field Trips and Course in a collection, there is quite a use. You can Natural History of Chicago Region look up and learn things from them. You Field of Museum's Department Education can learn what kind of things were living and the University of Chicago Extension millions and millions of years ago." are cooperatively offering this fall: "Dr. Richardson [curator of fossil Geology field trips September 25-26 to invertebrates] showed me many drawers of Galena, Illinois and environs and October ammonites from the Museum's collection," 16-17 to Baraboo Range and Devil's Lake, said Reeve, "but we did not find any other Wisconsin. Both will be conducted by one exactly like mine," which Reeve Dr. Matthew H. Nitecki, associate curator considers one of his "best fossils." "I in the Museum's Department of Geology. thought the Museum should have it," said Mrs, Edward Byron Smith (left), president of Field Reeve, "because it is one of the best Museum's Women's Board, sliows Malvina Hoffman's A course of four lectures and one panel sculpture "Tfie Cockflgtit" to guests of tionor: places I know of for it." discussion on the ecology of northeastern Malvina Hoffman's nepfiew Cfiarles M. Hoffman, his and Mrs. Hoffman. The Illinois. October 11 Matthew H. Nitecki will daughter Mary FIske, Before leaving the Museum, Reeve talked occasion was a luncheon given by the Women's how the of the is with Dr. Matthew Nitecki, associate curator explain geology region Board highlighting the life and works of Malvina responsible for the present flora and fauna Hoffman with a film program and presentation of an of fossil invertebrates, and Dr. John Clark, informal paper by Mrs. Frank Mayer. Field Museum's and our economic growth and will discuss associate curator of sedimentary petrology, new permanent exhibit, "Portraits of Man," is a find the future of the city. October 18 Floyd selected group of the famous sculptress' work. about his fossil and about Nepal. BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 IS All workshops begin at 10:30 a.m. October 23 For ages 9-13 African Drums and IMasks Edith Fleming, Leader October 2 For ages 7-9 Eskimo Seal Hunt Some original African art and music are examined and then used Edith Fleming, Leader as inspiration for the boys and girls to create their own. After viewing the film Angote, which shows African masks stimulate them to make their the life of an Eskimo boy from the time he own designs with colorful materials, such as is a baby until he is old enough to go on seeds and beads. A tape of African drum his first seal hunt, boys and girls see and music recorded in Ghana serves to inspire handle real hunting equipment used by them to try playing African rhylhms on real Eskimos: weapons, goggles to protect the African instruments. eyes from the sun's glare, and clothing designed to keep out the Arctic cold. Finally, in Museum exhibits, the children October 30 For ages 6-8 seek out the seal in its native and habitat, Boneyard Menagerie (repeat) learn more about the of the hunt. problems Ernest Roscoe, Leader Members' children (or grandchildren) are invited to participate in the Saturday See description for October 16. that have become workshops highly popular October 9 For ages 9-1 1 fall events at Field Museum. The workshops Picture Stories—Plains Indian Style were originated eight years ago by the 6 For Harriet Smith, Leader November ages 9-13 Raymond Foundation to stimulate interest in African Drums and Masks (repeat) natural history through small-group Children learn the of animals and importance Edith Leader instruction on a variety of topics that appeal Fleming, of story-telling by means of pictures in the to children of different age groups. They lives of our western tribes, by viewing a film See description for October 23. offer the children opportunity to get and examining actual decorated objects acquainted with our staff members and to made by Plains Indians. They have the work with actual specimens from the opportunity to draw either their own November 13 For ages 9-13 Museum's scientific collections. The of a on a picture-story "happening" A Half-Billion Years of programs last about one hour for younger Chicago History miniature tipi cover or their own dream of children and about one and a half hours for Ernest Roscoe, Leader the future on a (paper) shield, using Indian older ones. Extra time should be allowed if symbols. Boys and girls learn the of the the children bring specimens of their own history area it for identification. Chicago as has been deciphered from study of the rocks and fossils of our October 16 For ages 6-8 Reservations are necessary, and we urge region. They examine actual specimens of that they be sent in early. The size of each Boneyard Menagerie many of the prehistoric plants and animals session is limited, and applications will be Ernest Roscoe, Leader we can all collect ourselves. Parents are accepted in the order in which they are invited to attend. received. A child can be scheduled into one Some "family" secrets are revealed in this program only. Please send a separate session as the boys and girls discover and application for each child in your family who discuss prehistoric relatives of familiar November 20 For ages 12-15 wishes to participate. Accepted applicants animals found in zoos and aquaria. Children Animal Art of the "Totem Pole" Indians will be sent a confirmation card that will should be accompanied by at least one Harriet Smith, Leader admit them to the workshop. parent. Be prepared for a few surprises! A film that illustrates the totemic art of the Northwest Coast Indians plus several actual for Fall Application Workshops examples of the art demonstrate the close these feel with certain Program Date relationship people animals prominent in their mythology. Each participant then explains why he chooses a specific animal as his totem and stylizes it into symbolic designs he paints on a storage 2nd choice box for himself. 4th choice Membership in name of Cut along dotted line and nnail to: Raymond Foundation, Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605 16 BULLETIN SEPTEMBER 1971 Hours Children's Programs 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday. Tuesday, and Thursday, and 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, Begins September 1 and Sunday until Labor Day. "Between the Tides," Fall Journey for Beginning September 7, hours are 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Children, takes them shell for exotic daily, Saturday through Thursday. Special Friday hunting hours are 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. and beautiful specimens in the Museum The Museum Library is open 9 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. exhibit areas. All youngsters who can read Monday through Friday. and write are welcome to join in the activity. Journey sheets are available at Museum entrances. Through November 30. CALENDAR Exhibits Through September 6 Deerskin Jacket with painted decoration Film and Tour Program warriors on depicting horseback, displayed Through September 3 in the North Lounge. A recent gift of Free Guided Tour of Field Museum exhibit Mrs. Richard D. Stevenson, the jacket was areas leaves from the North information collected by her grandfather. Carter H. booth at 2 p.m. Monday through Friday. Harrison III, in the early part of this century A color motion picture, "Through These from the Sioux, probably of the Pine Ridge Tnistaet of Field Museum Doors," focusing on behind-the-scenes Agency. Harry 0. Bercher John T. Pirie, Jr. activities at the Museum, is shown at 3 p.m. Bowen Blair John S. Runnells 7 in the Lecture Hall, following the tour. William McCormick Blair William L. Searle Begins September William R. Dickinson, Jr. John M. Simpson Rare Ancient Numismatic Collection, a Thomas E. Donnelley II Edward Byron Smith Continuing of seven silver Marshall Field Mrs. Edward Byron Smith highly important group Free Natural Film "Patterns for Nicholas Galitzine Mrs. Mermen Dunlap Smith Greek coins from the archaic and finest History Paul W. Goodrich John W. Sullivan Survival" (A of at periods, and two Roman medallions dating Study Mimicry) presented Remick McDowell William G. Swartchild, Jr. 11 a.m. and 1 p.m. on Saturday, and 11 Hugo J. Melvoin E. Leiand Webber from the third and fourth centuries A.D., J. Roscoe Miller Julian B. Wilkins a.m., 1 and 3 on in the displayed in the South Lounge through p.m., p.m. Sunday H. Mitchell J. Howard William Wood second floor Room. The half-hour 7. coins medallions are Meeting Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Blaine J. Yarrington November The and film offers an overall view of protective Harry M. Oliver, Jr. part of a collection donated to Field Museum coloration in insects and visitors Life Trusteoi by Jon Holtzman of Madison, Wisconsin, provides M. McBain with an into the "Color in Nature" Joseph N. Field Hughston and Paul Holtzman of Las Vegas, Nevada. insight Clifford C. James L. Palmer Gregg exhibit. Through November 28. Samuel Insull, Jr. John G. Searle William V. Kahler Louis Ware Continuing Color in Nature, an exhibit examining the nature and variety of color in the physical Meetings and living world, and how it functions in September 8: 7 p.m., Chicago plants and animals. It focuses on the many Ornithological Society roles of color, as in mimicry, camouflage, Do We Have Your Name and Address warning, sexual recognition and selection, September 8: 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto, Correct? energy channeling, and vitamin production, National Speleological Society Museum as using specimens examples. 12: 2 Shell Club Beginning in October, the Bulletin will be September p.m., Chicago Through November 28. Hall 25. mailed by a new system. If your name is September 14: 7:45 p.m., Nature Camera or address is incorrect or misspelled your The Afro-American Style, From the Design Club of Chicago if you do not receive your October issue by Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of 14: 8 Chicagoland Glider October 10, please contact the Membership textiles blending classical African motifs and September p.m., Office. in Council We need your help order to contemporary design. The original Field correct any errors which may occur in the Museum Benin artifacts which inspired September 19: 2 p.m., Illinois Orchid changeover period from the old to the new of the are also shown. many designs Society system. Financial assistance for the exhibit was received from the CNA Foundation, Chicago, and the Illinois Arts Council, a state agency. Coming in October Through December 31. Hall 9. Fall Film Lecture Series, 2:30 p.m. Theatre. John James Audubon's elephant folio. The Saturdays in the James Simpson Plan Ahead Birds ot America, on display in the North October 2: "Botswana," narrated by Visits to Field Museum earlier in the day are Lounge. A different plate from the rare, Roy Coy. recommended for Sundays this fall when the first-edition volumes is featured each day. Chicago Bears play home games in Soldier October 9: "Railroads are Fun," narrated Field Museum's 75th Anniversary Exhibit Field. by Thayer Soule. continues indefinitely. "A Sense of Wonder" Since the Southeast facilities will be parking offers thought-provoking prose and poetry October 16: "Norse Adventure," narrated filled, the North lot reserved for Museum associated with physical, biological, and by Hjordis Kittel Parker. visitors will be strained to undoubtedly cultural of nature; "A Sense of aspects 23: "Our Glorious National the afternoon October Parks," capacity during games. History" presents a graphic portrayal of narrated by Edward M. Brigham, Jr. Dates to remember are September 12 and the Museum's past, and "A Sense of October 30: "Ecuador & Darwin's 19, October 10 and 31, November 7, 14 and Discovery" shows examples of research 21, and December 19. conducted by Museum scientists. Hall 3. Galapagos," narrated by Hugh Hope. Volume 42, Number 9 October 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN ^ ^ cs CO o ^ i? CD 52 s ^ ^ ^ ^ i^ c^ ^ ^ 5CO S 5r -^ i** .•§* iiS> c/> c^ •a-%:%^%%ts'» THEATRE JAMES SIMPSON EXTERIOR WALLS i ^ EXTERIOR WALLS TUCKPOINTING HEJ^TING aECTRICAL SYSTEM vimoovis 'fs %%/%% ^^j* % Vf ^ ^ ^^.ccct:%;'"t:^^' <^. * /^ o5 •* v» # 5 s ^ ^v> ^ ^ ^ *i^ v> ^ # # (/> (/> BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 9 October 1971 ^^Jrn^^A^1^ (2 About Field Museum 2 Joyce Zibro the unique purpose and function of Field Museum as told - in a brief history of the Museum, 1893 1971 (Tlviore About Field Museum, or Why We Need $25,000,000 Elizabeth Munger what's behind the first capital campaign in the ^A^yW^ seventy-eight-year history of Field Museum 16 Notes From Cover: Modernization and renovation of Field Underground Museum's building are the purposes for which Harry G. Nelson the Museum has launched a $25,000,000 Capital wanted to l 20 Migrations Melvin A. Traylor the more one learns about bird migrations, the more one is impressed by the amazing diversity of patterns 22 Before Credit Cards Elizabeth Munger several important ancient Greek coins recently donated to the Museum provide a jumping-off point for a discussion of early Western-world coinage 24 Field Briefs Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photograptiy John Bayalls, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly except August by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscriptions: $9 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 About Field Museum Joyce zibro Museum staff in 1909. Photograpfi taken upon ttie occasion of the visit of Commissioners Wada and Sal BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 In his autobiography, Harlow Shapley, Museum can be useful to society in Columbian Exposition held in Chicago the famous astronomer of Harvard other unique ways. One such unique in 1893 to celebrate the four hundredth University, wrote concerning his early capability and possibility for Field anniversary of the landing of Columbus in career, "I realized that I could do Museum to further serve society, he America. things other people could not or would suggests, is in the interpretation of the The first published suggestion that a in not do, and therefore I was useful." ecology of the earth. "We can show, permanent natural history museum be environmental exhibits," he says, "how formed as a result of the Exposition of Dr. Alan Solem, curator invertebrates the world functions. How it is based on was an article by Frederic W. Putnam at Field Museum, applying this from the sun, converted by energy in Tribune of 31 the Chicago May , statement to natural history museums, and either used or plants immediately 1890. Putnam was curator of the asked in the December 1970 issue of stored for future use. We can show Peabody Museum and professor of this magazine, "What can a natural with our cultural objects and natural anthropology at Harvard University and history museum do that other history specimens how climate, soil, served as chief of the Department of institutions cannot or will not? Where water and topography limit the Ethnology and Archaeology at the can we be useful? . . . What are the activities and abundance of all species, Exposition. He successfully of Field l^useum as an brought unique aspects including man . . . These are things together the most extensive institution?" we can do better than others and be anthropology exhibit of its kind ever useful to society." and was also Dr. Solem answered these questions assembled, responsible for most of the natural exhibits this way: In this day when more and more history at the fair. He advocated that these Collections, library, trained staff. Our demands are being made on museums collections and exhibits should be collections of natural history and in general and Field Museum in kept bring scientists and to form the nucleus of a ethnographic objects particular to serve an ever-increasing together great students from all of the world to parts study natural history museum. In November and better-educated public, it is in and are utilized on a loan basis Chicago in to the Commercial to review how this 1891, an address by scholars in every continent except perhaps appropriate Club of Chicago, he outlined the Antarctica. Our library is equally fine. Our great permanent treasure of useful staff of scientists and technicians makes use administrative organization of the things and knowledge which is Field of these collections and library resources on the Museum came to be established in proposed museum, organization a basis. Their work cannot be done at daily and activities of its scientific and how it to become an Institution without these facilities. Only Chicago grew departments (anthropology, botany, natural history museums provide them. one of the four greatest natural history and and the nature Universities do not, businesses cannot, only museums in the world. geology, zoology), museums can. of its exhibits. These proposals were Sometimes our research involves It is of course the story of people, the to become the blueprint of the future immediately relevant problems—medically human element, which made Field museum. important ectoparasites of Venezuela or a Museum the great institution it is today. forest resource survey of Amazonian Peru. Putnam's views were shared by many Usually we work on basic problems whose leading citizens, including Edward E. "The human element is the only force practical applications may be decades away Norman Ream, and James in Ayer, or undreamt of at the time of which is, the last instant, responsible study. Ellsworth. The interest of Chicagoans for the combination of forces which But this Is not an to the attempt justify was aroused and in a public meeting research and collection activities of Field made Chicago not only large, but held on August 7, 1893, and attended Museum. Our acknowledged function is not great," wrote J. Christian Bay to discover, collect and correlate by about one hundred leading citizens, just (Librarian of John Crerar Library) back knowledge, but also to disseminate a committee was appointed "to adopt in 1929. "Anybody who scans the lists knowledge. This can be through technical measures to establish in Chicago a of residents of our will literature, through popular writing, but more early days stop great museum that shall be a fitting directly through the parts of the Museum again and again at names, each of of used the —the exhibition the memorial the World's Columbian by public halls, which signifies some important school programs, the public lectures, the Exposition and a permanent advantage departure in the city's life, some great traveling school exhibits, and university level and honor to the and act or some small city." teaching ... No one else has the variety of generous nature and man's work, no one else can beginning of things that grew A charter was obtained on September show it. significant in time." 16, 1893 under the title Columbian Museum of Chicago, with sixty-five Dr. Solem goes on to suggest, however, The idea of a great permanent citizens as incorporators and fifteen that while discovery, collection, and museum for Chicago was neither as trustees. dissemination of knowledge are and suddenly born nor quickly realized. should remain prime functions of the That idea developed from 1890 onward Officials of the Exposition who had Museum, this is not enough. Field together with plans for the World's become actively interested in the plan BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Prince Frederick and Princess Ingrid of Denmark and Iceland visit the Museum on April 25, 1939. and chairman of ior the museum solicited and procured (1908-1964) president the board. from exhibitors gifts and transfer of desirable exhibits. Meanwhile, Marshall Field enjoyed the Museum enthusiastic sponsors of the museum very much during his lifetime and instituted a to raise funds. campaign made contributions estimated at But the country-wide financial $430,000 toward current operating which developed to stringency expenses. On his death in January in 1894 was alarming proportions 1906, he bequeathed a further sum of to be and already beginning felt, by $8,000,000, of which $4,000,000 was the middle of in the words of October, allotted toward the erection of the the Museum's first director, Frederick present building and $4,000,000 toward J. V. "A of Skiff, period endowment which to this day helps to came those at discouragement upon sustain the activities of the Museum. work for the Museum. Nothing but the faith, devotion, and courage of a few Large and important collections and men prevented the disintegration of the exhibits that had been shown at the preliminary organization and the Exposition were purchased. Such practical abandonment of the Museum purchases included the Ward natural enterprise." history collection, the Tiffany collection of gems, the Restrepo collection of Marshall Field, probably the richest pre-Hispanic gold ornaments from ioi museum it shattered man in Chicago, had been approached gift purposes Columbia, the Montez archaeological several times to one million all precedents and ensured the give collection from Cuzco, Peru, the and of the dollars. He "I don't establishment permanence always responded, Hassler collection from Museum. Other benefactors of ethnological know about a museum and I early anything collections M. Paraguay, representing don't care to know about a the Museum included George anything Javanese, Samoan, and Peruvian museum. I'm not to a Pullman and Harlow Higinbotham, who going give you and the Mrs. D. ethnology, Hagenbeck million dollars." Edward E. who each gave $100,000, Mary Ayer, collection of about 600 contributed and ethnological was to become the first of Sturges, who $50,000, president from the South Sea and McCormick objects Africa, the Museum, made one last attempt to Tiffany Company, Islands, British Columbia, and other Field to his mind as Estate, and many others who gave persuade change areas. the closing time for the Exposition $10,000. in late October. "You have In collections and exhibits of approached On November 1 the finance committee addition, an here," he told Field, value were received as donations opportunity sent a circular to Exposition great "that has been vouchsafed to few in numbers. Edward E. very stockholders repeating an appeal made large Ayer on earth. From the of donated his extensive people point in the Chicago Evening Post of anthropological view of natural have the history you September 14 for the donation of collection of North American Indian of the educational host material. collections made privilege being Exposition stock to the fund for a Special by of the untold millions of who people museum. 1,100 stockholders came the Department of Mines, Mining and will follow us in the Mississippi Valley. forth to donate stock from which the Metallurgy of the Exposition were There is no museum of with the exhibition practically Museum ultimately realized $193,000. donated, together any kind within five hundred miles; and cases, and from the Agriculture, these children who are growing up in In honor of the man who had made Forestry and Manufactures Departments the region by hundreds of thousands the dream of a permanent natural of the Exposition, collections of haven't the remotest opportunity of history museum in Chicago possible, timbers, oils, gums, resins, fibers, fruits, learning about the ordinary things they the name was changed in 1894 to seeds, and grains were contributed and see and talk about and hear about Field Columbian Museum, finally, in so large a quantity and variety as to to Field every day of their lives. . . ." after several other changes, insure for the first time in any general in 1966. Museum of Natural History natural history museum the formation This time Field agreed to go through Permanent honor is thus given to the of an adequate department of botany. the Exposition with Ayer before saying Field family, which has been The Palace of Fine Arts no. On October 26, the day following extraordinarily generous to the Museum building (now the of Science and his visit to the Exposition, Field throughout the years, and particularly housing Museum announced he would donate one million to Stanley Field, a nephew of Marshall Industry) of the Exposition was obtained at the close of the dollars to start a museum. As a single Field, for more than fifty years Exposition BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Left, the original N. W. Harris Extension truck at ttie Museum's first home in Jacltson Parl(. Right, Harris Extension driver Gerald Hardison loads some travelling exhibits In the present-day truck. as a temporary repository and became and unique treasures of the Exposition institutions began about this time, and the first home of the Museum. that were to be permanently preserved has provided the bulk of the Library in Chicago. holdings. Today, the Library contains June of 1894, with the of By help 1 75,000 volumes, many of them rare experts from the Exposition staff and During that first year, the main lines of and priceless, all of them important to individuals with museum from training future activities were established. scientists, students, and researchers in other institutions, the installation of Curators were appointed to the various the field of natural history. exhibits in the Museum was sufficiently departments and as early as October advanced to permit the doors Plans for Museum publications were opening expeditions and field work to expand to the public. On the afternoon of inaugurated, the decision being to the collections, to fill in the gaps, were Saturday, June 2, 1894, between eight confine them to scientific and technical organized. A series of popular and ten thousand assembled as related to persons illustrated lectures was instituted on subjects, especially at the north steps of the institution in Museum exhibits and collections. The Saturday afternoons from December to Jackson Park to witness the first of the more than 1,100 issues of opening May. These lectures continue today as ceremonies. Fieldiana, as the series of the free Edward E. Ayer Lecture continuing scientific and in fall and papers monographs The Times of June 3 the Series, (October November) reported with and and each of dealing anthropology, botany, opening like this: spring (April May), geology, and zoology came to be which usually fills the James Simpson It was all like a memory of the fair. There named, appeared in 1895. Theatre to its of 1 ,000. were the hurrying expectant crowds of capacity there were the and the people, many flags A system of memberships was orators, there was the noble art palace itself, was as as The Library organized early instituted and were the most beautiful of the wonder houses of privileges with titles from the March 1894, 1,390 for to the white city and the only one untouched established members similar of Ethnology, and 350 by the wrecker, every object within its Department those existing today. During that first mazes a memento of the when the titles from the of Mines day Department year 723 members were enrolled, an world looked toward Jackson park. and of the Before Mining Exposition. encouraging indication that the the was out the Kunz collection So Chicago has what will be the greatest of year continued support of the citizens of all an institution of books on and museums, magnificently geology, gems Chicago could be counted on. Today endowed by the liberality of its own citizens, and the collection on metallurgy, Cory membership numbers over 21,000, a a permanent memorial of the glories of the ornithology (consisting of 587 volumes) summer of '93. figure which has doubled in the past were and the fine purchased, five years. On the day following the opening of ornithological library of Edward E. Ayer the Museum, some 16,000 people was added as a gift. The Museum's From the beginning it was desired to flocked to see the great collections exchange program with other extend the advantages of the Museum BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 A few members of tfie scientific staff today. Lett column, top to bottom, Mr. Hymen Marx (left), associate curator of reptiles and amphibians (witfi Marx is Stiedd Aquarium Director William Braker): Dr. James W. VanStone, chairman, Department of Anthropology: Dr. Phillip H. Lewis, curator of primitive art and Melanesian ethnology; Dr. John B. Kethley, assistant curator of insects. Center column, top, Dr. John Clark, associate curator of sedimentary petrology; bottom, Or. Edward Olsen, curator of mineralogy. Right column, top to bottom. Dr. Eugene Richardson, curator of fossil invertebrates; Dr. Louis O. Williams, chairman, Department of Botany; Mr. Henry Dybas, associate curator of insects; Dr. Emmet R. Blake, curator of birds. fame as a of one of to all school children by providing free the annual Members' Night. owes repository and valuable admission at all times and lectures by the most extensive of in world. Museum staff. In 1925, Mrs. James Long before meteorites became Oriental collections the was about the Nelson Raymond became interested in popular interest the Museum Dr. Laufer understood more the work for children in the Museum collecting and studying them. 1913 peoples of China and Tibet than and provided an endowment to saw the acquisition of the perhaps any other man of his time. develop and broaden the guide-lecture Ward-Coonley collection of meteorites, Under Laufer's leadership the program started in 1922. The then the largest private collection of department became distinguished for celestial bodies in existence. guide-lecture division of what was to these scholarship and research, and more become the Department of Education This, combined with other purchases, scientific papers were published was named in honor of her and her exchanges, and collections, and most during his nineteen years as head of husband, the James Nelson and Anna recently with the acquisition of over the department than ever before. An Louise Raymond Foundation for Public 75 percent of the Murchison Meteorite obituary article on Dr. Laufer in the School and Children's Lectures. The which fell in Australia in late 1969, October 1934 issue of this magazine collection one Raymond Foundation grew rapidly, make Field Museum's paid this tribute to a great man of adding staff and new programs until of the three most important meteorite science: in the United States. Dr. today the seven-member staff, aided collections From the vast depths of his esoteric by 27 volunteers, provides guided Edward Olsen, curator of mineralogy, knowledge he upset, with quaint narratives and facts from little-known sources, tours and classroom instruction in the who does research work on the gleaned many a set of smug notions of a too Museum to over 100,000 school meteorites, feels they may ultimately self-satisfied generation. To a world in us a clue to the of the children each year, offers children's give origin which knowledge of aviation generally dated solar and to the existence of little the workshops in the fall, an anthropology system further back than Wright brothers, of he showed that flying had been thought of course for high ability students in life in other parts space. and attempted for centuries in China, Persia, the summer, free children's movies, and elsewhere, and was able to write an In The of from the and many other programs. all, over Department Zoology entire volume on the subject. The idea of 400,000 school children now visit earliest years acquired zoological television, still awaiting perfection by modern rank he had the Museum in organized groups in research collections which now engineers, proved germinated the most and centuries ago in Oriental minds. each year. among important largest in the world. The Museum's collection The other division of the Department From 1918 to 1921, the efforts of the of birds, which numbers over 300,000, of Education, the N. W. Harris Public entire staff were devoted to packing will make possible the preparation for School Extension, dates from 1911 the collections and preparing them of the Manual of posterity Neotropical and when Norman Wait Harris gave the for transfer to the Museum's new Birds, a monumental work now being in Grant Park. The fund which made possible loan service permanent home written by the Museum's curator of to schools of exhibits. beautiful structure of white Georgian traveling Today Dr. Emmet Blake. When birds, the Erechtheum, a over 1 ,000 traveling exhibits are marble, inspired by completed, the Manual will provide for in which is circulated annually to over 600 temple Athens recognized the first time and under one cover, and as the finest of the Ionic order that has Chicago schools, hospitals, taxonomic information, descriptions, from ancient community centers through the Harris been preserved times, appropriate keys, and the distribution Extension. was built over a five-year period at a of more than 3,200 species and over cost of $7,136,866. The difference The early were a period of 8,500 races or subspecies of Central years between the total cost of the building and consolidation. and South American birds and will growth, organization, and Marshall Field's bequest of Acquisition of one important collection have great potential applied value in $4,000,000, plus its accretions during after the other occurred by expedition, the field of tropical medical research. the years from 1906 to 1920, amounted purchase, or contribution. In 1909 an to approximately $828,000. This sum important line of work in the The period 1896 to 1915, under the was made available by gifts. Department of Botany was inaugurated leadership of Dr. George Dorsey, who in the establishment of facilities for served as chief curator of the The present building opened on May flowers, and fruits in of was an modeling plants, Department Anthropology, 2, 1921. Three days before, Carl natural colors and form. of tremendous collection of permanent era Sandburg wrote in an article in the Frank who has been materials which cannot Boryca, making anthropological Da/7y News titled "World Wonders are It is to Dr. Berthold plant models since joining the staff in now be duplicated. in Field Museum": 1941, is well known for his expertise Laufer, who succeeded Dr. Dorsey in The navy recruiting slogan for young men is members of the Museum who flock 1915 and headed the until by department "See the World." An older admonition is, to see demonstrations of this craft on his death in 1934, that the Museum "See Rome and Die." But the one heard BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Dr. Robert F. Inger and Mrs. Inger record frog calls In the Congo In 1960. Dr. Inger was Curator of Reptiles In tlie Museum's Department of Zoology when this photo was taken. He Is now Chairman of Scientific Programs. most often in this country in recent years is, "See America first." Before starting, however, to see either the world or Rome or America first, a few good long trips around the Field Museum are worthwhile. The Museum has a number of specimens and articles rather difficult to find even in a trip around the world. Also there are a few bits of paraphernalia not to be found anywhere in the whatsoever rambles a tourist might choose to mai John R. Millar, former deputy director of Field Museum and former chief curator of botany and now retired and a volunteer in the care of the economic collections in the Department of Botany (he joined the Museum staff in 1918), gave this account of the 50 years in the present building (June 1971 Bulletin, "Forward and Backward Glances"): But almost as soon as the spacious building was occupied, things placed according to plan, and the Museum once more open to of Melanesian the and some will visitors, a new and vigorous growth began display Art; increasing rapidly, way lil BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 More About Field Museum, or Why We Need $25,000,000 Elizabeth Munger The objects that a museum collects, number of advanced students whose organizes, studies, explains, exhibits training and subsequent contributions to are of course largely objects from the knowledge Museum scientists as well past. Consequently some people may as Museum materials contributed to; thinl< that a museum sometimes listings like this could go on and on. harbors the attitudes as well as the There is no doubt that the expectations drama of the past. We do not, even of our founders and though sometimes we lool< backward supporters the have been far in order to understand our present through years surpassed, and that we have position as a culmination of the past. developed to be much more than a "memorial of the of the We do have seventy-eight years of glories summer of and much more than solid, impressive accomplishment '93," behind us at Field Museum. We can an "advantage and honor to the city." try to measure our success by any of But reflection on our past a number of countable as well as achievements is not cause for uncountable indexes; lil BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 with funds that then seemed ample to 1,000,000 in 1950 to approximately yield enough income for all time to 1,700,000 in 1970. come. This public-spirited generosity gave rise to a prevailing folklore that The pie-chart diagram for the v/e had limitless sources of wealth. corresponding years shows several But two kinds of change have things about our income resources to effectively frustrated projections from cover those expenses. Our endowment an earlier age. While inflation has been income in 1970 took care of only about seriously reducing the buying power of half the proportion of expense that it our endowment, at the same time the covered in 1950; some federal expenses to be supported by these research funds entered the picture; the funds have risen far beyond the increased attendance plus revised expectations of even so recent a time admission fees almost doubled the as twenty years ago. proportion derived from visitors and sales; and the proportionate support For instance, our total operating from contributions and memberships expenses for 1950 were a little under increased almost ninefold. In other $1,000,000 but by 1970 were over words, by 1970 we were actively $3,500,000, during which time our staff developing additional sources of increased by only 8 percent. Both income. inflation and increased activities are represented in those figures, but one But these figures do not show that at crude measure of the increased the same time we had to keep activities would be the increase in postponing basic maintenance, repairs, attendance at Field Museum for the and needed improvements to our corresponding years—from a little over building—the same kind of decision Contributions and Chicago Park District memberships tax levy Visitor admissions and sales Federal research grants Endowment income FIELD MUSEUM'S SOURCES OF INCOME 1950 VISITOR ADMISSIONS AND SALES CONTRIBUTIONS AND MEMBERSHIP CHICAGO PARK DISTRICT TAX LEVY ENDOWMENT INCOME FEDERAL RESEARCH GRANTS TOTAL INCOME manufacturer to determine the identity of a potentially useful drug plant. Next door, a curator may be analyzing organic debris tfiat fias been found contaminating food products. In the taxidermy laboratory, technicians are sculpting a model of a prehistoric fish for a new exhibit. In the Division of Insects a curator might be studying the relationship between the peculiar flies that parasitize bats and the distribution of species of bats. In the Division of Mammals a curator might be working on the association between coat development of mammals and climatic variation. Almost certainly in several divisions museum technicians would be assembling material from the collections for shipment to universities in distant corners of our country. Such material as likely as not would be used by graduate students working for their doctorates. Again, this could have been the day, recently, when the health authorities of Bolivia turned to us for aid. They were faced with an epidemic. The suspected carrier animal was rushed to us for identification. The curator's scientific knowledge enabled him to identify the carrier—a small rodent resembling our common field mouse. The museum's publication describing its habits, habitat and life cycle pointed the way to fast control of the epidemic. Then, again in words from The Belmont Report: "mucli more than meets the eye goes on in any large museum . . . Much that goes on rests upon research. It is the invisible function of a museum. It came rather late in the evolution of American museums; it is rarely appreciated by the general public and is usually overshadowed by more glamorous activities, but without it the museum's function of interpretation would wither away and a museum's collection would lose value and meaning." Dr. and Mrs. Karl Weineke of Boardman, Ohio and their children, from left, Karl, Jackie, and Mary Beth, were among the 1,700,000 people to visit the Museum in 1970. The also documents how report museums give him that opportunity." Foundation had long supported research "American museums are outstanding functions of science museums and in and service to of Tlie Belmont educational programs The immediate purpose some research facilities, but few funds our educational system," and it points Report was to demonstrate the need had been available for nonresearch out that "more to museums of America's museums for some people go activities. Art and history museums had because more than ever federal to to the today people help respond had no significant sources of support. before have discovered that the arts enormously increased public needs and sciences which museums exist to and demands that this expanded role One current and encouraging federal serve are both Important and exciting"; in our educational and cultural life response was the establishment by the that "the average American, given an implies—needs that greatly National Endowment for the Arts of a opportunity, apparently has a desire to overstretched their traditional sources pilot Museum Program for 1971. Through a little improve the quality of his life, and of support. The National Science the program 103 grants totaling BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 11 under $1 ,000,000 were made to various the members of the Illinois legislature, museums. This first step toward and Governor Ogilvie for this action federal sfiaring of responsibility to which will mean so much to Chicago. support museum activities was mainly for special exhibition, training, Our statement of capital requirements outreach, and acquisition programs. Of submitted to the Chicago Park District course neither these activities nor the and the General Assembly projected a amounts involved were designed to need of $25,000,000. Based on this reach to the core of our kind of projection, we may anticipate financial problem. The program was approximately $12,500,000 from public designed to help museums in their funds if we can match them with expanding and innovative efforts to another $12,500,000 of private gifts. reach even wider audiences than they The of $25,000,000 was do now, which museums wish to do, figure developed by long study by staff, and which public needs and wants professional consultants, and trustees. require. The action of the General Assembly and the Park District was based on the Meanwhile, however, our most pressing proposal submitted after our board's underlying financial problems remain. comprehensive study of the basic The simple fact is that while we have capital improvements needed to place been engrossed in exciting, expanding, Field Museum in a position to move and necessary work whose importance ahead in the 1970s. has evolved far beyond the of our founders, our expectations At the July meeting of our Board of facilities are more physical becoming Trustees, final organization of the and more and have even inadequate Museum's Capital Campaign for to beneath us and crumble begun sag $25,000,000 was completed. Official around us. We that earnestly hope announcement of the campaign was federal of the value of the recognition made September 20 by President services we perform will be expressed Remick McDowell. The General increased financial in the by support Chairman of the campaign is Nicholas but federal could be future, help only Galitzine, partner of Bacon, Whipple of the answer for us. Federal funds part Company and retired vice president of must be and often very broadly, thinly, Commonwealth Edison Company. The around the whole and we spread country, campaign Vice Chairman is Marshall must be considered one necessarily Field, publisher of the Chicago whatever our among many, Sun-Times and Chicago Daily News. international be. prestige may William H. Mitchell, honorary chairman of Mitchell Hutchins & Co., Inc. will be In early 1971 Field Museum and five Co-Chairman of Individual Gifts with other museums in the Park Chicago Marshall Field. Blaine J. Yarrington, District to the Park District proposed president of American Oil Company, Commissioners that be authority sought will serve as Chairman of Corporate from the Illinois General for Assembly Gifts and Philanthropic Foundations. the Park District to share in the cost ol capital improvements to the museums The component parts of our on a fifty-fifty basis. The Commissioners $25,000,000 program are candidly approved the proposal and legislation presented here to show how such a was enacted in June and signed by large sum of money is arrived at. They Governor Ogilvie on August 4 also demonstrate the range of our authorizing the Chicago Park District to deficiencies. We are certainly not proud issue $30,000,000 in bonds for museum of these deficiencies, but we are proud improvements. Deep appreciation is that until now we have been able to Preliminary schematic rendering of model due the Park District Commissioners accomplish so much in spite of them. and their president, Daniel Shannon, Some of these deficiencies are all too BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 apparent to even casual public many cases rotted out. More than 1 ,000 inspection. Others are experienced large windows need to be replaced. daily by our staff as the handicaps —Heating system, $300,000. The they have had to work under and coal-fired must around. Some of the most serious and present heating system be converted to a combination gas costly are those apparent only to and oil operation to reduce operating technical experts who have examined costs and minimize air pollution. our building with great care. But they are all urgent needs which must be —food services, $715,000. Our food taken care of If we are to fulfill our preparation and serving facilities are responsibilities to our local community primitive. Modern cafeteria facilities for and to the widespread scientific and about 600 persons plus a small dining educational communities that we have area for luncheon groups are planned. become a part of. More than 15,000 square feet of space are needed to provide adequate —Electrical system, $1 ,775,000. As is kitchen, storage, serving, and seating. generally true of 1920 vintage the electrical is buildings, system —Floor sinking, $800,000. The Museum and obsolete in both inadequate building sits immovable on its pilings and A new design capacity. completely but the ground floor floats on electrical system is required for fire uncompacted fill, having been poured and to to safety upgrade lighting about seven years after the building modern standards. Sufficient capacity was completed without being tied into for future needs and for air anticipated the basic structure. In places the floor the is included. conditioning building has settled from 5V'2 inches to 1 1 Vz inches, causing no end of problems to — and Security against fire, smoke, exhibits, partitions, sewers, and The Museum's burglary, $610,000. plumbing. Soil engineers predict that feet of floor area is 775,000 square 90 percent of the ground floor area without sprinkler protection, except for will settle no more than an additional a few areas. In high-hazard addition, V2 inch in the next twenty-five years. modern fire and burglary detection and The remaining 10 percent needs to be alarm for all areas of the systems tied into the building structure because Museum are needed. urgently of past and predicted future settling. —Plumbing, drainage, and toilet —Exterior stairs and entrances, systems, $1 ,050,000. Except for a few $525,000. The North and South exterior sections which have had to be stairs need complete rebuilding to replaced, the Museum's sanitary lines avoid costly maintenance and eventual and other plumbing are all more than collapse. Heating coils for snow fifty years old and need total removal are included. The current replacement. Additionally, the storm building code requires that the sewer system has been severely Museum's exit capacity be four times damaged because of the sinking greater. Engineers propose cutting new ground floor and will have to be exit door openings for each of the abandoned. An overhead collection eight stairways and widening the system at ground floor ceiling height present North and South exits. is contemplated. Four critically needed — lounge and toilet facilities located Visitor entrance facilities and Information and strategically throughout the building services, $550,000. must also be installed. admission areas and checking and bookshop facilities need substantial —Exterior windows, $900,000. Most of expansion and relocation to provide teria facilities and dining area. the fifty-year-old exterior window better public services and to increase sashes are seriously deteriorated and in the income they produce. BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 13 convenience to the public and will also help immeasurably in reducing first floor and ground floor congestion. Escalators will substantially increase the number of second floor visitors since the public must at present climb seventy-three steps from the ground to the second floor. Approximately $50,000 of the total is needed to replace the fifty-year-old elevator which serves our scientific staff located on the third and fourth floors. —Sound-deadening, $275,000. Acoustical treatment was relatively unknown or ignored at the time the Museum was erected. The noise level in certain popular exhibit areas is decidedly uncomfortable and hampers the educational program severely. The most popular and most noisy halls must be sound-treated. —Exterior walls, $750,000. The soft Georgia marble exterior of the Museum has been and continues to be seriously eroded by weather and air Group attendance of school children has increased 50 percent since 1965 to approximately 400.000 annually. pollution. Recently developed technology indicates that a permanent —Centralized administrative offices, Theatre entrance to a proposed nontarnishing protective coating can be offices are $550,000. The Museum's educational facility are also necessary. applied to arrest further deterioration. and in generally inadequate many The Museum is currently conducting cases isolated. A centralized office is —Scientific areas, $3,750,000. With a experiments with the newly developed from the National Science necessary to improve operations, grant product. communications, and supervision. Foundation in 1964, the Museum was able to provide expanded space and —Roof and sky ligfits, $200,000. —Educational facilities, $940,000. Use facilities for the collections and Extensive re-roofing and removal of of the Museum by school and other personnel of the Department of certain skylights will be required as a groups continues to rise. Group Geology. A filled-in lightw^ell added part of the Museum's rehabilitation attendance of school children has 250,000 cubic feet of space, all in and remodeling program. increased 50 percent since 1965 to close proximity to the department's —Ventilation and air approximately 400,000 annually. curators. Other grants and restricted conditioning, $3,740,000. The Museum's ventilation Moreover, increasing recognition of the funds made it possible to construct reflects the burden of excessive Museum as an important national storage facilities for the Invertebrate system wear and tear; it is more than twice resource has been accompanied by Division in 1971. Now the space needs the normal of such a marl BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Field Museum's Capital Campaign leadership discuss the Museum's $25,000,000 development program with Daniel J. Shannon, president, Board ol Commissioners, Chicago Park District. From left, Blaine J. 'Harrington, president, American Oil Company and chairman of corporate gilts; William H. Mitchell, honorary chairman of Mitchell Hutchlns & Company, Inc. and co-chairman of individual gifts: Marshall Field, put>lisher of the Chicago Sun-Times and Chicago Dally News and vice chairman of the capital fund drive and co-chairman of individual gifts: Nicholas Galltzine, partner In Bacon, Whipple and Company and general chairman of the campaign: and Daniel J. Shannon. In announcing the Capital Campaign, Chairman Nicholas Galitzine reported $3,190,000 in advance gifts, primarily from some of the Field Museum trustees. needed. The Museum contemplates a quality of the public exhibits. This It will be seen from the foregoing that unified air conditioning system capable would Involve substantial alterations of Field Museum's plans are in the truest of fiandling a total cooling load of structure and integral elements of sense conservation—aimed at approximately 3,000 tons. exhibits. protecting the treasures In our care and at creating an institution that can —James Theatre, $1,185,000. —Terrace walls, $800,000. Due to Simpson serve its constituency through the 1970s seat theatre and settling of the land fill, substantial The 1,125 supporting and into the next decade, it Is not a toilet and facilities are all portions of the terrace walls need checking program of major expansion and it is construction. IVluch broader resetting and replacement. original not a frozen blueprint for several use of this facility by science-oriented decades. We feel that one of the —Exterior lighting, $95,000. To prime and other would be obtained groups enhance the aesthetic value of the responsibilities of any service institution if a modern functional could be facility classical structure of the Museum, the in this period of rapid change Is to provided. A completely renovated illumination level of the North and preserve flexibility. This dictates a 1,000 seat threatre with new seating, constant assessment of institutional South porticos should be Increased lighting, and acoustical treatment function based on and the exterior lighting of the entire contemporary together with modern lounge, toilet, and national needs. The building upgraded. community and checking facilities is contemplated. program we are embarking on is our the —Tuckpointing, $150,000. Although pledge to the 1970s. Nothing less will —Lecture Hall, $125,000. The Lecture has been building tuckpolnted fulfill our responsibility to those who Hall can be converted Into an excellent over the and as Intermittently years have built a great museum in the past modern of its facility approximately recently as 1970 $39,000 was nor to those we seek to serve in the of 241 The present capacity persons. expended, we urgently need to future. Museum has a great deal of use for a complete this work. hall of medium capacity. Here then is quite a different aspect of —Architectural alterations and Field Museum's history. It's the equipment for exhibits, $5,000,000. To practical aspect that bears most Elizabeth Munger is associate editor of the maintain and enhance the Museum's directly on what our future can be. If Field Museum Bulletin. position as one of the world's largest these critical financial needs are not natural history museums, substantial met we won't Immediately close our modernization programs should be doors. Deterioration has much more Initiated to Incorporate recent marked subtle consequences than that, but advances to strengthen materially the they accelerate as time goes on. BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 IS NOTES FROM UNDERGROUND HARRY G. NELSON There are several things that almost partner. The egg cocoon produced by everyone knows about earthworms: each worm a few hours or days after mating is composed of a similar dense 1. They are slippery slimy creatures. mucus. 2. They make admirable fish-bait and can be collected at night after the As for mucus in general, apart from ground has been wet. worms, virtually all groups of the animal kingdom, excepting only the 3. They lack eyes but respond to light. Arthropoda, produce mucus on at least 4. They live in the soil, burrowing in it some parts of the outer surface and by eating their way along. along such inner passages as the 5. They are hermaphroditic, combining digestive tract and certain respiratory both male and female parts in the and reproductive passages. same animal. 2. Probably it's their easy availability Some of the above statements are true, and large size that have made but some are misleading or omit even earthworms the favorite bait among more interesting features of the anglers, at least those who fish in animals. Let's examine them. inland waters. Worms do not normally drown in cool water, intact earthworms 1. Under normal circumstances the being known to live for more than a outer surface of an earthworm is cool, produced in large amounts and seems year while totally submerged, but they moist, and covered with a thin coat of to account for as much as 50 percent obligingly come to the soil surface mucus. It is cool because it is moist; of the nitrogen excreted from the body during rains, especially when the that of the moisture each the of the is, evaporation day. (That is, proteins weather is warm. As the rain tends to helps to keep the animal's temperature mucus, lost to the body as it is worn saturate the ground and fill all air low. Like "cold-blooded" away, contain nitrogen that is many thereby pockets, the worms move up. They are animals, earthworms can be given off.) injured by responding partly to the decreased even brief exposure to temperatures as The mucus has several other important oxygen supply and increased carbon find high as those most mammals soil functions for the worm. It minimizes dioxide supply caused by many comfortable. The mucus coat is friction damage as the animal pushes microorganisms enormously increasing responsible, in part, for the moisture, their metabolic when water its way through the soil. Its lubricating activity for it holds or water, swelling abundant in soil. life effect also undoubtedly aids in the becomes the The contracting as the amount of water of emergency when a robin catches part activities these bacteria, fungi, increases or diminishes. As water is of a worm in its beak. Also, as the protozoans, algae, rotifers, etc. rapidly the mucus becomes and lost, sticky mucus wears away and accumulates use up the oxygen not already shrinks to small then stiff, and finally a the water and in the along the walls of burrows, it holds displaced by fraction of its former volume. soil particles in place to keep the walls process release large amounts of from collapsing. This kind of carbon dioxide. Further, the liquid Because the mucus tends to hold water "engineering" would not work in sandy nature of the soil at this time greatly next to the body surface, it also plays soils, and, in fact, earthworms are slows the movement of all gas an in the important part respiratory with the action of rarely found in soils that are particles compared of very exchange atmospheric gases air the soil. sandy. Of course, there is also the fact diffusion when permeates (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and even that sandy soils have poorer ammonia) through the worm's body There is another interesting aspect of water-holding capacity than worms surface. If the body surface becomes this business of fishbait, and it has to require. dry, passage of these gaseous do with the geography of earthworms. materials is greatly slowed. The A special thickened layer of gland We do not understand why, but it chemical composition of the mucus cells, called the clitellum, produces a appears that the earthworms of itself is not well understood. It heavy dense mucus that plays a vital northern Europe have been amazingly apparently contains proteins and some role in sexual reproduction in these able to invade other continents, kind of carbohydrate material, the organisms which are imperfectly establish colonies, and drive the native combination being secreted by certain adjusted to a terrestrial existence. The species out of the ground, as it were. cells of the epidermis, the outermost mucus partially covers the two worms There is no doubt that the European single layer of living cells beneath the during mating, minimizing damage to worms have been carried about by nonliving cuticle. The mucus may be the sperms being transferred to the man in connection with one or another 16 BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 of his enterprises. Many were transported in the soil accompanying cultivated plants; in fact, comnnercial greenhouses have unwittingly been staging areas aiding the invasion of temperate areas. And enormous numbers of soil-inhabiting organisms have been carried in the soil used as ballast in ships that carried lumber from the forests of eastern United States and Canada to Northern Europe. Since the ships could not safely come back empty, their holds were ballasted with bags of soil and rock. The dirt was emptied into New England harbors or the St. Lawrence River, and later on shore (under direction of harbormasters charged with the responsibility for maintaining navigable conditions for shipping). In this way hundreds of species of soil insects, other arthropods, annelid worms, and various micro-organisms crossed from Typical mating position of L. lerrestrls. As the two worms lock tightly together by means of modified bristles the Old to the New World as well as with barbed hooks that each one thrusts Into Its partner's body, the glandular ciltellum of each produces copious mucus which encloses the partners. This and on 16 of COM: General to other continents. photo photo page courtesy Biological, Inc. In most cities of eastern North The favorite "angle" worm is during the lowered temperature and America; in such South American Lumbricus terrestris, the big night higher relative humidity of the dark cities as Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, crawler, or "dew-worm." This species, hours. And also, loss of water from its Buenos Aires, Santiago; in most large perhaps the most studied member of body surface will be minimized. The cities of Australia and New Zealand, the phylum Annelida, is a typical adult Lumbricus loses an estimated the only species of earthworms to be member of the European peregrine 60 percent of its total weight as water found are species introduced from (i.e., traveler) group of species. It has each day under average circumstances. Northern Europe! In the Chicago area been brought by fishermen to parts of In dry periods earthworms retreat to even the forest preserves in the farther the world not only where it was lower levels in the soil, in some cases reaches of Cook County contain these previously absent but where no to ten feet below the surface. They introduced species. It may be earthworms previously existed. For may finally retreat to a small chamber observed that city parks and domestic better or worse, this species of angle and become twisted into a close knot gardens are areas that in one way or worm is now available "naturally" in surrounded by a film of drying mucus. another are maintained in an unnatural the highest remote areas of the Rocky This condition may persist for several condition—unnatural, that is, compared Mountains, in most of the National weeks until increased moisture with original forest or prairie soil. It is Parks, and on every continent. Its large becomes available. In certain species probable that this maintained or size and rapid rate of reproduction a true estivation, or diapause, sets in. managed state somehow gives an have undoubtedly aided in its dispersal. Once asleep, the animals cannot be advantage to the foreign earthworms. roused by any change in temperature In North America north of f\/lexico, of a Although some individual worms may or moisture conditions. The dormant total of sixty species of earthworms be out and active on cloudy days, state lasts about two months and has recorded in 1966, 37 (61 percent) various factors make earthworms been supposed to be controlled by a were introduced from Europe. active primarily at night. They are less hormonal mechanism. Interestingly, the only species of vulnerable to such predators as robins earthworms now found in those and woodcocks (few other birds feed 3. Although other classes (Polychaeta portions of Europe from which the regularly on earthworms). The simple and Hirudinea) of the phylum Annelida glaciers retreated 12,000-15,000 years exchange of respiratory gases through possess eyes, often of considerable ago are the same species that have a worm's body surface will be more complexity, earthworms do not. been able to migrate around the world. likely to meet its internal requirements However, all species studied do have fiULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 17 at greater depths, or in heavy clay or earth thick with plant roots, the earthworm's only means of burrowing is to eat its way along. Secretions from glands of the front end of the digestive tract soften the earth and make swallowing easier. Killing two birds with one stone, as it were, the normal collection of digestive enzymes is secreted into this soil that more or less fills the digestive cavity. Whatever was swallowed that can be digested by these enzymes is fragmented chemically and absorbed, mostly from the intestine, which takes up three-fourths or more of the posterior part of the body. It is evident, however, that in many species (such as L terrestris) the amount of food a worm takes in during burrowing activity is only a small fraction of what it consumes during nightly foraging at the surface, while keeping its posterior end in the burrow. Study of the Giant earthworm from Ecuador, Small worm, from Pennsylvania soil, is eight inches long. Photo by Dr. microscopic contents of the digestive Buchsbaum. Ralph tract of earthworms discloses various soil smaller single cells scattered In the dorsal sensitive to it, as is all other algae, fungi, rotifers, epidermis, particularly near the anterior protoplasm. When heavy rains saturate earthworms, nematodes, many Insect end, which are like minute eyes. the ground and earthworms come to larvae, protozoans, and so on. Groups of similar cells are found in the surface during the daytime, even When an earthworm is to the nerve cord as well as certain if the sun is not shining brightly they ready anterior nerves. An internal lens-like are exposed to much more ultraviolet eliminate its load of diggings, it backs an tunnel to the body in each cell appears to light than at night. It is a common up through existing surface of the or into an concentrate light rays upon a nerve experience after a heavy daytime rain ground abandoned burrow and fiber. Blue light produces the maximum to find many dead and dying worms empties as much as one-third the response from worms, while red light on the ground. They came up in a perhaps intestine of its semifluid contents. appears hardly to be detected, except time of stress for a "breath of fresh These contain of as it may have a warming effect. A air" and were fatally injured by the "castings" particles soil whose size is less than worm's response to strong light is to ultraviolet light from the sun. Sixty average soil and whose bacterial suddenly withdraw into its burrow. On seconds of full sunlight is enough to uningested count is increased about one-third. the other hand, earthworms are fatally injure an earthworm. by There is some evidence that such positively attracted to weak intensities 4. In the loose of soil, natural manure be beneficial to of light. Thus, the worms are kept in upper layers may near bodies of if their burrows by their innate responses particularly water, plant growth even the earthworms earthworms are able to their themselves are the to daylight, when, in fact, it would be push way absent, although dangerous for them to be active. between soil particles by means of active presence of earthworms is even coordinated contractions of the circular In cases the Correspondingly, they are attracted out more helpful. some crops and muscles of the in at night when conditions are less longitudinal body grown experimental greenhouse inimical to their survival. wall. The fluid contained in their plots were 200 percent greater when coelomic body cavities hydraulically earthworms were present than when But their light-sensitive mechanisms extends the several anterior body they were excluded. Their numerous sometimes betray them. Worms do not segments, which become progressively channels (as many as 280 were appear to be able to detect ultraviolet more slender toward the front tip. counted in a square meter of soil at a light in the usual sense, but they are However, in more densely packed soil depth of fourteen inches) aids aeration 18 BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 of the soil, penetration of rain water, Parthenogenesis is another modification growth of aerobic bacteria and other of the usual cross-fertilizing method— organisms, decay of organic material, meaning that offspring develop from and the movement of many other small the unfertilized eggs of a single parent. animals. Some earthworm burrows Parthenogenesis has been increasingly found at depths of several feet in clay reported in earthworms during the last soils have undoubtedly existed for twenty years and may be more many years. common than is yet realized. The details vary somewhat, but the general Earthworms can bring an amazing situation is that normal sperm are amount of soil to the surface from simply not produced, yet eggs are laid lower layers. (Charles Darwin which develop into embryos and finally published the first serious study of this young worms. Chromosome analysis matter in his book The Formation ot demonstrates that parthenogenesis has Vegetable Mould, by the Action ot occurred and distinguishes this kind of Worms, in 1881. Up to 700 lumbricid reproduction from self-impregnation. worms have been reported under the surface of one meter of square At least some of these cases suggest meadow soil. It has calculated been evolutionary changes in process—that that to 17.5 lbs. of soil up per year are is, some of these are Earthworm castings can build up to considerable species carried to the surface of at the every square heights soil surface. becoming parthenogenetic at the meter in a field large from depths as present time. much as several feet. Objects at the 5. Although all earthworms are surface have been estimated to sink hermaphroditic, the usual method of There are other peculiar aspects of at rates of 3-5 mm. per year. Buildings reproduction is by cross-insemination. earthworms. For example, to continue as as in list big Roman dwellings Britain Each of the partners during the mating the we started with: and Indian houses in Central America process receives several thousand 6. They possess five pairs of hearts. have disappeared into the earth largely spermatozoa from the other. After due to the action of earthworms. mating, which commonly takes a few 7. They lack hard skeletal structures, hours, the animals separate and return their cuticle being thin and Different species of earthworms live at to their respective burrows. A few nonsupporting. different depths in the soil, some never cocoons (7 mm. x 5 mm. in L terrestris) 8. They can regenerate missing parts. reaching the surface. Such are formed later and are deposited in "preferences" may be related to the soil or among leaf debris, where in 9. Their size ranges from % inch long moisture or soil type, although smaller warm, moist climates they hatch in a to 8 feet, though the largest American species are usually confined to the few weeks. The young L. terrestris species (in the South) is only S'/a upper few inches because their worm is about 10 mm. In this long. feet. particular food is found only there. species usually only one worm emerges from each cocoon, but mating 10. They perform useful functions in Earthworms cultivate their soil is more or less continuous in spring compost piles and hence in organic environment in another way too. Every and fall, cocoons being deposited gardening. gardener has noted tufts of twisted every three or four days. But there is a in more leaves and twigs, sometimes a dozen danger telling about earthworms than a lot of or more, protruding from the ground, A very few cases of self-impregnation people want to know in one So the particularly on mornings after cool have been reported in earthworms. sitting. rest can wait for another time. nights. During the night the worms' That is, worms isolated from all others searching mouths have pulled these from the time of hatching or before bits of organic material that is their have been found to produce fertilized major source of food into their burrows eggs. There is a possibility that viable to eat. In the process numerous seeds sperms from another worm persisted are effectively planted and may take in the environment in any of a number root. Narrow leaves, such as willow or of ways, so perhaps the conclusion Harry G. Nelson is associate, Division ot be well into the that occurred is not grass, may pulled self-impregnation Insects, Field Museum, and protessor and a to a of warranted from this evidence. burrow, making lining depth strictly chairman. Department of Biology, Roosevelt several inches. But it is at least plausible. University. BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 19 migrations melvin a. traylor This is the time of year when even the most case-hardened city dweller becomes aware that something is moving besides the cars on the expressways. In late August he realized without thinking of it that there were great flocks of martins roosting nights on the Bahai Temple and Aquarium; in September the calls of high-flying nighthawks drew his attention skyward, but in October the insistant honking of the geese as their lines and "V's" move southward over the city itself makes him realize that summer is indeed ended and the birds are on their southward migration. With his awareness thus heightened, he recognizes from the gentle rain of warblers and thrushes around "Big where are the more but death desiccation for John" and the other tall buildings that they among nothing by birds that land there. It has been this movement involves most birds, conspicuous birds of the southern summer. like to think of these last determined that of the both big and small. We many European two as our typical native birds, but the song birds must make a minimum Although the migrations of larger birds, four months they spend with us are no non-stop flight of 1200 miles, no small particularly the enormous flights of more than the time that they spend in feat for a bird weighing an ounce or waterfowl, were understood by the South America. As one goes further two. They are able to accomplish this ancients, the ability of sparrow or north, this discrepancy between time by laying up fuel in the form of a warbler-sized birds to travel thousands spent on breeding and wintering heavy layer of fat just before they start of miles a year was not accepted until grounds becomes even greater. The their flight. When they take off, up to 30 the last century. They were generally shorebirds that breed on the arctic percent to 40 percent of their weight * believed to hibernate in hollow trees or tundra have barely two months in which may be fat, most of which will be in the mud of ponds, or else to to rear their young, and individuals expended by the time they reach hitchhike their way south on the backs that we saw migrating north in May subsaharan Africa. The most of eagles or hawks. It is only through will be back with us on their remarkable long-distance migrant of all collecting in tropical countries during southbound voyage in late July. is the Arctic Tern. After breeding in the northern winter, and by tracing the northern Canada, it crosses the north movements of individual birds through The routes followed by these long- Atlantic, goes south along the west the use of numbered bands, that an distance migrants are not a simple coast of Europe and Africa, winters in accurate knowledge of the migration of south in autumn and north in spring. antarctic waters, and returns north each species has been determined. A glance at the map will show that the along the coasts of the Americas, a whole of South America lies east of 25,000 mile round trip every year. The more one learns about migration, New York, and our birds that winter the more one is impressed by the there must make a southeasterly flight. Most people who have had birds amazing diversity of migratory patterns, Some may accomplish this by following nesting around their homes have and by the enormous distances that the arc of Central America, but the wondered whether the same birds some birds travel. Some species, such majority make it by flying directly return each year or new ones arrive as our familiar Song Sparrow and Blue across the Gulf of Mexico or the opportunistically. The general rule (no Jay, move only as far as the severe Caribbean, even though this involves rule of behavior can be written that weather forces them, and hardy a non-stop flight of several hundred will fit all species) is that the same individuals may even remain here miles. The flights of European song bird or pair of birds will return year during the winter. At the other extreme, birds to Africa are even more after year to the spot where they the Barn Swallows and Bobolinks will remarkable. Not only must they cross nested previously. This was leave here in late August, when the the Mediterranean, but immediately demonstrated many years ago with weather is still fine and food abundant, thereafter they are faced with 1000 Purple Martins and later with many • and travel 6000 miles to Argentina, miles of Sahara Desert, which offers other species. But what has only I 20 BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Migrations of the Bobolink. After malting an enormous flight across the Americas, the Boboiinlt winters in eastern Bolivia, southern Brazil and northern Argentina. recently been appreciated is that each miles without any experienced birds to bird will have its own restricted guide them. One would expect that the wintering ground to which it returns evolution of such intricate behavior year after year, even though the latter would take countless thousands of has none of the strong breeding years, but those of our more northern associations characteristic of the migrants must have evolved within the northern home. Dr. Jocelyn van Tyne last 10,000 years, because before that first demonstrated this in 1934 by their breeding grounds were covered banding Indigo Buntings in Guatemala with ice. A suggestion of how present one winter and finding the same migratory routes developed may be individuals returning the following year. found in the migrations of species that Since his pioneering efforts others are at present rapidly extending their have demonstrated the same for many ranges. The Asiatic Arctic Warbler and species both in Africa and tropical Yellow Wagtail have crossed over and America. Even more remarkable than now nest regularly in Alaska, and our this ability to find the same garden or that some species orient by the stars Gray-cheeked Thrush now nests in field after a of several trip thousand and others by the sun, and in both eastern Siberia, but in each case the miles is the proven ability to follow the cases they have an inner clock that birds cross back over the Bering Sea identical route along the way. Banders allows them to compensate for the to return to their old wintering grounds, birds are trapping during migration rotation of the earth. Bird navigation is instead of going south to the much that the same birds finding pass too large and uncertain a subject to be nearer tropical areas of their new autumn after autumn or through, spring treated fully in an article on migration, continents. Apparently the birds are after One bander in spring. Tunis on but my own feeling is that birds will conservative in their habits, and new the north coast of Africa captured the use all the means mentioned above, as routes are built up by adding small same Redstart each spring for three well as others not demonstrated, such increments to the old ones. For years. the Redstart this meant as the magnetic field of the earth. crossing a thousand miles of I have confined my discussion to bird for that is featureless desert and finding the same The altitude at which birds fly is migration, my own field of small garden in which it rested a few another aspect of migration for which knowledge, but migration is not days the previous year before leaving many details are known, but for which confined to any one group of animals. of for its nesting home in Europe. It would no general rules may be laid down. Butterflies, which the best known is be like stopping at the same gas Radar studies show that small our Monarch, may travel a thousand station on the way from Chicago to songbirds may fly at any level up to miles, and the former seasonal New York, but without any roads to 5000 feet above the ground, and the movement of the Buffalo on the plains guide us. shore birds and waders up to 10,000 was one of the most awesome sights feet. Generally the migrants are higher of nature. Salmon are notorious for One can hardly study migration without on clear nights than on cloudy ones, their breeding runs, and already the wondering how the birds find their and it is the low-flying birds on the Coho in Lake tvlichigan have developed way. It was believed that originally cloudy nights that are confused by the a predictable pattern that allows the they piloted by following natural to lighted buildings of the city and fly fisherman meet them on their way features such as shorelines and major into them. These dead and injured up the lake in summer. Even though rivers, and these were frequently birds are usually the city dweller's only we cannot fully understand how There is no designated major flyways. clue to small-bird migration. The migration takes place, we can be question that birds do take advantage absolute height records are probably enthralled by the beauty and intricacy of these landmarks, and there are often held by migrants crossing the of the patterns nature develops. concentrations of in favorable migrants Himalayas, where even the passes are but too areas, much accurate at 20,000 feet. navigation takes place in the absence SUGGESTED READING of natural features for this to be the Whatever the means of navigation, the Jean Dorst. The Migrations of Birds. New York: Mifflin 1962. only means. The Bristle-thighed Curlew particular pattern of migration is Houghton Co., crosses a minimum of 2000 miles of genetically determined for each Robert T. Orr. Animals in Migration. New York: Macmillan 1970. open ocean from Hawaii to its only species. Among many of the shorebirds Company, nesting place in western Alaska, and it the adults leave as soon as the young must without can fend for obviously navigate themselves, and the Melvin A. Traylor is associate curator ot landmarks. Experiments have shown latter make migrations of thousands of birds, Field Museum. BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 » before credit cards elizabeth munger When the inhabitants of one country became more dependent on those of another, and they imported what they needed, and exported what they had too much of, money necessarily came into use. For the various necessaries of life are not easily carried about, and hence men agreed to employ in their dealings with each other something which was intrinsically useful and easily applicable to the purposes of life, for example, Iron, silver, and the like. Of this the value was at first measured simply by size and weight, but in process of time they put a stamp upon it, to save the trouble of weighing and to mark the value.—Aristotle, Politics, Bk. l:Ch. 9, 33-41, trans, by Benjamin Jowett. Several especially Important ancient Technologically it was really just a step Greek silver coins and two Roman forward to make small equivalent units, medallions, part of a collection recently coins, of the precious metal bars or donated to Field Museum by Jon ingots that were previously used in Holtzman, of Madison, Wisconsin and trade exchange—no doubt sometimes Paul Holtzman, of Las Vegas, Nevada, stamped with their claimed weights, are on display in the South Lounge and perhaps even a mark identifying through November 7. Three different their origin. styles of coin from the 6th century B.C. The stater was an basic represent the earliest period in the early weight denomination. It's an history of coinage, the Archaic period oversimplification of variations of but we of Greek art. One beautiful specimen many standards, could think of shekels from the 4th century B.C. exemplifies 3,000 (staters) = 60 Minae = 1 and 1 stater the Finest Art period. Talent, as equal to 2 drachms. Hence the Western world coinage is believed to tetradrachm pieces shown here were have been invented about 640 B.C. in equal to two staters. Electrum the Asia Minor Kingdom of Lydia. consisted of about 73 percent gold and That's what Herodotus said, and most 27 percent silver and was valued at modern scholars are disposed to agree 10:1 in relation to silver. The same with him. The beginning of coinage in weight standard was thus easily usable China about the same time was for both metals, so that one electrum probably an independent invention, in stater or tetradrachm would equal ten the West the first metal used was a silver staters or tetradrachms. Gold naturally occurring mixture of gold and was more complicated because it had silver called electrum, which came a 13.1:1 relationship to silver. from the river beds in Lydia. But silver then became most commonly used, The first coins were merely equivalent of metal and only occasionally gold. weights lumps hammered more or less flat between two unengraved die punches. This technique, which accounts for their irregularities, remained the standard method for at least 1 ,500 years. But artistic treatment emerged very early in the form of an engraved image (called type) on the lower die, which Among ancient Greek coins now on display in or of the South Lounge are these illustrated. Page 22, top to produced the obverse face bottom: stater of Aegina, struck 550-480 B.C.. coins. The reverse side had only an obverse and reverse, and tetradrachm of Athens, struck 540-500 B.C., obverse and reverse. Page 23, incuse, a rough indentation from the to bottom: tetradrachm of struck top Acanthus, punch. 525-500 B.C., obverse and reverse, and tetradrachm of Clazomenae. struck 387-301 B.C.. obverse and revarse. In the beginning the types were animals, which probably had sacred significance as well as special local import for the town issuing the coins. Only later was the image of a divinity especially important to the town used. 22 BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Its purpose was not only to Identify night, the originals of which lived in the origin of thie coin but also to the hills around the city. Next to the impress the users that an owl the first three letters of the city's unimpeachable witness vouched for its name can be faintly distinguished. full weight and purity. In fact, a vestige These emblems persisted in Athenian of the tradition is still with us, for our coinage down to the time of Augustus, own coins assert "In God We Trust." though the style of representation These silent invocations did not changed. The Athenian "owls" identify the value of the coins, challenged and replaced the Aeginetan whatever Aristotle meant (the "turtles" as the pre-eminent translation is a little ambiguous). They international currency. "marked" the value of coins only in A lion a bull was the the sense of an intended guarantee of downing— — full value. constant and appropriate emblem of the city of Acanthus in Macedonia, for to Herodotus this area had But neither forgeries nor debasement according lions and wild bulls. Even were prevented by such devices. Some many camels in Xerxes' forces of the specimens on display show how expeditionary wary ancient bankers made their against the Greeks were attacked by test cuts to be sure the coins were lions in this district. The reverse side of the shown here has the pure through and through. In fact, example that this there is evidence that in Roman times quartered-square incuse city's debasement was sometimes so coins retained until late in the 5th institutionalized that mintmasters had to century B.C. earn their pay by producing a certain The tetradrachm of Clazomenae with proportion of coins that were merely its high-relief three-quarter-view head silver-plated over a copper core. of Apollo on the obverse and swan on the reverse The first European Greek city-state to spread-winged side is a choice of the establish coinage was Aegina, in the example high artistic level Greek coins reached late 7th century B.C. The early the 4th B.C. The die example shown here has the during century his smooth-backed sea turtle emblem, an engraver, Theodotos, signed work, it is not on this animal sacred to Aphrodite, whose though legible Of the temple overlooked the harbor of Aegina. specimen. only twenty of this coin known to One of her most important specimens exist, two are in the British and responsibilities was to function as Ivluseum, now one in Field IVIuseum. goddess of trade. Aegina's coins became the internationally accepted currency of trade throughout the Peloponnese until Athens took possession of the island during the Peloponnesian War. Elizabeth lounger is associate editor ol the Athens' coinage, established about Field Museum Bulletin. 575 B.C., was the first to use a type on both sides and also the first to use a human head to identify a god. The "almond" eye of Athenia in profile on the obverse side of the specimen shown here is a mark of the Archaic period. The owl on the reverse side was as much the emblem of the city as was their patron goddess; it represented the Athenian god of the BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 23 AAA Short Courses Young Visitor The first in a series of short courses for college teachers on a broad range of subjects will be presented at Field Museum on October 28 and 29, sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The opening courses are Thermodynamics and Biology and Human Affairs. Other courses will be offered in two-day sessions in November and December. Supported by the National Science Foundation, the program is open to college teachers in the natural and social sciences, mathematics, and engineering from two or four year degree-granting institutions. It is offered at twelve field centers throughout the The courses consist of an Brenton Reported Missing country. initial session of two of intensive days Nine-year-old Kevin Dye, who managed to survive who soloed the Atlantic Francis Brenton, lectures and discussions, followed by during the 11 days he was lost in the Wyoming three twice in canoes, has not wilderness, came to Field Museum recently to see times, dugout approximately three months for individual the animals and birds in the collections. He is been heard from since leaving on his latest study, and a final two-day session in shown with his parents, Mr. and Mrs. Phillip Dye of The sailed from as visited Malvina Hoffman's venture. writer-photographer February and March, 1972. Casper, Wyoming, they of the Vedda Man from Kevin Portsmouth, Virginia on March 22 bound for sculpture Ceylon. was in Chicago for a week of testing by medical His craft was a For further information contact the Museum's Portsmouth, England. specialists. catamaran, the Sarape, made of two Department of Education. decked-over dugout canoes. The U.S. Coast Guard has called off the alert for him de la Torre Appointed Head of $25,000,000 Capital Campaign because of the time that has elapsed. Mammals Field Museum has launched a three-year Dr. Luis de la Torre has been appointed capital campaign to fund a $25-million major Brenton returned from South America early curator and head of the Division of improvement program. These funds are this year with more than 100 artifacts Mammals in the Museum's Department of needed to maintain and modernize the collected for the Museum while exploring Zoology. Prior to this appointment he was Museum's fifty-year-old building, revise and the jungles along the Amazon and Orinoco professor in the Department of Oral renovate exhibit areas, install new and Rivers. Anatomy at the University of Illinois Medical relevant exhibits, and improve visitor service Center, but he has also been associated and educational facilities. The full story of In 1967, after a 107-day voyage that had with our Division of Mammals for twenty the capital campaign is told in "More About begun at Trepassey, Newfoundland, he was years. Dr. de la Torre's research has Field Museum, or Why We Need unwillingly rescued by a Russian ship, just covered such diverse areas as chromosome $25,000,000" beginning on page 9 of this 30 miles from his destination, the African and DNA and issue of the Bulletin. coast. analysis descriptive taxonomy. Resourceful Brenton has made it successfully through many difficult situations in the past. When necessary, he existed on a diet of barnacles and seaweed during long voyages. He is an excellent sailor. We hope that we have news that he is safe and well soon. Jade Ball November 5 Backyard Safari Field Museum, the Chicago Board of Education, and WBBM-TV are cooperatively producing a 39-week series of natural history television programs for young Chicago viewers. "Backyard Safari" can be seen each Sunday, 8:00 - 8;30 a.m. on Channel 2. The programs focus on the natural history of the Chicago area and encourage viewers to enjoy studying natural history "in their own backyard." Field Museum's Women's Board members are busy planning a gala Jade Ball on November 5 to Inaugurate the soon-to-open "John L. and Helen Kellogg Hall." host is Dr. Leonard Reiffel, CBS Program housing the Museum's famous collection of Chinese iades. Mrs. Edward F. Swift, science consultant. Appearing on the show vice-chairman of the decorations committee, and Mrs. Thomas E. Donnelley II, chairman of the Jade Ball committee, unpack some of the beautiful Chinese lanterns each week with Dr. Reiffel are a special lust received from Singapore and Hong Kong that will be part of the exciting —often a Field scientist—and guest Museum setting for the event. Tickets are $50 per person and reservations may be made two science students from Chicago schools. by phoning or writing the Women's Board. 24 BULLETIN OCTOBER 1971 Tn»t*«t ot Field Museum Harry 0. Bercher John T. PIrle, Jr. 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturday and through Thursday, Bowen Blair John S Runnells 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday. William McCormick Blair William L. Seatie William R. Dickinson, Jr. John M. Simpson The Museum Library Is open 9 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Thomas E. II Edward Byron Smith Monday through Friday. Please obtain pass at Donnelley Marshall Field Mrs. Edward Smith reception desk, main floor north. Byron Nicholas Galltzine Mrs. Hermon Dunlap Smith Paul W. Goodrich John W. Sullivan Remick McDowell William G. Swartchlld, Jr. Hugo J. Melvoin E. Leiand Webber J. Roscoe Miller Julian B. Wilkins CALENDAR William H. Mitchell J. Howard Wood Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Blaine J. Yarrlngton Harry M. Oliver. Jr. Life Trustee* Children's Joseph N. Field Hughston M. McBaIn Programs Clifford C. Gregg James L. Palmer Samuel Insull, Jr. John G. Searle Continuing William V. Kahler Louis Ware "Between the Tides," Fall Journey for Children, takes them hunting for exotic and November 6: "As an Artist Sees Exhibits beautiful sea creatures in the Museum Spain," exhibit areas. All youngsters who can read narrated by Franklyn Carney. A film journey to the Prado Museum, El Greco's Toledo, Continuing and write are welcome to join in the activity. Journey sheets are available at Museum and colorful cities and gardens. Color in Nature, an exhibit examining the entrances. Through November 30. November 13: "Camera Safari to Africa," nature and variety of color in the physical narrated by Col. John D. Craig. A film tour and living world, and how it functions in Film Program of important game parks to see the wildlife and animals. It focuses on the plants many and scenic wonders. roles of color, as in mimicry, camouflage, Free Natural History Film "Patterns for warning, sexual recognition and selection, Survival" (A Study of Mimicry) presented at November 20; "The Two Worlds of Berlin," vitamin energy channeling, and production, narrated Arthur F. Wilson. A 1 1 a.m. and 1 p.m. on Saturdays and 1 1 by timely Museum as using specimens examples. sketch on film of a and its a.m., 1 p.m., and 3 p.m. on Sundays in the biographical city Continues indefinitely. Hall 25. second floor Meeting Room. The half-hour people from World War II to the present. film offers an overall view of protective The Afro-American Style, From the Design November 27: "Micronesia," narrated by coloration in insects and provides visitors Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of C. P. Lyons. A film story about a group of with an insight into the "Color in Nature" textiles blending classical African motifs tiny islands in the Western Pacific and the exhibit. Continues indefinitely. and contemporary design. The original Field colorful people who still retain their Museum Benin artifacts which customs and traditions. inspired many Fall Film-Lecture Series, 2:30 p.m. picturesque of the are also shown. Financial designs Saturdays in the James Simpson Theatre. assistance for the exhibit was received from the CNA Foundation, Chicago, and the October 16: "Norse Adventure," narrated Meetings Illinois Arts a state Council, agency. by Hjordis Kittel Parker. A film history of December 31. Hall 9. October 12: 7:45 Nature Camera Club Through Norway from the ice Age through the Viking p.m., of Period and up to the present time. Highlights Chicago. Jotin James Audubon's The elephant folio, include the flora and fauna of Spitzbergen, October 12: 8 p.m., Chicagoland Glider Birds 0/ in America, on display the North near the North the life of a Pole; home Council. A different from the Lounge. plate rare, modern Oslo family; and scenes of the first-edition volumes is featured each day. magnificent fjords. October 13: 7:30 p.m.. Windy City Grotto, National Speleological Society. Field Museum's 75tli Anniversary Exhibit October 23: "Our Glorious National Parks," October 14: 8 p.m., Chicago Mountaineering continues indefinitely. "A Sense of Wonder" narrated by Edward M. Brigham, Jr. A film Club. offers thought-provoking prose and poetry commemorating the creation of the first associated with and national in 1872. It the physical, biological, park emphasizes October 17: 2 p.m., Chicago Shell Club. cultural aspects of nature; "A Sense of need for the protection of wildlife and History" presents a graphic portrayal of the natural wonders. Some of the parks shown Museum's past; and "A Sense of Discovery" are Yellowstone, Glacier, Mesa Verde, A Reminder shows examples of research conducted by Petrified Forest, Grand Canyon, Rainbow Museum scientists. Hall 3. Zion, Yosemite, and Brice. Bridge, Visits to Field Museum earlier in the day are recommended for Sundays when Chicago Rare Ancient Numismatic Collection, a October 30: "Ecuador and Darwin's Bears home games are scheduled in Soldier highly important group of four Greek silver narrated by Pope. This Galapagos," Hugh Field. coins from the sixth and fourth centuries unusual film visits Quito, where quaint I B.C. and two Roman medallions from the Spanish traditions abound, the jungles of Because of the afternoon games, the s' third and fourth centuries A.D., on the Oriente Province, and the Colorados display Southeast parking facilities will be filled, and in the South November 7. it then travels six hundred off Lounge through Indians; miles the North lot reserved for Museum guests are part of a collection donated to the mainland of Ecuador to the fabulous They undoubtedly strained to capacity. Field Museum by Jon Holtzman of Madison, Galapagos Islands, where penguins, giant Wisconsin, and Paul Holtzman of Las Vegas, tortoises, marine iguanas, and other unique Dates are: October 10 and 31, November 7, Nevada. creatures roam unafraid. 14 and 21, and December 19. \ ^rsr BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 10 November 1971 2 Jade in Chinese Culture Louise Yuhas a discussiofi of the significance and uses of jade in China since Neolithic times is illustrated by pieces in Field Museum's fine collection, which spans 4,000 years 12 Is it Really Jade or Not? Edward J. Olsen a mineralogist explains why this is not an easy question to answer Cover; Taken from rubbing from Wu family shrine, 14 Mid-SI(y Charming Girls Latter Han Shantung Province, Dynasty (AD. Straub 25-220), depicting reception of King Mu by Virginia Hsi-wang Mu, the legendary mother queen of the aerial music from flutes attached to the tails of pigeons west. She dwells in the K'un-lun Mountains and has used to the Chinese within her power the gift of Immortality. Enlarged delight facsimile of rubbing is in the new Hall of Jades. 1 6 Field Briefs Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leiand Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Ptiotography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans. The Bulletin is published monthly except August by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscriptions: $6 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Application to mail at second-class postage rates is pending at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 Jade in Chinese Culture Louise Yuhas of in Hundreds the choicest pieces Jade carving is one of China's oldest continuous traditions, spanning over 4,000 years. The eariiest Field Museum's exceptional collection carvings were made during the Neolithic period, which flourished In China—especially northern China around the Yellow River—for several thousand about 1500 B.C. Jade was then of Chinese jade carvings are again on years, ending one of the hardest materials known, and Neolithic Chinese carved their weapons and tools in it. view as of November 10. That is the opening date of the new jade room, Tfie jade disk shown opposite is called a pi. Its function in Neolithic times is uncertain, but the became as a of heaven and was used both in called the John L. and Helen Kellogg gradually pi accepted symbol religious ceremony and for burial with the dead. Hall of Jades. This new permanent exhibition fnade a was possible by When the use of bronze became widespread in China's first historical period, the Shang Dynasty generous gift from Mrs. Kellogg in (c. 1500-1050 B.C.), jade was no longer essential for tools and weapons and became ceremonial memory of her husband. In function. The old jade hall was closed in 1969 to permit redocumentation of many pieces based on new archaeological data which made more accurate dating possible. The foundation of the Museum's collection was laid by Dr. Berthold Laufer, a major figure in the early study of jade and jade carving and chief curator of the Department of Anthropology from 1915 to 1934, on two separate expeditions to China—the Mrs. T. B. Blackstone Expedition of 1908-1910 and the Captain Marshall Field Expedition in 1923. The largest single addition was the Bahr Collection, acquired in 1926. Its purchase was made possible by a large contribution mainly from Mrs. Frances Gaylord Smith, who also bequeathed to the Museum her important collection of jades of the Ch'ing Dynasty and modern period. Many other people have also added fine pieces to the collection. To mark this new exhibition of our jade treasures, a brief review is presented of the role of jade in Chinese culture from the Neolithic period down to modern times. All of the objects pictured are among those on exhibit in the new hall, along with Chinese porcelains, bronzes, scrolls, rubbings, and ceramics. Though several cultures have carved Shang motifs are almost all animal-like forms. Many carvings combine human and bird at one time or the Chinese jade another, characteristics, for the Shang people, whose religion may have been animistic, traced their origins raised the craft to its greatest height to a mythical bird. Although the small carvings shown here were buried with the dead, it is likely in a tradition spanning all that nation's that they were worn during the life of their owners. Some are perforated pendants or appliques. The fish, traditionally the symbol of wealth and fertility, is one of the most common types of history from the Neolithic period to the burial carvings. The small dragon bears bovine horns; its typical Shang eye hooks sharply present. The position of jade in downward at the inner corner. Although most Shang carvings are very stylized, some, such as the culture Chinese can only be compared alligator here, combine formalized heads with naturalistic bodies. Top, fish; left, crested bird; with that of gold in the West. Just as right, dragon, alligator. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 gold and jewels—the most precious of materials to Western eyes—were thought to be most suitable for religious and courtly objects like chalices, sceptres, reliquaries, and crowns, so also jade was treasured by the Chinese, who fashioned it into the paraphernalia of their ceremony and religion. Jade has also tal Jade is the fairest of stones. It is endowed with five virtues. Charily is typified by its lustre, bright yet warm; rectitude by its translucency, revealing the color and markings within; wisdom by the purity and penetrating quality of its note when the stone is struck; courage in that it may be broken but cannot be bent; equity, in that it has sharp angles which yet injure none. The fashioning of ceremonial blades remained an important occupation of the jade carver in Chou The Li Chi, a bool< attributed to times. In general, the forms are continuations of the Shang blades, ultimately derived from as and and knife blades. Confucius but probably written during Neolithic prototypes, such the adze chisel types rectangular Tliey probably served as emblems of court rank. Above: Early Chou ritual blade. the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.—A.D. 220), quotes the master explaining to a disciple why the superior men of former times valued jade over all other stones. He begins by saying that it is not because of the rarity of jade, but because of the analogies between the luster, strength, soft angles, musicality, and translucency of jade and the Confucian virtues of benevolence, intelligence, righteousness, propriety, and loyalty. He goes on: . . . with an Intense radiance issuing from It on every side—like good faith; bright as a brilliant rainbow— like heaven; exquisite During the Middle Chou, a period of warfare and chaos, all of the arts suffered a loss of skill and both in the hills and in the streams—like fineness. Surviving jades from this period reveal a change from the intense perfection of Shang the earth; standing out conspicuous as a detail to large, cumbersome forms with less surface decoration. However, lapidaries were of rank—like the of truth and symbol path producing some attractive decorative beads and buttons which anticipate the Late Chou duty . . . That is why the superior man renaissance. The jade used is of finer quality than that used to carve larger ceremonial objects, esteems it so highly. and the surface carving is skillful. Left to right: button; bead. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 This of process forming analogies During the latter part of the Chou Dynasty feudal warfare ravaged the country. Paradoxically, the carries with it a slight flavor of political breakdown triggered tremendous creativity in political, social, and artistic theories. During this period China's two major philosophical systems—Confucianism and Taoism—evolved. rationalization, justifying the love of a beautiful material within the strict code Iron tools replaced bronze and stone, malting possible much more ambitious jade carvings. Jades of Confucian standards. But it is these of this period show sophistication and proficiency of technical skill never before realized. qualities of jade, whatever their external Ceremonial blades and undecorated pi disks completely disappeared, and jade became popular for decorative and utilitarian such as the hilt shown here. associations, which give jade its objects, guard immediate sensual appeal. The Chinese reverence for jade Is also due to the length of the history of jade carving in China, giving it the appeal of a venerable tradition. By the 5th century B.C., when Confucius is said to have given the description of jade The ts'ung is one of the most problematical ritual Jades. It has traditionally been identified as the quoted above, jade had already symbol of the earth. Among the modern theories of its origin are suggestions that the ts'ung was of occupied a position importance for the sighting tube on which astronomical instruments were rotated; that it was a tube for storing more than a thousand years. The ancestral records; that it was a phallic symbol; and that its form was derived from the wheel nave of a chariot: Below: two forms from Chou Neolithic Chinese, the founders of the ts'ung period. jade-carving tradition, made tools and weapons from it, valuing it for its toughness and hardness—for its functional qualities—rather than for its esthetic appeal. When metals were introduced, jade was gradually displaced by bronze as the best material for tools and weapons, and by the 11th century B.C. it had become a sacred material, used exclusively for ritual purposes and valued for its beauty, rarity; and expense. As these rituals in turn died out, jade underwent another transformation and by the 3rd century B.C. had become primarily a luxury item, carved into jewelry and decorative objects. The following 3rd century B.C. poem from the Ch'u Tz'u, translated by David Hawkes, and reproduced in the new jade hall, shows how the Chinese had come to use jade. On a lucky day with an auspicious name, Reverently we come to delight the Lord on High. We grasp the long sword's haft of lade, And our girdle pendants clash and chime. Jade weights fasten the god's jeweled mat. The god has halted, swaying, above us. Shining with a persistent radiance. He is going to rest in the House ot Lite. His brightness is like the sun and moon. He yokes to his dragon car the steeds of God. Now he flies to wander round the sky. The god had fust descended in bright majesty. When off in a whirl he soared again, far into the clouds. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 However, its beauty and its associations with ancient ritual made it an unusual and nonfrivolous kind of luxury item. By ttie time the Han Dynasty was established, jade had developed its own mythology. The bodies of the dead were dressed with jade to prevent decomposition, and immortality was thought to be assured by placing jade amulets in the tomb. This association of jade and death may have stemmed from the Neolithic practice of placing a man's possessions, some of them made of jade, in his grave with him. A Elaborate myths, many of which have survived among the people ot China down to the present of for body legends grew up: example, day, provided subject matter for many Late Chou carvings. Dragons, the most important of the that the elixir of immortality could be spirits, inhabited water and clouds and controlled the rains. The half-disk shown here depicts distilled from jade, or that eating jade dragons in the clouds. would produce both immortality and the power to make oneself invisible and able to fly. In addition, the Isles of the Immortals were said to produce trees and flowers of jade, the most famous of which were the peaches of Immortality. These and other legends provide much of the subject matter of Han Dynasty and later jade carvings. Another factor contributing to the high value of jade in Chinese eyes is its intrinsic rarity and expense. No source for the stone has ever been found in China proper; it therefore must have been imported, even in Neolithic times. This fact, combined with the difficulty of carving it, has made all but the smallest jade object into a luxury item, reserved for the court and the well-to-do. With the founding of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), following the short-lived Ch'in Dynasty These of qualities beauty, antiquity, (221-206 B.C.), China entered her first imperial age. Her borders were extended into Central Asia ritual usage, legend, expense, and and Korea, and Buddhism was introduced through contacts with India. difficulty of carving all combine to In this strongly imperialistic and militaristic age, jade continued to be a popular material for make the "fairest of stones," jade decorating swords and scabbards. The archer, meanwhile, used a jade thumb ring to protect his more precious to the Chinese than thumb from the bowstring. Belthooks, belt rings, and studs of jade l>ecame popular. The use of gold, more cherished than diamonds. seals came into vogue and many were made of jade. The ancient (s'ung and pi forms reappeared. The pi, often decorated with floral or dragon molils, The word English "jade" comprises lost the ritual austerity of its prototype. two distinct minerals, nephrite and Jade continued to be used in funeral rites in Han times. The bodies of the dead were covered jadeite. The Chinese word yu refers with shrouds sewn with jade plaques and jade was placed in the apertures of the body to prevent primarily to nephrite but can indicate decomposition. The tomb was generally furnished with models of animals, servants, and whole of the any fine stone which has some households, to accompany the soul of the deceased in his journey to the afterworld. These burial same qualities. Nephrite is the form of carvings show an increased realism and feeling for sculpture in the round over traditional flat plaques. jade traditionally carved by the Religious Taoism which produced much of China's rich mythology also flourished in the Han Chinese. Jadeite, familiar to the Dynasty. Above, left to right: old man, traditionally identified as Taoist immortal; sword guard; its in Western world through use duck (burial carving). 6 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 jewelry, was not used in China until During the second century A.D. the power of the Han rapidly declined; eunuchs and warlords gained sway at court while revolted in the fall last the late 18th century. peasants countryside. The of the Han emperor in A.D. 220 was followed by over three centuries of chaos and barbarian invasion, known as the the "periods of Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties." It was a time of artistic and literary The mineral properties of nephrite and florescence, similar in many ways to the Late Chou Dynasty. Great advances were made In prose differ While jadeite significantly. writing and landscape painting. At the same time, however, the art of Jade carving fell into decay, nephrite is a calcium-magnesium partly because tribal unrest along China's western frontiers had cut off the flow of Jade from distant Khotan. silicate belonging to the amphibole is a sodium-aluminum group, jadeite Jades in the style of the Six Dynasties tend to be small in size and secular in function. Figurines silicate belonging to the pyroxene in the round are among the most common forms. The two small boys shown liere originally group. Although both minerals are formed part of sets of entertainer figurines used as tomb furnishings crypto-crystalline in structure, nephrite is formed of short interlocking fibers, while jadeite is an aggregate of small grains. Jadeite is harder, but nephrite, because of its fibrous structure, is more difficult to work. Although it sometimes requires the eye of an expert or the tools of a geologist's laboratory to tell whether a specimen is nephrite or jadeite, the two minerals can often be distinguished more simply, by color, hardness, and texture. Jadeite takes on a smooth, glassy sheen when polished, while The 1,500 years between the end of Han and the 18th century are known as the "dark ages" ot nephrite, because of its fibrous jade. They are called "dark ages" because very little excavation has been done on sites of this period, with the result that few jade carvings can be accurately dated. In general, attributions to structure, has a slightly uneven surface Six Dynasties, T'ang, Sung, or Ming are provisional. called "tangerine-skin" texture, and takes on a waxy rather than a glassy The T'ang Dynasty (618-906) was one of the great periods of Chinese history. The empire was and trade was carried on with India and the Near while Chinese sheen. Jadeite is also hard and glassy greatly expanded East, missionaries spread Buddhism to Korea and Japan. Tomb sculpture reached its height in the to the touch; nephrite feels slightly oily T'ang, and tombs were filled with ceramic models of entire armies, exotic animals, and foreigners. and seems softer and warmer. Hard, bright colors, particularly green, are characteristic of jadeite, while the colors of nephrite tend to be softer shades of green, brown, and white. Pure jade, whether nephrite or jadeite, is white. The wide range of possible colors, which span the spectrum from white to black, is due to compounds of iron, manganese, and chromium in the stone. The most common colors are whites, greens, and browns; reds, yellows, blues, lavenders, and blacks also occur. The bright "apple green" common in modern jade jewelry occurs only in jadeite. External conditions may also affect jade colors. Stones which have lain in the open or in river beds for long The dragon and phoenix, which appear on the slit ring here, were popular symbols in the T'ang. periods often acquire a "skin" of They represent the powers of yin and yang. Tfie dragon is yang, the male principle, the bright, to brown due weathering. Jades buried positive force, and therefore the emperor. The phoenix is yin, the female principle, the dark, close to colored objects may absorb negative force, the earth, and therefore the empress. The two together produce and sustain all life. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 some of the color. The color of nephrite can also be altered by burning. When heated to 1025° C. it turns into a yellowish-white opaque substance. As this color is similar to that of jade which has become leached through long burial (called "chicken-bone white"), burning is often used to simulate an antique appearance. Burning usually produces fine cracks on the surface which can be used to distinguish it from leached nephrite, but the best test is the X-ray diffraction method, which reveals the The T'ang Dynasty collapsed in 906 after a century of decline. China was reunited in 960 under in mineral structure created changes the Sung (960-1279) but did not regain its former power. Prevented from imperial expansion by tfie by burning. Central Asian tribes, the Chinese turned inward and explored their own past. They reconstructed Shang and Chou ritual blades and carved jade cups, pitchers, and vases. One of the most interesting facts about But, for the most part, the small size of Sung jades reflects the shortages of jade caused by jade has already been mentioned— continuing poor relations with the Central Asians, who controlled the trade routes to Khotan. The it never been that has apparently Sung took a great Interest in the natural world as evidenced by the sensitive animal jade carvings found in China proper. The nearest tliat have come down to us. Many of these carvings, such as the camel shown here, have been worn smooth from of known source of nephrite is around years handling. Khotan in Province in the far Sinkiang The Mongols conquered all of China in 1279, ending ttw Sung rule and establishing their own west of China and about 1,500 miles dynasty, the Yuan, with the capital at Peking. The dynasty lasted only until 1368 and was too brief from the center of Chinese culture in to produce a distinctive jade carving style. the Yellow River Valley. Thus the — The Mongols were expelled in 1368 and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) was established. Ming artists Neolithic Chinese probably the first and craftsmen, while reviving Sung traditions, produced an art particularly their own. They Chinese to work jade—must have frequently combined purely contemporary styles and motifs with the antique. obtained it through contact and trade Ming jades often incorporated the brown "skin" or weathered outer surface of jade pebbles into with Central Asian There is no peoples. the carvings, as in the cup decorated with pairs of mother and baby dragons representing evidence, however, that the Chinese maternal love shown here. learned the craft of jade carving from the Central Asians. No carved jade has been found in the Khotan region. Until the end of the 18th century, the Chinese seem to have obtained all of their jade raw material from Khotan; thus the political relations between the Chinese and the Central Asian tribes exercised a strong influence on the amount of jade available for carving in any period. At the end of the 18th century a new source of nephrite was discovered in Siberia. Siberian nephrite is a dark green color with darker flecks and is often called "spinach jade." It was at this time also that jadeite was introduced from Burma. Jade is also found in other areas of Ming powers went into decline in the late 16th century. In 1644 the Ming emperor accepted aid the world and has been worked by from the Manchu, a Northeast Asian tribe, in order to drive Chinese rebels out of Peking. The other peoples. Although none evolved Manchu liberated the city but refused to return it to the Ming, installing their own ruler instead carving techniques and skills that could and establishing the Ch'ing Dynasty, which remained in power until 1912. 8 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 equal those of the Chinese, the Maoris The new Ch'Ing emperors adopted Chinese culture and became avid patrons of the arts. The 18th was the of of New Zealand, the Alaskan Eskimos, century greatest period jade carving since the l^te Chou. Uniimited supplies of nephrite were avaiiabia from Khotan and Siberia, and Jadeite from Burma was Introduced. and the Indians of Middle America all carved jade and valued it highly. Only Items frequently carved in jade during the Ch'ing include: large seals whose inscriptions commemorate an booits the Mughals in India In the 18th event; Jade dedicated by tlie emperor to a deceased relative; dinnerware for the very wealthy; musical instruments, such as chimes, and used in the century lavished such time and flutes, bells; objects study of the scholar-official, such as bars to fasten and hold handscrolls open, inlistones used for craftsmanship on jade, creating grinding ink, desk holders for water, boxes to hold vermillion used in applying seals, brush elaborate carvings inlaid with precious holders, and decorative desk screens; small carvings of humans and animals having symbolic stones. Even the Indian carvings, connotations; bowls in matched pairs; snuff bottles; hairpins and dome-shaped carvings worn in the elaborate coiffures of Chinese noblewomen; belt hooks; pendants, and however, lack the sense of history and toggles knot-openers; thin plaques mounted as belt buckles; incense burners; and traditional ritual forms of blades tradition communicated those of by and pi disks. China; they are pure luxury items with none of the wealth of associations that Below, left, duck on lotus leaf connoting marital fidelity and happiness; snuff bottle depicting Lui Ha!, the patron of commerce, luring a greedy toad out of a well with a of a Chinese jade conveys to the string gold coins; right, hair ornament; cup carved to represent peach of immortality. connoisseur. Nephrite has also been found in Wyoming and northern California, but it is not of gem quality. As we have noted, the traditional source of jade for the Chinese was the area of Khotan. Jade pebbles washed down from the mountains were taken from the riverbeds and shipped to China for working. This rather primitive method of acquiring jade was used exclusively until the late 18th century, and partially accounts for the small size of most early carvings. Around the end of the 18th century the demand grew for large carvings, and attempts were made to quarry large blocks directly from the mountains. One method was to build a fire under a rock face; as the rock heated up, cracks would form. Water was poured into the cracks and allowed to freeze, expanding the cracks and dislodging the block. Although wasteful, this method yielded larger pieces of jade than could be found in streambeds. A large jar was carved from such a boulder for the Ch'ien Lung Emperor (r. 1736-1795) and was placed in the Imperial Palace in Peking. This jar is now in the Field Museum collection. Once the jade had been fished from the streams or quarried from the mountains of Khotan and shipped by camel train to China, it was fashioned into a wide variety of religious and decorative forms. All the processes involved in working jade, from the initial cutting to the final polishing, are variations on a single technique: the BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 Photos: top, cutting large block of jade with wire saw; telt, Initial forming of jade Into a shape using a cutting wheel; right, polishing a jade carving. abrading of the surface of the stone with drills and saws edged with an abrasive paste. The traditional abrasive consisted of sand or crushed garnets and quartz moistened with water. A finer powder, called pao yao, is used for the final polishing. In the 20th century the industrial abrasive carborundum has become popular. The drills, cutting wheels, polishing disks, and gouges are all operated in a rotary fashion, either mounted on a bow or driven by treadles. In recent years electricity has come into use in some workshops. It is difficult to imagine the arduous process traditionally used by the Chinese in working jade. Most early carvings are flat and thin, since pebbles and boulders were sliced up to get the most use from the expensive material. The cutting was done with a wire saw; two men worked the saw while a third fed the abrasive paste into the cut. In the earliest days of jade carving, this process was accomplished with stone blades not much harder than the jade itself. The cut was usually made from both sides toward the center, and the jade was broken off along the remaining narrow line, leaving a ridge. Cutting could also be done with rotary wheel blades, which often left identifying marks. Holes were formed by using hollow tubular drills, again in conjunction with an abrasive. The holes were most often drilled from two sides toward the center. After the jade had been sliced and shaped, decoration was incised with a variety of small drills and gouges. Modern drills are generally mounted on a frame and powered by a foot-treadle; the jade is held up to the drill and moved around. The finished carving is then polished with fine grinding wheels and the pao yao abrasive. The rarity, high price, and hardness of jade—the very qualities which make it so prized by the Chinese—also make it 10 BULLETIN NOVEIUIBER 1971 difficult to work with and to expensive Landscape scenes were popular subjects in Ch'ing Jade carvings. Scholars often appear in buy. For this reason a large number of these jade landscape scenes and thus are associated with both long life and the traditional ideal other materials which share some of of retreat into nature. The scene from a brush holder here of Sil>erian nephrite ("spinach jade") depicts scholars gathering to drinit wine and compose poetry In the mountains. the qualities of jade are carved as substitutes. These minerals are all softer than jade, and cheaper, since they are found in China proper. The most common substitute materials are serpentine, steatite (soapstone), prophyllite, and glass. Far from despised by the Chinese, they are often called varieties of yu, of which nephrite is merely the finest type. These materials can generally be distinguished from true jade visually. They fend to lack the characteristic sheen of jade. Glass can approximate the appearance of jadeite but is usually Spurred by internal dissatisfaction and foreign support, revolts against the decadent Ch'ing broke and fell in more translucent; small bubbles can emperors out, the dynasty 1912, when a republic was established. Mao Tse-tung gained control during the 1940s, driving out the Japanese invaders and forcing Chiang Kai-shel( often be seen in the glass. Another to flee to Taiwan in 1949. simple test is to scratch the carving with a steel knife-blade. Steel will not Jade carvers were organized Into cooperatives in 1953; in 1959 there were 1,400 craftsmen in the Pelting Jade Studios. The introduction of the diamond point, the industrial abrasive carborundum, scratch nephrite or jadeite (providing and electricity (in 1958) have facilitated the carving process and encouraged elaborate that the is not leached or jade badly workmanship and hard glassy polishes. weathered) but will scratch most substitute materials. Positive The making of traditional forms such as belthooks, buckles, dishes, and desk ornaments has continued into the modern period, but the effects of modern methods are apparent in the identification, however, can only be elaborate undercutting, high relief, and high polish. The large disk shown here Is one of a pair diffraction made by the X-ray method. of desk screens carved of Siberian nephrite. An inscription on the top dates the screen to the reign of the Ch'ien Lung Emperor (1736-1795), but the style and treatment are modern. Louise Yuhas is a doctoral candidate in Chinese art tiistory at the University of Michigan. She has worked as a consultant to Field Museum's Department of Anthropology since 1969. Thus, tlie carving of the "fairest of stones" by the Chinese spans over 4,000 year* and conilnuM today, combining the use of modern materials and age-old techniques. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 11 fact that they accept a good deal of About two centuries ago a new source different mineralogical material as jade of attractive green rock (also sometimes makes it hard for the mineralogist gray, or even blue) was discovered attempting to ferret out fakes. close to China in Burma. It was hard like jade, usually green like jade, and First off one must be made clear. thing could be worked into pleasing carvings. The materials as are not accepted jade Archaeological usage caused it to minerals in the strict sense, but rocks. enter the ranks as jade. Mineralogically, A rock is an of of aggregation grains however, this material is an entirely one or more minerals. For tens of different rock, one composed of centuries the finest Chinese jade interlocking microscopic grains of a consisted of a of rock that is type different mineral called jadelte. In fact, made almost of of up entirely grains the mineral acquired its name because actinolite. Is it the mineral Actinolite of the use of the rock in which occurs in the form of characteristically it is found. This rock too possesses these are needle-shaped grains. When problems relative to acceptable microscopically small and really jade tightly impurities and size of mineral grains. then the actinolite rock is interlocked, Thus two materials are accepted, by called The mineral actinolite jade. archaeological definition, as jade. In varies somewhat in its chemical or not? the jade business these are usually when it contains a composition: distinguished by modifying words. The moderate amount of its color is iron, original actinolite rock is referred to medium to dark when it is green; as nephrite jade, and the jadeite rock free of it is white. The Edward J. Olsen completely iron, as jadeite jade. The buyer of an name for such special mineralogical object advertised as jade does not iron-free actinolite is tremolite; the usually know which type he is getting. whole of such minerals is called range Both are jade; the value depends the tremolite-actinolite series. Thus, mostly on the age of the piece, this rock can in color from dark range craftsmanship, size, and archaeological to white. green Archaeologists accept factors. In general, the majority of this of colors in these rocks range pieces one sees sold are made from as jade. When questions regarding jade are nephrite jade simply because it is a more abundant rock than presented to a mineralogist a number It is rare for an actinolite rock to vastly type of small but arise. rock in the earth's crust. perplexing problems consist entirely of grains of only the jadeite the that comes Probably question up one mineral. It commonly has grains of often is the of If these two kinds of rocks most one authenticity. black magnetite, white quartz, white only were The truth is, whether a given piece of feldspar, white calcite, and even small ever worked as jade, mineralogical jade is truly jade is not a mineralogical amounts of green mica-like minerals. problems would be relatively limited to but a of those earlier. But native question question Some of the finest jade carvings show mentioned definition. over the centuries archaeological Because the black streaks of magnetite in them. craftsmen have, term jade is not a mineralogical word The question then arises, how much of unfortunately, not always been not a in their choices of and does have precise what impurities will be tolerated and discriminating the materials. A of other rocks mineralogical definition, mineralogist still permit a designation as jade? The large variety is to the and minerals have also been utilized: willing accept anything answer to this is clearly an arbitrary archaeologist defines as jade on the matter of taste, esthetics, and tradition. such green rocks as serpentinite, basis of whatever archaeological metamorphosed basaltic lavas (called standards he chooses to use. Thus, as Since this form of jade is comprised greenstone), soapstone, hard clays, and a whimsical example, if archaeological of microscopic interlocking needles of such minerals as green chalcedony study were to turn up the heretofore actinolite (or tremolite), what does one and uvarovite garnet have shown up unrecorded fact that the craftsmen of do when the needles are so large in some old collections. In some cases China have, for ten centuries, regarded they are no longer microscopic? What the craftsman may have had it in carved green soap with the same high does one call a pure actinolite rock in mind to defraud; however, in most esteem as carved green rocks, and the which the green needles are an eighth instances lack of knowledge or lack of Chinese refer to both with the same of an inch long and clearly visible? discrimination led to the use of any word, yu (jade), then by If a fine-grained actinolite rock is jade, workable attractive green rock or archaeological definition the green why not a coarser-grained one? Again mineral that would take a good polish. soap is jade also. To the mineralogist it is a matter of esthetics. In both In more recent times dyed glass has it doesn't matter in the least what these cases, impurities and grain-size, been used extensively to simulate archaeologists accept as jade, but the the mineralogist can offer no answer. jade in an obvious attempt to 12 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 defraud. Frequently even the seller is inconspicuous spot and mounted for unaware he Is selling glass. A fairly X-raying. Small objects often can be common practice in costume jewelry is fitted directly into the X-ray sample to mix the pieces with part of the holder and X-rayed as a whole, object made of jade (usually nephrite) unscathed. Thus the real jades and the and part of it made from glass, "look alikes" can be readily soapstone, or serpentinite chosen distinguished. In preparing objects for (or dyed) to provide closely matched installation in the new John L. and color. Thus such a piece can be sold Helen Kellogg Hall of Jades, over as "jade," which lies just inside the one hundred pieces were checked by border of truth. X-ray. These were chosen for examination because of questions For a mineralogist to pass on the regarding their authenticity. A authenticity of a particular piece, in relatively small percentage turned out most cases it comes down to to be non-jades, and these were determining if it consists mainly of omitted from the exhibit collection. either actinolite or jadeite. The first test is to it simple scratch with a It would appear that the X-ray method common steel needle. Neither of solves many problems. Unfortunately, these materials can be scratched; archaeological acceptance makes for however, "look-alikes" such as other difficulties. Long ago Chinese serpentine, soapstone, and greenstone noblemen frequently had nephrite jade are readily scratched. Unfortunately, objects buried with them at their chalcedony and hard lead glass are not funerals. Soil acids and moisture acted scratched. These can sometimes be slowly on these objects to gradually distinguished from jades by optical alter their composition and form tests. A severe limitation in applying different minerals of them. This such a test is that it is usually not alteration may form only over the to obtain of possible a chip a outside as a coating, or it may specimen on which to work. A valuable completely work its way through an in carving cannot be sampled a object, especially if it is small. When cavalier manrier with hammer and such were centuries pieces dug up, the alteration of original jade from the chisel. It is to were found to be usually necessary later, they quite same kind of rocks formed by other sample from down inside a carved in had pleasing appearance. They processes from original material that hole or depression, or on some become an off-white color and was not jade at all. Thus for these inconspicuous on the bottom of bone material. spot resembled polished materials archaeological definition the if it has a bottom surface and it is object, These objects became prized generally confounds mineralogical at all. Frequently, especially with small logical that someone should determination. objects, the piece is fully polished on experiment in an attempt to learn how all sides and a sample removed from to speed up this slow alteration The authentication of jade is clearly will anywhere ruin its appearance. process. It was soon discovered that not as straightforward as one might nephrite jade could be converted to imagine. For the majority of cases As a general practice the quickest this appearance if it were subjected X-raying provides a simple and and safest method is X-ray diffraction. to intense heating. Today both of these relatively nondestructive method. In a This method is based on the fact forms of bone jade are accepted as small number of cases the final that each kind of mineral has a jade; however, neither one is nephrite decision will depend on what the characteristic chemical composition jade any longer. Depending on the archaeologist is willing to accept. and the atoms of the chemical process, long-term burial or short-term Probably the only other material that elements are arranged in regular heating, two different rocks result raises even more difficult mineralogical three-dimensional symmetrical patterns. made of several entirely different questions regarding authenticity is X-rays passing through such a three minerals. They are, nevertheless, amber. It is regrettable that once man dimensional network are diverted considered to be jades also. attaches monetary value to a mineral (bent) into patterns of rays that reflect or rock, problems are created that go the characteristic arrangement of the These altered materials complicate outside the realm of the mineral atoms in the mineral. Each mineral matters. Both consist of mixtures of kingdom. has, in a sense, an X-ray "fingerprint" several minerals in varying proportions which permits its definite identification. depending on such factors as For large objects, a minute amount temperature and time. It is not possible Dr. Edward J. Olsen is curator o1 mineralogy can be from to these rocks scratched an distinguish formed by in the Department of Geology, Field Museum. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 13 It was Barbara Tuchman's book caption reads: "When the bird flies, Stilwell and the American Experience mid-sky the wind blows through the whistles in Ctiina 1911-45 that to and sets them The Chinese brought charming girls vibrating. mind the Field Museum's collection of explain their love of this aerial music flutes and whistles. She was that the sounds keep the pigeon Virginia straub by saying describing Stilwell's visit to Sian, flock together and frighten off birds ancient capital of the Han and T'ang of prey." dynasties, where he "found it hard Dr. Laufer didn't with the to glimpse an idea of the former agree protective theory. According to him, greatness of the city, but even in "There seems . . . little reason to decline the people of Sian devised believe that a hawk could be pleasures. They tied bamboo whistles hungry induced this innocent music to of varying pitch to the tail feathers by aloof from his of pigeons so that when circling In keep satisfying hundreds overhead the birds made appetite; and this doubtless savors of an which came the sound of a flying pipe organ." afterthought up long after the introduction of this usage, Flying pipe organ indeed! This fanciful through the attempt to give a rational description of the small objects on and practical interpretation of display in our Chinese exhibit in Hall something that has no rational origin 32 made it seem worthwhile to see whatever . . ." He thought it was not manufactured with great cleverness and Dr. the which from this what Berthold Laufer might have ingenuity, it is possible to enjoy this aerial pigeon profited said on the subject when he brought music while sitting in one's room. practice, but merely the human ear, them to the Museum. (He was then which liked to feast on the wind-blown But East is East, and the West associate curator of East Asian tunes and derive esthetic pleasure wasn't always with them. Ethnology; later curator of the from the music— "it seems to be a A. B. Freeman-Mitford had earlier Department of Anthropology.) purely artistic and emotional tendency complained in his book The Attache that has given rise to a unique at Peking: "The Chinese certainly find In the Scientific American in 1908, industry and custom applied to in what are to us Dr. Laufer remarked on the great pleasure very nature-life." a esthetic enjoyment the Chinese derived disagreeable noises. Fancy flight from the sound of this aerial music: of pigeons with Aeolian harps tied to their tails! The first time I heard it ... we are wont to speak of the Chinese above head I as sober, practical, and prosaic people my thought something ... but nevertheless they are by no dreadful must be going to happen." means lacking in purely emotional matters He also wrote: "However, that fancy of great attractiveness . . . [and] even has a practical side to It, for it keeps in affairs of minor importance their soul oft the hawks which abound at reveals to us traits of poetical quality of no small degree . . . One of the most Peking." curious expressions of emotional life is the application of whistles to a flock of pigeons. Writing at about the same time, toward the end of the nineteenth century. Archdeacon John Henry Gray said In his book China that pigeons with whistles served as convoys for The esthetic theory seems to have carrier pigeons: "Merchants at Hong got the nod also from a T. Watters, Kong use them [carrier pigeons! In Esq., who wrote on "Chinese Notions conveying news of the arrival of the about Pigeons and Doves" In the English, French, or American mails Journal of the North-China Branch of to their partners in trade at Canton. the Royal Asiatic Society in 1868. He To defend the pigeon during its flight said, "The pigeons which fly about from attacks on the part of falcons or with whistles attached to them are hawks, a whistle is attached to its tail, called pan-t'ien-chiao-jen, mid-sky and the shrill noise of this contrivance, charming girls." Dr. Laufer translated These whistles, very light, weighing hardly as its bearer flies through the air, the term as "mid-sky beauties." a few grammes, are attached to the tails terrifies the birds of of young pigeons soon after their birth, by prey." Then we find a about their means of fine copper wire, so that when theory of a with a whistle which Dr. Laufer had the birds fly the wind flowing through the A picture pigeon origin, expressed whistles sets them vibrating and thus on its tail appears with Elisha much earlier, in a lecture by Harned an for the produces open-air concert, Hanson's article "Man's Feathered Pettus Hoose entitled "Peking Pigeons instruments in one and the same flock are Friends of Longest Standing" in a and Pigeon-Flutes," delivered in 1938 all tuned differently. On a serene day in 1 926 National Part of the to the of Chinese Studies at Peking, where these instruments are Geographic. College 14 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 flute to the pigeon's tail. Throughout this process exact measurements are necessary in order to assure a correct angle against the wind, and a good tone. At this point, the artist carves his surname on the bottom of the flute and then paints the whole surface with "Chinese ink." . . . When this has dried, shelac is applied on both the inner and outer surfaces of the gourd. Sometimes both the male and female voices are combined in one flute, by cutting the gourd in half, inserting a cardboard partition, and gluing it together again. No gourd flute can be made larger than two inches across the top, as pigeons are incapable of carrying a flute any heavier. . . . The material for the bamboo flutes comes from South China, while the delicate reeds are grown outside this city IPeking]. The bamboo and reeds are combined in many arrangements, resembling the Pan-pipes or the California College in China at one above another over the kite, and in a pipe-organ. These flutes are attached to this case a sound the tails a holder at Peking. He said that the use of these very pronounced deep pigeons' by the bottom, is produced. Imagine that hundreds of such and a thread sewn through, and flutes was suggested by the whistling kites may be released at a time and are perpendicular to, the bird's two middle arrow invented Chinese warriors by hovering in the air, and there is a veritable tail-feathers at a point exactly a "countless ages ago" for signaling by aerial orchestra at play. fore-finger's distance from the bird's body. The holder is thrust the singing as it sped through the air. through space to the between the thread and the bird's The belief was that when the warriors According Freeman-Mitford, body, music of kite and was the and is held in place by a small wire ring were not fighting they amused pigeon hung on the end of the holder after it has same: "As the New Year approaches themselves by fastening delicate silver been thrust between the thread and the the amusement in the streets bells on the tails of their pigeons, and principal body of the bird. is kites ... In the tail of the when this metal proved to be too flying kite is placed a sort of aeolian harp, heavy, they used bamboo for flutes. Whether this charming practice is still such as I once told the Chinese Then squat miniature gourds were you followed under the austerity of the attach to their pigeons." tried, and found to produce much People's Republic we don't know, but fuller, tones. When reed and at least during World War II the flutes deeper Dr. Hoose said in 1938 that there gourd were combined and flown were still available. In his 1942 book were still in existence some flutes together the music was even more / Flew for China, Captain Royal made by six of the most famous flute pleasing. Said Dr. Hoose: "It must Leonard, personal pilot for Chiang makers, who lived in the Ch'ing have been about this time that a Kai-shek, described the town of dynasty and "whose skill has never pigeon-flute maker made a pair of Urumchi, now known as Wulumuchi, been equalled." He added, "Of flutes, one smaller than the other, so in Sinkiang province: "The distinctive course, none of these old masters that the female pigeon could carry the quality of Urumchi lay in its sound. made pigeon-flutes for anyone but smaller one. To his delight, he found . . . The thousands of pigeons themselves and certainly they never that the smaller one's note was higher constantly flying overhead have sold them. The business of selling than the larger one's. From that time bamboo wind whistles attached to flutes is quite modern." up to the present, flutes have been their tails. Each is made to sound a made in and are known as different note; some are tremolo and pairs Two general types are described by mates: others the male and female." Dr. Hoose, gourd flutes and bamboo high-pitched, equal deep bass of an Most of them flutes. "These two types are often organ. carry Dr. Moose's singing arrow theory of a large harmonized cluster of three or combined . . . and with both types is not include mention of origin does any four . . ." And he also remarked: used a very slender reed with which the musical which Dr. kite, Laufer to I small supplementary flutes are made. "According my hobby, picked up also wrote about. He described it as The former can be made of three a knickknack representing a product a kite with a bamboo flute paper for which the was famous. . . . types of gourd." city fastened to the head so that At Lanchow 1 bought pigeon the struck the holes of the flute the of the when wind When making the flute, top whistles . . ." . . . [itl produced sounds like those of a gourd is cut off, leaving a rounded . . . Such flutes are still . . . box, wi. ch is then a harpsichord sounding capped by Now the next time Henry Kissinger used . . . They consist of a short bamboo part of the top that has been shaped to goes to China, if he could do some tube closed at the ends and provided produce flute-lips. This main flute Is . . . with three apertures . . . When the kite is supplemented with several much smaller shopping flying, the air . . . produces a somewhat ones that are fashioned of reed, glued to intense and plaintive sound, which can be the sides and top of the main body. heard at a great distance. Sometimes three A bone or bamboo handle is attached to the Virginia Straub is secretary of tlie Women's or four of these bamboo tubes are placed bottom, for the purpose of fastening the Board, Field l^useum. BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 15 occupied these dwellings. The pueblo is Backyard Safari estimated to date from around 1000 or Children in the 4th, 5th, and 6th grades 1100 A.D. especially are invited on a "Backyard Safari" each at 8:00 a.m. on While making a test trench, the Sunday WBBM-TV This series archaeological team stumbled onto a kiva (Channel 2). unique of half-hour focuses on the about 14 feet square at a level about 10 programs natural of the area. Future feet below the surface. The floor of the kiva history Chicago will November was inlaid with sandstone slabs to form a programs explore: 14, Trees in Fall; November 21, Lake in thunderbird design. Michigan Wintertime; November 28, The Chicago One of the unusual discoveries this year is River; and December 5, Microscopic World a sculpture of a bear, carved from of House Dust. reddish-brown sandstone, found on the floor "Backyard Safari" is produced of the kiva. Dr. Martin surmises it may have cooperatively by WBBM-TV, the Chicago originally been set into a wall and could Board of Education, and Field Museum. indicate a bear clan. Another carving found at the site has a concave, bowl-shaped Recent Grants surface on one side and a Archaeological Discoveries in representation A grant of $8,200 has been awarded Field Southwest of a bear on the other. Museum by the National Aeronautics and A preliminary report on this year's field Space Administration for support of research Dr. Martin and work is being prepared by entitled "Geochemistry of Silicate and will be available five staff members, which Phosphate Phases in Iron Meteorites." The in form the end of the His printed by year. grant, to run approximately one year, will the contribution will be based on philosophy enable Dr. Edward J. Olsen, curator of and of education, emphasizing practical mineralogy, to make a study of the chemistry theoretical archaeology, which is employed of silicate minerals that occur in very minor on the "New Perspectives in Archaeology" amounts inside iron meteorites. These have program. largely been ignored over the past fifty years and it is believed they may yield valuable Mario Villa new information. Mario Villa, tanner in the Department of Zoology, passed away September 30. He The National Endowment for the Arts has was 48 and had been with the Museum awarded $8,000 to Field Museum for costs since 1956. Mario was trained by his father, of an exhibition of aboriginal art, under the Dominick, who retired from the Museum's direction of Dr. Phillip H. Lewis, curator of staff in 1961. He worked with the skins of primitive art and Melanesian ethnology. The animals from many parts of the wortd and exhibit, "The Art of Arnhem Land," is became an expert in his field. He will be scheduled from January 20 through greatly missed. September 10, 1972. Gift from Museu de Angola Dr. Paul Martin holds sculpture of a bear discovered in a Kiva in Arizona. The story of the early inhabitants of the Southwest is gradually being unfolded through a series of archaeological excavations conducted in Hay Hollow Valley, Arizona by Dr. Paul S. Martin, chairman emeritus of anthropology at Field Museum of Natural History. This summer, twelve high ability college sophomores and juniors from various parts of the country participated in the Museum's ten-week program "New Perspectives in Archaeology," supported by the National Science Foundation. The sites that have been continuously excavated and studied during the past nine years are located on a 72,000 acre ranch near Vernon, Arizona owned by Mr. and Mrs. James Carter. Dr. Martin believes that these sites were occupied from approximately 1000 B.C. to 1500 A.D. This year, twenty-five additional rooms of a one-level pueblo were found, in addition to the twelve uncovered last year. Perhaps as E. Leiand Webber, director of Field Museum (left) accepts a fiandsome Angolan mask from Dr. Mesquitela as to men, women and tfie many thirty fifty Lima, director of Museu de Angola, Luanda, Angola, Africa. The mask is a gift to Field Museum from children, culturally related to the Hop!, Museu de Angola. 16 BULLETIN NOVEMBER 1971 Hours half-hour film offers an overall view of 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Saturday through Thursday: protective coloration in insects and provides 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday; 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Saturday visitors with an into the "Color in and Sunday. insight Nature" exhibit. The Museum Library Is open 9 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Monday through Friday. Please obtain pass at reception desk, main floor north. Fail Film-Lecture Series, 2:30 p m. Saturdays in the James Simpson Theatre: Joiin James Audubon's elephant folio, November 13—"Camera Safari to Africa," D. A film tour CALENDAR The Birds ol America, on display in the narrated by Col. John Craig. North Lounge. A different plate from the of important game parks to see the wildlife rare, first-edition volumes is featured and scenic wonders each day. November 20—"The Two Worlds of Berlin," narrated by Arthur F. Wilson. A timely Reid Museum's 75t>i Anniversary Exhibit biographical sketch on film of a city and continues indefinitely. "A Sense of Wonder" its people from World War II to the present. offers thought-provoking prose and poetry associated with physical, biological, and November 27—"Micronesia," narrated by of "A Sense of cultural aspects nature; C. P. Lyons. A film story about a group of Exhibits a of History" presents graphic portrayal tiny islands in the Western Pacific and the of Opens November 10 the Museum's past; and "A Sense colorful inhabitants who still retain their shows of research Chinese jades—a permanent exhibit of Discovery" examples picturesque customs and traditions. conducted Museum scientists. Hall 3. Field Museum's collection, in the John L. by and Helen Kellogg Hall of Jades, arranged Coming in December Children's Programs chronologically from the Neolithic period "Faces of Africa," Winter Journey for (about 2500-1500 B.C.) through the Ch'ing Through November 30 Children, begins December 1. Youngsters (1644-1912 A.D.) The installation test their of observation Dynasty "Between the Tides," Fall Journey for powers by is made possible through a generous gift written and Children, takes them hunting for exotic and answering questions making from Mrs. Porcelains, bronzes, Kellogg. beautiful sea creatures in the Museum sketches of African masks in Museum ceramics, and supplement the on a tour. poetry jades, exhibit areas. All youngsters who can read exhibit areas while self-guided putting them into proper historical All and who can read and write and write are welcome to join in the boys girls perspective to show Uovi the symbolism of sheets are activity. Journey sheets are available at may participate. Journey a carried in various dynastic period through Museum entrances. available at Museum entrances. Through art forms. Hall 30. February 29, 1972. Film Program Begins November 10 A Reminder "Queen of Cascades," free wildlife film Studies in Jade, a selection of books from Visits to Field Museum earlier in the are offered the Illinois Audubon at day Field Museum's featured in the by Society library, recommended for when Chicago 2:30 p.m., November 28, in the James Sundays South Lounge to coincide with the opening Theatre. Bears home games are scheduled in of the new Hall of Jades. Included are Simpson Soldier Field. The Bishop Collection, Investigations and Continues indefinitely Because of the afternoon games, the Studies in Jade, in two volumes, and Free Natural IHistory Film "Patterns for Southeast parking facilities will be filled, Chinese Jade Carvings ol the XVIth to Survival" (A of and the North lot reserved for Museum the XlXth Centuries in the Collection ol Study Mimicry) presented at 11 a.m. and 1 p.m. on Saturdays and guests undoubtedly strained to capacity. Mrs. Georg Vetlesen, in three volumes. On 11 a.m., 1 p.m., and 3 p.m. on Sundays Dates are: November 7, 14, and 21, and display through January 9, 1972. in the second floor Meeting Room. The December 19. Continuing Color in exhibit Nature, an examining the A Field Museum membership would be a special idnd of Holiday gift for some of those nature and variety of color in the physical special people you want to remember at this season. They would appreciate your and living world, and how it functions in thoughtfulness not just once but all through the year. For each gift membership we will send an announcement card in name and portfolio of four color plants and animals. It focuses on the many greeting your reproduc- tions of bird paintings done the American artist Lx>uis Agassiz Fuertes roles of color, as in mimicry, camouflage, by distinguished on a Field Museum expedition to East Africa. warning, sexual recognition and selection, energy channeling, and vitamin production, Clip and mall to Flold MuMum ol Natural Hlatoiy, RooMvalt Rd. at Lak* Shor* Driva, Chicago, III. 6060S using Museum specimens as examples. Please send the following Gift Membership Check enclosed payable to Field Museum, Continues indefinitely. Hall 25. Q Q Annual $15 [J Associate $150 Q LHe $500 Q Please bill me as follows: In my name to: Tlie Afro-American Styie, From the Design Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit of textiles blending classical African motifs Gift recipient's nam* My nam* and contemporary design. The original Field Museum Benin artifacts which inspired Address Address many of the designs are also shown. Financial assistance for the exhibit was City State Zip City Stats Zip received from the CNA Foundation, Chicago, D Send bird prints to gilt recipient G Send bird print* to me and the Illinois Arts Council, a state Please infonnatlon for additional on a sheet agency. Through December 31. Hall 9. put gift memberships separate Volume 42, Number 11 December 1971 Field Museum of Natural History BULLETIN BULLETIN Volume 42, Number 11 December 1971 2 The Christinas Rose W. Peyton Fawcett many legendary—and some real—powers have been attributed to a plant once associated with Christmas 5 Hanukkah Maurice I. Kliers a rabbi explains the background of this Jewish celebration and the themes symbolized—religious freedom and optimism 6 Wang Ch'uan chen chi Alice Schneider Eighteenth century engraving ol Christmas rose the historical significance of a prize specimen in from which cover design (Helleborus niger) Field collection of Chinese was made. Museum's rubbings is discussed 1 1 A Latin American Christmas Terua Williams a letter sharing the familiar as well as exotic flavor of a Christmas far from home 12 Shall We Inherit the Whirlwind? John Clark a scientist considers what effects tampering with hurricanes might have on Earth's total climatic patterns 14 Field Briefs 16 Book Reviews Calendar Field Museum of Natural History Director, E. Leland Webber Editor Joyce Zibro; Associate Editor Elizabeth Munger; Staff Writer Madge Jacobs; Production Russ Becker; Photography John Bayalis, Fred Huysmans; Cover design by Samuel Grove. The Bulletin Is published monthly except August by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. Subscriptions: $6 a year; $3 a year for schools. Members of the Museum subscribe through Museum membership. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Printed by Field Museum Press. Application to mall at second-class postage rates is ponding at Chicago, Illinois. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 ®1|0 Cl|rtstntas ^ose m, p^yton jrauic^tt Preserved in one of the medieval The Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, itself was used, followed by baths in a Nativity plays is the legend of the origin has a bed of Christmas roses in its cold fountain; in others, the milk of of a flower long associated with ground cover collection on the east side goats that had eaten the plant was used. Christmas and now much less known of its administration building and In any event, the cure was successful, than the familiar poinsettia. In the play reports that in most years the flowers and for centuries thereafter hellebore a little country girl named Madelon, appear in early March. was famous as a cure for insanity. who has accompanied the shepherds It is not that a number of to the manger in Bethlehem, weeps Ironically, the Christmas rose, with its surprising around a because she has nothing to offer the pure white flowers and festal superstitions grew up plant with such and Christ Child. She cannot even bring associations, is poisonous, as indicated mysterious magical Pliny the Elder recorded in his flowers for it is winter. An Angel leads by its scientific name, Helleborus niger powers. Natural in the first that her into the dark night and, touching (black hellebore). Helleborus is derived History century tf>e Greek or the cold ground, causes a flower to from two Greek words meaning "to rhizotomoi, root-gatherers, it to take spring up and blossom—the Christmas kill" and "food"; niger refers to the thought necessary great in hellebore: rose, called also the Christmas flower, plant's dark-colored root. The plant precautions gathering and Christe herbe. She fills her hands contains two glucosides, helleborin A circle is first traced around it with a sword, with the miraculous blooms and hurries and helleborein, both powerful poisons. after which, the person about to cut it turns with her that to The former is a narcotic and the latter back gift. From day towards the East, and offers up a prayer this, according to the legend, the flower a highly active cardiac poison, similar entreating permission of the gods to do so. At the same time he observes whether an blooms every year at Christmas; and, in its effect to digitalis. Used as a drug, eagle is in sight—for mostly while the plant in fact, it often does. the plant possesses drastic purgative is being gathered that bird is near at hand and anthelmintic properties but is —and if one should chance to fly close . . . is The Christmas rose a perennial, narcotic. it must violently Consequently, it is looked upon as a presage that he will with low-growing plant dark, shining, be used with great care and is usually die within the year. smooth leaves. The flower-stalks, with considered more dangerous than It wise to eat their white rise from was also considered blossoms, directly beneficial. It is occasionally used in garlic beforehand to ward off the the root. Despite the name, it is not a the cure of dropsy and has proved poisonous fumes and to drink wine true rose but a member of the useful in some nervous disorders and or every now and then, with "care being Ranunculaceae, buttercup, family, hysteria. It is also used in veterinary taken to the as the species of which often have flowers medicine. dig up plant speedily as Houses were resembling the wild rose in appearance. possible." protected from evil spirits ceremoniously It is native to the mountainous regions The ancient Greeks and Romans were by being strewn or perfumed with hellebore, of central and southern Europe, Greece, well aware of the poisonous nature of and cattle were similarly blessed to and Asia Minor and is cultivated in the Christmas rose, or hellebore, and ward off the of the wicked. The this as a In mild spells country garden plant. used it widely as a medicine. This use is winters the Gauls rubbed the points of their arrows plant flowers about of great antiquity and, for this reason, with it in the belief that it rendered Christmastime, even in the northern few plants are more surrounded with of the United States. of the game more tender. parts The time legend and superstition. Greek tradition blooming, however, depends largely holds that it was the shepherd and seer The Romans at first regarded hellebore on the weather. If the temperature is Melampus who first discovered its with horror but gradually came to favorable, the first flowers may open as virtues. He supposedly lived about accept it enthusiastically. Pliny wrote early as October or November; if not, 1500 B.C. and counted among his that in his time it had become "familiar" until the first they may delay opening accomplishments the ability to and was looked upon as possessing mild days of spring. In our Midwest understand the language of birds. area "mind-expanding" capabilities: there are reports of gardeners Melampus traveled into Egypt to study gathering the flowers on Christmas day, the art and there became healing . . . Studious men are in the habit of taking with the thermometer around hovering acquainted with the cathartic qualities it for the purpose of sharpening the the zero mark and intellectual their the blossoms hidden of hellebore by observing its effect on powers required by literary for under several inches of snow. It is investigations. Carneades, instance, more some goats that had fed upon it. He made use of hellebore when about to usual, however, to find them in the herb to cure the three spring. used answer the treatises of Zeno. daughters of Proteus, King of Argos, of a peculiar form of madness which The hellebore of Anticyra, in the Gulf Engraving of Helleborus niger (Christmas rose) of from Herbler Artificial, Paris, 1783. Drawn by caused them to run naked in the field Corinth, was then esteemed the best, Melle de St. Suire; engraved Fils. Ttiis by Dupin under the delusion that they were cows. and Pliny noted that Drusus, "the most bool< is in the Sterling Morton Library. Morton Arboretum. In some versions of the story the plant famous of all the tribunes of the BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 people," was cured of epilepsy there. Its fame was such that hypochondriacal persons were told to "take a trip to Anticyra"—Horace called a hopeless mental case "one that not three Anticyras could cure." It should be pointed out that it was not necessarily Helleborus niger to which all these wonderful virtues were ascribed, for there are a number of species of hellebore. It is believed that the hellebore of the ancients may have been H. orientalis; but the species which came to be used the most for magical and medicinal purposes was H. niger, which the famous herbalist Parkinson called the only "true and right kinde." Black hellebore continued to be used down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries very much as in ancient times. The herbalist Gerarde regarded it as a cure for mania and wrote that "a purgation of Hellebore ... is good for mad and furious men, for melancholy, dull, and heavie persons, and briefly, for all those that are troubled with black choler and molested with melancholy." Burton, in his famous Anatomy of Melancholy, introduces hellebore among the emblematical figures in his frontispiece with the following lines: Borage and Hellebore fill two scenes, Sovereign plants to purge the veins Of melancholy, and cheer the heart Of those black fumes which make it smart; To clear the brain of misty fogs, Which dull our senses, and soul clogs; Engraving of Helleborus niger (Christmas rose) by Nicoias Robert from Denis Dodard's £s(ampes pour The best medicine that e'er God made Servir a I'HIstoIre des Plantes, Paris, 1701. This book is in the Sterling Morton Library, Morton Arboretum. For this malady, if well assaid. It could cure The plant was much valued in medieval even such as seemed We seem to have come a long way times and after for keeping away possessed by the Devil and was from the hellebore of our predecessors therefore called Daemonum. on this with its and witches and evil spirits and breaking Fuga earth, magical spells and enchantments. Cattle that medicinal properties, to the Christmas It is curious to note that the celebrated had been bewitched or poisoned were rose of today, with its happy physician Paracelsus made great use of cured, according to Parkinson, in the associations, and, even if we can no hellebore. He believed that it could following way: longer value it for the virtues it does restore and to old youth vigor people not really possess, we can still admire A piece of root being drawne through a and advised that it should be gathered it for its hole made in the eare . . . cureth it, if it be beauty. when the moon was in one of her taken out the next day at the same houre. signs of conservation, dried in an east It was that hellebore could cure thought wind, powdered, and mixed with its W. Peyton Fawcett is head librarian, Field deafness caused witchcraft by and that own weight of sugar for best effect. Museum Library. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 Hanukkah Maurice I. Kliers — Legend has it that Alexander the represented by the Ner Tamid Great, as he swept through and "Eternal Light" in the Synagogue.) conquered the whole of the then However, according to a Jewish known world, approached Jerusalem at tradition, the oil lasted eight days. the head of his vast army. Instead of Thereafter, a holiday of eight days confronting him with armed forces as was established and called Hanukkah. did all other peoples, the Priests of Today in Jewish homes, and in Israel Judah, in their priestly white robes, also in public institutions, an went forth to greet him in peace. eight-branched Menorah or candelabra Behind this legend is the fact of the is lit on the 25th day of the Hebrew historic confrontation of two month of Kislev, or toward the middle civilizations: Hellenism and Judaism. of December. Alexander was not only a great In the first century before the common general. He was also a student of era there was a controversy between Aristotle, and spread Greek thought the Schools of Hillel and Shammai as a vital faith, and the until it blanketed the world. During his living God, to how the Menorah should be lit. sacredness of the human lifetime and for almost 200 years, personality. Shammai wanted all eight lights Judaism and Hellenism lived It has also been said that whereas the kindled on the first and one less in the holiness of night harmoniously and enriched each other Greeks believed on each succeeding evening. Hillel — In Judah. beauty, the Jews believed in the and this practice prevailed—wanted beauty of holiness. of the Antiochus, King Greco-Syrians one lit on the first night and one more and successor to a of It clash that portion was this cultural lay on each succeeding night. The Sages Alexander's empire, was not as wise. behind the war of the Maccabees. of the Talmud regarded this with the He, probably encouragement With their victory came a freedom to controversy as implying a difference of Jewish Hellenists in Judah, worship their God without paying between the pessimistic outlook and in 165 foist attempted B.C. to upon all homage to strange idols. This war of the optimistic. of the Judeans the Greek way of life— the Maccabees can therefore be its language, sports, garb, but also its considered the first fight man waged idolatry. for religious freedom and therefore has universal All who for Mathathias, a priest in the hamlet of significance. fight Modin, near Jerusalem, and his sons religious freedom owe a debt to the Maccabees. the Maccabees rebelled and began a guerilla war which lasted over two The Maccabean victory was years and was successful. undoubtedly inspired by religious faith, but it was also helped by the rising power from the West—Rome. Antiochus retreated from Judah to mend his fences back home and prepare for the struggle with Rome Hanukkah, then, is a holiday of light which loomed on their horizon. and joy and optimism, as well as religious freedom. Under the of Judah leadership Photos: Bench type Hanukkah lamps, with eight oil Maccabee, son and successor of receptacles in a row, plus the shammash (servant) above to light them. Hanukkah lamps developed the in Jerusalem Mathathias, Temple from a simple Roman oil lamp made of clay. The was cleansed and dedicated. bench type shows that Hanukkah was originally celebrated in the home only. When Hanukkah lights Hanukkah means "dedication" in were later kindled in the synagogue for wayfarers, the bench Hebrew. The Temple had been type could not be enlarged, and designers went to the candelabra shape of the old The rebels, also known as the polluted by the Greco-Syrians by virtue Menorah, adding two lights to it. Thus the Menorah type of Hanukkah lamp was created. Lett, Italian have the of idols into it. When Hasideans, may recognized having brought cast brass, c. 1600, in collection of Mr. and Mrs. splendor of Greek thought— its the Temple was cleansed, only one Milton Horn, Chicago; above and right, 19th and 18th century pewter, in Morton B. Weiss Museum small cruse of oil was found undefiled. philosophy, architecture, sculpture, of Judaica at K.A.M. Isaiah Israel Congregation, literature, and science. However, they Normally it would have lasted only one Chicago. " to It were committed that which was day. was used as a perpetual flame Dr. Maurice I. Kliers is Rabbi of the South, lacking in the Greek way of life: a in the Temple. (Today this light is Side Hebrew Congregation. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 Chinese dynasties referred to here: Kuo-hua, the Ming magistrate who Chou (1122-256 B.C.) ordered the stone cut, stated that it Uk0 Wang Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) had been engraved from a "true rang (618-907) picture" of Wang Wei's Wang Ch'uan Five Dynasties (907-960) done by Kuo Chung-shu. Kuo was a Sung (960-1279) talented Sung artist who followed in the Ch'uan Yuan (1280-1367) ((L footsteps of Wang Wei a few hundred Ming (1268-1643) later. But Shen did not make Ch'ing (1644-1911) years clear whether this Sung "true picture" the of one During process cataloging had been a painting or a rubbing. The chen of Field thousands of Chinese Museum's note Dr. Tchen came across later, Dr. Hoshien Tchen came rubbings, written by a Ch'ing scholar named a note which indicated that upon Wang Ting, stated that the 1617 edition another rubbing in the collection which chi was copied from a Sung stone carving. had previously been cataloged might be far more important than we had Even if the 1617 stone had been cut suspected earlier. from a painted copy by Kuo, it would be of great value. As a disciple who The rubbing of special interest, was said to have continued the earlier mounted on a hand scroll, shows long master's style of painting into the Sung Alice various scenes of what has often been period, Kuo would have rendered a true described as the estate of country likeness. But if Kuo's "true picture" Schneider Wei a famous Wang (687-759), T'ang were a rubbing, our 1617 copy and artist. It had been dynasty poet of it would be of still greater value taken from a stone engraved in 1617 to —because the Sung model would his known as the reproduce painting probably have been traced from the Ch'uan name he to Wang (the gave original for the express purpose of his and was entitled home) Wang rendering as true a likeness as the Ch'uan chen chi of ("true picture engraving technique permits. Thus did Wang Ch'uan"). the Chinese ensure preservation of a masterpiece, and also make We had long known that among the reproductions for collectors. several editions of Wang Ch'uan rubbings in the Field Museum I should point out that a specimen of Segments of Wang Ch'uan chen chi, rubbing collection, all from different stones, Chinese pictorial art may be a copy mounted on tiand scroll in Field Museum collection, taken from a 1617 stone engraving. Because and all engraved in the Ming and several times removed from what we Chinese tiand scrolls are read from right to left, Ch'ing periods, this one was particularly would call an "original" and still be this sequence should properly be viewed from page 10 "backward" to this page. fine. A preface in the scroll by Shen greatly valued. The late R. H. van BULLETIN DECEI^BER 1971 Gulick, a wise, discriminating student in the original. The art historian, as does not rule out the evidence that and collector of Chinese art, succinctly well as the art lover, could then look he also did an engraving. expressed how "the traditional Chinese upon this 1617 rubbing as a fairly view ... is fundamentally different from accurate statement of a painting Many artists made free-hand copies of insist that a ours. While we picture considered by the Chinese themselves the original Wang Ch'uan. One such is the to of their most and actually painted by man whose be one important, painting, and famous in its own right, signature it bears or whom it is one that has not been seen for is an eighteen-foot-long hand scroll ascribed to, the Chinese have hundreds of years. in the British Museum by Chao considered throughout the centuries Meng-fu (1254-1322). In an inscription this as a point of secondary importance; In a 1914 article John C. Ferguson following his signature on the painting, for them works of art serve in the first it to claimed that "the earliest copy [of the he acknowledges be a "free" to and transmit place preserve faithfully IVang Ch'uan] which has come down copy; and it is important to look upon the of the spirit [original] artists, they to our present time is that of Kuo these "free" copies as just that. did not care whether this particularly Chung-shu of the Sung Dynasty," and While a masterpiece, and supposedly aim was achieved or by originals by that he had had the privilege of based upon the T'ang model, the bona-fide good, copies." studying its details and found that they painting reflects many of the tallied with a description of our 1617 characteristics attributed to the Yuan Why, then, should we attach so much rubbing of the Wang Ch'uan published period of painting. And it is, as Chao importance to whether the model for by Berthold Laufer. (Most of Field implies, an example of his virtuosity. this 1617 rubbing was a painting or Museum's rubbings were collected in a rubbing? the early 1900s by Dr. Laufer, who In an exhibit of late Ming and early We are, of course, primarily interested became one of the Museum's most Ch'ing painters recently shown at the in authenticating as well as cataloging renowned curators for his wide Art Institute of Chicago, there was a hand and preserving our materials. But we knowledge of East Asia.) Ferguson also scroll entitled Wang Ch'uan Villa. It are also, to paraphrase Dr. Tchen, commented that Kuo, out of respect was painted by Wang Yuan-ch'i "interested in opening questions that for the earlier master, would never have (1642-1715). The accompanying other researchers may pursue on a permitted himself the freedom of catalog to the exhibition mentioned deeper basis," for these rubbings are imitating only the style of Wang Wei; that it was based on a "1617 engraved source materials—the bare facts of such a copy would be called a fan version of the famous Wang Ch'uan Chinese history and culture. In this painting. Kuo made a lin pen, which composition attributed to Wang Wei," instance, it can readily be seen why term (used in an inscription on the which Wang Yuan-ch'i referred to as a a model for the 1617 rubbing which painting) means a faithful reproduction "popular stone engraving." Though his was itself a rubbing would be of greater copied directly from the original, picture too is a "free" copy, it is value for our understanding of the perhaps traced. This painting is now interesting that of the several rubbings original than would a model which was housed in the Metropolitan Museum. from various stones available in the a free-hand copy, permitting distortions The fact that Kuo Chung-shu made a seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, or expressions of the copyist not found painted copy of the Wang Ch'uan as well as painted copies, he chose Wang Ch'uan this 1617 version as his model. periods—politically, militarily, enjoyed. In the long annals of Chinese economically, and artistically. The art criticism, he is almost without China has produced many major country was unified and strong, its criticism. In fact, it was said that painters, both before and after Wang borders and influence extended far, when Wang Wei painted a banana tree Wei, but he has a unique place in the and the arts reflected this vitality. growing in snow, it was plausible. long history of China's pictorial art Although the T'ang dynasty is perhaps None of his paintings exist today. It is in that he has been credited with better known by collectors and art questionable whether any paintings of creating the Ch'an (Zen in Japanese) museums in the West for its tomb T'ang artists still exist; those which Buddhist school of landscape painting. pieces of majestic human and animal claim to be T'ang are suspect. It is It came to be known as the figures, it was for the Chinese their therefore with great respect and "Southern" in contrast to the great period of poetry and calligraphy. reverence that we turn to the copies "Northern" school. These are not It was also a period of innovation in of early masterpieces—either paintings geographical terms; rather, they painting, greatly influenced by Taoism or the rubbings from engraved copies. express styles and approaches—the and Buddhism, when new patterns of "Southern" ink-washes and What are using light tradition became established. exactly rubbings? relying upon intuition and suggestion, For one thing, most Chinese rubbings as against the stricter attitude of color Wang Wei was one of these are not rubbed. The term "rubbings" over outline preferred by the innovators. He was a successful usually means to us an image "Northern." These distinctions, as so physician and poet in his earty produced by placing paper over a often happens, were really twenties. He served briefly as an hard surface and actually rubbing the interpretations by artists and art assistant minister to the Emperor back with chalk or crayon to get an critics of following periods, but they Hsuan Ts'ung until imprisoned for a impression of the engraved or relief set Chinese landscape painting into time by rebel forces. After his young design underneath. This is how we two models—not truly always clear wife died when he was only thirty-one, might, for instance, take a rubbing of from each other—and for one he retired to a country villa. There he a coin or an old gravestone. But the thousand years followers of the two spent the remaining thirty years of his Chinese have for centuries used a schools vied with each other on merits. life in the meditations of Buddhism, much more refined technique, which writing poetry, and painting. Wang Thus, the that the 1617 is technically called ink squeeze. possibility Wei's poems are said to be paintings, stone could have been from an The paper is applied wet, gently copied and his paintings poems. The scenes stone could be tamped into the engraved parts, and early Sung as exciting he painted and often accompanied to the Chinese art historian as would before it is completely dry India ink is with poetry were largely of the be the of evenly and patted over the discovery a new fossil beautiful landscape of the Lan-tien carefully to a surface. When the is species paleontologist. District of Shensi Province in paper peeled off, that which covered the northern China. only part Why did Wang Wei and his period, the raised elements of the hard surface such It Tang, assume importance? There has been an adulation given to appears black. Thus we usually see was one of China's most expansive Wang Wei few Chinese artists have white lines on a black background BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 because the design on the stone is themselves, a form of preservation of "mass medium." By the Sung usually incised. When the impression what the Chinese considered their period, rubbings of famous is taken from a surface with the design finest expression—writings—which calligraphies were already sought in raised relief, the print will appear were esteemed above all else. after as collectors' items. as black on white. If the hard surface art It is said that to ensure to By the Ming dynasty, pictorial had from which the rubbing is taken is posterity the truth of the Confucian classics, reached such a state of perfection that fairly smooth, like bronze or wood, the which had been distorted by there was little new to be said or print may be difficult to distinguish many for. critics have of copyists, the Han reached Many from a wood-block print, which is made generations it a of artistic Ling had these classics considered period by inking the block and pressing Emperor collated and standardized once and decline, including some who lived in it on the paper. the the for all by ordering that they be Ming. By same token, reverence for the older masters The Chinese wet process for taking engraved in stone, and thus began the and of rubbings does not imply that they wish great stone carvings of China which increased, engravings old as well as of to go out of their way to make a lasted over two thousand years. paintings, engravings seemingly simple process complicated; calligraphy, became more common Not so. The tradition is much the wet process gives a more probably and also sought after as collectors' in older. Still extant are stone items. Some of these if successful print. It does not smudge Peking prints, carvings that are memorials in rendered a (unless poorly done), and if the poetic by good engraver, were form to a great success. It is valued above rubbing is carefully stored—better yet, military contemporary paintings — now thought that they date from the or free-hand of older mounted and stored it can survive copies paintings, for centuries. seventh or eighth century B.C. But it possibly because they were truer is that conceivable carving in stone likenesses of the originals. We have mounted rubbings in our began even earlier. The skills of the and collection going back to the Sung copyist engraver Quite the Chinese invented in a of or period. In fact, many of these rubbings possibly transmitting style painting have survived the stones from which paper because they were looking for calligraphy are of utmost importance. a material which lent itself to In there were court they were taken, primarily because print early days special in order to extend the who worked for they were easier to care for. making engravers exclusively engravings. Silk had been tried very the emperor. Later it became a proud It should be pointed out here that early without much success. In any trade, and very often we will find the engravings on hard surfaces did not event, there is strong evidence that name of the engraver as well as that begin with the objective of taking by the third century A.D. paper had of the calligrapher or painter cut into rubbings. In fact, the Chinese had been perfected well enough to make stone. Engravings, depending on been engraving in bronze as well as rubbings, and that by the fifth century, the detail, demand much time and stone long before paper was invented when European countries were still infinite patience. To reproduce the in the second century, permitting struggling with sheepskins, the Chinese original as exactly as possible, a rubbings. Engravings were objectives in were producing rubbing prints as a tracing of it must first be made and BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 Wang Ch'uan transferred onto the stone, then the engraver of the new stone. We are more than 300 years old—and fairly carved into it. The technique can encouraged regarding the accuracy well preserved only because these pick up the calligraphic lines of a of this 1617 edition by all these regrettably strict measures are taken. painting but must sacrifice the freedom testimonials; plus the fact that the A few are on permanent display, of the brush stroke, and cannot Sung copyist was a fine artist and however, in the China exhibits on the possibly reproduce the nuances of ink disciple of the Wang Wei "Southern" second floor. wash (although attempts to do so school; plus the knowledge that the have been made). The harsh nature print of this Sung edition used as a of stone does not easily yield the model was borrowed from a REFERENCES fluid lines created by a brush, but recognized collector. some results are amazing. Catalog cards, nos. 116203 and 245473, East Asian Study, Field Museum. Good rubbings are no longer easy to of the from the obtain, and are not The quality rubbing certainly John C. Ferguson. "Wang Ch'uan." of the from 1617 stone indicates that the copyist inexpensive. Many stones Ostasiatische Zeitschrilt, vol. 3, no. 1, 1914. and engraver knew their trades well. which they were made are gone or Berthold Laufer. "The Wang Ch'uan T'u, A This judgment is confirmed in the scroll unavailable and the craft of the engraver Landscape of Wang Wei," Ostasiatische itself. The prefatory remarks written is dying out. Quite likely it is Zeitschrift, vol. 1, no. 1, 1912. on the scroll by Shen Kuo-hua (who already gone. We are therefore had the stone cut) first explain that fortunate at Field Museum to have T. H. Tsien. Written on Bamboo and Silk: Ttie of Chinese Booths and when he was magistrate of Lan-tien received from Dr. Berthold Laufer one Beginnings Inscriptions. University of Chicago Press, he discovered that the of the best and most District, copy encompassing 1962. there of Wang Wei's Wang Ch'uan —collections of rubbings ever assembled was coarse and not other a R. LItt.D. painting looking including, among things, H. van Gulik, (trans.) — even representative of the Wang prize in the 1617 edition of the Scrapbook for Chinese Collectors A Chinese Treatise on Scrolls and Ch'uan landscape. He goes on to state VJang Ch'uan chen chi. Forgers by Shu-hua-shuo-ling. Beirut, 1958. that he ordered Wang Wei's "true in collection picture" the owned by As a postscript about Chinese Roderick Whitfield. In Pursuit ot Antiquity. Yang Pai-fu be cut on stone, this rubbings in general, perhaps it should Catalog of Chinese paintings of the Ming and from the collection of "true picture" being a copy made by be noted that the mulberry paper used Ch'ing Dynasties Mr. and Mrs. Earl Morse published by the Kuo Chung-shu (Sung dynasty); that is very delicate and highly responsive Art Museum of Princeton University, 1969. Kuo Sou-lu was appointed to copy it to changes of temperature and light. for the new stone carving; and that Rubbings should therefore be exhibited his fine work is praised for being an as sparingly as possible, and with exact copy of the Sung dynasty edition. caution. While a few of the rubbings Alice Schneider is volunteer assistant to Dr. Several colophons of appreciation also in Field Museum's collection go back Hoshien Tchen, consultant to Field follow the picture, including one by to the Sung period, most are of — Museum's East Asian Study, Department the collector Yang Pai-fu and one by comparatively recent vintage not of Anthropology. for our well being and to bless the feast of which we were about to partake. What a feast it was! You have had tamales made of cornmeal with meat inside. We had nacatamales—super tamales. The cooked cornmeal, called masa, has mixed into it lard, onion, garlic, green pepper, pimiento, salt, and the bright yellow achiote powder which gives color. This mixture is spread on pieces of banana leaf. Then chopped turkey meat, boiled rice, cooked chick peas, diced raw potato, green olives, capers, and even raisins are placed on top. The tamale is A Latin American Christmas rolled up and wrapped in the banana and in a kettle Terua Williams leaf, tied, placed big to steam over boiling water. When the leaves are well cooked, so are the Tegucigalpa, Honduras ornaments. The tree has become a nacatamales. One alone is a meal, December 25 part of Christmas here only in recent but that was just one course. years. El nacimiento, the traditional Dear Mother and Dad, which is nativity scene, always present Then came the time to open the gifts It was four o'clock this morning before in Latin American homes on this piled under the tree. This custom is we turned the covers down and holiday, was arranged on a table near ours, not theirs, and Santa Claus was crawled into bed. We have been the tree. The figures of this one were introduced to them by us. Before Santa celebrating Christmas as guests of our of finely carved wood. Sometimes they Claus was imported children believed Guatemalan friends the M6ridas, now are made of porcelain, and sometimes that the Three Kings were the bearers residing here in Honduras. Christmas are of and they crudely shaped clay of gifts—and not on Christmas Day, Eve, Noche Buena, rather than colors. the painted bright Always but on the Twelfth Night. In many Christmas Day is the high point of includes the scene Holy Family, the places children still put grass out to this joyous occasion. At midnight the Three Kings, the shepherds, and the feed the animals the Three Kings ride. bells in all the church towers began animals. Over the years various They awake next morning to find the to peal and the sky caught fire with members add family usually houses, grass gone and gifts left in its place. flares and reverberated with rockets to trees, and other figures and objects remind us of the to the World" Throughout the twelve days of "Joy until the nacimiento becomes a village. that the Christ Child was born. Christmas the paranda custom leads message They use Spanish moss, tiny succulent to an this and needles for many all-night party. During From the moment we arrived at the plants, lichens, pine or the period anyone any group knocking outskirts of town landscaping. The bromeliads that early yesterday at a door at hour must be invited come into bloom in December any we felt the festive mood. here, evening in and served with leaves and refreshments, and the Children were off fire shiny green bright already setting housewife must be with red as well as the prepared crackers. Christmas and Easter are bracts, poinsettias and music. The that so cookies, drink, the two of the when grow luxuriantly, sometimes as holidays year seasonal is are used to beverage rompope, which families down here make a hedges, decorate homes great a bottle of and churches. And often the floors requires aguardiente (raw effort to be and we were so together, ten a are with rum), egg yolks, quart of milk, to be invited to our friends' sprinkled long green pine happy join ten of needles. tablespoons sugar, some for this Noche Buena family group cinnamon, and vanilla. when we ourselves were far from The church we went to for midnight Since home. Coronel M6rida, dona Lola, we couldn't share your Christmas mass was perfumed with candles and Aida, Carmen Rosa, and Marco were this year, we want to share ours with pine needles and incense. The all at the threshold to greet us with you. candle-lit mass is called misa del a Feliz Navidad! With love, Rua gallo, for the cock is supposed to We rather expected to have a crow at midnight. At the end of the Terua Williams is a volunteer in the traditional Guatemalan Christmas plus service we were all given lighted Department of Botany and the wile ot —because the M6ridas had lived candles to carry down the aisle and Dr. Louis O. Williams, chairman ot the some years in New Orleans and so out into the night as the bells peeled Department ot Botany, Field Museum. This had some of our northern and the fireworks rained starlets down adopted letter recalls a Christmas she and her Christmas customs. And so it was. above our heads. When we arrived husband spent in Latin America. The A in this of huge pine tree filling one corner of home spirit joy we knelt illustration is trom her own linoleum the living room was decorated with before the nacimiento to give thanks block cut. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 11 Shall we inherit the whirlwind? John Clark Hurricane Ginger in its dying phases shows as a broad, white cloud mass. A zone of clear weather (dark area) lies between the rotating mass of the hurricane and the normal cloud systems. The enormous heat energy which drives the rotating storm system has been moved by the storm from near Jamaica northwestward to Virginia. Hurricane Ginger, which hit the coast and property when a major hurricane atmospheric circulation system. of North Carolina this fall, was a large strikes our coast. Project Stormfury The of the but only moderately nasty girl. appears to be one of the wisest circulating part atmosphere Hurricane Ginger was also one of investments our government makes. is a fluid film only a few miles thick very few hurricanes that have been Its studies of the nature of hurricanes surrounding our globe. The power that seeded with silver iodide or other have enormously expanded our drives it is convection, the same power that of simmer particles, with the aim of moderating knowledge of them. With understanding makes a pot water a their power. has come increased ability to predict over burner. their courses. This alone has saved Now there is serious whether question Power for the convection more money than the project costs. major system or not the treatment was effective. is generated by the difference in Ginger was already very old, as But is it wise to learn to dissipate temperature between the tropics and hurricanes and showed several go, air over hurricanes? I wonder. the poles. Warm boils upward abnormal characteristics. The experts the equator, passes through a series who supervise Project Stormfury, the " What is a hurricane anyway? We all of "simmers, and eventually cools off federal agency which observes and know that it Is a violent, rotating near the poles. If you put one end of tries to temper hurricanes, must study storm which follows an erratic path. a long, flat pan over a low burner the results carefully before they can What else is it? Therein lies the real and fill the pan with a couple of inches say just what the results of seeding problem. In order to understand, we of water, you can see the same thing were. must see hurricanes not as separate happen. If the heat is great, a single If we consider the tragic loss of life entities, but as part of Earth's "boil" (technically, a convection cell) 12 BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 This greatly simpllfled diagram shows the global pattern of air convectlor) at the earth's surface. This Is modified by the secondary, continental-oceanic system and by many lesser Influences. The cooling, down-moving air masses at the poles and warming, upward-moving air masses at the equator are separated by a second "simmer" or convection cell in each hemisphere. develops over the whole pan. Turn the heat down, and several "simmers" (smaller convection cells) appear. This more nearly resembles the situation in our atmosphere. Notice that the system is three-dimensional. Until air travel became common, we always thought of winds and storms as at the bottom of our air film—on Earth's surface. Nowadays anyone who has ridden a jet airliner knows that the atmosphere moves up, down, and sideways at all elevations. A second and smaller convection arises due to the difference in temperature between continents and oceans. The continents are warmer than their neighboring oceans in summer, and colder in winter. This sets up a lesser system of air movement, which modifies but doesn't supersede the main one. Hurricanes do not constitute a meteorological island, sufficient unto themselves. They are an integral part of Earth's orderly system of convective heat circulation. Most of them occur during autumn and spring, just as the Arctic temperatures are changing, and as the secondary continental-oceanic system is changing. Hurricanes receive billions of horsepower of energy from warm subtropical seas and transfer United States would develop disastrous The worst possibility, and one that it northward and generally landward, November cold waves. Perhaps cutting seems quite unlikely, is that equatorial to areas of colder air and, naturally, off the hurricanes would trigger a heat might build up until it produced a less energy. change in the whole wind pattern. super-hurricane which we could not Since winds drive the major ocean stop, tvluch more probably, some What would happen if Project Stormfury currents, even a minor change in notable changes would occur in our should find a way of stopping prevailing winds would change the winter weather. Since the warm-air hurricanes in their tracks? Politically, direction of the ocean currents. We movement would be forced into the we can be sure that from that day the climate of Europe. upper atmosphere, we might well onward all hurricanes would be might change We simply do not know, and can't experience bitterly cold winters here stopped. We cannot imagine a predict! at Earth's surface. government deciding to stop one hurricane but not another—that would If this interests you enough to try the I cannot help wondering if it is wise have political consequences of experiment I mentioned before, with of us to tamper with one of the hurricane proportions. a flat pan over a burner, you might try mightiest forces in Nature before we the burner to a low know what we are We And what would happen to Earth's turning simmer, doing. may then placing the blade of a indeed, in the words of Hosea, sow the weather patterns if all hurricanes were or a in wind and inherit the whirlwind. stopped? No one knows, and no one pancake-turner pie-lifter different positions near the can possibly predict. Perhaps there simmering area. Watch how the flow of water would be no appreciable change. Dr. John Clark is associate curator of changes. Very roughly that is what sedirDentary petrology, Department ot Perhaps the climate of southeastern suppressing hurricanes might do. Geology, Field Museum. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 1> use both Dr. Karel Liem Back at Museum water through the gills. They can methods of breathing interchangeably, Dr. Karel Liem, associate curator of while other cichlids and non-cichlids must vertebrate has returned to Field — anatomy, rely on just one mechanism i.e., pumping a Museum after a year of study abroad on action of the cheeks Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Dr. Liem was educated in Indonesia, the fellowship. Netherlands, and the United States, and Dr. Liem spent seven months in London holds a Ph.D. in zoology from the University five in at the British Museum and months of Illinois, Urbana. He joined the Museum the Netherlands at the University of Leyden staff in 1965. He also teaches anatomy studying the morphology and evolution of at the University of Illinois College of cichlid fishes in Africa's Lake Tanganyika. Medicine and has collaborated on or The British Museum possesses the largest authored some 20 publications on collection in the world of cichlid fish; vertebrate anatomy. He is a member of the the University of Leyden has the best National Academy of Science's Committee in the world for laboratory equipment on Latimeria (to study the coelacanth, a analyzing muscle function. primitive fish previously thought to be extinct). Cichlid fishes in Lake Tanganyika have New Trustee undergone explosive evolution over Gordon Bent, well known Chicago business approximately the last two million years. Staff Appointments man, has been elected a Trustee of the Field About five originally riverine species Museum of Natural History. Remick evolved into 135 lacustrine species. McDowell, Museum president, made the Evolution has occurred so quickly that all announcement following a recent meeting stages of that evolution are found in the of the Board of Trustees. lake—the original riverine species as well as intermediate stages and highly and Bent is general partner syndicate specialized species. manager of Bacon, Whipple & Company. He has been associated with the firm since Dr. Liem is interested in determining why cichlids but no other fishes in the lake 1946. In the past, he has held the important have had such a burst of evolution. "A posts of: governor of the Midwest Stock of the Exchange from 1967 to 1968; governor from study of comparative anatomy fishes, the said 1956 to 1960 and chairman in 1959 and particularly feeding mechanisms," Dr. Liem, "may shed some light on the problem." Dr. Liem noted that the ancestral form was omnivorous—a general feeder—while the descendents have Dr. Robert Inger Norman Nelson specialized feeding habits and developed Two staff members have been appointed to adaptive mechanisms. Some cichlid the position of assistant director. The said Dr. Liem, now swallow other species, changes are aimed at consolidating the fish whole, some scrape algae from rocks, Museum organization to prepare for the some crush snails, some eat only scales institution of two long term projects of vital of other fish, and some eat only fish eggs. importance to Field Museum in the coming decades: the $25 million capital fund In mouth-breeding cichlids, the female campaign and a major building rehabilitation incubates the eggs in her month until they Gordon Bent program. hatch, and for some time after hatching 1960 of the Association of Stock return to her mouth for Chicago the young Dr. Robert F. Inger, formerly chairman of and national Exchange Firms; governor protection. One of the many interesting Scientific Programs, becomes assistant to 1966 and chairman in 1962 of has from 1964 species that feed upon mouth-breeders director. Science and Education. The National Association of Securities mouth and the evolved a large-lipped very scientific, exhibition and education Dealers. small the fish teeth, enabling predator departments, and the library, come under his to the head of the mouth-breeder grasp jurisdiction. his civic activities, Bent serves as Among in its jaws and suck out the eggs and vice and member of the board of president young fish. Norman W. Nelson, formerly business Center. directors of the Chicago Maternity manager, is assistant director. A special problem presented by Administration. His area of authority mouth-breeders that Dr. Liem solved at embraces the financial, sen/ice and Retire Three the University of Leyden was. How does administration functions of the Museum, staff or Three members of the maintenance the female fish respire while eggs young including the operation of the building. retired recently after a total of 77 years' are in her mouth? Fish respire by pumping "The organization and service to the Museum. Mrs. Allener water through the gills, usually by using present departmental will remain unaffected," Nathaniel was with the Museum for 16 the pumping action of the cheeks. By internal operations electrodes to individual said Director E. Leiand Webber. "These years; Stephen Kovar served on the staff attaching tiny have been made to strengthen our for 41 years; and Tomasz Turley has retired muscles of live cichlids and charting changes Dr. Liem discovered that administration functions and to continue after 20 years. The Museum is grateful to muscle activity. decentralization of for Museum these people for their long service and for mouth-breeders can also use the pumping responsibility and decision the fine caliber of their work. action of the chin (gular region) to force operations making." 14 BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 Capital Campaign "Note On Gibsoniothamnus" (Volume 34, "Descriptions of Some Tadpoles From No. 5) by Alwyn H. Gentry, Missouri Thailand" (Volume 58, No. 7) by W. Ronald Field Museum has received a capital gift Botanical Garden, St. Louis. Publication Heyer, Biology Department, Pacific Lutheran of one million dollars from an anonymous 1138. $.75. University. Publication 1133. $.75. Chicagoland donor. Announcement of the "Flora Costaricensis" (Volume 35) by gift was made by Nicholas Galitzine and "A Redescription of Amphiprion nigripes William C. associate curator of Marshall Field, chairman and vice chairman, Burger, Regan, a Valid Species of Anemonefish vascular plants. Field Museum. Publication respectively, of the Museum's Capital (Family Pomocentridae) from the Indian to raise million 1140. $10. Campaign tw/enty-five Ocean" (Volume 58, No. 8) by Gerald R. dollars. Geology Allen, Department of Zoology, University of Hawaii, and Bernice P. Bishop Museum; This is the largest gift received since the "Notes on the Siluro-Devonian Ischadiles and Richard N. Mariscal, Department of Museum launched the first capital stellatus (Fagerstrom 1961), a Biological Science, Florida State University. campaign in its twenty-eight-year history Dasycladaceous Alga" (Volume 23, No. 3) Publication 1136. $.75. on September 20. "We are elated by the by Matthew H. Nitecki, associate curator, of this donor," said generosity Galitzine, fossil invertebrates. Field Museum. "Auditory Region in Bats Including "and only wish that we could reveal the Publication 1134. $.75. Icaronycteris index" (Volume 58, No. 9) by that identity so we might express our Walter research Field "Revision of the Holocystites Fauna Segall, associate. thanks publicly." Museum. Publication 1137. (Diploporita) of North America" (Volume 24) $.75. This gift brings the total contributions by Christopher R. C. Paul, assistant received in the campaign to more than professor of geology, Indiana University $4,200,000. Northwest. Publication 1135. $8. Fifty Years on Museum Staff Funds obtained through the campaign will "Catalogue of Type and Referred Specimens be used to repair and improve the of Crinozoa (Blastoidea) in Field Museum of Museum's fifty-year-old building, renovate Natural History" (Volume 23, No. 4) by Julia and modernize exhibit areas, and improve Golden, custodian of types, fossil visitor services and educational facilities. invertebrates. Field Museum, and Matthew H. Nitecki, associate curator, fossil "We this deeply appreciate splendid gift," invertebrates, Field Museum. Publication said Museum Director E. Leiand Webber. 1139. $1. "It lends encouraging support to our confidence that Chicagoans in the 1970s Zoology will contribute as they did in 1893, when "The Viperid Snake Azmiops; its so many persons contributed to the Comparative Cephalic Anatomy and founding of a great museum for the city." Phylogenetic Position in Relation to Viperinae and Crotalinae" (Volume 59, No. 2) by Karel F. Liem, associate curator of Fieldiana anatomy. Field Museum and associate of of Illinois The following Issues of Fieldiana have been professor anatomy. University Medical Center, recently published and are available for Chicago; Hymen Marx, associate curator of amphibians and purchase from the Museum's Publications Anthony Patteri, who joined the maintenance staff Division. reptiles, Field Museum; and George B. of Field Museum in October of 1921. recently 60 —a lifetime—with Rabb, research associate, Field Museum celebrated years working the Museum. Fieldiana is a continuing series of scientific and associate director of research and and with papers monographs dealing education, Chicago Zoological Society, anthropology, botany, geology, and zoology Brookfield. Publication Number 1126. $3. Backyard Safari published by Field Museum. Prices cited "Revision of do not reflect the 10 percent discount the Termitophilous Tribe A "Backyard Safari" gets underway each available to Members of the Museum. Philotermitini (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)" Sunday at 8:00 a.m. on WBBM-TV Publication Number should be used when (Volume 58, No. 4) by David H. Kistner, (Channel 2). This unique series of half-hoof Shinner Institute for the of Interrelated the ordering. Study programs for children focuses on Insects, Department of Biology, Chicago natural history of the Chicago area. State Publication 1128. $.75. will December Botany College. Future programs explore: 12, Cats; December 19, Dogs; December 26, "Flora of Peru" (Volume XIII, Part V-B, No. 3) "New Distributional Records of Bats from Heat; 2, The Sun; 9, Gabriel January January by Edwin, associate professor of Iran" (Volume 58, No. 3) by Anthony F. Recycling. biology, Roosevelt University, and former DeBlase, Field Museum. Publication 1129. associate curator of vascular plants. Field $.75. "Backyard Safari" is produced cooperatively Museum. Publication 1125. $10. by WBBM-TV, the Chicago Board of "The Auditory Region (Ossicles, Sinuses) in Education, and Field Museum. "Revision of the Genus Morganella Gliding Mammals and Selected (Lycoperdaceae)" (Volume 34, No. 3) by Representatives of Non-Gliding Genera" Patricio de Ponce Leon, assistant curator, (Volume 58, No. 5) by Walter Segall, Jade for Sale cryptogamic herbarium. Field Museum. research associate, vertebrate anatomy. The Museum Book has a wide Publication 1127. $1. Field Museum. Publication 1130. $1.25. Shop selection of jade jewelry— rings, pins, "A New Species of Juniperus from Mexico" "Mating Calls of Some Frogs From pendants, bracelets—and carvings for sale. (Volume 34, No. 4) by Marion T. Hall, Thailand" (Volume 58, No. 6) by W. Ronald Price range is from $5 to $50. Members director. The Morton Arboretum, Lisle. Heyer, Biology Department, Pacific Lutheran of the Museum receive a ten percent Publication 1131. $1. University. Publication 1132. $1. discount on all purchases. BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 IB carefully read the photograph captions and Mrs. Johnstone wisely chose not to make discover details that are pointed out in the this another identification manual—these adjacent pictures. Finally, one can read the exist in ample number for all levels of text that goes along with each chapter. interest. Rather, she attempts to lead the The writing is easy to follow, conversational amateur from the stage of collecting, in style, and not highly technical. One can, willy-nilly, the pretty exoskeletons of that nevertheless, learn a good deal about vast animal phylum termed the Mollusca to aspects of the earth's weather systems, a serious study of the inhabitants which oceanography, and geology. constructed the shells and the environments : in which they live. At any of these three levels it is a book to In fascinating go through. one photo Many of the 26 chapters in her book cover can see a line you actually straight marking the basics, from what a seashell is, what the political boundary between Israel and mollusks are, the details of where and how The Israeli side is a Egypt. blue-gray color; to collect, cleaning and curing, through the the Egyptian side is pale tan. The colors important though often neglected tasks of reflect the differences in land use. In Israel record-keeping and cataloging, to hints on the land is in cultivated and irrigated; display and exhibition. What sets this book it is the desert of the adjacent Egypt off from most of its predecessors is the This Island Earth In a nomads. another photo you can see repeated urging for the amateur to turn his Oran W. Nicks, ed. National Aeronautics straight line marking the political boundary attention from the spectacular to the and Space Administration Special between New Mexico and Texas. No one is commonplace, to observe and record the Publication 250. D.C.: U.S. certain it should this Washington, really why show up biological facts of the living animal. The Government Printing Office, 1970. 182 pp. way in a photograph, but it may have scientific contribution of amateurs in other Indexed. $6. to do with differences in water- something phases of natural history is well known, and use laws between these two states. Such this reviewer has felt that the elevation of Men have been fascinated always by high the others discussed photos, among many the amateur in malacology is long overdue. places: the view from a skyscraper, out of an in the book, illustrate some of the economic The title of Mrs. Johnstone's 19th — window, from the summit of a chapter airplane uses of satellite-based color photography. "Stop, Look, and Learn"—might well be mountain. There is a quality about seeing taken as a watchword for all amateur the world out beneath us that causes spread The book suffers only slightly from technical naturalists, both in the field and in a museum. most of us to entranced. This Island stare, defects. Only one photo is badly out of Earth is a book that a deal of captures great color register and is quite blurred. In general Six full-color photographs and numerous this for here is a entrancing quality; large the book is well done. It is hard-bound, black-and-white and line collection of color taken from photographs photographs printed on durable glossy paper, and its drawings illustrate the book. Rounding out the ultimate of all —the high places orbiting format size, 9 by 1 1 V* inches, is large so the volume are sections on suggested satellite. that one does not get a cramped feeling for reading, museum and aquarium exhibits, the panoramic views contained in it. In fact, Most of us have seen a few photographs and an annotated bibliography. I wish the some photographs are spread out over taken from the several orbiting vehicles of author had given a bit more information on double pages, offering a truly expansive the Gemini and Apollo programs. This book, the attractive endpapers, reproduced from a look. At its modest price, this book is well however, contains hundreds of them, almost copy of Historia Naturale di Ferrante in the worth adding to any home library. all in color. The book is divided into seven collection of the Museum of Comparative each a Harvard The chapters, emphasizing particular The title comes from the Apollo 10 Zoology, University. matter: the earth's will lead the interested reader photographic subject astronauts as they looked "over their bibliography the North field of marine atmosphere, the seas, lands. shoulders" at Earth dropping away behind into the much broader visible works of man. The and the America, opening them, a lovely white-frosted sapphire floating biology oceanography, ecological deals with our solar in of which serious attention chapter system alone in a sea of cold, black space. That aspects require with some excellent color shots of from all The general Earth is truly an "island" there can no intelligent persons today. some of the and the final three-fourths of this covered planets, chapter longer be any doubt. In these days of planet by discusses and illustrates the several marine waters is at least as for impending ecological tragedy it is perhaps important projected NASA space programs planned, desirable that we be reminded of this life as the one-fourth covered by land that or over the next few we live on. hoped for, years. fact—again and again. Like all NASA projects, this is a team- by Dr. Edward J. Olsen, curator of by Ernest J. Roscoe, lecturer in the written book. Team writing usually turns out mineralogy in the Department of Geology, Department of Education's Raymond badly; however, NASA has become so expert Field Museum. Foundation, Field Museum. at team efforts that this book reads particularly well. One is never conscious of severe changes in style. This is, of course, Collecting Seashells a tribute to the editor, Oran Nicks. Kathleen Johnstone. New York: By Yerger Please address all letters to the editor to Grosset & Dunlap, 1970. 198 pp. $5.95. The book can be at three levels. enjoyed Bulletin One can simply leaf through the Shell collecting, which has always enjoyed Field Museum of Natural History and the a considerable amateur photographs enjoy spectacular popularity among Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive views from hundreds of miles up above the naturalists, seems to be on the increase, to Chicago, Illinois 60605 atmosphere. To see how a major river, a judge from the ever-growing number of to mountain range, or a sea of atoll reefs books appearing on the market devoted The editors reserve the right to edit appear from such a height is a delightful this hobby. What merits the addition of yet letters for length. experience. One can, on the other hand. another volume on the subject? 1B BULLETIN DECEMBER 1971 Hour* may participate. Journey sheets are B a.m. to 4 p.m. Monday ttirough Tliuraday; available at Museum entrances. Through 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. Friday: 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. February 29. Saturday and Sunday. Dacambar 27 through SO, B a.m. to 5 p.m. Cloaad Chrlatmaa Day and Naw Yaar'a Day. Musical Program The MuMum la 9 a.m. to 4 Library open p.m. December 5 Monday through Friday. Please obtain paa* at reception deak, main floor north. Metropolitan Youth Symphony presents a free concert at 2:30 p.m. in the CALENDAR James Simpson Theatre. Film and Tour Program December 18 Decemt>er 1 through December 24 Christmas "Winter Greens," a self-guided tour, Muslcale, presented by the Stein of designed to acquaint visitors with plants Family Ensemble Strings and Voices, that are p>opular during the Christmas from 1:30 to 3 p.m. in the North Lounge. season. Free tour sheets are available at Museum entrances. Coming in January December 27 December 31 Opens January 11 Exhibits through an "Through These Doors," a color film Coco-de-mer, exhibit of the world's Through December 31 focusing on behind-the-scenes activities at largest seed and its use by man, on The Afro-Amertcan Style, From the Design in the South the Museum, is shown at 1:15 p.m. in the display Lounge through Works of Bedford-Stuyvesant, an exhibit March 5. second floor North Meeting Room. A of textiles blending classical African motifs guided "highlights" tour leaves at 2 p.m. and The Opens January 20 contemporary design. original from the North information desk. Field Museum Benin artifacts which Australian Atiorlginal Art from Arnhem of Land, a selection of more than 400 bark inspired many the designs are also Continues indefinitely shown. Financial assistance for the exhibit paintings and some wooden ceremonial Free Natural History Film "Patterns for was received from the CNA Foundation, sculptures. The exhibit is unique because Survival" (A Study of Mimicry) presented Chicago, and the Illinois Arts Council, a of the documentation accompanying most at 11 a.m. and 1 p.m. on Saturdays, and state agency. Hall 9. of the pieces, including information about 11 a.m., 1 p.m., and 3 p.m. on Sundays in the artists, when they were painted, their Through January 9 the second floor North Meeting Room. use, and the region in which they were The half-hour film Studies In a selection of books from offers an overall view of Jade, produced. The material is from the Field protective coloration in insects and Museum's library, featured in the extensive collection of Louis A. Allen of South to coincide with the recent provides visitors with an insight into the Lounge Palo Alto, California. Through September of the Hall "Color in Nature" exhibit opening new of Jades. Included 10. Hall 27. are The Bishop Collection, Investigations and in in Studies Jade, two volumes, and Children's Program A Reminder Chinese Jade Carvings ol the XVIth to the "Faces of Winter for Make visit to Field Museum in XlXth Centuries in the Collection of Africa," Journey your early Children, begins December 1. Youngsters the December 19, a date the Mrs. Georg Vetlesen, in three volumes. day Sunday, test their powers of observation by Chicago Bears will play in Soldier Field. Continuing answering written questions and making Because of this afternoon game, the Color In Nature, an exhibit examining the sketches of African masks in Museum Southeast parking facilities will be filled nature and variety of color in the physical exhibit areas while on a self-guided tour. and the North lot reserved for Museum and living world, and how it functions All boys and girls who can read and write guests undoubtedly strained to capacity. in plants and animals. It focuses on the many roles of color, as in mimicry, A Field Museum kind camouflage, warning, sexual recognition membership would be a special of Holiday gift for some of those special want to rememl>er at this season. would and selection, energy channeling, and people you They appreciate your thoughtfulness not Just once but all through the year. For each gift we will vitamin production, using Museum membership send an announcement greeting card in your name and portfolio of four color reproduc- specimens as examples. Continues tions of bird paintings done by the distinguished American artist Louis Agassiz Fuertes Hall 25. indefinitely. on a Field Museum expedition to East Africa. Reld Museum's 75th Anniversary Exhibit Clip and mail to Field Muaaum of Natural HIatory, RooaaiMll Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, III. SOSOS continues indefinitely. "A Sense of Wonder" Ploase tend the out encloted to Field offers thought-provoking prose and poetry following Uembenhip Q Cheek payable Muaeum Annua/ $15 Aatoclate LUe bill me lollomt: associated with physical, biological, and Q Q $160 Q $S00 Q Pleue m In nam* to: cultural aspects of nature; "A Sense of my History" presents a graphic portrayal of the Museum's past; and "A Sense of Qitt racipient'a na My Discovery" shows examples of research conducted scientists. by Museum Hall 3. Addraaa John James Audutwn's elephant folio. The Birds ot America, on display In the CHy State Zip City Stat* ZIP North A different from the Lounge. plate n S»nd bird prtntt to gift nclpleet Q Send Mrd prfnta lo me rare, first-edition volumes is featured Plaaea put Information for additional giti memberehipe en a aaparal* ahaat each day.