Siirtolaisuus-Migration 2/2008

“Is Native Language Decisive in Language Learning Results?”

A study on acculturation and the effect of language distance: Finnish and Dutch migrants in Australia compared Saara Louko

Up until 1979 when Austral- The respondents and the the Dutch migrants benefi t from ia introduced stricter language hypotheses the linguistic similarity between requirements for the new immi- English and Dutch - an advantage grants it was not uncommon for For the comparison I collected the Finns lack as their language is migrants to arrive in Austral- answers from native speakers of unrelated to the target language. ia with little or no knowledge of Dutch and native speakers of Finn- Dutch and English are both Indo- English. Yet most of these adult ish. The other criteria for choosing European languages while Finnish migrants acquired language the respondents were that they belongs to a completely different skills that enabled them to lead would have to be fi rst-generation group of Uralic languages. an independent and full life in migrants and that they had arrived The empiric data was collected Australia. in Australia in the 1950s, the 1960s through two online questionnaires: However, for various reasons or the 1970s. My working hy- one for the Dutch and the other for these migrants have achieved va- pothesis was that the two migrant the Finnish speakers. I received al- rying levels of proficiency. Na- groups, the Finnish and Dutch together 46 responses, out of which turally differences can be found speakers, would differ consider- 20 came from Finnish and 26 from between individual learners, but ably in their level of acculturation, Dutch speakers. The sex ratio in the different migrant groups also current profi ciency in English, and the answers from the Finns was show divergent tendencies. Whe- attitudes concerning native lan- balanced, but among the Dutch reas the Dutch are generally con- guage effect on learning English. respondents the men were slightly sidered to be successful English I assumed Finnish speakers to overrepresented. In my study 72 learners, the image of Finnish be slightly more distant from the percent of all respondents were now migrants is quite the opposite. Australians due to their consider- in their sixties or older, and on aver- The objective of this study was able ethnic vitality and diffi culties age they had lived in Australia now to explore this matter further by with acquiring the target language, for 42 years. Altogether 15 percent comparing two groups of adult English. I believe the Finns’ cul- of the respondents had prior migra- migrants which in many respects tural introversion and the diffi cul- tion experience. In my data a quar- seem quite similar, but differ in ties in English acquisition to be ter of the Finns had lived in another terms of native language. interdependent phenomena. foreign country before settling in My second assumption was Australia. that for the most part learning Eng- The questionnaires I prepared Saara Louko is Master of Philo- lish comes more easily to Dutch- for this study addressed matters sophy (since 1.5.2008) Pro gradu speakers and that the cultural sim- that are viewed to be central in sec- -research Learning English: Fin- ilarities between the Netherlands ond language acquisition (SLA) or nish and Dutch Migrants in Aust- and Australia assist this acquisi- indicative of the migrants’ level of ralia Compared (2007). tion process. I also believed that acculturation. I was particularly in-

2 "Is Native Language Decisive in Language Learning Results?"

Opinions on L1 influence on SLA Finns vs. the Dutch

helped 33,3 % 15,8 % Dutch no effect 66,7 % 57,9 %

Finns hindered 26,3 %

answers in proportion with respective L1-group Abbreviations SLA second language acquisition; the process of learning a new language TL target language; the language studied by the learner L1 native language L2 second language; typically a foreign language terested in the subjects’ social life The acculturation process is of- been the overriding diffi culty in in- and everyday communication. The ten easier for migrants who come tegrating. My own data also indi- respondents were asked to evaluate from a cultural background simi- cated that the Dutch were socially their current English profi ciency lar to that of the host society. This more integrated with the core-pop- and to estimate how diffi cult the is because they are able to recover ulation than the Finns. A third of SLA process had been for them. In from the inevitable cultural shock the Dutch reported that they speak one of the questions the respond- faster, and after this recovery they only English with their friends, but ents were asked whether they felt can either assimilate with the host none of the Finns gave a similar re- that their native language had hin- society or adapt themselves to sponse. At work only 3.8 percent dered or assisted learning English. it. When the cultural distance is of the Dutch relied on communica- small, adapting oneself to the new tion in their native language either environment is relatively easy and partly of wholly, against 15 per- Integration the same applies to language learn- cent of the Finns. ing and language distance. In a nut- SLA is often also linked with Social integration and second lan- shell, the more similarities there attitudes and motivation. My study guage acquisition among migrants are between the languages and the indicated that the Finns had very are undoubtedly intertwined phe- cultures the easier it usually is for positive views about the Austral- nomena and this is essentially the the migrants to feel at home in the ian society, but their motivation idea that John Schumann bases his new country. for learning English was some- Acculturation Theory (1978) on. Views supporting this observa- what lower than in the comparison In this theory Schumann argues that tion, that successful SLA and so- group. The Dutch held quite differ- migrants who have a desire to inte- cial integration go hand in hand, ing views on language: nearly all grate with the dominant population can be found in previous studies of them viewed it very important are more likely to become fl uent in about Finnish Australians. Both to become fl uent in English. Their the target language (TL). In other Olavi Koivukangas (1975, 109) preference for using English is evi- words, Schumann views accultura- and Tuulikki Mattila (1985, 16-17) dent also in the language mainte- tion as the key to successful second conclude that inadequate com- nance patterns (see e.g. Pauwels language acquisition (SLA). mand of English has for the Finns 1991; Clyne 2003). The Finns

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Language use among the Dutch speakers

100 % only Dutch

80 % mostly Dutch

60 % Dutch and English half- 40 % and-half

20 % mostly English

0 % only English neighbour- circle of at w ork at home hood friends on the other hand are famous for lastly, on the impact of one’s na- cal explanations for the differenc- maintaining their native language. tive language, most linguists agree es found in language acquisition Other factors considered im- that native speakers of a language between people of differing ages. portant for Natural Second Lan- closely related to the TL can learn In his work Biological Founda- guage Acquisition (i.e. learning the TL faster and become more pro- tions of Language Eric Lenneberg the target language in the environ- fi cient users than native speakers of discusses individual language ap- ment where it is spoken) are age, an unrelated language. This juxta- titude and various developmental social and psychological factors, position means that in general the stages which affect the way peo- length of residence and the learn- Dutch speakers should have a con- ple process language. He suggests er’s native language. Traditionally siderable vantage over the Finnish that the factors that impede SLA, it has been assumed that young- speakers in learning English. the “language-learning blocks”, er people are better at acquiring The impact of age, native lan- increase after puberty. And there- new languages. The social factors guage infl uence, and social factors fore learning a second language which impact the language acqui- on adult second language acquisi- requires a conscious and laboured sition process include e.g. social tion results are further discussed in effort from an adult while children integration, attitude and intended the following sections. are known to have acquired new length of stay, and the psychologi- languages from mere exposure cal factors include among others (1967, 156, 176). language shock and motivation. Does age matter? Similar fi ndings were made Length of residence can indi- by Stephen Krashen who suggests cate if the language acquisition Most of the respondents in my that at puberty our affective fi lter process is still at an active phase. study came to Australia in their (which blocks language acquisi- Individuals do differ in this re- late twenties, and although many tion e.g. when the person is anx- spect, but all learners will eventu- of them had studied a little English ious or feels that s/he already has ally cease learning the target lan- before migrating, for the most part adequate TL competence) grows guage. When the average length of their English acquisition did take stronger and is very unlikely ever residence in Australia in my data place only in Australia. Therefore to return to the level of child learn- (42 years) is considered, it is safe the question about the role of age in ers, whose affective fi lter is rarely to assume that the second language SLA is quite central to this study. strong enough to prevent native- competence among these respond- Researchers have identifi ed like language attainment (1985, ents will no longer improve. And several biological and psychologi- 13). Older learners are better at

4 "Is Native Language Decisive in Language Learning Results?"

Language use among the Finnish speakers

100 % only Finnish

80 % mostly Finnish

60 % Finnish and English 40 % half-and-half mostly English 20 %

0 % only English neighbour- circle of at w ork at home hood friends understanding the input they are and secondly, the fi rst and second learners are able to deduct from exposed to when listening or read- language acquisition processes their existing cross-linguistic ing, because of the advantages, are more alike than previously as- knowledge how the target lan- greater experience and knowledge, sumed; and lastly, contrary to pop- guage is likely to “work”. Simi- brought to them by age. ular notions, age does bring certain larities in the vocabulary provide Evelyn Hatch notes that chil- advantages for the adult second easy examples of positive transfer, dren often learn a second lan- language learner. but transfer is evident also in other guage at the expense of their na- aspects of language learning. Any tive language. The same is not true linguistic knowledge that assists for adult learners – adults do not Transfer - Native Language the acquisition of another language forget their mother tongue in the Infl uence can be viewed as positive transfer. SLA process. She also points out Native language infl uence can also that the impression people have of All learning is based on prior have a negative effect on language children as the ideal learners and knowledge - this applies equally acquisition. Håkan Ringblom and the adults as the non-learners is to language learning. Intralinguis- Terence Odlin have studied the not entirely justifi ed as the range tic knowledge increases as the transfer phenomenon with special of different types of communica- learner becomes more advanced reference to Finnish. tion a child needs is very different in the TL. Cross-linguistic knowl- from those an adult has to master edge is also important especially in order to seem successful in SLA when the TL is closely related Social factors (1983, 191–192). to the learner’s native language To summarise the relationship (Ringblom 2007, 1–2). Most lin- The data I collected also revealed between age and second language guists agree with this view that it something about the migrant’s so- acquisition: although it is far more is easier to learn languages that are cial life. I asked them to describe common that children achieve related to either the learner’s na- their communication in the follow- near-native profi ciency in the tive language (L1) or another pre- ing situations: (a) in their neigh- target language, modern-day re- viously acquired language. bourhood, (b) with their circle of search has produced the following This is because prior knowl- friends / in leisure time activi- three conclusions on this matter. edge of a language similar to the ties, (c) at work and (d) at home. Firstly, adult language acquisition target language enables positive The differences between the two can also bear comparable results; transfer, which means that the groups were clear in the answers

5 Siirtolaisuus-Migration 2/2008

regarding communication with The results of this study were Hatch, Evelyn Marcussen. Psycho- friends and at home. in line with what I had anticipated: linguistics: A Second Language One of my hypotheses was that the two groups differed in their Perspective. Rowley: Newbury the migrants from the Netherlands answers regarding attitudes, self- House Publisher, Inc, 1983. were culturally closer to the Anglo- assessment of their English skills, Koivukangas, Olavi. Suomalainen Australian society than the Finns. experiences about SLA and differ- Siirtolaisuus Australiaan toisen The cultural distance is evident al- ent markers of acculturation. Also maailmansodan jälkeen. Siirto- so in language and the way people preferences in language use were laisuustutkimuksia A1. Turku: communicate. Jaakko Lehtonen’s notably different. Siirtolaisinstituutti, 1975. research on Finns as foreign lan- What my study revealed was Krashen, Stephen D. The Input guage users indicates that the Finns that whereas the Dutch respond- Hypothesis: issues and impli- suffer from a collective feeling of ents preferred using English in cations. New York: Longman inferiority. He suggests that this all the four proposed situations Inc, 1985 (1987). profuse self-criticism combined (at home, at work, with friends Lehtonen, Jaakko. Vaikeneva with Finnish socio-pragmatic rules and in their neighbourhood), the kulttuuri ja vieraan kielen pel- may be the reason why Finns can Finns’ communication at home ko: miksi suomalainen vaike- appear less profi cient TL users than and with friends was native lan- nee vieraallakin kielellä. In they really are (1984, 76). In oth- guage dominated. At the time of Sajavaara, Leiwo & Eloranta er words, Finns hesitate to speak arrival in Australia, 95 percent of (eds.) 1984. in English for several reasons. the Dutch had viewed it very im- Lenneberg, Eric H.. Biological The fact that some learners avoid portant to become fl uent in Eng- Foundations of Language. New communication in a foreign lan- lish, but only 63 percent of the York: John Wiley and Sons, guage can refl ect on their language Finnish respondent had felt this 1967 (1st corrected printing). competence. Lehtonen offers the way. As for the native language Mattila, Tuulikki. Report on Sur- mirror effect as one explanation infl uence on SLA, 33.3 percent vey into the needs of the Finnish why non-native speakers hesitate of the Dutch felt that their native Community in New South Wales speaking in TL, which means that language had helped them learn / Australiansuomalaisten elino- people feel uncomfortable when English and none of them viewed lot sekä sosiaali- ja terveyspal- they notice that the subjective ide- that the effect would have been veluiden tarve. Turku: Institute al self does not match their actual negative. Over a quarter of the of Migration 1985. performance. The disillusion may Finns felt that Finnish had ham- Odlin, Terence. Language Trans- reduce TL communication signifi - pered their English acquisition, fer - Cross-linguistic infl uence cantly (1984, 75). but surprisingly many – nearly 16 in language learning. Cam- percent of the Finns – stated that bridge Applied Linguistics. their native language had assisted Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Conclusion English acquisition. versity Press, 1989. Pauwels, Anne. Dutch in Austra- The focus of this study was to explore lia. In Romaine (ed.) 1991. how two groups of adult migrants References Romaine Suzanne (ed.). Language with different native languages and in Australia. Cambridge: Cam- cultural backgrounds have succeed- Clyne, Michael G. Dynamics of lan- bridge University Press, 1991. ed in learning English in a natural guage Contact. Cambridge: Cam- Ringblom, Håkan. Cross-linguistic language acquisition setting in Aus- bridge University Press 2003. Similarity in Foreign Language tralia. Essentially the study aimed at Gingras Rosario C. (ed.). Second Learning. Second Language Ac- uncovering how strongly language Language Acquisition & For- quisition 21. Clevedon: Multi- acquisition and cultural integration eign Language Teaching. Vir- lingual Matters Ltd. 2007. are interlinked with the migrants’ ginia: Center for Applied Lin- Sajavaara Kari, Leiwo Matti & native language and culture. guistics, 1978. Eloranta Mervi (eds.) 1984.

6 "Is Native Language Decisive in Language Learning Results?"

AFinLA:n vuosikerta 1984. helpommin ja nopeammin johtu- pumatta. Hollanninkieliset vastaa- Jyväskylä: Turun yliopiston en kielellisistä ja kulttuurisista yh- jat olivat myös kielitaitoisempia Offsetpaino. täläisyyksistä kohdemaan ja ko- kuin suomenkieliset, ts. he ilmoit- Schumann, John H. The Accultur- timaan välillä. Oletin hollannin- tivat osaavansa useampia vieraita ation Model for Second-Lan- kielisen ryhmän akkulturoituneen kieliä ja arvioivat oman englannin guage Acquisition. In Gingras suomenkielistä ryhmää paremmin kielen taitonsa vahvemmaksi kuin (ed.) 1978. kohdemaan yhteiskuntaan. Vastaa- suomalaiset. Joka kolmas hollan- jina toimi 46 Australiaan pääosin ninkielinen koki, että äidinkieli oli 1950–1970-luvuilla muuttanutta edesauttanut englannin oppimista, Tiivistelmä siirtolaista. Heistä 26 oli hollan- ja ainoastaan suomenkieliset vas- ninkielisiä ja 20 suomenkielisiä. taajat sanoivat äidinkielen han- Tutkin äidinkielen vaikutusta eng- Tutkimuksessa ilmeni, et- kaloittaneen kielenomaksumista. lanninkielen omaksumiseen ver- tä hollantilaisten kielitaito korre- Suomenkieliset vastaajat käyttivät tailemalla kahta kieliryhmää, suo- loi voimakkaammin myönteisten äidinkieltään huomattavasti hol- menkielisiä ja hollanninkielisiä asenteiden kanssa paikallista väes- lanninkielisiä useammin: ryhmi- maahanmuuttajia Australiassa. töä ja yhteiskuntaa kohtaan. Suo- en väliset erot olivat varsin selviä Oletin, että hollanninkielinen vas- malaiset puolestaan olivat kielitai- etenkin ystävien kanssa ja kotona taajaryhmä olisi oppinut englantia doltaan yhtäläisiä asenteista riip- käytetyn kielen suhteen.

Living Together Summit, Lontoo 12.–14.3.2008

Eturivissä toinen vasem- malta tutkimusjohtaja Elli Heikkilä vieressään Mrs. Fauzia Mohamed Hashi, The Immigrant Forum, Contact. Committee for Immigrants and the Aut- horities, Norja, British Councilin järjestämässä Living Together Summit -tapahtumassa Lontoos- sa 12.–14.3.2008.

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