The Arsenal of Democracy: President Roosevelt’s War Cabinet, 1941

Background Guide

Written by: Benjamin Goldberg and Siddharth Hariharan, Case Western Reserve ​ University

Historical Context A New World Order The United States had little history of involvement in European affairs before 1917, when Germany’s proposal to Mexico for an anti-American alliance drove Congress to declare war on Germany alongside Britain, France, and Italy, finally bringing America into the Great War[1]. The American contribution to ending the war was undeniable, with 4.7 million Americans serving and over 100,000 being killed in action[2], but there were comparatively few demands the United States sought to exact against Germany. The primary U.S. foreign policy goals were outlined by Woodrow Wilson in the Fourteen Points, which covered greater international trade relations, the self-determination of all peoples, and the formation of the League of Nations, an international body with the mission of promoting world peace. The priorities of Britain and France, though, revolved around the removal of Germany as a world power. They demanded that Germany accept responsibility for the war, extracted reparations from them to be paid to the victorious Entente, and placed severe limitations on German military strength[3]. Furthermore, Wilson’s one major policy triumph at Versailles, the formation of the League of Nations, was dampened when it became clear that the United States would be unable to join due to domestic isolationist sentiment[4].

The Great Depression One of the manifestations of postwar optimism was the rise to prominence of the stock market as a cornerstone of the US economy. While the stock trade had always been significant in the moneyed class of the United States, the 1920s saw the masses involve themselves for the first time, convinced that it was a direct path to riches. By autumn of 1929, most stocks had climbed well beyond their real value due to high demand, and when growth slowed, panic ensued, culminating in a market crash on October 29. The resulting Great Depression affected the entire world and lasted well into the 1930s. In the United States, President Herbert Hoover’s popularity suffered as voters attributed their economic hardships to his intransigent fiscal non-interventionism, resulting in a landslide victory for the progressive Democratic candidate Franklin Roosevelt in 1932, who promised to act immediately to alleviate the Depression. Roosevelt enacted the New Deal, which rejected the market-based consensus of the 1920s by establishing strong social services and vastly increasing public sector employment[5].

The Rise of Fascism In 1932, German President Paul von Hindenburg was caught between the two largest parties in the Reichstag: the Nazi Party, led by Great War veteran Adolf Hitler, and the pro-Soviet Communist Party. Hindenburg had no love for either faction, but German industrialists and the German conservative establishment persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor of Germany as a more favorable alternative to the communists[6]. An alleged communist terrorist attack against Hitler’s administration gave the Nazis the necessary pretext on which to severely curtail the rights of left-wing dissidents, thus weakening the Nazis’ primary opposition and allowing the Nazis to win a plurality in the 1933 election[7][8]. Hitler amassed more and more power from 1933 onwards, banning all political opposition, limiting the rights of Jewish Germans and other ethnic and religious minorities, and rebuilding Germany’s military in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler’s regime grew close to that of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, the first world leader to use the term “fascism”, as well as the militaristic leadership of the Empire of Japan, who had long since eclipsed the Emperor in influence.

Standing Issues German Expansionism Using the pretext of pan-Germanism, one of the primary tenets of the Nazi ideology, Germany annexed Austria in 1938[9]. They proceeded to attempt the annexation of the Sudetenland, a border region of Czechoslovakia populated mainly by ethnic Germans, and once it became clear that Britain and France would not intervene on behalf of Czechoslovakia, they invaded and conquered the entire country in 1939[10]. Flush with confidence, Hitler attacked Poland in 1939, which finally prompted a declaration of war by Britain and France. The modern German military rapidly overcame the Polish defense, and then, through a daring and unprecedented attack through the Ardennes Forest, Germany circumvented the French defensive line, driving on Paris and forcing a French capitulation. Through a combination of British determination and German ineptitude, the British Expeditionary Force in France was successfully evacuated across the English Channel, preventing a total allied defeat and allowing Britain to fight on. Germany, lacking the naval superiority necessary to dominate the Channel and launch an amphibious assault on the British Isles, attempted to bomb Britain into submission from the air, but Britain stood fast in the face of this onslaught as the last to stand against the German war machine.

Japanese Imperialism In Asia, Japan had long dreamed of a European-style empire dominating the Pacific Rim. The colonization of the Korean Peninsula in 1910 and the capture of Germany’s Pacific holdings during the Great War had brought those dreams closer to reality. These successes encouraged Japan to press its advantage further, taking advantage of China’s civil war to invade Manchuria in 1931. Both the United States and the League of Nations condemned Japan’s unprovoked aggression, but no direct action was taken. The most powerful military and political leader of China in the 1930s, Chiang Kai-Shek, did not fight back against Japan, preferring to consolidate his position against the Chinese Communist Party, until under pressure from his generals, he agreed to take a hard line against Japanese encroachment, prompting a full-scale attack against China by Japan in 1937[11]. While Japan initially advanced rapidly, the warring Chinese factions unified, bogging down Japan in perpetual low-intensity war. Nevertheless, the stalemate cannot last forever.

USSR on the Rise Though not directly affiliated with the Axis, the Soviet Union seeks also to expand. In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to demarcated spheres of influence in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which led to the Soviet annexation of eastern Poland following the German invasion. Afterwards, the Soviet Union turned its attention towards Finland, which had seceded from the Russian Empire after the end of World War I and resisted incorporation into the USSR. Due to poor leadership and underestimation of the Finnish resistance, Soviet troops initially achieved little success, but overwhelmed the Finns through sheer numbers, forcing territorial concessions[12]. How the temporary German-Soviet agreement will hold up in the face of Nazi anti-communism and German ambitions for further eastward expansion at the expense of the Slavic peoples remains to be seen.

The Depression Continues While President Roosevelt’s New Deal has succeeded in restoring economic stability, the Depression’s lingering effects continue. GDP growth has resumed, but unemployment remains far above what it was anytime before the crash, sitting at roughly 10% and with a similar rate of inflation in the US dollar[13]. With the world descending into war, the defense industry is booming, and increases in both trade relations with belligerent powers and the expansion of the draft - recently reinstated on a national lottery system - could serve to put Americans back to work[14]. That said, less militarily-inclined members of the government will likely favor peaceful solutions that will not upset the still-influential isolationist faction existing within the United States.

Current Situation It is May of 1941, and global tensions are at an all-time high. Many of the standing issues that plague the United States are having reverberating effects around the world, but political impasses have prevented nations from pursuing collaborative solutions. Tensions between the United States and Japan have been particularly palpable. Following the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the United States placed an embargo on all oil exports. This prompted the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) to estimate that it had a maximum of two years of oil stores remaining, culminating in plans for the Japanese to aggressively seize oil resources in the Dutch East Indies.[15] In a related antagonistic move, the Japanese invasion of China further concerned United States leaders, prompting greater caution on either sides. In addition, the American Protectorate of the Philippines is an active Japanese target. Although the Japanese have yet to invade the Philippines, forces in the region are on high alert.

By this point, World War II in Europe has already been going on for nearly 2 years. While the United States has not elected to enter combat, many of its allies have been unwillingly thrown into the conflict.

News of the atrocities in Europe has steadily been making its way back to the United States through radio reports, and the American public, already frustrated from the echoes of the Great Depression, have began crying out. Afraid to take huge risks on the back of the previous decade, American industry has struggled with where to focus their efforts on a war they are not even part of… yet. The Fascist regime in Germany presents an indirect threat to the American way of life. Europe, once full of allies, has largely been reduced to rubble. The Japanese are gearing up in a way seemingly allied with the Axis, but their history of self-interest is muddling the waters. At home, a struggling economy is slowly getting back on its feet, but civil unrest, pressures from abroad, and waves of xenophobia and racism will not be kept at bay for long without decisive action. As members of President Roosevelt’s cabinet, it is your duty to advise your fearless leader through these troubling times. America is not actively fighting in the war - should it be our duty to aid our allies and yet again, be the world’s protector? Or should we focus instead on our home front, strengthening our own nation and paying attention to the deepest needs of our citizens as we approach a new era of American ideology. The decisions you make will shape our country’s future for years to come, so do so with caution. As you pursue your own agendas in your positions, always remember: America First.

Character Bios

Cordell Hull - Secretary of State Hailing from Olympus, Tennessee, Cordell Hull is a former lawyer who served in Cuba during the Spanish-American War. Although elected to the US Senate in 1930, Hull resigned in 1933 to become the Secretary of State. Hull was Chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1921 to 1924 and was a presidential candidate at the 1928 Democratic National Convention. He is infamously known for the SS St. Louis incident, where he advised President Roosevelt to reject a German ​ ​ ocean liner carrying 936 Jews seeking asylum from Germany. In 1940, he similarly prohibited every USA consulate worldwide from issuing visas to Jewish individuals, seeking to protect the USA from German wrath. A charismatic and dedicated civil servant, Hull’s global network has served him well during his term.

Henry Morgenthau, Jr. - Secretary of Treasury Born into a prominent Jewish family in New York, Henry Morgenthau Jr. grew up in a privileged lifestyle and became friends with Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt early on. He operated a farm named Fishkill Farms near the Roosevelt estate in upstate New York, specializing, like FDR, in growing Christmas trees. One of the chief architects of the design and financing of the New Deal, Morgenthau was catapulted into a increasingly major role in shaping foreign policy with respect to the Lend-Lease Act, Jewish refugees, and Germany. Morgenthau is deeply involved in investigating organized crime and government corruption and has intelligence units involved accordingly. A strong proponent of fiscal responsibility, Morgenthau’s personal budget is said to be sublime.

Henry L. Stimson - Secretary of War Born the son of a prominent surgeon, Stimson became a Wall Street lawyer following his graduation from Harvard Law School. Having previously served as Secretary of War under President Taft and as Secretary of State under President Hoover, Stimson has brought experience to his role. A strong supporter of raising and training a strong militia, Stimson has even shown some interest in the development of bomb projects, although there has not yet been any sanctioned development. One of the few conservative Republicans on a heavily progressive cabinet, Stimson is never afraid to voice his opposition to a group consensus, but his predilection for aggressive action is both one of his greatest strengths and weaknesses.

Francis B. Biddle - Attorney General Growing up in Paris, France while his family was living abroad, Biddle hails from a decorated political family history. Earning his law degree from Harvard, Biddle was an avid boxer growing up. Biddle has deep roots in Philadelphia, having practiced law there for the better part of three decades. Biddle was a private in the United States Army during WWI, and was an avid supporter of Theodore Roosevelt’s renegade Bull Moose Party just prior to that. Biddle used the Espionage Act of 1917 in an attempt to shut down “vermin publications” that were anti-semitic in nature. Biddle thus began tracking Soviet controlled front organizations, and has made that a priority of his term.

Frank C. Walker - Postmaster General Walker began his early career in law, but quickly became involved in American policy when he volunteered for the US Army during World War I, where he rose to the rank of first lieutenant. In 1925, he became manager and general counsel of Comerford Theatres movie chain in New York City. He was the co-founder of the Roosevelt for President Society, and has been one of Roosevelt’s closest advisers for most of the past decade. As Postmaster general, Walker has continued his political role, often taking part in matters far removed from the Post Office. His influence with FDR is powerful but well known, so it must be used carefully. Frank Knox - Secretary of the Navy Another “outsider” Republican on the cabinet, Knox served with the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American war, informing many of his perspectives to date. He was a Vice Presidential candidate in the 1936 election against President Roosevelt’s ticket, ultimately losing. Since the onset of the war, Knox has advocated providing aid and support to the Allied powers across Europe, but has yet to see as many significant moves as he would like. He similarly began calling for the internment of Japanese Americans as early as 1933, and thus is one of the more outward focused members of the cabinet.

Harold L. Ickes - Secretary of the Interior As Secretary of the Interior, Ickes is arguably the most inward-looking member of the cabinet. Responsible for implementing much of the New Deal, Ickes has championed the major relief program, the Public Works Administration, and government environmental efforts. Ickes is well-known for being a liberal spokesperson, a skilled public speaker, and a noted advocate for many African-American causes. This includes a previous term as president of the Chicago NAACP. A chief proponent of reform politics and the dissolution of segregation, Ickes is a national expert on race relations.

Claude R. Wickard - Secretary of Agriculture Although he may have peaked in 1927 after being named “Master Farmer of Indiana,” Wickard was recently appointed as Secretary of Agriculture, with an emphasis on the agriculture. Wickard has struggled to come out from under Henry Wallace’s shadow, and his mild-mannered farmer’s background has left him uncertain on his role in American politics. He is confident that the future of the American economy is agriculture, and has looked to leverage economic uncertainties to push forth an agricultural agenda.

Jesse H. Jones - Secretary of Commerce Prior to his post as Secretary of Commerce, Jones was a sharp businessman who expanded into real estate, lumber, commercial building and banking. Hailing from Texas, Jones enjoys a strong network in Houston, having served as Chair of the Houston Harbor Board before heading a division of the American Red Cross during World War I. As chair of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Jones has shaped American commerce to combat the Great Depression, especially in financing railways and building munitions factories. Throughout his time in Washington, Jones has kept a careful eye on the Houston Endowment, a non-profit corporation he co-founded with his wife in 1937.

Frances C. Perkins - Secretary of Labor The first woman appointed to the U.S. Cabinet, Perkins was a trailblazer in many ways, and as a loyal supporter of her close friend FDR, pulled the labor movement into the New Deal coalition. Perkins has worked on the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Public Works Administration, and the beginnings of the Federal Works Agency. She worked tirelessly on the Social Security act to establish unemployment benefits and pensions, and pushed to reduce workplace accidents and child labor. As of late, she has started to deal with many labor questions, as skilled labor is becoming increasingly critical and more women are moving into formerly male jobs.

John Nance Garner - Vice President Known by many as “Cactus Jack,” Garner hails from Texas and began his career in law there. Although he originally sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1932, Garner agreed to serve as FDR’s running mate. A conservative Democrat, Garner opposed the sit-down strikes of the labor unions as well as the New Deal’s deficit spending. He disagreed with Roosevelt on the proposal to enlarge the Supreme Court, and again sought the presidency in the 1940 presidential election, ultimately losing again to Roosevelt. Although balance is critical between the President and Vice President, Garner tends to tiptoe that careul line.

Harlan Fiske Stone - Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Although not an official member of the cabinet, Chief Justice Stone is an influential member of the American political sphere. Having served as associate justice for the previous 15 years, and as a former United States Attorney General under President Calvin Coolidge, Stone brings a store of historical context to the role. One of the justices voting to uphold the New Deal, Stone also made influential decisions in shaping the standards of judicial scrutiny. Stone also served as director of the Atlanta & Charlotte Air Line Railroad Company.

Eleanor Roosevelt - First Lady of the United States Also not an official member of the cabinet, Eleanor is quite close to FDR and has input on many policy decisions that are made. A political figure, diplomat, and activist, Eleanor often made appearances in her husband’s stead as he managed his paralytic illness during his early career. She has not been afraid of controversies and is generally outspoken, particularly on racial issues. Eleanor holds regular press conferences, writes in a daily newspaper column, and hosts a weekly radio show, among other outreach efforts. She consistently advocates for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the civil rights of African and Asian Americans, and the rights of refugees.

Note on Crisis These character bios are intended to highlight what we found to be relevant, interesting, and useful information for you to know about the characters in committee. This information, however, is by no means expected to be the only information you can work with. Your character’s personal and professional histories are fair game for portfolio powers - just be sure to give enough context for crisis to understand if you are trying to leverage something not explicitly mentioned here. Keep in mind the date and timeline. Everything before the start of committee can be assumed as historically accurate, but nothing after May of 1941 has happened yet in the committee timeline. In short, don’t assume that something that hasn’t “happened” yet will happen, and do your best to keep your facts and

th dates in order regarding key events. Don’t worry about fact-checking June 7 ​ vs. ​ th June 29 ,​ but we don’t want something that happened in November being brought ​ up in May. We’ll keep you regularly updated on “when” we are in committee. We know that many of you are relatively new to crisis, so don’t be afraid to ask questions. We want to keep this fast-paced to offer a new Model UN experience, but are more than happy to slow things down or pause if it will help your learning and enhance your experience. Please reach out if you have any questions leading up to the conference!

[1] https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/03- 04/world-war-i-united-states-enters/ [2] https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf [3] https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Versailles-1919 [4] https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league [5] https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/great-depression-history [6] https://www.theholocaustexplained.org/the-nazi-rise-to-power/how-did-the-nazis-g ain-support/hitler-becomes-chancellor/ [7] https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-reichstag-fire-and-nazis-rise- power-180962240/ [8] https://www.dw.com/en/voting-in-the-midst-of-nazi-terror/a-16646980 [9] https://www.britannica.com/event/Anschluss [10] http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/triumph/tr-czech.htm [11] https://www.britannica.com/event/Xian-Incident [12] https://www.pri.org/stories/2014-08-21/pact-between-hitler-and-stalin-paved-way- world-war-ii-was-signed-75-years-ago [13] https://www.thebalance.com/unemployment-rate-by-year-3305506 [14] https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/united-states-imposes-the-draft ​ [15]Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, translated by Wen Ha-hsiung. History of ​ ​ The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), 2nd ed. (Taipei, Republic of China: Chung Wu ​ Publishing, 1971), p.317, "Invasion of French Indochina"