GGLOBAL LLIVESTOCK CRSPCRSP AANNUAL RREPORT 20032003

EDITED BY JENNI STRAND COVER PHOTO BY MONTAGUE W. DEMMENT DESIGNED BY SUSAN L. JOHNSON Published by the Global Livestock CRSP, Management Entity, University of California, Davis, 258 Hunt Hall, Davis, California 95616. Telephone: (530) 752-1721. Fax: (530) 752-7523. Email: [email protected]. Web Site: http://glcrsp.ucdavis.edu.

The rich bird life of the alkaline Rift Valley lakes of East Africa is an important component of the region's biodiversity that attract thousands of tourists. These lakes are closed hydrological systems into which waterflows are critical to their maintenance and survival. In such systems, the nature of the quality and quantity of water inputs is an extremely critical component of their survival as an ecosystem. Our SUMAWA project addresses the contribution of the Njoro River to Lake Nakuru, one of the region's most visited lake-based national parks. The ability to understand and influence the impacts of land use, development, and population demands are vital to the future of these Rift Valley lakes and their biodiversity and are the objectives of the SUMAWA project.

This publication was made possible through support provided in part by US Universities, host country institutions and the Office of Agriculture and Food Security, Global Bureau, United States Agency for International Development, under Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER TTABLE OF CCONTENTS

FOREWORD i

OVERVIEW iv

PROJECTS EAST AFRICA Early Warning System for Monitoring Livestock Nutrition and Health for Food Security of Humans in East Africa ...... 1 Improving Pastoral Risk Management on East African Rangelands ...... 36 Sustainable Management of Watersheds: The River Njoro, Kenya ...... 81 Integrated Assessment of Pastoral - Wildlife Interactions in East Africa ...... 102 Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia ...... 118 Managing National Parks in the Context of Changing Human Populations and Economics: Strengthening Collaboration Between Researchers and Managers Working In and Around Serengeti and Yellowstone National Parks ...... 124

LATIN AMERICA Community Planning for Sustainable Livestock-Based Forested Ecosystems in Latin America...... 129

CENTRAL ASIA Livestock Development and Rangeland Conservation Tools for Central Asia...... 179

CENTRAL ASIA SMALL GRANTS Linking Sheep Producers and Markets...... 198 Feasibility of Market Development and Support Services for Livestock Products in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ...... 204 Improving Wool Production and Marketing Through Wool Pools in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ...... 224 Co-Benefits of Grassland Regeneration of Abandoned Wheat Areas for Carbon Sequestration, Livestock Productivity, Biological Conservation, and Socio-Economic Development ... 237

APPENDIX Project Expenditures ...... 253 Glossary ...... 259

PPREFACE

Each year, the Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program publishes an annual report in compliance with grant requirements. The 2003 Annual Report documents work completed during the fiscal year, October 2002 - September 2003. The principal investigators for each project submit reports on research conducted with GL-CRSP funding. Each report is the expression of the principal investigator with minor editing by the Management Entity. All individual reports give the name, address, telephone, fax number and email address of the principal investigator for that project. Inquiries are welcome.

Jenni Strand Annual Report Coordinator

S

Annual Report 2003

FOREWORD: TIME AND DEVELOPMENT

By Dr. Montague W. Demment Director, Global Livestock CRSP

e have a national obsession with Confederation (1775) to a ratified Constitution time. Technology has connected (1789) was years, while the Afghans have W us to each other, to information, to debated and delivered in months. pleasure and tragedy so instantaneously that The aftermath of the Iraqi war is also as we click the remote through our daily lives, illustrative. Many expected that a war won we demand instantaneous satisfactions, would quickly translate into a nation, responses, and results. I am not sure this brings productive and peaceful, that would set an us a better life, but it certainly affects how we example for the Middle East. The aftermath view development. of the war, the seemingly slow progress to The pace of this style of life has both a national development (both in Iraq and positive and negative impact on those of us Afghanistan) strikes many Americans as a working in international development. There failure and a frustration. is no question that the demand for results from Unlike our ability at home to get what we our international assistance is both reasonable want pretty much when we want it, the pace and required, but the timeframe for our of national development is slow. The expectations is often inappropriate and development of constitutions, institutions, and counterproductive. The “results now” attitude human capital takes decades not months. that has evolved in international affairs can Bringing new order to a society whose be a dangerous and unproductive approach and framework has been destroyed or is totally often results, strangely enough, from a lack of unadapted to the modern environment is a perspective on our part to our own history and lifelong challenge. development as a nation. In a recent review The problem facing international of his experience in international development, development is that the time dimension is not Carl Eicher concludes: “fifty years of donor well appreciated by those controlling the flow experience in Africa has shown that successful of funding, and by the general public. We institution building is an accretionary and expect that with the infusion of relatively small almost invisible process that requires a multi- amounts of funds over short periods of time generational time span and learning from that nations will develop in measurable ways. experience.” The recent frustration expressed How long has it taken for us to develop? I in the media and reflected in political circles expect that many of those controlling the purse with the delays in agreeing on an Afghan strings for national development here would constitution is an interesting example. We may have given up on the early stages of our forget that the time it took to see our own development process in the 1800s. Fortunately Constitution evolve from the Articles of for us, we had a remarkable combination of

i Global Livestock CRSP people, natural resources, and a relatively project that conducted a large and complex clean historical slate that allowed our intervention project to determine directly the accelerated pace of development. But that impact of ASF on the development of Kenyan said, this process took decades (if not a children. The results are a testimony to the century) that included our worst war and impressive impact of small amounts of ASF secession. on children’s capacity that will impact all Development takes time. In this year, we aspects of their productive lives. Hopefully, have at the GL-CRSP brought to fruition an the wide dissemination of these results will idea, an important concept, that has taken 15 have a major influence on how we plan years to nurture: the recent publication of a development interventions in nutrition and volume of the Journal of Nutrition devoted to agriculture. It took time and long-term our work on the link between human nutrition, commitments to develop this concept. human capacity, and national development. The message here, whether it be rebuilding The initial seeds for the concept were planted a nation or understanding how to develop a in the 1980s. USAID funded the Nutrition productive person, is that these processes take CRSP, which did a remarkable study to time. By succumbing to the pace we have identify factors that affected the development defined for ourselves, we are losing our of children. The work was done in three perspective on the pace of development for developing countries on two continents and others and we are apt to make bad development indicated the importance of animal source investments and poor program design. The foods on the cognitive development of recent hints that USAID will devote more children. The research was correlative but the resources to human capacity building are relationship strong, indicating that animal encouraging. Both research and human source foods (ASF) were the only dietary capacity building are sustainable interventions factor that predicted cognitive performance. that have long-term impacts. In the early 1990s, a group here at UC Most all of us in the development Davis attempted to advance the link between community have interacted with a whole food-based solutions and economic cohort of individuals in developing countries development focused on the poor. Historically, who were trained at U.S. universities. For the an academic barrier has existed between most part of 30 years, they have been the human nutrition and agriculture, and in engines of development in their countries but development the interaction between their lifetime impact has never been measured agriculture, human nutrition, and health has or recorded. Research produces the objective been less than optimal. The group sought knowledge that drives development. Like means to link these areas by emphasizing the human capacity, its impacts are diffuse and importance of food systems to ensure long-term, but no one in our society would sustainable economic development and argue that research is not the foundation of our nutrient supply. economic development. In 1996 in East Africa, the GL-CRSP The CRSP programs represent USAID’s priority-setting process identified the commitment to a longer-term perspective. micronutrient/cognitive capacity link as a high While this approach is often challenged within priority activity. In that year we funded a the Agency, the maintenance of the long-term

ii Annual Report 2003 visions of research and human capacity building are the result of a dynamic tension between short-term pressures and long-term development needs. We, as Americans, should try to understand that the pace of our lives should not be a force to dictate our expectations about development. We should develop long- term strategies, have confidence in the fundamentals of development, and stick to our vision long enough to be successful.

REFERENCES

Eicher, C.K. 2004. Flashback: fifty years of donor aid to African agriculture. Revised version of a paper presented at an International Policy Conference “Successes in African Agriculture: Building for the Future,” sponsored by InWent, IFPRI, NEPAD, and CTA. Pretoria, South Africa, December 1-3, 2003.

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THE GLOBAL LIVESTOCK CRSP

AN OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

The Global Livestock CRSP (formerly known as the Small Ruminant CRSP) has expanded its research to address important topics in the international livestock development sector. The program, comprised of broad-based interdisciplinary projects, focuses on human nutrition, economic growth, environment, and policy linked by a global theme of agriculture at risk in a changing environment. The projects involve researchers from 14 U.S. universities, 2 international agricultural research centers, 5 international research organizations, and 91 foreign institutions. The program is active in three regions of the world: East Africa, Central Asia, and Latin America.

HISTORY

Established in 1978 as the Small Ruminant CRSP, the Global Livestock CRSP is one of nine CRSP programs developed under Title XII of the International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1975. The CRSP model, pioneered by the SR-CRSP, was built on the structural strengths of U.S. land-grant universities and collaborative partnerships with international organizations. Four characteristics ensure the effectiveness of this model: 1) Collaboration with U.S. land-grant universities; 2) International training; 3) Long-term scientific relationships; and 4) Program cost- effectiveness.

REENGINEERED

In 1995, the CRSP began a major restructuring of the program in response to USAID’s own reengineering efforts and the changing needs of the international development community. The process, a comprehensive planning and assessment procedure, was initiated with priority-setting workshops in the three regions. As forums for client input, the workshops were intended to maximize the opportunity of regional professionals to present their views on the development issues confronting them. The problem models they developed established the scope for activities within the region. Assessment teams, selected in an initial competition, developed projects that addressed the top priorities within the regions. The problem model was the central component of the assessment process. Each team was charged with refining its problem model through in-field explorations. To ensure grassroots input, over 20 regional workshops involving 35 countries were conducted during the assessment period. The teams submitted final proposals, competing to be in GL-CRSP’s current proposal, and winners were selected. The process was designed to be problem-driven and has produced results-oriented projects.

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A GLOBAL PROGRAM

The GL-CRSP global program builds effectively on complementarities between projects in different regions. Centered on a theme of managing risk in our unpredictable world, the program is developing the capacity to predict risk so it can be better managed, improving the tools to cope with risk, and contributing to the mediation of risk. The GL-CRSP has chosen to work in ecosystems and regions where human populations and natural resources are most vulnerable and in most cases, where biodiversity is most valuable. The model of risk management is most highly developed in our East African program where the six complementary projects cover prediction, adaptation, and management of risk.

Predict the Future

The project, Early Warning System for Monitoring Nutrition and Livestock Health for Food Security of Humans in East Africa, headed by Texas A&M University System, addresses risk by adapting already successful U.S. technologies to East Africa in order to increase the lead time on the forecast of drought and famine, and allow policy makers to visualize the impact of their interventions on food crises. The project combines predictive and spatial characterization technologies with the formation of a network of collection and measurement sites in East Africa. The data from these sites, in coordination with the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) project, will allow 6-8 weeks of increased lead-time for drought forecasting.

Mitigating, Coping and Adapting to Perturbations and Change

The project, Integrated Assessment of Pastoral-Wildlife Interactions in East Africa: Implications for People, Policy, Conservation, and Development in East Africa, headed by Colorado State University, addresses the relationship between pastoralists and wildlife conservation in the context of the unpredictability of semi-arid environments. This project adapts models already in use in U.S. national parks to assist policymakers at the national and local level to establish approaches that are compatible with both pastoral life and conservation of biodiversity. The project intends to identify, in an integrated manner, the tradeoffs of different management decisions on wildlife conservation, livestock production, and pastoralist food security and health.

The project, Improving Pastoral Risk Management on East African Rangelands, headed by Utah State University, uses four systems to cope with risk and destock livestock in semiarid ecosystems: resource tenure, closer links to markets, rural finance, and public service delivery. These activities represent mechanisms to allow asset diversification, improved ability to interact with markets, increased investment in rural institutions and commerce, and better capacity to cope with an unpredictable environment. The impact of these alternatives will likely reduce conflict, improve the economic conditions of pastoralist and their communities, and provide higher productivity and stability to their livestock systems as well as greater protection for the biodiversity in their environments.

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The project, Managing National Parks in the Context of Changing Human Populations and Economics, headed by the Big Sky Institute at Montana State University, addresses the parallel management challenges facing Yellowstone and Serengeti National Parks in the interaction of multiple land uses, predominantly cattle grazing and agriculture outside the parks, and the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. The focus is on people around the parks, as much as on the animals inside.

The project, Multidisciplinary Research for Sustainable Management of Rural Watersheds: The River Njoro, Kenya, headed by the University of Wyoming, addresses one of East Africa’s most important natural resource management issues: water. The project builds the scientific and community capacity required to manage natural resources that are under attack by a growing population, increased livestock grazing, and short-term extraction strategies that threaten a watershed and a major national park.

The project, Livestock Trade in Ethiopia and Kenya, headed by Syracuse University, seeks to understand how terminal livestock markets function, in order to better understand how to connect interventions at the local level to national markets, which will ultimately lead to improvements in the ability of pastoralists to respond to drought.

Central Asia and Latin America

The Global Livestock CRSP is also active in Central Asia and Latin America. The Central Asia program addresses a rapidly changing and unstable political and economic environment, where little effort has been made, particularly in rural areas, to “cushion” the effects of transition to a market economy. The Latin America program faces sustainability issues such as a growing population, more firmly entrenched poverty, and a rapidly diminishing resource base.

In Latin America, the project Community Planning for Sustainable Livestock-Based Forested Ecosystems in Latin America, headed by the University of Wisconsin-Madison, deals with the impact of increasing human population on the conversion of forest and the management of integrated livestock systems that protect and use the biodiversity of these ecosystems. The project uses strong community-based involvement to address how to develop productive, profitable, and environmentally sustainable food systems in marginal environments for livestock production.

The project, Integrated Tools for Livestock Development and Rangeland Conservation in Central Asia, headed by the University of California, Davis, emphasizes both adaptation and mitigation.

This project will have significant global and local impacts in four main areas: atmospheric CO2 sequestration, rangeland conservation, enhanced productivity, and sustainability of livestock systems, and socio-economic aspects of livestock production.

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Small Grant Program

In Central Asia, four small grant projects are focused on the livestock sector and environment. The project, Linking Sheep Producers and Markets, headed by University of Wisconsin-Madison, compares the production economics and marketing environment for fine wool, meat, and meat/ wool breeds of sheep. This project will analyze the marketing opportunities surrounding each of these three production strategies and collaborate to produce extension materials for local producer support groups about the findings. A second project, Feasibility of Market Development and Support Services for Livestock Products in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, headed by Colorado State University, addresses the problem of developing markets for fine wool and cashmere in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Goals include improving marketing from the perspective of traders, domestic processors, and researchers. A third project, Co-Benefits of Grassland Regeneration of Abandoned Wheat Areas for Carbon Sequestration, Livestock Productivity, Biological Conservation, and Social-Economic Development, also headed by Colorado State University, is evaluating and modeling how changes in the seasonal grazing mobility of livestock in the Kostanai steppe region of northwest Kazakhstan affect carbon sequestration, vegetation composition, and rangeland productivity. The fourth project, Improving Market Infrastructure Through Wool Pools in Kazakhstan, headed by University of Wisconsin-Madison, assists Kazakh wool farmers with the development of market institutions, namely wool pools and wool grading technologies. This project helps Kazakh sheep farmers create wool pools and wool grading systems using the organizational technologies and experiences of U.S. sheep farmers.

vii Global Livestock CRSP

PROGRAM GOAL

The goal of the GL-CRSP is to increase food security and improve the quality of life of people in developing countries while bringing an international focus to the research, teaching, and extension efforts of U.S. institutions. This goal is to be met through collaboration between U.S. land-grant institutions and national and regional institutions abroad that are active in livestock research and development.

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

To achieve this goal, the following objectives have been identified:

•To strengthen the ability of institutions in developing countries to identify problems in livestock production and develop appropriate solutions.

•To increase employment and incomes among livestock producers and associated value-adding agribusinesses.

•To improve livestock production while monitoring the effects of production on the environment and exploring the integration of production systems with the rational use of natural resources, such as wildlife.

•To enhance the nutritional status of targeted populations through increased availability and utilization of animal source products.

•To provide support to decision-makers in developing policies that will promote livestock production, marketing, and processing of animal products; human nutrition and child physical and cognitive development; and natural resource conservation and management.

•To identify, study, and strengthen communication systems (including but not limited to extension) among livestock producers, businesses, researchers, and consumers.

RESOURCES

Funds for the GL-CRSP are granted for a five-year period by the United States Agency for International Development. A minimum cost-sharing contribution of 25 percent from participating U.S. institutions is required. The projects also receive substantial contributions from host country collaborators, U.S. universities, and other leveraged funds.

OVERSIGHT GROUPS Global Bureau, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Board for International Food and Agricultural Development and Economic Cooperation (BIFADEC) Strategic Partnership for Agricultural Research and Education (SPARE)

viii Annual Report 2003

STRUCTURE

The Global Livestock CRSP is administered as a grant to the University of California, Davis, which, as the Management Entity, administers subgrants to participating U.S. institutions and maintains fiscal responsibility. The GL-CRSP Program Director is responsible for program development, coordinating activities of the projects across and within regions, and overseeing the daily operations of the GL-CRSP. The Program Administrative Council provides input on the overall program goals, recommends strategies for programmatic development, and advises and concurs on the program budget. The Technical Coordinating Committee provides intellectual exchange and input on programmatic planning for the CRSP to the Program Director and the Program Administrative Council. The External Evaluation Panel provides objective evaluations of the CRSP programmatic process.

PROGRAM ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL U.S. LEAD PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

David Acker, CHAIR Malcolm Childress, Iowa State University University of Wisconsin - Madison Gilles Bergeron, FANTA Layne Coppock, Utah State University Salvador Fernandez-Rivera, ILRI Kathleen Galvin, Colorado State University Seyfu Ketema, ASARECA Lisa Graumlich, Montana State University Robin Mearns, The World Bank Emilio A. Laca, CHAIR Dennis Poppi, The University of Queensland University of California - Davis John McPeak, Syracuse University EXTERNAL EVALUATION PANEL Scott Miller, University of Wyoming Timothy Moermond, Tom Thurow, CHAIR University of Wisconsin - Madison University of Wyoming Dennis Ojima, Colorado State University Ahmed Sidahmed, IFAD Jerry Stuth, Texas A&M University System Bernie Engel, Purdue University David Swift, Colorado State University Keith Moore, Virginia Polytechnic Institute David Thomas, & State University University of Wisconsin - Madison

USAID MANAGEMENT ENTITY

Joyce Turk, Program Officer Montague W. Demment, Program Director Susan L. Johnson, Assistant Director Jenni R. Strand, Program Coordinator Cathy Miller, Financial Officer Quin Martin, Student Assistant

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COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS

CENTRAL ASIA EAST AFRICA

Kazakhstan African Wildlife Foundation Barayev Research Institute of Grain Farming Crisis Mitigation Office - ASARECA Central Asian Regional Environmental Center FARMAfrica (CAREC) Kazakh Technological Research Institute of Ethiopia Sheep Breeding Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center Ministry of Science - Academy of Science of Borana Lowlands Pastoral Development the Republic of Kazakhstan (MS ASRK) Project National Federation of Private Farmers of Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization Kazakhstan (EARO) Research Institute of Feed Production and Holetta Research Center Pastures Livestock Policy Analysis Program (LPAP) Mekelle University Uzbekistan Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau Academy of Sciences - Samarkand Division (OADB) Institute of Karakul Sheep Breeding and Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Desert Ecology (OARI) Karakul Sheep Research Institute Oromia Cooperative Promotion Bureau Uzbek Livestock Research Institute (OCPB) Uzbek Research Institute of Market Reforms Oromia Pastoral Development Commission Uzbek Sericulture Research Insititute (OPDC) Oromia Regional Agricultural Office Turkmenistan Save the Children - UK Academy of Sciences Save the Children - USA Institute of Economics USAID Mission to Ethiopia National Institute of Deserts, Flora and Fauna Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Action (VOCA) Kyrgyzstan Center for Economic and Social Research in Tanzania Kyrgystan (CASE) Executive Pastoral Council, Ngorongoro Kyrgyz Research Institute of Sheep Breeding Inuyat e-Maa Kyrgyz Livestock Research Institute Livestock Production Research Institute Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders Association (LPRI) Maasai Advancement Association Mpwapwa Agricultural Research Institute Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority Selian Agricultural Research Institute Sokoine University Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA)

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Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute Uganda (TAWIRI) Makerere University Ukiriguru Agricultural Research Institute Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Research University College of Lands and Institute Architechtural Studies (UCLAS) National Agricultural Research Organization University of Dar es Salaam Serere Animal and Agricultural Production Institute Kenya African Conservation Centre (ACC) LATIN AMERICA Amboseli NP Amboseli/Tsavo Group Ranch Conservation Servicios Agro-Informaticos de Apoyo a la Association Planificacion para la Uso y Manejo de los Arid Lands Resource Management Project Recursos Naturales (AGROSIG), Bolivia (ALRMP) Alianza Jatun-Sacha/Centro de Datos para la Community Initiatives Facilitation and Conservacion (CDC), Ecuador Assistance (CIFA) Centro Interdisciplinario para Estudios Drought Preparedness Intervention and Comunitarios (CIEC), Bolivia Recovery Program, Office of the President Centro de Estudios Regionales para el Egerton University Desarrollo de Tarija (CER-DET), Bolivia Fisheries Department Fundacion Antisana (FUNAN), Ecuador K-REP Development Agency Heifer Project International, Ecuador Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Instituto Manantlan de Ecologia y Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) Conservacion de la Biodiversidad Kenyatta University (IMECBIO), CUCSUR, Universidad de Masai Mara Game Reserve Guadalajara, Mexico Meru NP Comunidad de Estudios JAINA, Bolivia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Terra Nuova, Ecuador Development Moi University INTERNATIONAL Mpala Research Centre Naivasha Animal Husbandry Research Centre Centre de Cooperation Internationale en National Dryland Farming Research Center Recherce Agronomique pour le National Environment Management Developpement (CIRAD) Authority International Center for Agricultural Research National Range Research Center in Dry Areas (ICARDA) Netherlands Development Organization International Livestock Research Institute (SNV) - Isiolo (ILRI) PACT CORE Istituto Oikos (Italy) Resources Conflict Institute (RECONCILE) Macaulay Institute (Scotland) Regional Centre for Mapping and Resources Agricultural Research Organization - New for Development (RCMRD) Ya’ar Research Center (Israel) Semi Arid Rural Development Programme SOFRECO - Clichy (SARDEP) University of Nairobi

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United States Colorado State University Cornell University United States Geological Survey (USGS) - Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center Iowa State University Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks Montana State University South Dakota State University Texas A&M University Syracuse University University of California, Davis University of California, Los Angeles University of Kentucky University of Wisconsin - Madison University of Wyoming United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) - ARS Forage and Range Research Laboratory Utah State University Yale University Yellowstone National Park

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EARLY WARNING SYSTEM FOR MONITORING LIVESTOCK NUTRITION AND HEALTH FOR FOOD SECURITY OF HUMANS IN EAST AFRICA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Developing methodology and technology process is automation of the modeling process, to address the informational needs of pastoral in which biophysical models are linked with communities, relative to emerging forage satellite monitoring weather systems in conditions in response to climatic conditions, collaboration with the Famine Early Warning has been the major thrust of the GL-CRSP System Network (FEWS NET), Earth Livestock Early Warning Systems (LEWS) Resources Observation Systems (EROS), and project in East Africa. The LEWS team, led National Oceanographic and Atmospheric by Texas A&M University, in collaboration Administration Rainfall Estimate (NOAA with a large network of National Agricultural RFE) satellite-based weather data. These Research Systems (NARS), non-governmental automated products are found on the web sites organizations (NGOs), and development http://cnrit.tamu.edu/ aflews and http:// agencies in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and cnrit.tamu.edu/rsg/rainfall/rainfall.cgi, where Uganda, has assembled an integrated suite of daily deviations in forage production are technology that is capable of providing computed along with daily satellite weather estimates of livestock forage availability, and dekadal NDVI or greenness data, deviation from normal, and percentile ranking processed by Texas A&M University Center for a large portion of these four countries. The for Natural Resource Information Technology system uses the PHYGROW plant growth and the Asociation for Strengthening model and is driven by satellite-based weather. Agricultural Research in East and Central Using geo-statistics, point-based model Africa (ASARECA) Crisis Mitigation Office. simulations are linked with satellite greenness To assist pastoralists in assessing the images (NDVI) to create maps of forage nutritional well-being of their free-ranging supply and its deviation from normal every livestock, a series of fecal near-infrared ten days using an automated analysis system. reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) nutritional When coupled with a 90-day forecasting profiling laboratories have been established in system, information such as current forage each country that allows extension or NGO conditions relative to historical conditions, personnel to determine how emerging conditions at the same time during the previous conditions of the forage are impacting the year, and likely forage response in the next 90 performance of the animals. The fecal NIRS days can be provided. This information is assessment provides an estimate of dietary updated every ten days with situation reports crude protein (CP) and digestible organic and maps distributed via WorldSpace radios, matter (%), and a nutritional balance analysis email, Internet, CDs, and newsletters, (NUTBAL) model is used to predict changes impacting over 400 organizations and 300 in weight and body condition and help decision-makers in the region. Critical to the determine least-cost solutions to mediating

1 Global Livestock CRSP

deficiencies where feedstuffs are available. A Approach. This past year was spent GLOBAL 2003 calibration equation emerged expanding LEWS monitoring sites and from this project allowing worldwide working with appropriate ministries, and distribution of the system across Africa, agencies within those ministries, to effectively South America, and other major livestock utilize the LEWS information output within producing regions of the developing world. their organization. Progress. There were an additional 22 RESEARCH monitoring sites added in the Somali region of Ethiopia in collaboration with the Drought Activity One: Institutionalization Process Preparedness and Prevention Commission for LEWS (DPPC), Save the Children-UK, and Hope for the Horn (Figure 1). Eleven sites were recently Problem Statement. The primary set up across Southern Sudan by Dr. Gabriel problem addressed this past year was fully Turacha of Vétérinaires Sans Frontieres operationalizing rangeland/ livestock (VSF)-Germany in coordination with the monitoring systems in each of the LEWS FAO-Food Security Assesment Unit (FSAU) regions in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and office in Nairobi. Thirty sites have been Ethiopia to initiate the institutionalization established in Northwest Tanzania in process, which will better support needs of collaboration with the Association for early warning, relief and crisis mitigation Strengthening Agricultural Research in agencies. Eastern and Central Africa-Animal Agriculture Research Network Figure 1 - Spatial extent of LEWS monitoring points and zones (ASARECA-AARNET). The total of computational confidence established in the past five years. number of monitoring sites established in East Africa was 311. A major workshop was conducted with all relevant institutions in Ethiopia on the LEWS technology package, information acquisition, and report writing. DPPC will be the primary governmental organization within Ethiopia that will coordinate information flow with all the NGOs operating in the LEWS coverage areas of Eastern and Southern Ethiopia. The Tanzania Minister of Water Development and Livestock allocated federal budget items for LEWS and has requested that LEWS zonal coordinators expand sites into the coastal region and southwestern Tanzania where pastoral cattle are also

2 Annual Report 2003 located. LEWS is facilitating this process, establish 32 nodes but the number of total helping with model tuning and servicing the communication points is unknown as anyone model output back to the zonal coordinators. with a WorldSpace radio and computer can In Kenya, the Ministry of Agriculture and receive these reports throughout Africa. Rural Development has split off the livestock The backbone of this process is the program to a new Ministry of Livestock agreement with the Center of Natural Resource Development. We are in the process of moving Information Technology to maintain the the district reporting office and realigning the LEWS server site and ensure that the equipment for the new realities of this ministry. computational and reporting capacity is In Uganda, the Member of Parliament that maintained beyond the life of the project. This heads the science and technology committee framework allows the host countries to focus requested that we provide a plan for their scarce resources on outreach and institutionalization beyond the National mitigation activities and, if they so desire, Agricultural Research Organization’s (NARO) gradually evolve to take over the technical current LEWS system. Our LEWS aspects of the automated computational coordinators are in discussion with him at this system. Keeping this in mind, we have worked writing, working on modalities of funding and on several fronts to improve the data, the structure. models, and the automation techniques. The At the regional scale, a mechanism has following improvements were made in the last been established where monthly “Greater Horn year: of Africa” Food Security Bulletins are issued, 1. The PHYGROW model’s start/stop in which LEWS information is featured. This algorithm was reworked to allow faster goes to over 400 people in key ministries, load time between simulations. We NGOs, and donor/relief organizations in East improved the model’s ability to handle Africa. This is part of the International temperature profiles of a species in a more Governmental Authority on Drought and dynamic manner. Development (IGADD) process and will 2. The LEWS server was converted to a eventually be taken over as the IGADD grid-computing environment linked to newsletter. The primary partners besides dual processor rack-mount computation LEWS/GL-CRSP on this newsletter are FEWS servers to allow 20 PHYGROW NET, United States Geological Survey simulations to run at the same time. (USGS), World Food Programme (WFP), 3. In an agreement with Dr. Chris Funk, Drought Monitoring Center (DMC), Desert University of California Santa Barbara and Locust Control Organization, Regional Center now FEWS NET/EROS, we were able to for Mapping of Resources for Development acquire the 1961 to 1996 Collaborative (RCMRD), and Kenya Met Office. Historical African Rainfall Model RANET (World Meteorological (CHARM) rainfall data for the entire Organization system) and Arid Lands continent of Africa on a 11x11 km grid. Information Network (ALIN) have stabilized We compared the CHARM data to the the flow of information from the LEWS NOAA RFE rainfall data and purely servers to their WorldSpace radio containers generated rainfall data using the Weather broadcasted to satellite radios scattered Generator (WXGEN) for the throughout the region. LEWS has helped Environmental Policy Integrated Climatic

3 Global Livestock CRSP

model (EPIC) that was geo-corrected. We 1. Situation reports distributed every ten found that the CHARM data gave a greater days (http://cnrit.tamu.edu/aflews). The match to the NOAA RFE rainfall African LEWS website gets over 614 hits data that we have used to drive our per day with 136.1 GB in 80 countries models since 1998; however, t h e compared to 120 hits per day with only yields were somewhat lower. We 2.1 GB of data download in 49 countries investigated the cause and found it to be reported last year. Kenya remains the related to the smoothing algorithm used largest user in East Africa. where the 10-d dekadal data was distributed 2. 39 MB of rainfall data downloaded using a function that smoothes the from (http://cnrit.tamu.edu/rsg/rainfall/ distribution of values across all 10 days. The rainfall.cgi) in 27 countries this past fiscal data lacked discontinuity of typical rainfall year compared to 24 MB reported the prior events and did not reflect dry-wet day fiscal year. proximities. Therefore, we looked at the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Activity Two: Spatial Extrapolation weather generator coefficients for Africa and Technique Development developed a surface spline of all 12 coefficients for each month. This database Problem Statement. The PHYGROW will be made available to the public soon. model forms the foundation of a toolkit used With each 11x11 km grid now capable of in the development of a Livestock Early generating spatially explicit data, we ran 50- Warning System in East Africa (LEWS) of the year simulations of weather in each grid. The Global Livestock Collaborative Research CHARM data for each grid was paired with Support Program (GL-CRSP). The system is the WXGEN data for all 50 of the 10-d used for monitoring the impact of emerging dekads. We designed a program that would weather events on forage supply for livestock in find the dekad in the generator file that had the pastoral regions of East Africa. Primary the closest amount of rainfall. Then, the inputs for the model include: soil parameters, percent rainfall by day for the generator plant community characteristics, and livestock dekad would be multiplied by the CHARM management decision rules, which are driven by summed decadal data to create a statistically satellite-based gridded weather data for a more natural distribution of the rainfall. The particular location to simulate daily forage corresponding daily minimum and available for livestock and wildlife. LEWS has maximum temperature and solar radiation created a new range of forage monitoring from the generator were acquired to help products, expected to complement the existing build the complete weather file. These data early warning systems in East Africa to aid in now form the foundation data to drive the the decision-making process, particularly in 311 PHYGROW runs for the LEWS sites the pastoral regions. Regular verifications are and all deviations from normal forage conducted to demonstrate that the model standing crop generated from these event- simulation output of the available forage corrected CHARM data. This is being agrees with observations in the field and to made available to the public. ensure that the input parameters and logical Demand for our web-based products structure of the model are correctly included: represented.

4 Annual Report 2003

Approach. Over the past 18 months, the relationship between sampled forage on offer LEWS zonal teams selected 81 sites across the and PHYGROW-simulated total available region for intensive sampling with 22 sites forage for a target livestock species. Only measured in this past year. Fifty 0.5 m2 herbaceous species were used for this analysis. quadrats were sampled for each monitoring Progress. As indicated in the earlier site representing the 11 x 11 km grid using a section, we were able to add 22 new comparative yield method, where forage monitoring sites in Eastern Ethiopia that biomass is visually estimated on all quadrats greatly expanded our ability to cover much of using a ranking method and only 15 quadrats the Somali and Afar region of Ethiopia. We were clipped and estimated to develop a completed our final series of verification of regression equation (Haddock and Shaw the LEWS predictions of standing crop. Using 1975). The regression equation is used to the PHYGROW model as a point sample convert the rankings into actual forage values. linked with satellite weather has proven Since PHYGROW estimates grazed forage for effective with an R2= 0.96 and SEP= 161 kg/ each of the target herbivores, only forage ha (Figure 2). Final sets of verification studies available to livestock was measured in the are currently underway in the region by LEWS field. The fifty quadrats were distributed along zonal coordinators. five transects, located across the selected grid One of the major challenges that we faced for verification. The sites were re-sampled if this past year was converting point based 90- the field sampler’s visual estimate and d forage forecasts from the 300+ points into a associated clipped samples resulted in r2 values regional map. The event-corrected CHARM less than 0.80. More training was provided to rainfall data that was generated allowed us to the field enumerators having difficulty have a much more robust forecasting analysis estimating standing forage values. Simple since the rainfall behaved more like real linear regression was used as a test for the rainfall in the PHYGROW model and allowed

Figure 2 - Relationship between PHYGROW-simulated forage and actual field measurements across East Africa.

5 Global Livestock CRSP greater synchronization with the historical 10- the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), day NDVI values starting in 1981 to present. the U.S. Agency for International The problem was determining how to continue Development (USAID), and the U.S. the forage forecast with corresponding NDVI Department of State. data for the 90-day forecast. We finally Over 45 agricultural ministers attended the developed a pattern matching approach where briefing made by Dr. Stuth and personal the 300+ LEWS monitoring points were briefings provided by Drs. Stuth and Kaitho statistically compared with the dekadal record to the Ministers of Agriculture from Kenya, of NDVI data and those historical images with Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Cameroon, Sri the highest spatial match provided a Lanka, South Africa, Swaziland, Botswana, mechanism to co-krig future forage conditions Senegal, Djibouti, Mali, and Honduras. 60-d out from the current conditions. We are now in discussions with the International Activity Three: Enhanced Effectiveness of Research Institute for Climate Prediction at NIRS Fecal Profiling Monitoring Columbia University (ref. Dr. Maxx Dilley) Technology to Improve Livestock to coordinate our forecasting technique with Management in East Africa their emerging NDVI forecasting methodology. Currently, they feel comfortable Problem Statement. The primary with a 90-d forecast but have a goal for a 180- problem addressed with this activity was d forecast. This component of our work will establishing regional analytical capacity to be continued in the upcoming Livestock utilize NIRS technology for nutritional Infomation Network and Knowledge System management of livestock in East Africa. The (LINKS) project as it is critical for us to be capacity in the region to address nutritional able to predict likely outbreaks of Rift Valley issues of free-ranging livestock has been Fever relative to livestock movement patterns established in all LEWS countries. The and potential livestock market volumes in the development and deployment of a more robust region. calibration equation in the region would We have established the MAPSERVER improve the capacity of NARS and extension program on the http://cnrit.tamu.edu/aflews personnel to support nutritional profiling of web site with all the major land and program livestock in pastoral regions. features that allows users to build their own Approach. All of the LEWS diet:fecal maps with customized features. All of the pairs generated in Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, LEWS data system will be moved over to this and Tanzania were combined from research data structure to allow greater coupling of conducted in Ghana by a World Bank-funded activities in LINKS with the LEWS analysis. Ph.D. student, International Livestock The geo-spatial techniques have been well Research Institute (ILRI) projects in Nigeria, accepted in the development community. Niger, and Ethiopia, and projects in Australia, Through diligent efforts by Dr. Demment, the Argentina, Canada, and the U.S. to form a LEWS technology package was provided the global calibration equation for cattle, sheep, opportunity to be showcased at the Ministerial and goats. The diet:fecal pairs were subjected Conference and Expo on Agricultural Science to modified partial least squares analysis using and Technology Conference in Sacramento, the WinISI (Inservice Inspection) software. California. The conference was sponsored by Progress. All NIRS laboratories were

6 Annual Report 2003 established on schedule for each of the four used to translate the NIRS diet quality countries. We were able to send the Tanzanian predictions into animal performance. Recent staff to Sweden for training by First in Food observations of young livestock on sub- Analysis (FOSS) International staff. This was maintenance diets in East Africa, South fully paid for by FOSS. We also provided America, and West Texas have indicated that training to the Ethiopian lab and numerous other protein requirements and basal metabolism are scientists interested in NIRS technology at a 3- altered, requiring an adjustment to the day workshop sponsored by ILRI in Addis. NUTBAL nutritional requirement and gain/ Given the scope of experiments conducted loss functions. Also, overly fat dry open cows in LEWS, the diet:fecal pairs created in East were being overpredicted in performance and Africa were added to the GANLAB Global we had to search the literature and make Equation and are currently being transferred adjustments to gain efficiency as a function back to all the labs created in East Africa. of body condition and the ratio of energy to Since all the NIRS machines are calibrated to protein in the diet. Both of these adjustments the Texas A&M machine, all advances made have allowed NUTBAL PRO to be one the by the Grazingland Animal Nutrition most rigorously tested nutritional software Laboratory (GANLAB) can be directly packages under real-world conditions and transferred to the labs in East Africa with a suitable for use in tropical Africa. simple email attachment. Any lab in the region We had indicated in our prior workplans can transfer their samples or equations by that we would start a student to develop a NIRS email between labs as well. The GLOBAL fecal calibration equation to predict diet 2003 calibration equation statistics for cattle, protein and digestibility of donkeys in Africa. sheep, and goats from samples created in the The LEWS component in Ethiopia had USA, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Nigeria, identified this need but failed to recruit a Niger, Ghana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and student and organize the research. Therefore, Tanzania are presented in Table 1. when the University of Asmara indicated that One of the critical components of the NIRS the Netherlands Organization for International system is the NUTBAL PRO software that is Cooperation in Higher Education (NUFFIC) would fund a Ph.D. student, Negusse Kadine, Table 1 - NIRS fecal profiling calibration to train in the application of NIRS technology statistics for the new GLOBAL 2003 prediction of crude protein (CP) and digestible organic matter for rangeland animal management, we (DOM) in cattle, sheep, and goats. accepted him into the Department of Rangeland Ecology and Management at Texas
   
 A&M University (TAMU).
 Mr. Kadine then organized and conducted
    a stall-feeding trial where ten donkeys were    fed 100 different mixed rations of natural  forages and crop residues commonly found in
    East Africa (the research was conducted at the     Equine Research Center at TAMU). This  study has been completed. Fecal NIRS can
    be used to determine crude protein (CP) and     digestible organic matter (DOM) of donkeys.

7 Global Livestock CRSP

Calibration statistics for CP were R2 =0.96, Activity Four: Institutional Capacity SEP=0.77, and DOM R2 =0.92, SEP=1.75. In Building vivo digestibility was derived from 4-d, 24- hour a day total fecal collections. While CP Problem Statement. The primary issue was determined by the Hack method to derive facing LEWS during this final year of the ort adjusted, whole-diet values. The Mpala program was to build the skills of the technical Research Center (MRC) in Laikipia District support staff in the use of the LEWS toolkit of Kenya has just shipped common forages for active monitoring and decision-making in available to donkeys and zebra to the Kenya national Emergency Warning System Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) agencies, IGAD and FEWS NET, and critical research center at Naivasha to conduct a mirror NGOs. It is imperative to leave a network of study in East Africa. MRC is most interested skilled personnel in key organizations to in determining if the donkey fecal profiling ensure that the technology can be moved technology can be used to determine the diet forward by the respective organizations. quality of free-ranging zebra. KARI staff are However, we need to determine an effective currently conducting the experiment at way of organizing the information Naivasha and will scan the samples and interpretation and delivery process. conduct the in vivo DOM analysis, wet Approach. As outlined earlier, we have chemistry for CP and P, and then transfer the established a mechanism for institutions in spectra and lab results to the U.S. for analysis East Africa to acquire, interpret, and distribute with the U.S.-derived samples. As part of Mr. information from LEWS. Over 400 key Kadine’s Ph.D. program specified by decision-makers in East Africa get the LEWS NUFFIC, he is reviewing the nutritional reports. A monthly newsletter on conditions requirements and gain prediction code of the in East Africa is distributed to key government NUTBAL goat component and conducting a offices and reports are provided to over 30 weight performance trial to test the current NGO communication nodes in the region. We performance algorithms in the model. The have conducted workshops on the LEWS final phase of his dissertation research will system with key entities in Ethiopia, Kenya, focus on testing the final system in Eritrea in and Tanzania. To gain a better understanding 2004. of the effectiveness of the current institutional outreach activities, we conducted a pastoral Table 2 - Household statistics and gender community survey during the past year of 26 composition of the drought perception survey, pastoral communities involving 607 heads of conducted in pastoral communities of Kenya, pastoral households. Tanzania, and Uganda. Progress. LEWS Pastoral Perception Survey. The community surveys indicated that 23.9% of heads of households in these 26        pastoral communities were aware of LEWS,     
     and when linked with our communication nodes, zone of coverage, and prior coping   !    mechanism survey statistics conducted by LEWS and ASARECA, over 114,000   "      households and 2 million people are influenced

8 Annual Report 2003

Table 3 - Composition of the communities surveyed in the most suitable home for LEWS information, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. citing the easy access of information to all   #     #$     #% & community members. They felt that the best way to deliver the information would be       through the chiefs, with assistance from local extension agents in the oral explanation and       interpretation of the LEWS information for      their respective communities. An equal number of respondents (23%) chose extension offices as the ideal place for by LEWS outreach activities, impacting 1.4 LEWS information, citing the fact that many million km2 of rangeland, 40 million cattle, 30 extension agents live within those million sheep, and 32 million goats. The communities. Extension agents in those areas primary goal of the survey was to determine also serve as community site monitors, and what pastoral communities perceived as a would ensure that the information reaches the “deviation from normal” forage conditions community, and that the products are relative to the LEWS computations of forage explained and interpreted for the community. supply, forage deviation, forage percentile Throughout all the interviews, it was evident ranking, and NDVI. The main objectives were that the communities have a great respect for to determine how the current LEWS analysis the extension agents. tracks the pastoral decision process to move Village government offices, community livestock in reaction to drought, and to provide centers, and district agricultural and veterinary a basis for the refinement and improvement offices were also widely mentioned as central of communication strategies for the locations for the placement of LEWS dissemination of LEWS information and information. Common to all these offices is technological outputs. the fact they each work closely with the Overall, 30.1% of the people surveyed in pastoral communities and have developed their East Africa were women and 69.1% were men own unique methods of communication with (Table 2). Pastoralists comprise about 48.7% them. of the people surveyed in East Africa (Table The majority of the respondents indicated 3). The remainder consists of predominantly that they needed more time to evaluate LEWS agro-pastoralists (50.6%). Only 0.7% were information for the following reasons: pure farmers and ranchers. The communities 1. They needed time to build confidence interviewed were predominantly pure in LEWS outputs relative to events they pastoralists in Kenya and Tanzania and can observe. agropastoralists in Uganda. 2. They needed more time to evaluate The communities interviewed were asked LEWS outputs in relation to current to suggest places where LEWS information weather patterns that seem to have been could be placed. Community leaders and changing drastically in recent years. extension and village government offices were However, most of these communities indicated most frequently mentioned. About 23% of the that the LEWS information is potentially respondents suggested a Chief’s residence as useful in showing where there is available forage so they could explore alternative forage

9 Global Livestock CRSP resources in a timely manner. They also everybody in attendance to see. expressed an interest to get the information 3. This was followed by a display of the on a regular basis. There was a consistent LEWS output, highlighting the contrasts suggestion that including livestock market and similarities as applicable. prices would add value to the LEWS reports. 4. The forage deviation trend lines Actions taken by those influenced by LEWS developed by the communities earlier were information included: revisited. Through consensus, appropriate 1. Moved livestock. adjustments were made on the basis of 2. Moved the livestock and contemplated prevailing weather conditions. selling some of the animals but didn’t do 5. Lastly, follow-up meetings were so because it rained soon afterwards. agreed upon. In the subsequent months, 3. Sold livestock. the site monitors were given the outputs 4. Sought permits to move and stock to take to the communities. routes. In addition, a discussion was held in June 5. Sent young men for reconnaissance. in Magadi with some of the community 6. Avoided burning grass and cleaned members during a site verification exercise wells and dams. within the Olkramatian Group Ranch. They Southern Kenya LEWS Community expressed surprise at how the LEWS Outreach Pilot Site. The community predictions were closer to the emerging forage communication survey carried out early in the situation than their own estimates. Before the year 2003 indicated that all communities desire long rains, the Magadi community had feared to have the LEWS forage prediction outputs that a small lake known as Kabongo would every month. In addition, the information is dry up and if that were to happen, then massive to be communicated to these communities livestock losses would be experienced. through the existing project Site Monitors or Whereas they had foreseen a great deficit another government officer, preferably one because the long rains had been delayed, there that is involved in livestock extension service. was instead plenty of pasture and any livestock Following up on these findings, two of the movements were mainly to take advantage of existing monitoring sites were selected for quality rather than search for quantity. pilot test runs to discover the effectiveness of Similarly, the community at Mbirikani the information flow and its reception by the had expected a bounty of forage because the communities. The communities selected were long rains had not only come on time, but Mbirikani and Magadi, both in Kajiado. Initial they had come from the direction usually community meetings were convened by the associated with good rains. At that time project’s zonal coordinator at each location, however, PHYGROW showed a possible together with the extension service providers drop in forage below normal. In subsequent and the site monitors where: months, it turned out that actually forage was 1. First, the subject of forage availability below normal. and adequacy was introduced. The site in Mbirikani, a Group Ranch, has 2. The community’s perceptions were been considered ideal for this project because captured through a facilitated discussion the management committee is very strong and and the consensus written down and is able to make and enforce decisions on mounted in a convenient place for pasture utilization. However, when droughts

10 Annual Report 2003 become as frequent, as they have been in recent The National Disaster Prevention and years, their authority is undermined because Preparedness Committee (NDPPC) of the basis for decision-making is weakened. Ethiopia is responsible for the overall decision- Herds then move anywhere for survival. The making on all matters related to disaster rich, who can afford to transport water, move prevention and management. The EWD takes their livestock closer to the Kyulu hills while the lead in the development of improved the rest move out of the ranch in various procedures for regular data collection, directions. In both scenarios, an element of analysis, and dissemination at the national changing weather patterns seems to be in play, level. The EWD has put in place four different thus making traditional indicators less reliable. teams to carry out the above noted activities. Plant and spatial indicators, for instance, seem These are: to be affected most. 1. Crop monitoring team In all areas, monthly follow-ups are 2. Market and pastoral surveillance team necessary to build community confidence in 3. Documentation team the outputs, which are on the right track so 4. Field surveillance team far. The process, however, should also be The workshop was an attempt to improve institutionalized at the local level so that the efficiency of institutions involved in early communities can continuously get this warning to implement a timely detection and information. The major worry has been declaration of a disaster in the pastoral regions sustainability – will the LEWS outputs be of Ethiopia. The poor infrastructure in these available beyond the project’s life? regions is a major obstacle to timely Pastoralists and other stakeholders express monitoring of the livelihood of pastoral concern that since PHYGROW analysis, communities and dissemination and based at Texas A&M University, is communication of early warning reports to the controlled by foreigners, its future as a tool decision-makers and users; as a result, the for sustained use locally is doubtful. reporting of early warning information has not Therefore, government commitments to been effective in the pastoral areas of the building mirrored capacity will need to be a country. The reporting systems used by the priority in the future, even though the system different organizations involved in early is quite stable for the foreseeable future, and warning are not uniformly deployed. Texas A&M University has made a long-term Therefore, there is an urgent need for commitment to maintaining the system improvement in communication facilities like indefinitely. telephone, radio, internet, and fax machines Capacity Building Workshop. A capacity in key areas in the pastoral regions. building workshop on Livestock Early The workshop brought together 14 Warning Tools was organized by LEWS for participants representing various agencies the Early Warning Department (EWD) of the involved in early warning and food security Disaster Prevention and Preparedness issues in the pastoral regions of Ethiopia, Commission of Ethiopia (DPPC) and Allied including DPPC, Disaster Prevention and Institutions on February 10 – 20, 2003 at Preparedness Bureaus (DPPB) for the pastoral Nazareth, Ethiopia. The workshop, fully regions of Ethiopia (Oromia, Somali, Afar and sponsored by the GL-CRSP, was administered Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples), by LEWS. and non-governmental organizations (Save the

11 Global Livestock CRSP

Children-United Kingdom and Hope for the warning information needs in Ethiopia and Horn), and the Ethiopian Agricultural to identify information and delivery gaps. Research Organization. The objectives of the Human Resource Development. The LEWS workshop were to: project has had a tremendous impact on NARS 1. Bring together agencies involved in early and NGOs working in the region. The workshop warning and food security issues in the and subsequent joint field exercise with key pastoral regions of Ethiopia in order to NGOs and DPPC in Ethiopia greatly expanded compare their approaches, methods, and the LEWS human resource network. We have experiences. summarized that network below to 2. Present the latest scientific information demonstrate the depth and breadth of impact on the LEWS technology and reporting on human capacity building in the region. system with regard to forage monitoring and 90-day projections employed as an early warning tool. 3. Discuss ways of tailoring LEWS analysis and reports to suit the overall early

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Central Tanzania

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Tanzania
    Zonal Coordinator Male Tanzania
 Ezekiel H. Goromela   
  Male Tanzania
 Rashid S. Kidunda Sokoine University Male Tanzania
 Vitalis Temu Livestock Research Officer Male Tanzania
 Christopher Ulime Senior Livestock Field Officer Male Tanzania

  Head of NIRS laboratory Male Tanzania
 Coletha Ngwando NIRS laboratory technician  Tanzania
      NIRS laboratory technician Female Tanzania
 S.N. Mniko RLA-DODOMA Male Tanzania
 Urassa R. DALDO-MPWAPWA Male Tanzania
 E.L. Ollomi   Male Tanzania
 Mwachambi DALDO–DODOMA Male Tanzania
 Kasanga DALDO–KONGWA Male Tanzania
 S. Mtalo DALDO–MANYONI Male Tanzania
 Karigo DALDO–SINGIDA Male Tanzania
 Antalo DALDO–KONDOA Male Tanzania
 Manetho DALDO–KILOSA  Tanzania
 J.E. Mghwira Officer-in-charge-Mpwapwa Male Tanzania
 E.N. Pallangyo RAA-Dodoma Male Tanzania
 Musa Midugu RAA-SINGIDA Male

12 Annual Report 2003

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Northern Tanzania

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Tanzania SARI, Arusha Female Tanzania Northern R.N. Mero Tanzania Northern Phillemon Mushi SARI, Arusha Male Tanzania Northern Marietha Z.Owenya SARI Female Tanzania Northern Ndeshi S. Munisi Female Tanzania Northern SARI Tanzania Northern N.F.Massawe Male Tanzania Northern R.Mtae, TLTI, Arusha Male Tanzania Northern DALDO, Monduli Male Tanzania Northern Elias Kea DALDO Male Tanzania Northern David Chalamira !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Martin Halid !"!# Tanzania Northern Reginald Swai !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Enrisha Msangi !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Saideiya P. !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Gillead Mtui !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Richard Semwenda !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Alijumaa Mkumbwa !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Muze Msangi !"!# Male Tanzania Northern Arnod Massawe !"!# Male Tanzania Northern E.N. Ole Wavii DALDO-Simanjiro Male Tanzania Northern Dr. F. Matunda, DALDO-Mwanga Male Tanzania Northern N.S.Mollel DALDO-Kiteto Male Tanzania Northern Dr. E.P.Osanga DALDO-Same Male Tanzania Northern Dr. Rwegasira DALDO-Monduli Male Tanzania Northern Dr. Uroni DALDO-Babati Male Tanzania Northern B.M. Mwawado DALDO-Karatu Tanzania Northern Dr. Uliky DALDO-Hai Male Tanzania Northern Dr. Tigwela DALDO-Mbulu Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Simon Soinda Ngorongoro District Council Male Tanzania Northern S.A. Msuya Mwanga District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Lucas Ole Mukusi Simanjiro District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Bakari Lukuni Same District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Gabriel Bukhay Babati District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Leonard Ulotu Hai District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Isaac Bayo Mbulu District Male Tanzania Northern Mr. Lembile S.Kone Kiteto District Male Tanzania Northern Wilson Rutta $#"!%# Male Tanzania Northern Gaspar Leboi &&'#( Male Tanzania Northern Helen Nguya !# Tanzania Northern Martin Ole Saning’o "'"##&& Male

13 Global Livestock CRSP

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Laikipia Zone, Kenya

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Kenya ")* Zola Gibson Laikipia Zonal Coordinator Female Kenya ")* James Legei (#" Male Kenya ")* Nick Gerogiadis Mpala Research Center Male Kenya ")* Claus Mortensen Mugie Ranch Male Kenya ")* Fred Lesakale Wamba Community Development Male Program Kenya ")* SARDP Male Kenya ")* Abdi !( Male Kenya ")* & Loisaba Koija Male Kenya ")* Barnabas Ekeran Laikipia Wildlife Forum, Rumuruti Male Kenya ")* Daniel Lomoe Laikipia Wildlife Forum, Luoniek Male Kenya ")* Morias Kisio Laikipia Wildlife Forum Male Kenya ")* Joseph Lomart TUKASOMA Male Kenya ")* Philip Valentine Segera Ranch Male Kenya ")* Wellington Okieno WorldVision Kenya Male

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Southern Kenya Zone

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Kenya Southern $+ LEWS/GL-CRSP Country Coordinator Kenya Southern Elizabeth Nduku Muthiani Zonal Coordinator, South Kenya Female Kenya Southern Mr. Otieno District Range Officer Male Kenya Southern Mr. Mwangi District Livestock Production Officer Male Kenya Southern Jackson Wandera SARDP, Kajiado Male Kenya Southern Mr. Sindyo Game Warden, Kajiado Male Kenya Southern Mr. Mbuvi District Livestock Production Officer, Male Makueni District Kenya Southern Michael Kiteng’e Divisional Extension Coordinator, Makindu Male Kenya Southern Jeremiah M. Ngaya Makindu Site, Makueni District Male Kenya Southern Mr. Maina Assist. Site Monitor, Kasigau Male Kenya Southern F. Kiungu Site Monitor, Kasigau Male Kenya Southern James N. Ituli Technical Assistant, KARI Kiboko Male Kenya Southern Antony Mosu Technical Assistant, KARI Kiboko Male Kenya Southern Robert Ngetich Technical Assistant, KARI Kiboko Male Kenya Southern Charles Konde Laboratory Technician, KARI Kiboko Male Kenya Southern Peter Mweki Lab Technologist, KARI Kiboko Male Kenya Southern K. Mwaniki Livestock Extension Officer, Makueni Female District Kenya Southern J.N. Mwanjewe District Range Officer, Taita/Taveta Male Kenya Southern R. Mjomba Ranch Manager, Kasigau Male Kenya Southern Francis Kunyanga Site Monitor, Divisional Extension Male Coordinator, Magadi Kenya Southern Stanley Oloiputar Site Monitor at Mbirikani, Assistant Range Male Officer, Kajiado

14 Annual Report 2003

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Northwest Zone Turkana District, Kenya

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Kenya 00) Egerton University Kenya James Eyapan "(" Male Kenya Christopher Ajele Ministry of Agriculture, Lodwar Male Kenya Gollo Guracho Kumbi World Food Program, Nairobi Male Kenya Chris Erukudi WORLD VISION, Lodwar Male Kenya !1 CAPE UNIT - OAU IBAR Kenya Allyce Kureya SNV, NDO, Nairobi Female Kenya ' NV, NDO, Lodwar Female Kenya Mbithi Mutungi CAPE, Lodwar Male Kenya Eris J.B. Lothike OXFAM, Lodwar Male

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Northern Zone (Marsabit), Kenya

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Kenya 0)R KARI Marsabit Male Kenya Northern Aphaxard J. N. Ndathi 1 Male Kenya Northern George A. Keya Director, KARI Marsabit Male Kenya Northern M. B. Halake Coordinator ALRMP, Marsabit Male Kenya Northern Alex Ali Guleid MOARD, Marsabit Male Kenya Northern ' Coordinator CIFA, Marsabit Male Kenya Northern Simon Munyao Coordinator ITDG, East Africa Male Kenya Northern Project Manager, CEC, Marsabit Male Kenya Northern Alfred Ngonze KWS Male Kenya Northern Huka Duba 34+ Male 1 Kenya Northern Bernard Wafula #! Male Kenya Northern A. A. Ali &! Male

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Southern Zone (Borana), Ethiopia

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Ethiopia 3 Adami Tulu Research Institute Male Ethiopia Alemu Adare #!561 Ethiopia Bayissa Hatewu EARO Holetta Male Ethiopia Amsalu Sisay Adami Tulu Center Male Ethiopia Abdissa Abalti Adami Tulu Center Male Ethiopia 3 Adami Tulu Center Ethiopia Daniel Molla &$&' Male Ethiopia Teshome Erkineh Early Warning Dept., DPPC Male Ethiopia 7'3 Early Warning Dept., DPPC Female Ethiopia Zinash Sileshi EARO Female Ethiopia Getachew Haile OARI Male Ethiopia Dubale Adamasu 3 Male Ethiopia Suleiman S. Mohamed 85 Male

15 Global Livestock CRSP

LEWS/GL-CRSP Program, Uganda

Country Zone Name Position/Institution Gender Uganda 9$ Cyprian Ebong NARO Male Uganda Central/S.Western Felix Bareeba Makerere University Male Uganda Central/S.Western Rose Omaria NARO Uganda Central/S.Western Steven Byenkya NARO Male Uganda Central/S.Western &1+ NARO Female Uganda Central/S.Western Charles Sudhe NARO Male Uganda Central/S.Western &:+ NARO/Agro-Meteorology Female Uganda Kitaka, G. Veterinary Officer, Nakasongola Male Uganda Central Eswagu, J. Site Monitor, Wabinyonyi Male Uganda Central Sekatte, J. 1 Male Uganda Central Bugeza, J. Site Monitor, Lwampanga S Male Uganda $ Kawooya, E. Veterinary Officer, Sembabule Male Uganda S.Western Lule, G. Site Monitor, Lugusuru Male Uganda S.Western Kakoza, U. Site Monitor, Ntusi Male Uganda S.Western Barigye, J. Veterinary Officer, Mbarara Male Uganda S.Western Bagatuzayo, W. Site Monitor, Kanyaryeru Male Uganda S.Western Kitimbo, J. Site Monitor, Kikaatsi Male Uganda S.Western Aziku, L. Male Uganda Central/S.Western William Olaho-Mukani MAAIF Male Uganda Central/S.Western A. Hakuza MAAIF Female Uganda Central/S.Western Majugu, A.W. Department of Meteorology Male Uganda Central/S.Western Mwesigwa Shem Ministry of Disaster Preparedness Male Uganda S.Western Dr. Musinguzi GTZ Pastoral Development Project Male Uganda Central/S.Western Andrew Mutengu FEWS NET Male Uganda Central/S.Western Agnes Atyang FEWS NET Female Uganda S.Western Mr. Rusoke ULAMP Male Uganda Karamoja Michael Oyet #;37 Male Uganda Karamoja Alinga Hellen Karamoja Agro-pastoral Female Development Project

Activity Five: Pastoral Livestock between the PARIMA group and LEWS, with Marketing in Northern Kenya and primary participants including Drs. Chris Southern Ethiopia (joint with the PARIMA Barrett, Peter Little and Jerry Stuth. Laban project) Macopiyo, a Ph.D. student at TAMU from Problem Statement. The main issue in Kenya, was partially funded by this component this activity was the need to identify priority to work with the outcome of the surveys and interventions to promote more timely livestock analysis conducted by Drs. Barrett and Little sales in relation to stress periods. The role on market issues and intervention of LEWS was to organize information into constraints, with a goal of helping to a spatial context and initiate first order construct an agent-based livestock movement and a marketing model using the movement and marketing model. The reader results generated by PARIMA on ground is referred to the PARIMA section of the analysis. annual report to see the findings of the Approach. This past year represents the surveys. This report focuses on the model last year of a three-year collaboration development issues.

16 Annual Report 2003

Progress. Model Structure. The model patterns of large-scale movements of pastoral has been developed using both geographic- livestock, it is hoped that results of this information-systems (GIS) and agent-based modeling effort could be used by policy modeling under the Java environment. A managers to predict and focus intervention planned publication will provide detailed efforts in times of drought, disease outbreaks, descriptions of how these environments have source of cattle market supplies, conflict, etc. been integrated. ArcGIS 8.2 GIS was used to Although the primary interest was livestock develop and process initialization maps. Map movement, these movements were a function analysis and output display has been carried of the movements of the pastoralist, which in out in the Java development and deployment turn is a function of the physical characteristics environment. The Java environment was also of the available feeding areas, available forage, used to develop an agent-based decision conflict, cultural practices etc. Therefore, the environment and used to conduct simulations dynamics and interactions between the agents in which independent agents (i.e., individual and their environment was simulated. The cattle herds & herders) interacted with one focus was on dynamics that occur within the another and the environment in space and time. seasonal movement of the livestock, and also During a simulation, each agent developed a seasonal and annual changes in variables such unique history according to the rules assigned as habitat quality, number of livestock, to its type of object. The agent-based model seasonal trigger for new movement, and ethnic consisted of an observer interface (interface territorial and land use limitations. control, display-animation, and time schedule) Feeding Areas. This object type was and a model environment (equations created to represent physical locations on the describing ecological and behavioral features landscape. While feeding areas remained of modeled agents). Simulations were stationary, their attributes were dynamic. conducted locally via command-line Feeding areas maintained information about statements but are eventually targeted to be the grazing suitability of a given location for run remotely via a web-based interface. cattle, distances among feeding areas, and the Interactions between the modeled agents presence of other agents (i.e., consumption by and their environment across the Eastern other cattle herds, etc.). African landscape and surrounding areas were A feeding area represented an 11 km by simulated. The total area modeled was 580 11 km area on the landscape, and was km x 580 km. Using a daily time step, the considered to be homogenous with regard to model simulated interactions among agents all attributes throughout this area. For over a 150-day period (plans are underway to example, the grazing suitability for cattle extend this), representing the migration season across the entire 11 km square area was of the pastoralists in the region. represented as an attribute of a single feeding Livestock Movement Patterns. Our first area. This approach was used so that objective was to develop a model capable of landscape-level features could be captured simulating the daily movements of livestock without the necessity of having detailed herders and their cattle as they travel from the knowledge of microhabitat characteristics homefront locations to foraging areas. By within an 11 km cell (work is underway to identifying feeding areas frequently visited by reduce this cell resolution as new data becomes the livestock for a given landscape as well as available). Furthermore, this spatial scale

17 Global Livestock CRSP approximates the level of detail needed to We assumed that humans manage the simulate the relatively long-distance grazing process using a “win-switch” foraging movements between grazing and water sites strategy. Research indicates that cattle may of livestock, particularly in times of drought. utilize spatial memory and employ a “win- Grazing cattle are not evenly distributed switch” foraging strategy where cattle (via across the landscape, reflecting their foraging humans in this case) find a productive site (i.e., preferences. Several factors likely contribute “win”) but then routinely move (i.e., “switch”) to this patchy distribution. First, the to another location rather than continuing to availability of permanent water, settlement, forage at the productive site until the and the quantity and quality of forage have expected net energy gain drops below that been documented to influence movements by of other locations, as predicted by optimal livestock. Second, impediments to movement foraging theory. This strategy may promote also likely influence the range use of cattle. rapid regeneration of vegetation at the For example, various ethnic communities can productive site. Cattle also utilize spatial only graze in areas where other “friendly” memory to avoid recently grazed areas and communities reside, while agricultural land have been shown to avoid locations with use and disease vector infestations play a major depleted food resources for up to eight days. role to preclude the use of forage resources in Field studies also documented that when cattle specific areas. Finally, accessibility has also switched foraging areas, they tended to move been shown to influence the movements of to adjacent sites rather than traveling to more cattle and overall patterns of range use. distant areas. A mathematical function was created to Movement rules were programmed for describe the grazing suitability for cattle on the cattle herds in the model to simulate a win- landscape. Grazing suitability was determined switch strategy with spatial memory. Although from five principal components: (1) amount of cattle herds occur on both sides of the standing crop available to livestock, (2) slopes international boundary between Kenya, at the site, (3) ethnic compatibility, (4) distance Ethiopia, and Somalia, we prevented from permanent/seasonal water, and (5) time movement across this international boundary since previous occupation by the cattle herd. for the time being until the rate of cross–border Each component was parameterized and a final transfer has been adequately parameterized. product of suitability of a site for each of these To determine grazing quality, the grazing components produced. suitability value was adjusted on a daily basis Herds. The herd object type was created to to reflect the decreased preference of cattle for represent cattle in an 11 km by 11 km area recently visited sites, and their increased containing several cohesive herds preference for adjacent sites. The decrease in (approximately 30-50 head each), as they graze grazing quality due to previous occupation by a and move across the landscape. Because cattle cattle herd declined over time, and was often aggregate at or near settlements where eliminated when eight days had passed since there is permanent water, 186 of these sites the occupation. Once the grazing quality of were located as the initial locations for the each feeding area was updated, the movement cattle herds (this value keeps being adjusted rule for a cattle herd was simply to move to as more data on water points get collected and the feeding area with the greatest grazing collated). quality.

18 Annual Report 2003

The forage grazing quality variable f(t) for Other factors such as conflict and each feeding area was used to describe a site’s disease will be incorporated in due time as relative attractiveness to a cattle herd and reliable data becomes available. represented the dynamic attractiveness of a Simulations. Each simulation of the feeding area to a given cattle herd based on its livestock movement model produced two unique history. The desire to move to a cell general types of output. Maps detailed the with higher forage value (forage at time t) is cumulative visits by cattle herds to feeding captured by this factor of forage quality and is areas across the modeled landscape, and tables calculated as follows: of information detailed the distances moved by cattle during a simulation, rates of consumption at the sites, resource pressure at f(t)= ahf(q) the sites, etc. The resultant patterns produced where by the model (maps) were examined as well

i as the underlying processes that generated a f(q) = Min[ ∑ f ,1] h i these patterns (individual movements). The determination and tweaking of the appropriate where values for some of the parameters for the model is an ongoing research problem with good progress. ah is a parameter estimate f(q) is the forage quality The model requires another year to i complete but the basic functionality and spatial f is the summation for the factor for representation of the dynamics has been accessible forage attained, reflecting a first-order set of rules derived from the PARIMA-LEWS program The forage that is closest to the source and from LEWS field teams in the region. Of contributes most to the function of forage particular note is the improved data on quality f(q). Other factors that influence the livestock density compiled by the LEWS presence of forage include slope factors, teams and the new updated trekking hours ethnicity, and a memory factor accounting for maps for livestock to go to primary, secondary, the last time since visitation at a particular site. and terminal markets.

f(q j) was determined by: Activity Six: Pilot study on application of H f(qj) = [(αfj –βSiCos(Aij-aj)]/δij)(∆t )(εj) integrated communication and computing where analysis for improving livestock market f(q j) is the forage quality factor for cell j information infrastructure and situation fj is the standing forage crop at cell j in analysis in East Africa. tonnes/ha

Si is the slope percent at cell i Problem Statement. The primary Aij is the azimuth to cell j concern of this activity was to determine if aj is the slope aspect at cell i new short message services of cell phones δij is the distance between cells i and j linked to a receiver/message server that is ∆tH is time since last grazing integrated with a 2-way internet satellite εj is a factor for ethnic acceptance system linked with a centralized analysis

19 Global Livestock CRSP

system can be effectively configured in a concepts in the future of LINKS. The initial manner that is valued by decision-makers at cost is $190 USD per unit and then $15 USD multiple levels concerning livestock marketing per year maintenance. The constraint of the information. system is that the computer needs to be a newer Approach. Working with Ian Moore, head generation Pentium microprocessor. of information systems technology at ILRI- We purchased cell phones and scratch Nairobi, TAMU Telecom, TAMU Distance Ed cards and distributed those to a select group Center, and Verdisys Corporation, we of collaborators at the four Nairobi terminal conducted an IT analysis for setting up a two- markets and the Garissa and Isiolo way Internet satellite system to link a distance secondary livestock markets to test the education center at the ILRI Nairobi campus. concept of receiving and transmitting price/ In addition, we tested two software packages volume information by kind and class of in use of the short message service (SMS) cell animal. A first-order SMS text code system phone text messaging systems reporting sales was devised for effective transmission. The information from the Nairobi, Garissa, and cost per market day was $0.13 USD or Isiolo livestock markets. $6.80/year for weekly markets. Currently, Progress. In collaboration with the TAMU the test has involved reporting three times a Telecommunications Physical Plant and the week for the daily Nairobi markets. The TAMU Distance Ed Technology Development Kenya Livestock Marketing Services Center, we negotiated an agreement with Division (LMSD) in the Ministry of Livestock Verdisys Corp (Houston, TX) for a VSAT 2- and Fisheries Development in Kenya way Internet satellite hub that was located on provided monitors in each of the test market the ILRI campus in Nairobi and recently locations to help test the concepts of installed. The system has email and internet sampling herds, reporting body condition, browser capacity, two phone/fax lines that are and training needs of monitors. The results direct into the TAMU telecom system, a SMS of this test formed the basis of the upcoming text and voice cell phone server, and a high LINKS project which will be integrated into speed broadband video conferencing capacity. the LMSD strategic plan for a national LEWS provided the equipment and ILRI livestock marketing information system. provided the server and conference rooms First Order Reporting/Retrieving and has agreed along with the International Protocol. The SMS system can be used to Centre for Research on Agroforestry send reports from the field on market prices (ICRAF)-Nairobi to pay the monthly fee of according to specific markets, animal kinds, over $1600/month indefinitely. TAMU breeds, and classes. If a monitor is Telecom is paying for the two phone lines registered in the system, they will need to indefinitely and maintaining all distance know their monitor code to send a message education equipment and personnel on the from the field. This is usually designated U.S. side. We were also able to negotiate by their initials, unless there are already video conferencing licenses with WAVE3 conflicting initials in the system, at which ( http://www.wave3software.com/ time an alternate code would be assigned to download_ center.html) that allow them. The following tables represent typical computer-to-computer meetings with digital codes to send messages that are currently cameras for low cost distance education being tested. It should be noted that only

20 Annual Report 2003 the marketing code aspect of the system was Breed codes. tested as the other activity codes are to be Breed name Code an active part of the LINKS/GL-CRSP Boran B project. Zebu Z Market codes. Mixed M Market Name Code Nairobi NAI A monitor in the field would dial the SMS Garissa GAR cell phone, which is attached to an Active SMS Isiolo ISI process waiting for incoming calls. The process is launched when a call is received, Monitor codes. and parses the information from the message Monitor NameCode and places it into a database. The codes above Kristen Zander (example only): KCZ are used to lookup the appropriate natural Jerry Stuth (example only): JWS language text, so that users can receive information from the system once it has been Message kind codes. summarized. Below is an example of a Message kind Code monitor sending in information on the Nairobi Conflict C market on October 31, 2003: Water W MK S NAI JWS 10/31/03 ICF*B*5* 10000*57 Disease D MCF*Z*4*12370*432 Market MK* First, the monitor sends the appropriate *(only code currently being tested) code designating what kind of message is Forage conditions F being sent. Here, it is a market message. Personal message PM Using the lookup table provided, they would know to begin the message as “MK”. Next, Message type codes. they tell the system whether they are sending Message type Code or requesting information, by designating “S.” Send S The market that they are sending is “NAI,” or Receive R Nairobi, as parsed from the lookup table. Camel, goats, sheep, and horses would be “JWS” is the sender and is verified by the coded the same way as the cattle classes below, system as a valid user in the system. If using CA, G, S, and H as the middle indicator someone attempts a send on the system that for animal kind. cannot be validated in the lookup table, the system will place the message in an unparsed Animal class codes. table and send notification that there was an Animal class Code unauthorized attempt to use the system. The Immature cattle female ICF date that the market information was collected Immature cattle male ICM on is entered next. Immature cattle castrate ICC Following this set of static information, the Immature cattle all ICA user can enter as many classes of animals as Mature cattle female MCF possible in one message, up to 156 characters, Mature cattle male MCM which is all that a single SMS message can Mature cattle castrate MCC accept. This part of the message is divided by

21 Global Livestock CRSP

the asterisk character. The format of the entry This text indicates that it is a market is class code, breed code, body condition score, message kind, receive type, for the Nairobi price, and volume. Multiple entries are market. The user is requesting information separated by a space. The first entry above on the Boran breed, indicated by the “B” in tells the SMS system that 57 head of immature the text, and would like the volume and prices female cattle, Boran breed, average body for all grade of mature female cattle at this condition score of 5, were sold at the Nairobi market. The system will return a message for market for an average price of 10,000 Kenya the last date entered into the system by the shillings. The user should assume that the price market monitors to the caller’s cell phone that is in local currency. The second entry sends a will read like the following: message to the system that 432 head of mature NAIROBI Mature cattle female Boran 10/31/ female cattle, Zebu breed, average body 2003 Moderate KES8450 Vol 526 Thin condition of 4, were sold at the Nairobi market KES5200 Vol 46 Fat KES10100 Vol 23 for an average of 12,370 Kenya shillings. Emaciated KES4000 Vol 19 Each night the SMS system makes a call The KES in the example above indicates to the results table and summarizes the current the currency code for the country where the day’s information. The system assigns grades call is being placed. If there was no to sets of body condition score classes using information in the database on emaciated cattle the following breakdown: for the closest date to the time when the call Body Condition Grade was placed to the system, the emaciated < 3 Emaciated volume and price would read KES0 Vol 0, to 3 - 4.9 Thin indicate that no emaciated cattle of this type 5 - 7 Moderate were sold at the Nairobi market on the > 7 Fat specified date. For example, there may be four entries for mature female cattle in the Nairobi market for GENDER the date October 31, 2003. If one entry was body condition 4, another 5, another 6, and Overall, the LEWS program has impacted another 7, the system would assign thin to the the full spectrum of gender including an array BCS 4 result, fat to the BCS 7 results and of age groups. Because information flows to perform a weighted average calculation for communities and not select individuals in volume and price on the two entries that fall families, the impact is less gender-specific in into the moderate category. It will also nature. However, how the information is used assign a status of “no data” to those can impact decision-making at the household categories where data is not available, such level as it relates to gender and age. Obviously, as emaciated in the previous example. This decisions to sell and move animals, process is creating a filled data set, which particularly large animals, are a male- people can query for market conditions. dominated decision in East Africa. However, After the data set is filled each night, the much of the small stock decisions relative to data is ready to be retrieved by interested sales are under the purview of wives of those parties. These users will send a receive male decision-makers. Elders in the form of message to the system formatted like this: village leaders have a large influence on the MK R NAI B MCF sense of urgency to react and how to react to

22 Annual Report 2003

drought information. The reader is referred Agricultural Research Organization (EARO). to the section on the perception survey to Dr. Sileshi stepped down as the country determine how LEWS was affecting the coordinator recently due to other commitments decision-making process and how gender was and nominated Mr. Dereje Fekadu, at EARO impacted. Holetta to succeed her. The LEWS project There are two categories of women that contact within the Disaster Prevention and are impacted by the LEWS project. The Preparedness Commission (DPPC) of Ethiopia United States and in-country women team is Ms. Belatu Tefera, team leader for the scientists and in-country women within the pastoral surveillance team. The DPPC is targeted pastoral communities. This past year expected to be the home for the technology we had two female graduate students and one developed by LEWS, and the process of female systems analyst working in the institutionalizing is currently underway. TAMU-LEWS project in the U.S. One Tanzania. Ms. Stella Bitende is the recently completed her program and went National Coordinator of LEWS in Tanzania. to work for the University of Wyoming She was Assistant Director - Livestock Extension Service. Currently, there are Research, Ministry of Agriculture & Co- seven in-country women team scientists operatives, Division of Research & involved in the LEWS program. Two of the Development. Her position has provided a female scientists are the country focal point for consultation on technical and coordinators for LEWS in Ethiopia and operational details of the relevant commodity Tanzania. Three of the women are zone and research for the sub-program. In her coordinators and the other two women are site capacity as a Lead Scientist, Ms. Bitende managers. There are also site monitors who represents the sub-program on collaboration are women. The following are their specific issues with external partners in research and responsibilities, by country. development as the need arises. Ms. Bitende United States. A female M.S. graduate is now country coordinator for Heifer student, Ms. Zola Gibson completed her M.S. International at the close of the LEWS project. program at TAMU, graduating in December Ms. Margaret Kingamkono, of the Ministry 2003. She verified the prediction of of Agriculture in Arusha, is the LEWS PHYGROW in Laikipia district and surveyed Northern Tanzania coordinator, implementing pastoral communities on their perceptions of many new innovations in the communication drought. She worked with the Mpala Research of LEWS information with pastoral Centre (http://www.nasm.edu/ceps/mpala) in communities. Central Kenya. Ms. Kristen Zander plays a Uganda. Ms. Grace Ebiyau is a Site key role in development of software for the Assistant/Technician in Uganda. She has been LEWS project and is completing a M.S. a member of the LEWS team from its program on factors affecting adoption of the beginning, collecting and processing a major nutritional management technology in the portion of the original samples and data. Dr. context of information technology. Emily Twinamasiko coordinates fecal Ethiopia. Dr. Zinash Sileshi, Animal sampling activities in southwest Uganda. She Scientist, was the in-country coordinator for is the National Research Coordinator for LEWS. She is also the director of the veterinary medicine and animal health. Two Livestock Research Program for the Ethiopian female technicians at Namulonge Agricultural

23 Global Livestock CRSP

and Animal Production Research Institute specific, with women owning/gaining income (NAARI) have been active on the project. from small types of livestock and men They are Ms. Agnes Namagembe and Ms. controlling the larger ones. Engendering Clementine Namazzi. They have participated LEWS efforts facilitates the integration of in vegetation characterization, training of field socioeconomic concerns such as division of staff, fecal sample collection and processing. labor and equitable access to resources. Three of the nine weather stations monitors In addition, many of the site monitors are women. selected for monitoring in the pastoral areas DANIDA is funding a Ph.D. program at are women. Extensive efforts have been made Makerere University for Mrs. Rose Omaria, to identify households headed by women for who is a practicing veterinarian in Uganda. inclusion into our monitoring route programs Mrs. Omaria was provided intensive training in all of the host countries. Three of the 15 funds by LEWS to come to TAMU to learn households in southwestern Uganda are how to use the NIRS technology to develop headed by women. However, women are pregnancy-testing calibrations for cattle and known to be key players in livestock goats. Recent breakthroughs in pregnancy management and husbandry in East Africa, testing with NIRS at GANLab make this a very even in the households headed by men. important training event Kenya. Mrs. Jane Sawe, a lecturer at the POLICY Department of Animal Science, Egerton University, has joined the LEWS zonal team Processes of Institutionalization in East in Northwestern Kenya. Ms. Elizabeth Africa Muthiani has taken over coordination of the southern Zone of LEWS in Kenya. We were Based on early feedback from the ME, also able to negotiate a new MS student, Ms. PAC, and EEP of the Global Livestock CRSP, Briget Ochieng of the Tegemeo Institute at the the LEWS teams were challenged to design University of Nairobi to place her in a program institutionalization plans for the coming to begin the process of investigating price years of the next funding cycle. These plans efficiency between the Nairobi cattle markets are summarized below by country. and the two main markets in Garissa and Isiolo. Kenya. In Kenya there is an extensive Pastoralist Women. All of our Zonal and planning program underway to reorganize Country Coordinators have been advised to be the information flow from different Early gender sensitive in employment for the project Warnng System (EWS) organizations in activities and in planning, training, and Kenya under a single, self-reliant unit called technology development for livestock the Early Warning and Food Information production. This was done in recognition of System Unit (EW&FISU) in the Ministry of the important role that women play as livestock Agriculture and Rural Development resource managers within pastoral societies in (MoARD). The MoARD has submitted a the target. Accordingly, the LEWS program Technical Cooperative Program (TCP) to addresses itself to various types of livestock FAO to help this process to go forward. and spatial/temporal availability of feed. LEWS representatives, including the PI of the Within many pastoral societies, livestock project, have met with Mr. James Oduor, ownership and management are typically coordinator in MoARD to discuss how LEWS

24 Annual Report 2003

could best be institutionalized in the technology and training will move forward reorganization process. The Arid Lands once the systems function has been tuned to Resource Management project (ALRMP) is Ethiopia’s extensive conditions, and the viewed by MoARD as a good working model Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization through which LEWS technology could be (EARO) has been set up with a functioning integrated into the EW&FISU framework. NIRS fecal profiling lab. The training Several meetings have taken place with Mr. workshop conducted on LEWS technology for Oduor and Mr. Maalim, National the Early Warning Staff is an attempt to speed Coordinator of ALRMP in the Office of the up the institutionalization process. President, to discuss the institutionalization Tanzania. The Ministry of Agriculture has of LEWS in Kenya. As of this writing, we an established crop monitoring and livestock have verbal commitment to identify key disease-monitoring program. The livestock people in MoARD and ALRMP to liaison component is linked with the Organization of with LEWS teams and arrange training, set African Unity-Interafrican Bureau for Animal up networks, and establish computing Resources (OAU-IBAR). We are targeting the capacity for the unit. The EW&FISU LEWS technology suite toward OAU-IBAR. framework would ensure that all zones are The national coordinator of LEWS, Stella covered by LEWS technology, considering Bitende, is heading up the discussion with the that the mandate of ALRMP would be Ministry of Agriculture and OAU-IBAR expanded to all pastoral regions of Kenya. representatives. This discussion is in its Other collaborating organizations in the infancy and we cannot provide any more EW&FISU include the Kenya Meteorological insights on progress at this point in time. Department, Department of Resource Survey ASARECA Crisis Mitigation Office. and Remote Sensing, Central Bureau of LEWS has invested in intensive training of an Statistics, Ministry of Health, FEWS NET, information officer and a biophysical FAO, and Arid Lands Resource Management modeling technical officer in the ASARECA Project. Crisis Mitigation Office (CMO) located at Uganda. NARO has been identified as a ILRI-Nairobi (see capacity building section). focal point for LEWS because of its The TAMU LEWS group has been working comparative advantage. NARO is under the with the CMO to help integrate the LEWS Ministry of Agriculture, which is responsible concept into the ASARECA AARNET for early warning. The stability of leadership activities. Enhancing and upgrading the in NARO supports the process of information capability of the office has institutionalization in Uganda. An EWS unit involved collaboration with the International is being established in NARO this year to Livestock Research Institute’s Information remedy the high turnover in the Ministry of Dissemination Office. The goals of the Crisis Agriculture. LEWS will be focusing training Mitigation Information System are: and infrastructure development in this unit. 1. To facilitate data and information flow Ethiopia. Continued dialogue with the between the LEWS teams in East Africa national Early Warning Department of the (NARS and universities), ASARECA- Disaster Preparedness and Prevention CMO, and TAMU. Commission and Relief Agency has been 2. To facilitate data and information flow maintained with the expectation that the between the national and international

25 Global Livestock CRSP

institutions involved in early warning mechanism for translation of our reports and regarding weather, agriculture, and dissemination of the reports into the district livestock. offices and NGOs in northern Tanzania. The 3. To facilitate the dissemination of LEWS Tanzania team established a booth at livestock early warning alerts from the the National Farm Show in 2002 and was able LEWS project to pastoral communities, to brief attendees on the LEWS program, local government leaders, and national including the Prime Minister and Minister of policy makers in East Africa. Agriculture. Each country has different Forming Linkages with FEWS-NET dissemination mechanisms, with NARO and major regional organizations. A playing a stronger role in Uganda. In Ethiopia, partnership has formed between FEWS NET EARO was the lead organization but with the and LEWS, along with the Regional Center reorganization and decentralization of for Mapping Resource Development government function into the provinces, we (RCMRD), Drought Monitoring Center have had to work with the pastoral (DMC), USGS FEWS NET, World Food development commissions in the Somali and Program, and Desert Locust Control Oromia regions to place key people into those Organizations to produce a monthly bulletin regions. titled “Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) Food Security Bulletin.” Nine bulletins have been DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT produced as of this writing. We also have established a working relationship where the Environmental Impact and Relevance. Disaster Prevention Management and The central thrust of the LEWS program is to Coordination Unit of the United Nations provide information on impending drought acquires our monthly reports to contribute to with sufficient lead-time to allow the the Kenya Humanitarian Update. government, NGOs, and pastoral communities to react to the conditions in a timely manner OUTREACH and prevent resource degradation. Improved decision-making leads to the maintenance of The primary mechanism for outreach has critical plant cover and recycling of carbon been the establishment of a mechanism to back into the soil, which maintains the automate and distribute 10-d and monthly hydrological integrity of the ecosystem and situation reports to government agencies and results in less soil loss and vegetation of a NGOs working with pastoral communities via higher ecological state. the WorldSpace radio network. In Kenya, we Agricultural Sustainability. Timely have built the capacity for the Ministry of decision-making by livestock owners Agriculture and Rural Development to concerning the availability of forage supply, distribute our reports to district officers over movement, and the destocking and restocking most of Kenya’s rangelands. Our zonal of livestock will be valuable for sustainable coordinators serve as an additional mechanism livestock production in East Africa. The to distribute reports every ten days and indigenous knowledge of the pastoral societies monthly to their network of district officers regarding range and livestock will be much and NGOs working with pastoral more effective if they can have access to near communities. We have established a real-time information on impending forage

26 Annual Report 2003 shortages for livestock and the location of generate forage loss assessment as a basis for forage supplies that minimize conflict during the new national forage loss insurance program periods of restrictive conditions. A that will affect approximately 32% of livestock combination of the indigenous knowledge and producers in the U.S. and over $695 million modern science can be used by decision- in forage assets. USDA RMA has accepted makers to formulate clear mitigation strategies the feasibility study for this technology and to reduce risk from weather extremes. Recent has issued a task order for the insurance technology breakthroughs in computer industry to implement the system over the next modeling, weather monitoring, animal two years, with a first generation system tested nutrition profiling, and communication in 2004, followed with full implementation in infrastructures offer an unprecedented 2005. opportunity in accurately assessing the impacts The USDA Risk Management Agency of emerging weather events on forage supply recently approved funding as part of their for livestock and wildlife, and their ability to partnership program to test the concept of acquire nutrients to sustain themselves. blending ranch-specific weather data with the Some environmental impact will be PHYGROW modeling system and livestock realized in the decrease of land degradation. fecal profiling to provide a Forage Risk By notifying pastoralists of the changes Assessment Management System (FRAMS) (decreased nutrient composition) occurring to for the ranching industry. A pilot study has the range 6-8 weeks earlier than the current just been initiated for New Mexico, Texas, information provides, they have the West Virginia, and Wyoming. opportunity to rotate (migrate) off the affected Contributions to Host Country. The range before an irreversibly detrimental trend contributions to the East African nations intensifies. involved in the LEWS project include the Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. ability to foresee and prevent, prepare for, and Improved NIRS predictions of the diet quality mitigate or resolve crisis and conflict in a more of livestock will have a significant impact on timely manner. The current set of monitoring the quality of predictions provided to ranchers programs offers information on initiating throughout the U.S. via the national service conditions (e.g., weather and remote sensing lab at the Grazingland Animal Nutrition Lab, information) and a delayed post-effect (e.g., at Texas A&M University. Currently, this lab cattle weight and body condition loss) provides nutritional advisories to over 3,000 appraisal system. LEWS’ state-of-the-art ranchers throughout the U.S. via the NIRS/ contribution, based on NIRS livestock fecal NUTBAL nutritional management system. profiling technology and spatially referenced The technologies assembled and used in this modeling of emerging forage/crop conditions, project will be directly transferable to U.S. will add a new dimension to the existing grazinglands. The new EQIP (Environmental monitoring programs in East Africa. The Quality Improvement Program) has designated LEWS addition to the current monitoring that the NIRS/NUTBAL nutritional programs allows more flexibility in decision- monitoring program is eligible for incentive making from the household level to the policy payments for over 35,000 livestock producers. maker by providing the ability to predict The USDA Risk Management Agency adopted responses, such as impending livestock the concept of using biophysical models to mortality by kind and class of animal, losses

27 Global Livestock CRSP in forage supply, and decline in milk educational and technical contributions production. More timely destocking strategies include graduate training for some of the will allow pastoralists to maintain their assets national scientists and technicians trained to through crisis and assure greater ecosystem use the instrumentation, and various integrity, allowing the ecosystem to respond workshops designed to establish monitoring more rapidly after droughts run their cycle. routes and protocols. Other equipment (e.g., Also during this past year, the LEWS GPS units, computers, software, etc.) has been project has focused on the formation of human provided to the in-country team leaders and capital through a network of scientists and zone coordinators. organizations across the East Africa region, Linkages and Networking. The LEWS which is founded on a common purpose and project is co-located in the ASARECA office protocol to establish an advanced livestock at ILRI-Nairobi, Kenya, as part of the Crisis early warning system that is regionally Mitigation Program. A portion of a program cohesive. The project has organized LEWS manager’s time has been allocated from teams and relief monitoring agencies in East ASARECA crisis mitigation funds to serve as Africa to use the various technical modeling an ASARECA-CRSP-LEWS coordinator. tools. Two issues that have become apparent This person works under the supervision of in the interactions and exchanges of views Dr. Jean Ndikumana, ASARECA Animal between the teams during these gatherings are: Agricultural Research Network Coordinator. 1. An improved collaborative approach ILRI has hired an information system manager and regional outlook on livestock issues for the Crisis Mitigation Office to facilitate among LEWS host countries. An the dissemination of information between the awareness that most of the problems various LEWS teams, Texas A&M, and related to livestock production and national and international organizations development are cross-border problems. involved in early warning. 2. Improved shared understanding and In Ethiopia, we intensified our working recognition of the importance of livestock relationships with DPPC, Oromia Pastoral in early warning systems. As is evident Development Commission (OPDC), the from the national agricultural early Somali Pastoral Development Council, and systems currently in place, the livestock Save the Children-UK. sector in all of the host countries is either The LEWS project also strengthened ignored or marginally covered. The policy linkages with the FEWS regional makers of various livestock ministries in representative in East Africa and EROS FEWS East Africa have intimated to the project NET. that they are looking to the LEWS project Collaboration with International to remedy this situation. Research Centers (IARCS) and Other The national outreach specialists of CRSPs. The primary IARC collaborators are ministries and NGOs were provided training scientists located at the International Livestock in the use of the various biophysical models Research Institute in Nairobi, Kenya and and the spatial analysis tools employed by this Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. The first NIRS project. The goal is to enable the national laboratory was established at ILRI-Debre Zeit. institutions and their staff to become proficient We also assisted ASARECA at ILRI-Nairobi in the use and application of these tools. Other to establish a Crisis Mitigation Office,

28 Annual Report 2003 integrated with the LEWS reporting system, and purchasing power. It will also give the as a primary link to NGOs, regional local governments opportunity to concentrate organizations, national policy makers, and on development rather than relief. This is international early warning and relief likely to result in increased trade and the organizations. ILRI has collaborated with emergence of agricultural enterprises. LEWS on a SPAN grant with USAID focusing Contributions to and Compliance with on capacity building for use of biophysical Mission Objectives. Achievement of food models. security and improvement of the livelihood of Because several of our TAMU-LEWS the people in the Greater Horn of Africa by team members are on the global project within mitigating the effect of recurrent droughts and the SANREM CRSP, there is strong famine has been an important objective of the collaboration between that component and Greater Horn of Africa Initiative spearheaded GL-CRSP as it relates to modeling and by USAID. It is anticipated that the monitoring technologies. The technical staff development of an improved early warning working with SANREM CRSP have interacted system, and finding better ways of linking it with the LEWS team members in Uganda, to responses from government and various Kenya, and Tanzania as it concerns evaluation donor agencies, will go a long way in meeting of the impact of smallholder dairy technology this objective. in those regions. Concern for Individuals. The project is This past year we have established a two- designed to secure working relationships with way Internet satellite connection between households and individual pastoralists. The TAMU’s Internet II node and the ILRI-Nairobi project recognizes the fact that the pastoralists, campus. ILRI agreed to provide the monthly whose livelihoods depend on livestock, are the fees in collaboration with ICRAF to ensure keys to the success of the project. To a large long-term sustainability of the system. We extent, the success of the project and were able to locate the SMS cell phone text sustainability will depend upon the messaging system within their server room, participation and the commitment of the local maintained by ILRI system administrators. people and the ability of the project personnel ILRI provided the distance education to empower, motivate and involve them. conferencing room to help us provide training Pastoralists’ wealth is in their livestock, thus for the LEWS and future LINKS project early warning information provided by LEWS personnel. could help ensure continued financial security for individuals and their families. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Support for Democracy. A livestock early warning system will improve the Support for Free Markets and Broad- capacity of the people in East Africa to monitor Based Economic Growth. An early warning and understand the dynamics of food security system will allow a broader assessment of within their borders and throughout the region. emerging conditions, which will aid in the Alerts from a livestock early warning system, level of preparedness and mitigation of the with respect to droughts and other natural effects of drought. This reduced drought risk disasters, will reduce mass movements of will help promote the pastoral assets, which people and livestock, which have traditionally in turn can bring about local economic growth been sources of conflict. An improved early

29 Global Livestock CRSP

warning system such as this will create more LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS stable and democratic societies where individual opportunity for prosperity and well- The LEWS project has been able to being is greatly enhanced. leverage funds and personnel from multiple Humanitarian Assistance. The need for sources to ensure that the program is moving humanitarian assistance usually emanates forward and up-to-date technologies are being from poverty-related degradation of natural used in the project. resources. An early warning system for A total of $729,605 was leveraged this year livestock is essential both for food security, alone within the group, not counting the by protecting the natural resource base, and normal cost share funds of Texas Agricultural for disaster preparedness. A proactive early Experiment Station salaries noted in the grant warning system will help in making people in budget for 2001-02. Specific grants and the region less vulnerable to disasters by funding levels are as follows: alerting them of an impending crisis and DANIDA - $26,500 - Ph.D. training provoking a humanitarian assistance response program for Ms. Rose Omaria. Ph.D. from local and international relief systems program is funded to develop pregnancy (e.g., governments, donors, and NGOs). The testing calibration equations for cattle and United States government, through USAID/ goats to meet both training and science OFDA, spends a lot of money on humanitarian objectives in the LEWS project. She is crisis created by drought in East Africa. On attending Makerere University and was October 29, 2002, the U.S. Embassy in Addis given intensive short-term training at Texas Ababa declared a disaster in response to the A&M University GANLAB. continuing drought situation in Ethiopia. To DANIDA - $25,070 - Ph.D. training date in FY 2003, USAID/Office of Foreign program for Mr. Steven Byenkya. This is Disaster Assistance (OFDA) has provided the final year installment on a compressed more than $30.8 million to support emergency Ph.D. program at Texas A&M University. water and sanitation, health and nutrition, and Mr. Byenkya is conducting research on agricultural recovery activities in drought- modeling effects of brush encroachment on affected areas nationwide in Ethiopia alone. pastoral land capacity and traditional coping This past year, all food emergency needs in strategies as stated in the LEWS objectives. the country have been met for the first time. NUFFIC - $41,939 - Ph.D. Training in This improved response could be partly range management for Mr. Negusse Kidane attributed to timely early warnings, which are from Eritrea. This program is focusing on being issued by the DPPC, FEWS, LEWS, and development of NIRS fecal profiling other agencies working in the country. systems for equines and enhancement of the NUTBAL goat performance prediction REFERENCES model. Mr. Kidane will also be setting up LEWS monitoring sites in Eritrea in May Haydock, K.P. and N.H. Shaw. 1975. The 2004. comparative yield method for estimating SANREM CRSP - $80,000 - Global dry matter yield of pasture.” Australian decision support system for assessing the Journal of Experimental Agriculture and impact of policy and technologies related to Animal Husbandry, 15: 663-670. food security – Year 5. Personnel in TAMU-

30 Annual Report 2003

FEWS are value-added funded via funds in Peter N. Kamau, Ph.D., Dec. 2003, Range SANREM CRSP, as many of the technology/ Science, Egerton University. methodology enhancements help support Negusse Kidane, Ph.D., Dec. 2004, Range efforts in LEWS as well as SANREM. Funded Science, Texas A&M University. to Dr. Clark and Dr. Stuth. Rose Omaria, Ph.D., Jan. 2004, Animal USDA-NRCS - $66,000 - GSAT resource Science, Makerere University. planning system development for assessing Zola Gibson, M.S., Dec. 2003, Range Science, carrying capacity of rangeland systems. Texas A&M University. Technology developed in this program is used Kosi Awuma, Ph.D., Dec. 2003, Range in the livestock movement and marketing Science, Texas A&M University. technology being developed in LEWS/LINKS. Kristen Zander, M.S., Dec. 2003, Ag. Funded to Dr. Stuth. Development, Texas A&M University. USDA-NRCS - $180,000 - National animal Laban Macopiyo, Ph.D., Dec. 2004, Range nutrition and well-being program for the U.S. Science, Texas A&M University. using the NIRS/NUTBAL PRO Nutritional Management System. This is the fourth and Completed final year of funding. All technology Amsalu Sisay, M.S., Dec. 1999, Range generated in this program is deployed in Science, Alemaya University. LEWS. Funded to Dr. Stuth. Sarah Ossiya, Ph.D., August 1999, Range EU – ASARECA Crisis Mitigation Office Science, Texas A&M University. - $150,000 - Funding of the personnel to Mohammad Hamid, Ph.D., August 2002, support crisis mitigation information activities Range Science, Texas A&M University. and collaborate with LEWS. Noble Foundation - $35,000 - Development Short term: Workshops, Short Courses of early warning system technology for All LEWS coordinators attended the GL- landowners. Funded to Dr. Stuth. CRSP Program Conference in Washington, International Fertilizer Institute - $2,417 - D.C. in October 2002. GIS applications for LEWS. Funded to Dr. Stuth. Capacity Building in Livestock Early Warning USDA-RMA - $95,000 - Development of Tools, February 10 -20, 2003, Nazareth, integrated automation technology for spatial Ethiopia. modeling of fire risk assessment on grazinglands. Funded to Dr. Stuth. Kelleher Professorship - $27,679 - COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Enhancing decision-making of livestock producers. Provided to Dr. Stuth. United States of America Jay Angerer, Assist. Research Scientist, Texas TRAINING A&M University. Jim Bucher, Systems Analyst, Texas A&M In Progress University. Stephen Byenkya, Ph.D., Dec. 2003, Range Paul T. Dyke, Research Scientist, Texas A&M Science, Texas A&M University. University. William Mnene, Ph.D., Dec. 2003, Range Abdi A. Jama, Assist. Research Scientist, Science, University of Nairobi. Texas A&M University.

31 Global Livestock CRSP

Robert Kaitho, Assist. Research Scientist, Mahboub Maalim, Arid Land Resource Texas A&M University. Management Project, Office of the Clint Heath, Senior Systems Analyst, Texas President. A&M University. Nicholas Georgiadis, Director, Mpala Jerry W. Stuth, Kelleher Professor, Texas Research Centre. A&M University. Robert Kaitho, SANREM/LEWS/KARI/ILRI, Doug Tolleson, Assist. Director, GANLAB, Liaison Research Scientist. Texas A&M University. Roger Kamidi, Data Analyst, ILRI. Kris Williams, Lab Manager, GANLAB, Raphael Marambii, Information Officer, ILRI. Texas A&M University. Russell Kruska, GIS Researcher, ILRI. Kristen Zander, Systems Analyst, Texas A&M Salim Shaabani, Aridland Resource University. Management Project, Office of the President. Ethiopia William Mnene, Rangeland Management, Azage Tegegne, Animal Scientist, National Range Research Center. International Livestock Research Institute Jean Ndikumana, Network Coordinator, ILRI. (ILRI). Jane Sawe, Animal Production Scientist, Abule Ebro, Animal Scientist, Adami Tulu Egerton University. Agricultural Research Center. John Kariuki, Animal Scientist, Naivasha Dawit Negessa, Lab Technician, ILRI. National Animal Husbandry Research Zinash Sileshi, Animal Prod. Researcher, Centre. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Francis Mwangi, Lab Technician, Naivasha Organization. National Animal Husbandry Research Bayissa Hatew, Animal Scientist, Holetta, Centre. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. Tanzania Dereje Fekadu, Animal Nutritionist, Holetta, Suleiman Kaganda, Animal Scientist, Ethiopian Agricultural Research Ukiriguru Agricultural Research Institute. Organization. Rashid Kidunda, Range Ecologist, Sokoine Getachew Haile, Animal Production, Adami University, Tanzania. Tulu, Oromia Agricultural Research Angello Mwilawa, Range Scientist, Mpwapwa Organization. Agricultural Research Institute. Dubale Adamasu, Animal Production, Stella Niyikiza Bitende, Forage Scientist, FarmAfrica. Selian Agricultural Research Institute. Suleiman Mohamed, Economist, Save the Nicholaus Massawe, Animal Scientist, Selian Children - UK. Agricultural Research Institute. Rashidi Kadunda, Range Ecologist, Sokoine Kenya University, Tanzania. Henry Cheruiyot, Director Research Inst., Uganda Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Felix Bareeba, Professor, Makerere University, Philip Leparteleg, Drought Preparedness Uganda. Intervention and Recovery Program, Stephen Byenkya, Forage Scientist, National Office of the President. Agricultural Research Organization.

32 Annual Report 2003

Grace Ebiyau, Technician, National International Livestock Research Institute Agricultural Research Organization. (ILRI) Cyprian Ebong, Livestock Production, Box 5689 National Agricultural Research Addis Ababa,Ethiopia Organization Phone: 251-1-338290 Rose Omaria, Vet Officer, National Fax: 251-1-338755 Agricultural Research Organization. Emily Twinamasiko, Vet Medicine/Animal Oromia Regional Agricultural Office/ Health, National Agricultural Southern Rangeland Development Unit Organization. Yabello, Ethiopia (location of S. Ethiopia LEWS office) COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Kenya Ethiopia Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Center P.O. Box 57811 P.O. Box 35 Nairobi, Kenya Ziway, Oromia Region Phone: 254-2-583301-20 Ethiopia Fax: 254-2-583344

Department of Animal and Range Science International Livestock Research Institute Mekelle University College (ILRI) P.O. Box 231 P.O. Box 30709 Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia Nairobi, Kenya Phone: 251-03-400-512 Phone: 254-2-630743 Fax: 251-03-400-983 Fax: 254-2-631499

Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization Arid Lands Resources Management Program P.O. Box 2003 (ALRMP) Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Office of the President, Republic of Kenya Phone: 251-1-612633-41 P.O. Box 53547 Fax: 251-1-611222 Nairobi, Kenya Phone: 254-2-227496 Holetta Research Center, Ethiopia Fax: 254-2-227982 P.O. Box 2003 E-mail: [email protected] Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: 251-1-512579 Egerton University, Kenya Fax: 251-1-611222 Department of Animal Science P.O. Box 536 Njoro, Kenya

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National Range Research Center (NRRC) Uganda Kiboko P.O. Box 12 Makerere University Makindu, Kenya Department of Animal Science Phone: 254-0302-22456/22479 Box 7062 Fax: 254-0302-22459 Kampala, Uganda Phone: 256-41-532269 National Dryland Farming Research Center – Fax: 256-41-531641 Katumani P.O. Box 340 Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Research Machakos, Kenya Institute Phone: 254-0145/20206/7 P.O. Box 7084 Fax: 254-0145/20186 Kampala, Uganda Phone: 256-41-341554 Mpala Research Centre Fax: 256-41-341554 P.O. Box 555 Nanyuki, Kenya Serere Agricultural and Animal Fax: 254-176-32208 Production Institute Email: [email protected] Soroti, Uganda

Tanzania PUBLICATIONS

Livestock Production Research Institute Issued 12 Greater Horn of Africa Early (LPRI) Warning Bulletins, jointly produced with P.O. Box 202 FEWS NET, USGS, DMC, UNEP, and KMO Mpwapwa, Tanzania (http://cnrit.tamu.edu/aflews/bulletins.cgi? Phone: 255-61-24526 type=GHA). Fax: 255-61-320063 Issued 12 monthly Situation Reports each for Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Tanzania via Selian Agricultural Research Institute RANET, ALIN, and LEWS coordinators that P.O. Box 6024 reach worldspace satellite radios across the Arusha, Tanzania zone (http://cnrit.tamu.edu/aflews/bulletins. Phone: 255-57-3883/2868 cgi?type=SR). Fax: 255-57-8557 Issued 36 dekadal maps and situational reports over the web (http://cnrit.tamu.edu/ Sokoine University aflews). Dept. of Animal Science and Production Jama, A., M. Kingamkono, W. Mnene, J. P.O. Box 3004 Ndungu, A. Mwilawa, J. Sawe, S. Byenkya, Morogoro, Tanzania E. Muthiani, E. Goromela, R. Kaitho, J. Stuth, Phone: 255-56-4617 and J. Angerer. 2003. Field Verification of Fax: 255-56-4562 Simulated Grazed Forage Standing Crop Using the PHYGROW Model and Satellite- Based Weather Data. USAID Global

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Livestock CRSP, Research Brief 03-03-LEWS Stuth, J., A. Jama, and D. Tolleson. 2003. April 2003. Direct and Indirect Means of Predicting Forage Kaitho, R., J. Stuth, J. Angerer, A. Jama, Quality Through Near Infrared Reflectance W. Mnene, M. Kingamkono, J. Ndungu, A. Spectroscopy. Field Crops Research. 84:45- Mwilawa, J. Sawe, S. Byenkya, E. Muthiani, 56. and E. Goromela. 2003. Forecasting Near- Stuth, J.W., R. Kaitho, J. Angerer, and A. Term Forage Conditions For Early Warning Jama. 2003. Combating Desertification with Systems in Pastoral Regions of East Africa. a Livestock Early Warning System in East USAID Global Livestock CRSP, Research Africa. pp. 490-493. In: 7th International Brief 03-02-LEWS April 2003. Rangeland Congress. Durban, South Africa. Roberts, C., J.W. Stuth, and P. Flinn. 2003. Stuth, J., R. Kaitho, J. Angerer, A. Jama, Chapter 10: Analysis of Forage and Feedstuff W. Mnene, M. Kingamkono, J. Ndungu, A. (in press) In: Agricultural Applications of Mwilawa, J. Sawe, S. Byenkya, E. Muthiani, Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy. CAB E. Goromela, C. Heath, K. Zander, and J. International, New York, NY. Bucher. 2003. Integrating Information and Stuth, J., W. Hamilton, and R. Conner. Communication Technology for the Livestock 2002. Insights in Development and Early Warning System (LEWS) in East Africa. Deployment of the GLA and NUTBAL USAID Global Livestock CRSP, Research Decision Support Systems for Grazinglands. Brief 03-01-LEWS April 2003. Agricultural Systems 74:99-113. Stuth, J.W., J. Angerer, R. Kaitho, A. Jama, PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR and R. Marambii. 2003. Strategies for monitoring forage production as an indicator Lead Principal Investigator. Dr. Jerry of agricultural drought. (in press) In: V. Boken Stuth, Department of Rangeland Ecology and (ed) Agricultural Drought Monitoring Management, Texas A&M University, College Strategies in the World. Oxford Press. Station, TX 77843-2126. Phone: 979-845- Stuth, Jerry, J. Angerer, R. Kaitho, K. 5548; Fax: 979-845-6430; Email: Zander, A. Jama, C. Heath, J. Bucher, W. [email protected]. Hamilton, R. Conner, and D. Inbody. 2003. The Livestock Early Warning System (LEWS): Blending Technology and the Human Dimension to Support Grazing Decisions. Arid Lands Newsletter No. 53. †Online: http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/ aln53/stuth.html Accessed: 25 July 2003. Stuth, J., K. Awuma, D. Tolleson, S. Ossiya, C. Ebong, W. Mnene, A. Mawallii, A. Ebro, S. Byenkya, A. Jama, R. Kaitho, and K. Zander. 2003. Infusing Nutritional Profiling Technology in Sub-Sahara Africa for Free- Ranging Livestock. USAID Global Livestock CRSP, Research Brief 03-04-LEWS April 2003.

35 Global Livestock CRSP

IMPROVING PASTORAL RISK MANAGEMENT ON EAST AFRICAN RANGELANDS

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

This was the sixth year of work for the series concerning pastoral risk management; pastoral risk management (PARIMA) project. (6) interactive visits were successfully The overall goal of our project is the discovery undertaken with our six pastoral communities and application of knowledge pertaining to in northern Kenya whereby research results improving risk management—and thus were presented and comments received from enhancing livelihoods—for pastoral and agro- residents. This highly unusual activity helps pastoral people in northern Kenya and complete a loop between research and the southern Ethiopia. Foundation concepts ultimate beneficiaries of the project; (7) over include the exploration of opportunities to 40 policymakers from various strata in better diversify incomes and assets, and how Ethiopia and Kenya were successfully to improve the use and delivery of information engaged by PARIMA in two meetings to and various public services. The year is best forge linkages between research and characterized by the following achievements: decision-making. Two provisional policy (1) Twenty-four publications were produced, working groups were formed to provide including peer-reviewed papers, conference conduits for future engagement; (8) proceedings, abstracts, theses, popular strengthening the role of African leadership articles, and reports; (2) twenty-eight in PARIMA has begun. Three planning professional presentations were given at meetings were held to draft work plans venues in East Africa, the U.S., and Europe; involving KARI, OARI, and Egerton (3) five African students affiliated with University in various aspects of cross-border PARIMA received master’s degrees at collaboration between Ethiopia and Kenya; Egerton University, with another seven and (9) the World Bank has recently initiated students in the pipeline at universities in the a large-scale, multi-million dollar project in U.S. and Kenya; (4) we held six formal Ethiopia called “the Pastoral Community meetings pertaining to research planning and Development Project (PCDP),” with an policy issues, with 116 participants in total. implementation timeline of 15 years. The Nine other events, largely sponsored on behalf PCDP is founded on participatory approaches of PARIMA Outreach by the USAID Mission pioneered by PARIMA in southern Ethiopia. to Ethiopia, attracted over 1,800 participants— We have remained true to our original problem largely pastoralists, development agents, and model. Work plans and outputs in Year 6 are government officials; (5) an annual survey of almost exactly on track with what we outlined 330 pastoral households has been successfully in the original project proposal. Team implemented in southern Ethiopia and members have been very productive and northern Kenya, a continuation of work started creative with resources provided by the GL- in 2000 that will provide an unparalleled time CRSP.

36 Annual Report 2003

RESEARCH understanding the effectiveness of various indigenous tactics for reducing risk exposure Activity One: Research on Risk at the such as livestock accumulation, livestock Individual, Household, and Community mobility, and social insurance systems; and (3) Level understanding the effectiveness of various introduced tactics for reducing risk exposure Problem Statement and Approach. One such as livestock marketing, access to rural of the core issues investigated by the PARIMA financial networks, economic diversification, project is the extent to which pastoralists share and use of relief as well as other forms of a common perception and experience of risk. external assistance. Communities have been The common assumption is that most risk stratified and purposely chosen so as to capture experiences are common to most pastoralists. important differences in agro-ecology, access This assumption has important implications to towns and infrastructure, and ethnicity. for the way that interventions are structured. Individual-level surveys have not only been When risk is broadly shared across a fielded to household heads, but also to population, external resources are essential to randomly selected junior male and female enable recovery from shocks and rural adults from each household in order to financial, marketing, and social insurance illuminate gender and generation differences systems are prone to failure. When the risk that condition risk exposure and response. The experience is highly variable (idiosyncratic) survey instruments capture information on within a population, local systems have greater household structure, asset holdings, activities, capacity to manage risk internally so long as a consumption, mobility, livestock transactions, basic physical and institutional infrastructure experience with raiding, risk assessments, past is in place. So one of the first research risk exposure, etc. Effort has been made to activities of PARIMA has been to explore capture actual behaviors as well as risk intra-regional variability in risk exposure and perceptions. Updated descriptions of survey risk perceptions. Two different research efforts findings have been documented in GL-CRSP have contributed to this activity. We started Annual Reports for 2001 and 2002. For 2003 with a participatory risk-mapping activity we planned to embark on an annual survey documented in GL-CRSP Annual Reports for (reduced frequency) of the same 330 1999 and 2000. This was followed by a more households with an additional goal of detailed, repeated survey implemented for 330 capturing dynamics related to the drought households in 11 communities (six in Kenya recovery cycle. The last drought occurred in and five in Ethiopia) using a cluster sampling the late 1990s while the next regional livestock approach. Five of these communities are crash is anticipated to occur around 2005. The Boran, with one each from the Rendille, Ariaal, intervening years can be referred to as a Il Chamus, Gabra, Samburu, and Guji. The drought recovery phase. survey was launched during March 2000 and Progress. Work on this activity has been was successfully repeated on a quarterly basis dominated by data processing and writing in over the next two years, ending in June 2002. 2002-03. In addition, we successfully conducted Survey work has been devoted to: (1) the annual repeat survey during August and delineating sources of risk affecting September of 2003. In this report we add some individuals, households, and communities; (2) detail and new insights pertaining to this activity.

37 Global Livestock CRSP

Pastoral Sedentarization. Pastoral pastoral activities without fully abandoning sedentarization is a major trend in East Africa, mobile pastoralism. and there is debate about its social and Table 1 presents a summary of general ecological costs. We are interested in features for the Kenyan sites where our data relationships between sedentarization and were gathered. Table 2 presents averages for well-being for pastoral households in northern a variety of measures by site that relate to the Kenya. We used survey data collected from general themes of sedentarization and pastoral six sites from March 2000 to October 2001 in welfare. We discuss these findings by addition to other information. We found varied discussing each site in turn. Please refer to degrees of sedentarization and complex Tables 1 and 2 throughout. relationships among vulnerability, In spite of losing over 80% of their sedentarization, mobility, and household livestock, the average household in Ngambo income diversification. First, we have found fared relatively well during the recent drought that sedentarization does not necessarily reflect (1999-2000) in terms of food security and a complete departure from pastoralism, nor income. This is shown by their relatively high does it always jeopardize pastoral production. mean value for milk plus household Second, sedentarization does not always imply expenditure. Households in Ngambo have a loss of access to livestock, or a lack of access to work opportunities in the nearby mobility for livestock owned by settled town of Marigat, which has a lively market households if satellite camps are maintained. center and is connected by an all-weather road Third, there is a great deal of diversification to the major city of Nakuru. People in Ngambo into non-pastoral activities by members of can also find work in a local irrigation scheme. households while other members can remain Salary, wage labor, and trading account for engaged in mobile pastoralism. Lastly, there over 60% of household income in Ngambo. is a need to distinguish between increased Levels of formal education and current rates vulnerability to livestock loss and increased of school enrollment are the highest of any vulnerability to food insecurity when site in our study region. households become sedentary. Overall, we In contrast to Ngambo, the average find that what is often labeled sedentarization household at Dirib Gumbo lost over 80% of need not be antithetical with pastoral their livestock during the 1999-2000 drought. production. Households show great Their well-being does appear to have been adaptability and innovation in adopting non- negatively affected by that drought. Although

Table 1 - General features of sites studied by the PARIMA project in northern Kenya.
  '    $  $  " + $  & (    ) *      !" " #$
%  &"% '"  ' '  &"% ("$"  )$   *"  +  $$  (, !%&    (,

38 Annual Report 2003

Table 2 - Ranked order of Kenya study sites with respect to different measures for human welfare and involvement in pastoral production. From top to bottom, sites are ranked from highest to lowest for each respective measure (with the exception of the herd loss column).

,&  + "   ,& ,&   1 ,& 45 ,& ,&  - +  -        .  5    .  / .    0  #2 & 3 & 6    8889 7 !" !" ("$" !" *" *" *" !" '"  ("$" '"  ("$" !%& '"  ("$" '"  ("$" *" !" '"  ("$" !%& !%&  *" '"  *"   ("$" !" ("$"   !%& !%& '"  !" '"  *" !%& !%&  *" !"   !%&
                            ! "                 #  $%   &'( )!(             ")  " *      #  $ %     #+      '"( *!( )     , -   "! " .         #   $   /0   /%    1"!!!2#"!!   $)%  ')(  )( &    #     #+           '              "!!!  3(  .(

Dirib Gumbo is not distant from the major terms of livestock loss, food insecurity, or market town of Marsabit—and people at Dirib income. Partially, this may reflect the fact that Gumbo have relatively high levels of rainfall data from the area suggest drought was education—they also have a relatively low share less severe in Sugata Marmar than in other of their income from non-pastoral sources. areas of northern Kenya. It may also reflect Salary, wage labor, and trading account for only the fact that households in Sugata Marmar 30% of household income at Dirib Gumbo. This have access to income-generating is probably because most of these households opportunities arising from a large weekly rely on rain-fed agriculture in “normal” years market. They also live close to markets where and seem to have relatively poor access to some food can be purchased. Households in Sugata types of wage employment. When the rains Marmar earn a relatively higher share of their failed during the 1999-2000 drought, many of income from trading (25%) compared to that the households sold livestock to meet from any other site. Combined with income consumption needs, which may explain why the earned from selling their own livestock and share of income from livestock and livestock livestock products (45% of income), residents products is relatively high. of Suguta Marmar earn considerable revenue The average household in Sugata Marmar from trade. The mobility of livestock in this was not severely impacted by the drought in area differs from that in others—perhaps

39 Global Livestock CRSP because there are more water points available them to pursue a form of mobile pastoralism in the Samburu grazing lands. By relying on that is well-suited to their environment. satellite camps and multiple established Contrasting the North Horr results with households (i.e., a family head with multiple those from Kargi provides a fuller spouses maintains at least one domestic understanding of these points. Households in dwelling near an education facility), families North Horr appeared more mobile than at Suguta Marmar appear to have found a households in Kargi. Many households in compromise between mobility and education, North Horr still shift their entire household to as is seen by the relatively high rates of school a new area in search of forage, while in Kargi enrollment. only the animals were dispersed. However, The average household in Logologo lost results show that Kargi livestock were more roughly half their livestock in the 1999-2000 mobile than livestock in North Horr. This drought, but this does not appear to have means that grazing resources may be more severely impacted welfare as measured by evenly utilized by the inhabitants of Kargi. mean income, mean expenditure, or variability With regard to the viability of pastoral in expenditures. Logologo is the only site production, it should be noted that the main where the income share from salary (42%) difference in the welfare measures between outweighs the income share from livestock and North Horr and Kargi is the larger—yet less livestock products (35%). Just over half the variable—milk production in the latter site. salary earners in our sample worked outside Although it is not well reflected in the rainfall the area and were employed by NGOs, the data for 1999 to 2001, the spatial distribution Kenya Police, the Kenyan Armed Forces, the of rainfall observed in this area during the Kenya Wildlife Service, or as night watchmen study period appeared to create more abundant in urban areas. Schools, government forage in key areas used by herds from Kargi departments, and the police employ local compared to those used by herds from North salary earners. Households in Logologo have Horr. established links to the larger national There are several sets of practical economy that allowed their welfare levels to implications pertaining to this work. First, be relatively unaffected during the recent income diversification is frequently discussed drought. as an alternative to pastoralism. Our findings The results from Kargi provide an suggest it may be more useful to think of how interesting nuance to our understanding of the income diversification can be used as a process of sedentarization. Although Kargi supplement to pastoralism rather than a households have settled, their animals remain replacement. Thus, the key is to provide highly mobile through an effective system of sedentary-type services (for example, herding camps. The Kargi results show that education and veterinary services) that benefit pastoral production remains a viable strategy pastoral populations without jeopardizing in some areas. Kargi herders are relatively mobile pastoralism and creating unwanted well-off in terms of the mean and variance of concentrations of people and animals around the expenditure plus milk value measure, and fragile settlement environments. they lost a relatively small percentage of their The second set of implications applies to livestock to drought. Their isolation from education. In northern Kenya, education up market forces actually seems to have allowed to secondary school increases one’s chances

40 Annual Report 2003 of obtaining employment in the formal sector. access medicines and vaccines than is Our data suggest this is particularly true in currently the case. higher rainfall sites (Ngambo and Suguta The fourth set of implications relates to Marmar) where sedentary forms of pastoralism land tenure and planning. Increased have evolved and access to town-based sedentarization can aggravate land conflicts in education facilities is generally good. In other, the vicinity of settlements. This often pits local more mobile and drier sites like North Horr groups against new immigrants and herders and Kargi, such opportunities have not evolved against farmers. Agricultural encroachment as rapidly due to less complementarity onto rangelands has been associated with between mobile forms of pastoralism and certain patterns of sedentarization and can town-based facilities for formal education. In instigate conflicts related to land use and these areas effort should be made to move tenure, often to the disadvantage of local education facilities nearer to key grazing and herders. Policies should be developed that watering points and/or adjust school calendars recognize the rights of herder groups to to account for seasonal movements of animals customary water points and grazing areas and and people. Herders should not have to make delimit the extent to which sedentary farming a choice between the pursuit of pastoralism can expand into rangelands. and sending children to school. Finally, for Use of Fuelwood—Implications for reasons bearing further investigation, Local Environments. As pastoral populations educational investments in the sedentary settle, there is concern about the environmental community of Dirib Gumbo do not appear to impacts of sedentarization. In particular, have had a large payoff in terms of fuelwood gathering can place intense pressure employment. on local woody vegetation. Here we report The third set of implications relates to preliminary findings from surveys of 87 veterinary services. The advent of para-vet pastoral households from three communities (“barefoot”) animal health services in northern in northern Kenya conducted during 2000. Kenya is a welcome addition to pastoral The objective was to characterize harvest and systems and should be increasingly supported use of fuelwood resources. Households used (para-vets are local people trained in basic approximately 19 kg of wood daily (largely aspects of animal health diagnosis and Acacia spp.). Most wood was used to cook treatment and serve their communities). Often, maize. Comparison with findings from an pastoral animals are untreated—or treated by earlier study suggests household daily untrained herders—because distances to town- fuelwood use is increasing in this area. Human based veterinary services are often prohibitive. dietary shifts associated with increased market If an important goal for rangeland management involvement and increased provision of food is to keep animals widely distributed and aid —namely moving from milk-dominated feeding on the best forage rather than to maize-dominated diets— is hypothesized concentrated around settlements, then mobile to explain this increase. Experiments were para-vet services are critical to achieving this. conducted in 2002 to assess amounts of wood Efforts should be made to increase the training needed to cook whole-grain maize versus support to para-vets and change government maize flour, as food aid is distributed as whole- policies to recognize para-vets as legal service grain maize. Results indicated that twice as providers. This would allow para-vets to better much wood was needed to cook whole-grain

41 Global Livestock CRSP

maize, suggesting that milling food aid prior amounts of fuelwood used, the largest use was to distribution could reduce demand for fuel, for cooking whole maize (Figure 2). The lower women’s labor, and mitigate pressure cooking experiment indicated that cooking on woody species. Findings suggest whole-grain maize required roughly twice alternatives such as distribution of milled food (1.97) the amount of fuelwood that was aid and other efforts will be needed to reduce required to cook an equivalent amount of demand for fuelwood. ground maize. Some preliminary findings follow: (1) Of This work has several practical 238 fuelwood gathering trips recorded, only implications. Results are preliminary and will one was undertaken by a male. Fuelwood be refined as the analysis proceeds. However, gathering is thus an activity of female adults it appears that sedentarization has a two-fold and children; (2) fuelwood gathering took impact on fuelwood resources. First, pressure place about once every three days on average. is localized on woody resources around towns The average trip took three hours; (3) people and settlements. Recall that the average wood carried wood back home themselves 98% of gathering trip lasted three hours, and on the the time. Camels and donkeys were used for return leg the average load carried on a the scant remainder. Wood gathering was woman’s back was in the 40 to 50 kg range. dominated by use of machetes (60% of trips), Neither vehicles nor animals played a breaking wood by hand (37%), or using an axe significant role in fuelwood transport. There (3%). About 1.6 woody species and 48 pieces is little reason to believe the distance of the of wood were gathered per trip; (4) Acacia collection point from town has changed much species (primarily A reficiens, A. seyal, A. from the estimate of 2.5 km forwarded by tortilis, and A. mellifera) accounted for 57% previous investigators in the early 1980s. of wood gathered. The next most common Second, there appears to be a subtler impact genera was Suaeda (S. monoica gathered brought about by a dietary change from a milk- exclusively around North Horr), accounting based to a grain-based diet. The grain-based for 11% of all wood gathered. A variety of diet increases fuelwood requirements of other species made up the remainder; (5) the households. These two factors lead to three average daily fuelwood inventory per main practical implications. First, we household was 19 pieces weighing a total of determined that a diet based on whole-grain 12 kg. The average weight per piece was maize required more fuelwood than one based almost 1 kg; (6) for 16% of 608 daily on ground maize. Recognizing that food aid household observations, households borrowed in this area is distributed as whole grain maize fuelwood from other households, while a allows us to estimate that a switch in food aid similar number gave fuelwood away. For 10% composition from whole-grain to ground of observations households had purchased maize could reduce fuelwood requirements up fuelwood, while for 4% of observations to 4% per year and reduce the amount of time households sold fuelwood. For 1% of women spend gathering fuelwood up to 6%. observations charcoal or other fuel was used These figures are estimated by utilizing for cooking; (7) the average household used a information in the repeated surveys that record total of 19 pieces of wood per day for cooking. total annual food aid packages received by Time spent cooking was largely devoted to households and calculating the reduction in cooking tea and maize (Figure 1). In terms of wood requirements and use if whole-grain

42 Annual Report 2003

Figure 1 - Percent of time used for daily household cooking in three northern Kenyan towns during July and August, 2000. Items cooked included tea, maize (whole grain), maize meal, and all others combined.

    *"  ("$" !%&

       ,%$ - - .$ %  "

maize had been instead distributed as ground kg per day. This suggests that household maize. This suggests that food aid fuelwood use in northern Kenya has distribution in the form of maize flour could dramatically increased over a 17-year reduce both women’s labor and mitigate the period. We are currently comparing our data rate of depletion for woody resources. with other findings to better understand what Second, more attention should be given may have led to such a rapid increase in to linkages among increased market fuelwood use by households. Third, there involvement, dietary change, and higher is reason to question the sustainability of fuelwood use among settled pastoralists. As current use patterns. As suggested by KARI pastoralists become increasingly involved in research, there is evidence that woody selling livestock and livestock products to resources near pastoral settlements are purchase grain, pressure on local woody decreasing due to overuse. Research into resources can increase. This would occur efforts to better manage fuelwood is critical, even in the absence of any increase in human from the demand perspective (improved population for a given area, and would be cooking and food preparation techniques) exacerbated where human population and the supply perspective (protection of growth occurs. While there are some existing woody resources, planting of new methodological differences in approaches woody resources). taken, our estimate of household fuelwood use Welfare Dynamics, Poverty Traps, and of 19 kg per day is over six times higher than Safety Nets in Northern Kenya. We use the that of previous investigators in the early 1980s quarterly repeated household head survey data who found a consumption rate of two to four to explore questions regarding the welfare

43 Global Livestock CRSP

Figure 2 - Pieces of fuelwood used for daily household cooking in three northern Kenyan towns during July and August, 2000. Items cooked included tea, maize (whole grain), maize meal, and all others combined.





 *"  ("$" !%&    
+



   ,%$ - " - %  " dynamics of pastoralist households and their households with larger herds enjoy higher rates response to highly volatile incomes and asset of return per head of livestock than do stocks. We find that poverty is deep and households with smaller herds, due to widespread in many of our communities. In differences in ability to pay for veterinary care, Dirib Gumbo, a Boran community on the supplemental feed, etc., and, perhaps shoulders of Marsabit Mountain, every survey especially, ability to migrate over longer household fell below the Kenyan rural income distances in response to spatiotemporal poverty line of KSh 1239/person/month in variation in forage and water availability. each period of 2000-01. In Ngambo, 86% fell The second striking pattern concerns below the poverty line throughout 2000-01. pastoralists’ income risk and consumption Only 9% were able to climb out of poverty smoothing behaviors. Economic theory posits between March 2000 and December 2001, as that households faced with risky income will recovery from the 2000 drought progressed. smooth their consumption, saving in good The poverty of these pastoralists appears years and eating up their savings or borrowing extraordinarily persistent by international in lean years so as to stabilize consumption standards. over time. The literature on coping strategies, Two other striking patterns emerge from however, suggests that reduced consumption preliminary analysis of these data. First, is among households’ first response to severe income increases with herd size at an shocks, typically preceding asset liquidation, accelerating rate over most of the household contrary to the prediction of economic models wealth distribution, as shown in Figure 3. This of consumption smoothing. The PARIMA suggests the existence of poverty traps wherein household survey data suggest that

44 Annual Report 2003

Figure 3 - Household daily per capita income as a function of herd little capacity to manage income size per capital for selected sites in northern Kenya. shocks themselves without sacrificing current consumption.  Given the meager consumption levels of these pastoralist households, this may imply considerable nutritional and  health risk in the face of adverse income shocks. Individual vs. Collective Rationality in Pastoral  Production. In this study, based in large measure on household

  ': )
&* survey results from northern
Kenya, we conducted a
   conceptual analysis as to whether , &4    livestock accumulation at the household level in pastoral systems is rational or not. We consumption smoothing indeed increases with considered both the household and community household wealth, as proxied by herd size per levels in this analysis. It appears rational to capita in Figure 4. Wealthier households take accumulate livestock at the household level. on greater income risk, reflecting the greater First, income is directly related to herd size – risk aversion of poorer households, which as herds increase, household income increases. induces them to choose less risky, lower return Second, wealth held in the form of livestock activities and asset portfolios relative to offers a higher rate of return over time than wealthier neighbors. The dashed line in Figure does wealth held in formal savings even if 4—which should be read against the right periodic herd losses are included are included vertical axis—depicts the density of the per in the calculations. In addition, accumulation capita herd size distribution among these at the household level is preferred to restocking households—decidedly shifted towards the through deploying formal savings in local poor end of the spectrum. As can be seen, the livestock markets, as evidence suggests female modal household has less than one total animals are infrequently available in markets livestock unit (TLU) per capita and has no in the study area and herders indicate these statistically significant consumption animals are of questionable quality when they smoothing. Their income stream actually are available. Finally, herd size post crisis is appears slightly more stable than their an increasing function of herd size pre crisis, expenditures. Only as one moves out well suggesting herd accumulation serves a self- beyond the median of the wealth distribution insurance function. does consumption smoothing become With regard to collective irrationality, we significant. This implies that under current find that there is limited evidence of negative circumstances, households have relatively externalities imposed by other herders on the

45 Global Livestock CRSP individual household. Aggregate herd size has this case. Herd accumulation at the household not exceeded ecological carrying capacity in level does not appear to impose externalities any year for which records exist. Rangeland on other households through rangeland degradation is occurring, but it is restricted to degradation that cannot be addressed through areas around towns. Degradation results from policies influencing the spatial distribution of a sub-optimal distribution of animals, not animals. In addition, efforts to reform cultural larger than optimal herd size. Regression values or tenure arrangements in the hope of analysis finds that household level herd growth eliminating the “boom and bust” cycle and and milk production are not significantly thus improving pastoral welfare run the risk influenced by the size of other households’ of severely reducing household welfare herds. Analysis of subjective rankings of without achieving this goal as the underlying pasture availability finds there is some cause of this cycle is misdiagnosed. As evidence of a localized negative labor suggested by this and previous studies, the externality brought about by other herders’ factors that lead to sudden herd loss may be stocking decisions. unrelated to stocking pressure. The finding that herd accumulation Development efforts that attempt to appears to be economically rational at the eliminate the bust phase by discouraging household level and not detrimental at the livestock accumulation or actively imposing collective level provides some measure of herd limits should first establish that aggregate optimism for future pastoral development herd size influences household level losses in efforts. Many pastoral development efforts crisis periods. If bust phases are related to have been based on the premise that herd herd size externalities, limiting herd accumulation is collectively irrational and accumulation makes sense. If not, such defined as an objective reduction in stocking policies reduce household welfare of an pressure. The results of this study suggest that already largely poor population without this record of failure may Figure 4 - Household consumption smoothing and income risk as a be partially explained by function of herd size per capita for selected sites in northern Kenya. the fact that the conceptual underpinnings  of development efforts in  pastoral areas have been + $4-  5 flawed.   Herd accumulation results from the economic  :   logic of pastoral production in a risky   environment. Whether

herd accumulation also
 ..2 .3  .   results from cultural  values and tenure  arrangements is  somewhat irrelevant in  /(01 21

46 Annual Report 2003 providing any compensating benefit. A similar pastoral development programs will help argument holds for policies that assume ensure that the record of failure characterizing production from the aggregate herd can be past efforts need not characterize the future. increased by decreasing aggregate herd size. It is conceptually possible, but the evidence Activity Two: Thematic Investigations in this study indicates that empirical support Dealing with Livestock Marketing, Rural should be provided before policies are based Finance, and Natural Resource on this assumption. Management To the extent that collective externalities exist, this study finds they result from sub- Problem Statement and Approach. The optimal distribution of animals and may be broad objective of this activity has been to compensated for by increased labor effort. The investigate how support systems such as findings of this study suggest a way forward livestock marketing, rural finance, natural in pastoral development is to strengthen resource tenure, indigenous social networks, existing pastoral production systems. In the and provision of climate forecast information short to medium term, herd accumulation in affect pastoral risk management in our study such environments should be facilitated, not region. Work has mostly been undertaken by hindered. Efforts that support mobility should African and American graduate students who be designed to reduce externalities resulting have matriculated at U.S. universities. from sub-optimal spatial distribution of Livestock marketing research has involved accumulated animals. In a related study, the two main approaches: (1) surveys of pastoral author notes that improved security in remote households and monitoring animal throughput grazing areas and modifying the system of and prices at local markets; and (2) surveys of food aid distribution can improve the spatial traders and other persons involved in regional distribution of animals. livestock marketing networks. Research on It is hoped that the findings of this study the efficacy of rural financial systems will challenge other researchers to identify implemented by the Kenya Rural Enterprise empirically in what domains, and under what Program Development Agency (KDA) in conditions, stocking externalities exist. Such northern Kenya has been conducted using research is critical. We caution policy makers survey methods to analyze the performance that the findings of this study may not be of several rural financial service associations applicable to other pastoral areas. We realize (FSAs) in northern Kenya. How conflict is that it is as dangerous to base policy in pastoral stimulated by competition over natural areas on the assumption that externalities do resources has been the subject of research in not exist as it is to base them on the assumption southern Ethiopia. that they do exist. However, we hope that these Progress. Monitoring local markets to findings encourage researchers and policy record livestock transactions is ongoing. The makers to consider the irrationality of herd analysis of trading networks was recently accumulation and the existence of negative completed as part of a doctoral dissertation. externalities in pastoral production as The work on livestock trading networks hypotheses to be tested, rather than certainties addresses key social mechanisms and risk on which policy can be based. The empirical management strategies utilized in the cattle foundation that such research will provide to trade of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia.

47 Global Livestock CRSP

Figure 5 - Cattle exports (head per year) from Moyale to Nairobi, 1991 to 2001.









  . 





            ;

It highlights the significant role that trust and contributes to the discussion of partnerships social relations play in minimizing risks for in market exchanges and departs from previous traders, in particular. This study also traces studies by emphasizing seller-seller the movement of livestock from southern relationships as opposed to buyer-seller Ethiopia to Moyale, Kenya, and on to Nairobi, relationships. While the latter relationships Kenya’s largest city and largest urban beef are important in the market, the former strategy market. Cattle numbers traded between is used to minimize risks among traders. This Moyale and Nairobi have been very dynamic research also revealed that the ethnicity of a in the past decade, from a low of nil in the trader is one of the major markers that mid-1990s to over 40,000 head per year distinguish cattle participation in the study starting by 2000 (Figure 5). In their efforts to area. While most traders in southern Ethiopia reduce risks, traders act individually and are predominantly Boran (90%), the majority collectively and, consequently, form risk- in northern Kenya are Burji (50%; Figure 6). reducing mechanisms both at local and Cattle merchants also have tremendous regional levels. These arrangements not only language abilities and most of them can curb recurrence of trading risks, but they also converse in at least three different languages. help to improve cattle exchange at all levels Among northern Kenyan merchants, language of the trading chain and thereby enhance ability determines where a trading partner is livelihood systems of businessmen and other based. Generally, trading partners capable of market actors. Cattle traders in northern English and Kiswahili are based in Nairobi to Kenya find it increasingly necessary to forge reduce the language barrier between northern trading partnerships and establish networks to traders and Nairobi-based cattle wholesalers reduce trading risks. Results show that cattle and butchers. Working with trading partners trading in the study area is highly personalized helps to reduce the kinds of risks shown in at the upper levels of the marketing chain (in Figure 7. There is a correlation between the Nairobi) because of increased risk. This study existence of partnerships among traders and

48 Annual Report 2003

Figure 6 - Ethnic composition of cattle traders in northern Kenya (N=62). Understanding Resource Conflict in East 68 African Rangelands. Using data collected in a 38 supplementary module to the PARIMA quarterly household 28 surveys in Finchawa, Dida Hara, Dillo, Dirib Gombo, 08

  Suguta Marmar, and Ng’ambo, we studied inter- 8 household conflicts over water and land resources. We /8 tested three hypotheses: (1) that resource-related conflict 8 < = <  (  (  $ 
+  is frequent and widespread;  & (   (2) that resource-related the rate of loan defaults—loan defaults are conflict is more likely for households having a major problem for traders. In a sample of bigger herds because their resource 35 traders, we found that the rate of default requirements are greater than those of ranges between 2 and 26%. The average rate households with smaller herds, leading to of default for traders with partnerships is greater competition and frequency of conflict; 5%, while those without partnerships and (3) that resource-related conflict arises due experienced a higher rate of default at about to changes in land use patterns that may be 9%. unrelated to patterns of herd accumulation or

Figure 7 - Major cattle marketing constraints in northern Kenya and Nairobi (N=71).

      

        

7   # 25  +  ( .$
2$6  5/  /1
  " +     

49 Global Livestock CRSP stocking densities. Preliminary findings Separate multinomial logit regression analysis (Table 3) suggest that resource-related of whether or not conflicts were resolved and, conflicts are infrequent. Less than half (46%) if so, how, reveals that traditional methods of of surveyed households had been involved in resolving relatively less violent inter- any resource-related conflict in the past household resource-related conflicts appear to decade, and half of those experienced two or remain viable, particularly in communities fewer such conflicts over the preceding ten where pastoralism still dominates. years. Resource conflict occurs frequently for These highly preliminary findings only a small number of pastoralist households. underscore the importance and viability of Most conflict is over land, not water. Where indigenous resource management and conflict conflicts occurred, preliminary results of our resolution mechanisms in pastoral dominated

Table 3 - Extent of resource-based conflicts during the last ten years for a selection of communities in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia.  
, & $       )  &5&.   )#*   *>
$84
$82.$28 $  9:
$84
$82.$28 ,   9: &  4&  2.$28 $  9 : &  4&  2.$28 ,   9 :
$84&  2.$28 $  9 : )5 .% 8 2.$251   9  :

;4          econometric analysis indicate no statistically areas. Widespread assumptions that significant link between a household’s pastoralism fosters resource-related conflict, livestock holdings and its expected incidence or that increased herd sizes inevitably fuel of conflicts. Rather, resource conflicts over resource competition and therefore violent land or water were more likely to occur in conflict over land, appear debatable. Rather, communities characterized by diverse and due to the inherent spatio-temporal flexibility rapidly changing resource use patterns of pastoralism, mobile herders seem relatively associated with sedentarization and relatively able to avoid conflict and to manage it when recent introduction of crop cultivation. it does occur more effectively compared to Pastoralist mobility to satellite camps appears other, more sedentarized communities that to dampen the likelihood of conflicts involving increasingly rely on crop cultivation and the land and water, further suggesting that non-agricultural economy, and for which traditional pastoralism is less prone to effective community-based resource allocation resource-related conflict than transitional rules and dispute resolution mechanism may systems, although we cannot say anything not yet have evolved. about the violence involved in these conflicts.

50 Annual Report 2003

Activity Three: Training African Graduate Here we highlight work by Lenachuru and Students at Egerton University others that has been prepared for peer reviewed publication. It examines growth in formal Problem Statement and Approach. The education among the Il Chamus of Baringo objective of this activity is to educate African District, Kenya, and builds on research graduate students in the area of pastoral risk conducted during the early 1980s. About 35% management, with research and academic of households studied in 2000-02 were either support provided by an African institution, the same or direct descendants of household namely the Faculty of Environmental Studies heads included in work during 1980-81. While and Natural Resources (FESNARE) at Egerton there are disadvantages in comparing two University in Kenya. Overall, Egerton “snapshots” of a community in the absence of students have heavily relied on structured panel data from an identical sample of surveys, key informant interviews, and focal households, there are strong similarities group discussions in their projects. between the two periods that make such a Progress. This has been an important comparison useful. In both 1980-81 and 2000- year for this activity, as five master’s theses 02 the Il Chamus experienced major die-offs have been recently published. Work by in cattle—in excess of 70% in both cases. The master’s students including Mr. Moses years 1980 and 2000 represent two of the most Esilaba, Mr. Clement Lenachuru, and Mr. devastating droughts of the past 50 years, John Tangus has been summarized in GL- while 1981 and 2001-02 were both herd CRSP Annual Reports 1999-2002. The rebuilding years. Because of the rapid growth graduation of Esilaba, Lenachuru, and in access to public education during the past Tangus benefits Egerton University, as they two decades, it was possible to explore will assume staff positions in the whether increased education access has Department of Natural Resources at improved human welfare, and if so, for whom. FESNARE. Mr. Uma has rejoined the Another important question is the extent to Oromia Cooperative Promotion Bureau which education has allowed herding (OCPB) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Three households to better manage risks through more students are currently in the pipeline income and asset diversification. at Egerton. Fieldwork for the doctoral Table 4 illustrates the extent to which project by Mr. Abdullahi Dima Jillo is education has increased in the area during the nearing completion. His work broadly deals past 20 years. The data indicate major with resource use and conflict mitigation differences in education patterns between the among the Waso Boran of northern Kenya, two time periods. For example, the percent of and the dissertation should be submitted by household members who have attained “some the end of 2004. Two additional Kenyans secondary education” increased about three- were matriculated at Egerton in the past year. fold between 1980 and 2000. Those who Their objective is to study the risk of losing attained some post-secondary training (at key ecological resources at different spatial either a teacher training college or university) scales in Baringo District. Mr. Nicholas also grew from nil in 1980-81 to about 4% of Olekaikai is undertaking a master’s project, total household members in 2000-02. School while Mr. Mark Mutinda is undertaking a attendance by females grew about six-fold doctoral project. from 0.2 members per household in 1980-81

51 Global Livestock CRSP to 0.9 and 2.0 in 2000 and 2002, respectively increased education—education brought more (Table 5). Overall, the number of children per secure incomes from “good” types of waged household who attended primary and employment, like government jobs or secondary school increased from 0.7 to 2.2 and teaching. How has increased education among 3.3 during 1980-81 and 2000-02, respectively. the Il Chamus affected employment and, In 1980-81, 46% of households had at least indirectly, household welfare? Table 6 one household member in school, while in confirms changes in employment patterns, as 2000, 77% of Il Chamus households had at well as changes in the average number of years least one child in school. In 2000-02 more of education per household member, across the than 80% of children between 8 and 14 years two time periods. There is little doubt that of age were in school, while this figure was “regular” wage employment has grown less than 25% in 1980-81. tremendously from 1980-81 and 2000-02. By One indicator of measuring education’s 2000-02, at least 20% of households had a impact on local livelihoods is to examine member with a regular wage, in contrast to 8 whether or not it has affected employment to 11% having the same in 1980-81. What is patterns. In open-ended interviews in 1980- hidden in these data is higher-paying 81 and 2000, almost all individuals employment attained in recent years. While emphasized the employment benefits of in 1980-81 only 15% of households with a

Table 4 - Changes in education indicators for an Il Chamus community from 1980 to 2002.

' 
   
 , &"  , &"  , &"  , & ,    1 ,  
 ,  
   " 
  )
*
  )
*    1
            )
-
* )+# ) $  9: 9:  9: 9: ($ + 1   9 : 9: 9 : ' 59: ( 2%' 5 ; 9 : 9: 9 : 9: '))' 5  9: 9 :  9: 9: ($  "$  ! 9: 9: ' 594: 56 +     
"(   +       +

Table 5 - Average number of Il Chamus children in formal schools, 1980 - 2002.

' 
  "&   !&    &  
& , &
& , &
& , & )+# )' 5    49<: ($ + 1 ' 5    9<: ($  "$' 5    49<:

52 Annual Report 2003 member having a regular waged position to make a large enough commitment to this worked outside of Baringo District, this activity to make it truly effective. Instead, we number increased over three-fold to 50% in have decided to pursue regionalization more 2000-02. Non-pastoral income derived from in the context of electronic dissemination of improved access to education has clearly aided information, strengthening cross-border Il Chamus households in Baringo to better linkages between the Kenya Agricultural cope with drought. Investment in education Research Institute (KARI) and the Oromia is a key diversification strategy that allows Agricultural Research Institute (OARI). herders to better cope with vagaries of drought and other economic shocks. While there have Activity Five: Outreach and Action been increased investments by herders in small Research businesses, land, and other assets, education has probably been the key investment other Problem Statement and Approach. than livestock. The main objectives of this activity are to: (1) build capacity among pastoralists, development Activity Four: Project Regionalization agents, and policy makers to better appreciate and implement pastoral risk management Problem Statement and Approach. The interventions; and (2) document best-bet objective of this activity has been to extend community led projects using monitoring and the influence of the PARIMA project beyond evaluation protocols. The focus is on the Borana our study region of northern Kenya and and Gugi Zones of southern Ethiopia, with cross- southern Ethiopia in terms of a sustained field border activity extending into the Moyale and presence. We specifically wanted to include Marsabit Districts of northern Kenya. The the Livestock Production Research Institute USAID Mission to Ethiopia funded roughly 85% (LPRI) in Mpwapwa, Tanzania. The concept of this activity in 2002-03. For a review of the was to replicate the community-based action original five community-led risk management research model that has been underway in pilot projects in southern Ethiopia that were southern Ethiopia since 2001 (see GL-CRSP initiated in 2000, see the GL-CRSP Annual Annual Reports for 2001 and 2002). Report 2002. Progress. We have reconsidered this Progress. For capacity building we activity in 2003 in light of funding constraints sponsored or co-sponsored over a half-dozen and limitations of staff time. We feel unable key events. In chronological order, these

Table 6 - Education levels and household members with regular wage earners during 1980-81 and 2000-02.

' 
 

 $  ?;     ), &*     , &,   , &"   @  $A)+# ) $    

53 Global Livestock CRSP included: (1) the Third Cross-Border General community-led risk management pilot Workshop for Ethiopia and Kenya, held as one projects. This research component has several in a series of meetings to seek grass-roots dimensions. For example, the performance of means to better harmonize cross-border 115 households is being evaluated on a relations, build peace, market livestock, and quarterly basis across five pilot projects in re-establish reciprocity in natural resource use. terms of their success in undertaking new Ninety participants (including pastoral leaders, micro-enterprise activities to diversify income. development agents, and policy makers) met Another 175 recipients of loans in the Dida for two days at the SORDU compound in Hara Savings and Credit association and over Yabelo, Ethiopia, during mid-December; (2) 100 participants in a non-formal education a 3-week tour for five leaders of successful activity are being monitored for their women’s groups from northern Kenya was achievements. Effects of the cross-border held for them to meet and inspire Ethiopian women’s tours on building-up women’s pastoral women across the Borana Plateau. groups and spurring innovative behavior in Over 600 Ethiopians attended four venues Ethiopia are being documented. All between mid-December to early January monitoring and evaluation is being conducted where the Kenyan women spoke and answered in partnership with GO and NGO questions; (3) a steering committee meeting organizations. for the Ethio-Kenya Cross-Border Initiative Research Observations from Selected was held in Moyale, Kenya, in mid-February. Pilot Intervention Projects. The need for Twenty-six participants met for two days to Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia to plan future cross-border activities; (4) two engage in some aspects of economic loan-disbursement cycles were conducted for diversification has been previously mentioned 175 members of the new Dida Hara savings in GL-CRSP Annual Reports (1998-2002). and credit association as part of an action Periodic and massive death losses of research project; (5) Eight representatives of livestock—due to high stocking rates in two community projects were taken on a four- combination with low rainfall—have been day tour of livestock marketing and processing documented. These mortality spikes represent facilities in Modjo, Debre Zeit, and Addis large economic losses to Borana society and Ababa in an effort to better link pastoral risk management strategies are needed to assist producers with the livestock trade industry; (6) pastoralists to help mitigate increasing poverty twenty-eight representatives of community and food insecurity in the presence of weak projects were taken for two-day exchange visits marketing channels and limited development across the Borana Plateau to view pilot risk opportunities. One approach has been to management activities in other locations and encourage the Boran to diversify investments bring new ideas back to their home areas; and to include non-livestock options, at least on a (7) expansion of community-led projects to small scale, and hence promote alternative include new risk management activities at forms of income generation and wealth Finchewa and Dubluk, as well as a doubling of conservation. The viability of such the size of the previous activity at Dida Hara. diversification has important implications for Action research is a sequential process of pastoral development strategies and problem identification, constraint alleviation, environmental management. Here we report and documentation of progress for observations from a series of community-

54 Annual Report 2003

driven pilot intervention projects begun in enterprise development while the other is a 2000. Semi-settled pastoral communities were savings and credit scheme. The total surveyed using bottom-up, open-ended membership for these projects is 254 women. assessments of community needs using Pilot project No.5 is another women’s group participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques. with a focus on development of micro- Communities used this process to identify enterprise and savings and credit capacity in priority interventions to be implemented in the vicinity of Moyale town on the Ethio- partnership with a local development agent. Kenya border. This project has a total A review of preliminary results for five pilot membership of 44 women. Below we focus projects indicates that these communities— most of our discussion on the two pilot projects located near rangeland towns—prioritize in Dida Hara. interventions focused on savings and credit Based on the outcome of the PRA ranking associations, micro-enterprise development, exercises, problems identified by the Dida and non-formal education. These are self-help Hara community—in order of importance— activities that communities feel they need in were: (1) lack of food; (2) lack of water; (3) order to tackle problems like food insecurity lack of access to education; (4) poor human (i.e., by increasing income to purchase food) health; (5) poor livestock health; and (6) lack and to overcome restricted access to formal of marketing and economic diversification. education. Women’s groups are prominent Among the mentioned root causes of food leaders in adopting innovations, and progress insecurity was the low level of livelihood over the past 18 months has been remarkable. diversification, both at the household and We are only in preliminary stages of tracking community levels. The result of the option induced change in this system, and the assessment exercise in the PRA revealed how implications of small-scale economic the community thought it might deal with food diversification for livestock management and insecurity using their own resources. Options the local ecology have yet to be clarified. Our included: (1) improved agronomic practices; experience to-date, however, confirms that (2) better organization of livestock marketing risk-management interventions appear to be cooperatives; (3) establishment of savings and in demand here. We have also observed a high credit institutions; (4) promotion of alternative level of enthusiasm within pastoral income-generation activities; and (5) micro- communities when they are given the enterprise development. Similarly, opportunity to lead development initiatives. introduction of non-formal education was on Five pilot projects have been implemented the top of the list of options to alleviate the since 2000. Pilot project No.1 consists of the problem of poor access to education. The establishment of savings and credit groups Community Action Plan (CAP) derived from among Borana pastoralists in the Dida Hara the PRA for Dida Hara was developed based region, with a total membership of 175 men on further discussions of the ranked problems, and women. Pilot project No.2 is a non-formal the options available to solve the problems, education project, also among the Boran at and the capacity of the community in terms of Dida Hara with a total enrollment of 187 local resources and knowledge to implement children and adults. Pilot projects No.3 and potential solutions. The CAP formed the basis No. 4 consist of two women’s groups near the for the creation of the two pilot projects. town of Negele. One is involved in micro- A local NGO called Action for

55 Global Livestock CRSP

Development (AFD) assisted the community six months. The average size of each loan was in the preparation of both proposals, for Birr 660 (or USD $82) per applicant. It was funding consideration by the ORP. One of the found that all those who had taken a loan made projects in Dida Hara was aimed at promoting a profit of Birr 500 (USD $62) on average, a savings and credit institution and micro- and this enabled all recipients to pay back the enterprise development for expanding the loan principal along with the interest of 10.5%. income-generation opportunities for local The loans were invested in a wide variety of communities and to contribute to their capacity activities. About 18 loan recipients (19% of to better cushion themselves from shocks. The the total) were involved in livestock trading association of savings and credit with or petty trading, with the remainder (81%) development of small-scale business activity involved in cattle and goat fattening (growing). appears to be related to the need for income For the latter activities, animals were bought generation to allow people to buy food. The before the start of the rainy season in March, direct beneficiaries of the project are 175 and allowed to grow and fatten when forage pastoral households, of which 58% are conditions were good during April, May, and women. The institutional arrangement for the June. Animals were then sold early in the dry implementation of the project primarily season. A second loan amounting to Birr involved the local community, AFD, and 81,600 was disbursed in a similar manner for PARIMA. The local office of the Oromia 85 members who had been waiting for the Cooperative Promotion Bureau (OCPB), the repayment of the first loan to get their chance. Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau The loan size for each recipient was raised to (OADB), and other relevant government Birr 900 (USD $112) for some recipients and authorities were brought on board to be an Birr 1,000 (USD $125) for others based on integral part of the effort. their level of savings. Seventy percent of the The process of savings and credit group recipients of the second round loan were formation started with the creation of primary females. groups comprised of five to seven people. An During the first year of the activity, a total average of five primary groups then formed savings of Birr 24,688 (or USD $3,100) was secondary groups having 35 to 49 members. achieved across the 175 members of the The members of the groups started with savings and credit groups at Dida Hara. The periodic savings based on bylaws of each approach employed by AFD has a variety of group regarding amount and frequency. built-in mechanisms to enhance system Emphasis was put on encouraging members performance. These focus on peer pressure. on the need to mobilize local resources and to The group rises or falls depending on the develop a savings culture. Group members performance of each individual. The focus on were expected to mobilize sufficient savings savings mobilization and savings-led credit before commencing on a program of loan disbursement appear well-founded to us. Loan extension, as we have pursued a savings-led recipients were selected based on criteria such approach. as credit worthiness, ability to engage in the The first loans were disbursed in March business of their choice, and possession of 2002 to 90 members of the Dida Hara savings savings amounting to at least 10% of the and credit group. Forty-five percent of loan borrowed amount. The loan procedure recipients were females. The loan term was adopted at Dida Hara involves a loan

56 Annual Report 2003 application to the applicant’s primary savings two school buildings within pastoral and credit group and preliminary appraisal of settlements. The institutional arrangement for the application by the primary group. If the implementation of the project involved local review is positive, the application is forwarded community organizations, AFD, PARIMA, to a secondary group for further deliberation. and the Oromia Education Bureau at various Disbursement of a loan will occur only if the levels, as well as other local authorities. secondary group also approves the application. Rapid progress has been achieved with the The loan ceiling is determined by the non-formal education activities in the two availability of resources, the amount of centers (AFD, unpublished data). The flexible savings, and the type of project. The PARIMA scheduling approach has helped instruction to project and implementing agencies regularly occur in three shifts per day, which led to monitor and document loan repayment, loan excellent attendance. The overall results use, profits earned, losses incurred, etc. The indicate an increasing level of literacy and group members participate in the monitoring numeracy among school attendees. Almost and evaluation process. all students (58 females and 129 males, The second pilot project in Dida Hara is a including adults and children) attending the non-formal education (NFE) project, which NFE have achieved a rudimentary level of began in 2001. The project was an education literacy and numeracy within six months. This intervention mainly aimed at creating an allows them to track figures in their savings enabling environment for adults, school-age and loan booklets. children, and dropouts to have access to basic Three other women’s groups dealing with education through establishment of savings and credit and micro-enterprise community education centers. There was only development are located near Moyale and one formal primary school (grades 1– 4) with Negele towns. Moyale is a border town with three teachers in the 2000/01 academic year a moderate population (ca. 15,000) and is in the vicinity of Dida Hara. School important for livestock marketing in the enrollment was only 195 pupils (148 males region. Negele is the largest town in the and 47 females) in 1999/00 and 291 pupils Borana plateau with a population of 25,000. (217 males and 74 females) in 2000/01 All three of the projects had to go through the academic years (Yabelo Wereda Education process of participatory needs assessment to Office, unpublished data). Female generate information required to prepare participation was typically low. This was from proposals for ORP review and PARIMA a potential local population exceeding 10,000 funding. The two groups in Negele have a people. total of 256 members with a total savings to- The non-formal education project was date on the order of Birr 24,760 (partial data designed to provide an organized, systematic only). The 44 women in the Moyale group educational activity carried on outside the have saved Birr 7,450 during the first phase framework of the formal system. It provides of the activity. selected types of learning to particular sub- The lead institutions assisting these groups (adults and children). The project was communities in planning and implementation gender-sensitive by giving special attention to of the projects are the OCBP and the OADB. the enrollment of females. The community The NGO Save the Children USA (SC/USA) used locally available materials to construct collaborates with these institutions to

57 Global Livestock CRSP

implement the women’s dairy group in Negele. The overall goal of PARIMA’s All the women’s groups have performed very interventions is to develop a sustainable well to mobilize savings and start small group approach for risk-management intervention business activities. All these groups are that will help empower pastoral communities involved in small-scale businesses using their to conserve wealth and diversify their income own resources. Trade involving petty and assets away from a sole focus on livestock commodities and livestock has dominated over the longer term. We believe this can business activities. Moreover, the groups have strengthen their livelihoods to better cope with extended loans to individual members and droughts, food insecurity, and chronic resource helped them to initiate their own businesses restriction. It may also have ramifications for to augment their income. the condition of the rangeland environment, In order to build capacity among project especially if the people have an opportunity participants to deal with issues pertaining to to sell less-productive stock before drought rural finance and small-scale business impacts are manifested and use the revenue to development, PARIMA has facilitated training support viable alternative investments—this and tours for selected members. A seven-day option also depends on viable market channels. training course offered by the Fura Institute We hope to follow progress of the pilot projects of Development Studies (FIDS) was given for a few more years to observe to what extent during 2001-02 for 31 people including 27 sustainable diversification and changes in members of pilot projects (20 women, seven livestock and resource management occur as men, and four development agents). The a result of these interventions. At present our course concerned small-scale business interpretation of why communities select rural development and management. The financial and educational interventions is so participants were drawn from four locales they can better position themselves to generate [Negele with 11 participants, Dida Hara more income to buy basic necessities, (11), Moyale (5), and Finchewa (4)]. The prominent among which is food. These training program devised by FIDS was choices may also represent a process of self- specifically designed for illiterate people, empowerment. Although it will take time being based mainly on group discussion. before the ultimate outcomes of the pilot Participatory learning tools were used to projects become apparent, we have learned a stimulate group interactions. Participants were lot over the past 18 months. Perhaps the able to review and analyze their greatest lesson so far is that a true participatory understanding of business management. approach can unleash a tremendous amount Prior to the training, selected pastoral of energy and enthusiasm for positive change, women from the various groups made a even in a pastoral setting. The pilot cross-border tour to meet successful interventions are all based on giving women’s groups in northern Kenya. The communities the opportunity to lead on tour participants gained much experience on problem identification, project design, and how to set goals and plan and implement project implementation. We have also seen various development activities. These that, with appropriate technical oversight and activities include rural financial institutions, training, people such as the Boran at Dida small-scale businesses, and lobbying the Hara—who have little formal education— government and potential donors. appear quite capable of implementing small-

58 Annual Report 2003 scale activities dealing with rural finance and As a first step to address water quality income diversification. Human capital problems at Kargi, we embarked on a development, in the form of intensive training partnership with the Sustainable Management and exchange tours for project beneficiaries, of Watersheds (SUMAWA) project of the GL- promotes sustainability of interventions. We CRSP. We decided to analyze water samples have also witnessed the high operational from five key water points for physiochemical effectiveness of pastoralist-to-pastoralist and bacteriological features during April 2002. extension modes that contribute to rapid We followed standard procedures. Water transfer of knowledge and skills. The samples were taken from a number of sources. approach pursued by PARIMA to implement Some were collected from two centrally its program in partnership with local located wells (called Kargi and UNESCO development organizations also promotes Wells) that are up to 9 meters deep and over continuity of effort when PARIMA phases 50 years old. The rest were collected from out. The action research carried out by two younger, shallower wells (called School PARIMA to help monitor and document and Hadad) and an earthen dam (called Kuya) intervention outcomes can help guide larger that accumulates surface water. In contrast to development initiatives in the future. There the two old wells, these three other water has been a decided lack of such documentation points are located further from the core of local pastoral development experiences in settlement zone of Kargi. the past. Preliminary findings indicated that water Research Observations from a PRA quality from the older wells was very poor in Exercise at Kargi, northern Kenya. both physiochemical and bacteriological Inadequate quantity of water is a common features. Results for selected parameters are problem for pastoral people in East Africa. For shown in Table 7 along with technical quality the Rendille community of Kargi in northern guidelines from ACCC (1999). Particularly Kenya, however, water quality has also been notable are the very warm temperatures of well identified as a critical issue in a PRA exercise water (due to residual volcanic influences), the conducted in 2000. Residents report that high mineral content of water, and presence water-borne diseases commonly affect human of toxic microbes. Microbes included fecal health in dry seasons, and livestock may die coliforms, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, soon after drinking water from some of the and possibly Shigella spp. It was speculated older, deep wells. Kargi was a single water that ambient conditions in the old wells could point in the 1920s, but started to become a be conducive to the manufacture of hydrogen small town by the early 1970s when Rendille sulphide gas (H2S), a potentially lethal nomads settled. Kargi now has about 5,700 compound produced by Salmonella microbes people living under difficult conditions that when oxygen concentration of water is low include a lack of infrastructure, high levels of and free sulphur is abundant. This could illiteracy and physical insecurity, and explain livestock mortality risk after drinking prevalence of drought. In the past 30 years well water, but requires further investigation. some 20 wells have been dug in and around Low oxygen concentrations in well water can Kargi, but today about seven remain fully be promoted by warm water temperatures and functional in terms of adequate water flow or restricted aeration. The water quality from the minimally acceptable water quality. younger wells and the Kuya Dam was a bit

59 Global Livestock CRSP better compared to that of the old wells. that contributes to this situation is probably Although salinity and total mineral content the central, physical location of these wells in was often high for the School Well, only a trace relation to the town and low position on the of Salmonella was detected in bacteriological landscape. Rare but severe rainstorm events analysis. Blooms of blue-green algae could help funnel human and animal waste into (Cyanobacteria) were also visually noted on the water supply for these wells. It is doubtful the walls of the School Well, and some species whether the water quality from these old wells of this microbe family can be toxic. The could ever be restored to meet minimum younger wells and Kuya Dam exhibited standards for human consumption. Catchment evidence of fecal contamination from coliform systems could be constructed that would help bacteria, even though presence of E. coli and channel waste water away from the aquifers Salmonella spp. tended to be lower than values serving the old wells. Water intended for for water from the old wells (Table 7). livestock consumption could be drawn from This work has several practical these wells and left to stand overnight in open implications. Water quality for the old Kargi troughs to allow evaporation of potentially and UNESCO Wells is very poor for human— toxic gases like hydrogen sulphide. Water or even livestock—consumption. One factor quality from the younger School and Hadad

Table 7 - Selected water quality values from samples collected at Kargi, northern Kenya, during April 20021.

    @ 
%
&@ ,@  ' @ / 1  ; ;  ; ; ; 1& ; ; ; ; ; '$5 > >   >> >>> &   ?;; ? ;;  ;   '$1%   ;; ? ;; ?;;  /
$.      ; @@@ @@@ 4 @ 4 2  @@@ @@@ @ @ @

7 "  7 +    7897$33"%      :9   + #     +$#% : +   :        #  :          $ %:          #    :;  2 #  + $<<<% + $<%# $%  #+#   

7    $55%  $5%    7===$333%     >    +   ? $  ; 2 %       +  

60 Annual Report 2003

Wells and the Kuya Dam was somewhat better priorities such as drought, poverty, livestock compared to that from the old wells, and management, marketing, ecological validates why these water sources tend to be degradation, loss of key resources, and highly valued by the community. The physical insecurity. While water has improved condition of these water resources traditionally been viewed as a major constraint is probably related to factors that include the for pastoral livestock production and the physical location of these water points and balanced use of extensive forage resources, attention given to excluding animals from the insufficient attention has been given to the immediate vicinity. The younger wells and problems of water quantity and quality for Kuya dam are located away from increasingly settled populations of pastoral concentrated human settlement. The Kuya people living under conditions of high human Dam, in particular, is protected by a strong concentration and limited infrastructure. thorn fence to keep animals out. This also While comprehensive surveys of water quality helps keep animal waste from collecting in and human health have yet to be conducted the vicinity. The presence of fecal coliforms throughout pastoral areas in East Africa, we at each of these locales, however, means that suspect that problems of water quality, like the community must still be vigilant. those observed at Kargi, are probably The community could be trained to increasingly common. monitor water quality using simple test kits and hence have an early warning system to Activity Six: Collaboration between detect problems before they overwhelm the PARIMA and LEWS on Understanding system. While the high mineral content of Determinants of Pastoral Livestock Off- water in general appears to be a given due take During Drought to geology and is not amenable to improvement, a simple system for “pot Problem Statement and Approach. One chlorination” could be implemented to of the goals of the Livestock Early Warning eliminate dangerous microbes, especially at System (LEWS) project of the GL-CRSP has the younger wells having smaller water been the prediction of livestock supply to volumes. That such microbes pose community market during times of drought. The LEWS health risks is an understatement. Microbes project has sought to refine predictive models such as fecal coliforms are associated with for climate patterns and livestock performance diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration. so that they could be applied as tools for Shigella spp. can be associated with providing decision support to stimulate animal dysentery. Strains of E. coli are associated off-take during early stages of a drought. For with acute systemic poisoning, and chronic example, climate predictions from regional exposure can lead to permanent health forecasting centers can be used to convey the complications. Salmonella is a genus that likelihood of inadequate seasonal rainfall in leads to a variety of very debilitating ailments our study region. If this information could be including typhoid fever, arthritic-like joint adequately conveyed to pastoral producers, it diseases, and severe diarrhea. Death can occur is thought that producers could take pre- from any of these challenges. emptive action by de-stocking in anticipation Conventional wisdom in pastoral of a failure of a rainy season. Early de- development focuses on the need to deal with stocking could allow households to take

61 Global Livestock CRSP advantage of more favorable pre-drought southern Ethiopia. It is thought that once prices, reduce drought-related mortality losses, decision rules are better understood, and the and relieve pressure on natural resources. extent to which marketing features influence Other tools to aid this decision-making process the flow of stock to terminal markets is include models that predict forage production clarified, that spatial explicit predictive models as a result of precipitation and those that can be developed. These models would then predict livestock nutritional status as a function attempt to predict the supply of animals to of the quantity and quality of forage. Given market given extant environmental and insights into anticipated patterns of forage economic conditions. The models can be yield and livestock production, pastoralists and parameterized to account for how flows of traders could be further compelled to engage animals might change in response to changes in pre-emptive de-stocking and other related in information access, price structures, and adjustments. Work of the PARIMA project infrastructure improvements. This would complements these objectives in several permit sectoral-level analyses whereby the respects. First, the PARIMA project is costs of pastoral marketing and information interested in the actual factors that influence investments could be compared with the how pastoralists make decisions to sell benefits of increased sales, pastoral household animals. For example, favorable prices may well-being, and other ripple effects in the be a key determinant, as could the need to buy regional livestock economy. non-pastoral food. Conversely, if pastoralists Progress. Early in this fiscal year have few alternatives to storing wealth as PARIMA scientists completed data collection livestock, it is rational for them to hold all of across the Kenya sites (i.e., Suguta Mar Mar, their animals and hope that providence spares North Horr, Marigat, and around Marsabit them and they will survive a drought Mountain) regarding household-level unscathed. This logical traditional rationale livestock marketing behavior. This work has may be becoming harder to justify as fall-back been based upon structured questionnaires and resources dwindle, human populations adds more detailed data on aspects of livestock increase, and local resource degradation sales, purchases, and transfers as recorded in intensifies. In addition, if market infrastructure the quarterly repeated surveys (see Activity 1). is lacking, there may not be opportunities for This work also parallels a market-level many pastoralists to sell stock in anticipation instrument fielded in December 2002, wherein of drought even if they wanted to. the team is sampling transactions in principal One goal for the joint PARIMA-LEWS livestock markets serving our study region in activity, started in 2001, is to clarify decision- northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia. These making processes regarding livestock sales two data sets will enable us to provide a more behavior. This is to be determined using accurate description of livestock pricing and household level surveys that test a series of market behavior and test alternative alternative hypotheses as to what most hypotheses for pastoral livestock marketing motivates households to dispose of animals. incentives implicit in the PARIMA-LEWS Another goal is to collaborate on geo- module. In the second half of the last fiscal referencing households and market year the survey data have been cleaned and infrastructure from both the PARIMA and analyzed. The LEWS team has completed a LEWS data sets for northern Kenya and geo-referenced template of households,

62 Annual Report 2003 markets, and other infrastructure for the study net livestock marketed, suggesting that the area that will serve as a spatial modeling greater the amount of females in a herd, the framework. more willing the respondents were to sell As part of the PARIMA-LEWS joint their animals. Finally, having a bank module, we collected household-level survey account had a positive, though statistically data and have undertaken market monitoring insignificant, effect upon the participation to collect transactions-level data in Marigat, in market decision, as well as a significant, Marsabit, North Horr, and Suguta Marmar positive effect upon net TLU marketed. Not markets so as to be able to test a range of only does having a bank account render one hypotheses about pastoralist livestock more likely to participate in the livestock marketing patterns. We can now report on market, it also increases the likelihood of preliminary econometric results based on a purchasing animals via the market. The selectivity model to distinguish between direction of causality in this relationship is households’ choice to participate in the open to question: do people open bank livestock market as either a buyer or seller accounts because they sell animals and need from their choice of net sales (gross sales less a place to safeguard their receipts or do they gross purchases) conditional upon market market animals because they have access to participation. We have been able to test the such accounts? But there does appear to be a marginal effects of livestock prices, marketing correlation, likely reflecting the wealth effect fees, insecurity, quarantine, percentage of of bank account ownership, as complemented initial herd composed of animals encumbered by previous research revealing that a non- with complex property rights, percentage of trivial proportion of microfinance loans in the initial herd composed of female animals, and study region were intended for livestock having a bank account on pastoralists’ purchases. decisions to participate in the market as well as on their decision regarding marketed Activity Seven: Collaboration between volume. Our preliminary results reveal some PARIMA and ELFORA/MIDROC on clear patterns. Herd size is the strongest Livestock Marketing in Ethiopia predictor of both market participation and of the quantity of livestock marketed among Problem Statement and Approach. The market participants. A larger herd size objectives of this activity include clarifying increases the probability of participating in constraints that hinder livestock marketing a market as well as the amount of livestock within Ethiopia, and building a bridge of sold. Insecurity had a statistically cooperation between public and private sectors significant, positive effect upon the amount with regards to helping address Ethiopian of net TLUs marketed as well as on livestock marketing problems. ELFORA is participation in the market, suggesting that the agro-industrial subsidiary of MIDROC in times of insecurity, pastoralists restrict Corporation in Ethiopia. By the mid-1990s their mobility and increase their use of ELFORA/ MIDROC had purchased much of markets to reduce herd sizes, presumably to the livestock marketing infrastructure in compensate for reduced mobility. The southern and central Ethiopia that has been percentage of female animals owned had a previously owned by the Ethiopian statistically significant negative effect upon government. ELFORA/MIDROC is thus

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viewed as a major player in livestock Progress. This effort was successfully marketing in Ethiopia, especially with regards carried out for the six sites in northern Kenya to the southern rangelands of Borana Zone. during July and August. Research results from We envisioned a public/private partnership the quarterly survey research and ancillary with the possibility of PARIMA providing studies (see Activities One and Two) were research and outreach linkages that could displayed in culturally appropriate formats and further assist the development activities of feedback was obtained. Results are currently ELFORA/MIDROC. being written-up. Recent insecurity in Progress. Early in this fiscal year a southern Ethiopia has required that the similar provisional concept note for collaboration was effort there be delayed until the coming fiscal drafted by PARIMA and collaborators in Addis year. Ababa and given to ELFORA management for review. This included plans for jointly crafting Activity Nine: Engaging Policy Makers in and co-funding a mutually agreeable work Kenya and Ethiopia plan. ELFORA has experienced changes due to leadership and internal re-organization, Problem Statement and Approach. The however, and ELFORA has not provided a PARIMA project has successfully held formal response to the concept note. Some biennial workshops in July 1999 (at the ILRI other interactions between ELFORA and campus in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) and June PARIMA have occurred, however. The 2001 (at Egerton University in Njoro, Kenya). outreach tour involving pastoral leaders See GL-CRSP Annual Reports for 1999 and coming up-country to establish livestock trade 2001 for a summary of these meetings. The linkages included a visit to ELFORA animal meetings each attracted over 80 participants processing facilities at Debre Zeit (see Activity including researchers, development workers, Five, above). In addition, a senior staff students, and policy makers. The objective of member of ELFORA attended the recent these workshops has been to disseminate PARIMA policy maker’s meeting in Addis PARIMA information and provide Ababa (see Activity Nine). Our goal therefore opportunities for other professional is to remain vigilant concerning interactions interactions. It was intended in the original between PARIMA and ELFORA, but to project proposal (1997-2003) that PARIMA downgrade this effort from an “activity status” would host a third (and closing) biennial until evidence proves otherwise. workshop in 2003. Given the notification in March 2003, Activity Eight: Interactive Research Visits however, that the PARIMA project had been with Pastoral Communities extended for another three years, we decided to alter the biennial workshop format to Problem Statement and Approach. The include a greater focus on opening a objective of this activity has been to sustainable dialogue with policy makers in communicate synthesized research results to Ethiopia and Kenya. The policy environment communities where the quarterly repeated in both countries has been exceedingly survey was conducted, and obtain community dynamic the past few years. A new federal feedback that could modify interpretation of system of decentralized government has been the work. implemented in Ethiopia, and a recent change

64 Annual Report 2003 in the national government has occurred for Activity Ten: Strengthening the Role of Kenya. These changes have large African Institutions Dealing with Pastoral ramifications for pastoral development and Risk Management policy. Thus, despite our delay in opening a focused dialogue with policy makers in both Problem Statement and Approach. One countries, we felt that now was as opportune of the important aspects of the GL-CRSP is to a time as any to initiate a process of “linking build capacity among national research research with decision making.” organizations, and that is the main objective Progress. Two meetings with policy of this activity. We have already been makers were successfully held on August 8 contributing to this goal in PARIMA by (Kenya) and August 15 (Ethiopia). Invitees offering formal degree-training opportunities from both countries included key Members of for Kenyans and Ethiopians at the M.S., Ph.D., Parliament, Government Ministries, and and post-doctoral levels (see Activities Two people representing other governmental and and Three). We see other opportunities, non-governmental (advocacy) organizations. however, to build capacity among rank-and- From 30 to 40 people attended each meeting. file researchers at the Kenya Agricultural The one-day meetings consisted of a morning Research Institute (KARI—Marsabit) and the session with invited speakers and an afternoon recently created Oromia Agricultural Research plenary session to discuss the “way forward.” Institute (OARI—Yabelo). To this end we Of the 70 total participants, roughly half were wanted to start a process of linking KARI— actively involved in policy or decision-making Marsabit, OARI—Yabelo, and FESNARE at local, regional, or national levels in both (Egerton) to begin a process of cross-border countries. A major outcome of each meeting was research, training, and collaboration. the establishment of two locally led provisional Progress. We held three planning working groups concerning policy, governance, meetings for PARIMA, OARI, KARI, and and advocacy in the pastoral areas. One group Egerton FESNARE in the past year. These is for Kenya and one group is for Ethiopia. The included: (1) A four-day meeting at the KARI PARIMA project has a representative within Marsabit Station during May to consolidate each six-member group to help with views from Kenyan partners (KARI, coordination and provide secretariat functions. FESNARE) on how best to conduct new The plan is for each working group to decide collaborative activities; (2) a one-day meeting on a series of achievable policy-related goals at OARI Headquarters in Addis Ababa during and concomitant terms of reference. The June to consolidate Ethiopian views on new groups can serve as conduits for the PARIMA collaborative activities; and (3) a week-long project to more effectively address how joint meeting involving KARI, OARI, and pastoral development decisions are made in FESNARE in Marsabit during July to draft a both countries. Neither country has a relevant work plan for 2003-06. pastoral policy framework—a point raised in both meetings—so there appears to be GENDER opportunities for constructive dialogue and possible impact. One proceedings report Gender dimensions of the PARIMA covering the outcomes for both meetings will project are reflected in terms of: (1) how our be produced in the coming fiscal year. team is organized; (2) research questions and

65 Global Livestock CRSP issues being pursued; (3) how training benefits engagement and education of decision makers. are allocated; and (4) types of people We will put a renewed focus on distribution participating in our outreach. For example, of PARIMA materials (see Activity Four) and we have one female scientist on our core team, getting media exposure where appropriate. We namely Dr. Cheryl Doss of Yale University. will continue to invite decision-makers to She is an economist. We are studying how attend meetings, workshops, field tours, and risk affects female pastoralists differently from training opportunities, as we have done over males (see Activity One). It is well known the past two years. More policy maker that perturbations in our study region often meetings are planned for 2003-04. result in female-headed households being re- established nearer to towns and settlements. OUTREACH These are often the poorest households with few assets. These women heads of households The Outreach Unit of the PARIMA project are often forced to diversify their income- has been previously introduced in the GL- generating activities to survive. These women CRSP Annual Reports for 2000 and 2001. are a major focus of our research and outreach Funding for outreach has been provided by the efforts. We have given various forms of USAID Mission to Ethiopia. Current outreach support to female trainees in our project. For activities have been previously mentioned degree training, we are supporting an under Activity Five. The objectives of American woman named Sharon Osterloh at PARIMA Outreach are to build awareness and Cornell. For non-degree training we have capacity of front-line development personnel focused a large component of our outreach on and pastoral communities to better understand pastoral women’s groups (see Activity Five). the utility of risk-management interventions In our outreach network we have included and identify best-bet approaches to improve roughly 52 organizations, with 25 in Ethiopia pastoral risk management based on results and 27 in Kenya. Senior women represent nine from pilot interventions and associated of these organizations. We initiated a ten- research. member Outreach Review Panel (ORP) in 1999 that helps guide outreach. There are DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT currently nine members and one third are women. These include Ms. Miriam Perspectives on development impact are Cherogony, a Kenyan specialist in rural similar to those voiced in previous GL-CRSP finance, Ms. Felekech Lemecha, an official Annual Reports. These are summarized as with the OARI in Ethiopia, and Ms. Allyce follows. Kureiya, a Kenyan pastoral development Environmental Impact and Relevance. specialist working with an NGO in Isiolo. The benefits of our project to the environment are indirect rather than direct, and medium- POLICY and longer-term rather than short-term. Our basic position is that improved risk Our main goal regarding policy is to have management will mitigate asset loss and a positive influence on decisions that affect poverty among pastoralists and agro- pastoral peoples in Kenya and Ethiopia. We pastoralists. When poverty is mitigated risk want to achieve this goal primarily through to the environment will lessen. For example,

66 Annual Report 2003 one tenet of our approach is that pastoralists demand, bad infrastructure, and/or inadequate need to make more pre-emptive moves to marketing strategies of producers, pastoralism mitigate crisis induced by drought and growing in the region is typically unprofitable. human populations. One tactic is to sell some Evidence of unsustainability includes things animals before a crisis occurs, and use the like the chronic need to feed tens of thousands funds received as household-level savings and of people in the region each year, the re- community investments. The success of this location of poor households nearer to towns depends on well-functioning markets, credit and settlements where they engage themselves union formation, education, etc. The idea is in petty trade to stay alive, and the increasing that if such a tactic can be successfully used poverty and declining living standards of across a society, the rate of growth in stocking pastoralists in general. By coming up with rates would be mitigated. This would reduce risk management tools, which in part should the specter of heavy stocking rates on the land allow pastoralists and agro-pastoralists to save during years of lower-than-average rainfall, and invest outside of their traditional sphere, which is the key window when range the resulting investment surge for education vegetation can be degraded. The “boom and and entrepreneurial activity in towns and bust” in the cattle cycle would also be settlements should primarily lead to growth dampened as a result. The build up in non- of local economies with benefits for the livestock capital and investment would then environment, social order, and pastoral permit societies to diversify their economies. economy. As outlined immediately above, our This diversification could spur growth of urban risk management interventions range from job opportunities and mitigate the incidence neutral to positive for the environment, which of poverty among pastoral and agro-pastoral conforms to the first criterion of sustainable households. Mitigating poverty would then agriculture. Accumulation of wealth and reduce the specter of poor people being efforts to mitigate social conflicts should allow engaged in destructive activities such as the social fabric to heal—poverty is bad for charcoal making, harvesting of green fuel the maintenance of traditional cultures. This wood, and opportunistic cultivation. fits the second criterion. The third criterion is Agricultural Sustainability. A dealt with by several economic outcomes that sustainable agriculture is one where vary in terms of the relevant time scale. Short- interventions are: (1) beneficial—or at least term benefits would include an expansion of neutral—for the environment; (2) socially local markets for pastoral products. Longer- acceptable; and (3) economically profitable. term benefits would include allowing more The premise behind our project is that, left to pastoralists to emigrate out of the traditional their own devices, traditional pastoral or agro- sector due to economic diversification and pastoral production systems in our study increased employment opportunities in towns region are unsustainable. For example, there and settlements. Facilitation of emigration is is a loss of land to population growth and the ultimate humanitarian solution to the risk- environmental degradation. There is an management dilemma for pastoralists. This unraveling of the traditional social order in is because population growth reduces some cases, which can often be traced to resources per capita and therefore increases competition for limited resources. There is vulnerability of populations to endogenous and abundant evidence that whether due to poor exogenous shocks.

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Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. The issue of debate for agriculture in the United main contribution of this project to United States as well as East Africa. Global trade States agriculture is primarily in terms of affects the United States beef producer and the providing a “wake-up call” for research and East African pastoralist. The advent of the extension professionals to the importance of North American Free Trade Agreement risk management for the small to average-sized (NAFTA) could serve to dampen peak prices livestock producer. As will be noted below, received by American cow-calf operators the need for risk management by American because of increased importation of cheaper producers may be increasing as profit margins Mexican beef. Research remains to be done get slimmer and the social and economic that could confirm this widely held suspicion. complexity of agriculture increases. It is fair The specter of NAFTA, however, probably to say that a commodity perspective has been influences behavior of American producers by pre-eminent in agricultural research and increasing their perceived risk on prices and outreach in the United States. This has possibly discouraging production investment. contributed to a lack of a relevant systems Currently, the cross-border flow of live cattle approach that could better integrate academic is officially restricted between Ethiopia and disciplines and deal more effectively with real- Kenya. We do not know the rationale for this world problems. Risk management can be an restriction, nor its effects on household important contribution in this regard. Risk economics on either side of the border. management is simultaneously economic, Answers to this will be provided by applied social, and ecological. The ability to better research by the GL-CRSP, which may shed manage risks is an important attribute of new light on the costs and benefits of free trade successful farmers and ranchers. While in general—even as applicable to agriculture livestock producers in the United States are in the United States. Our project will under no imminent threat of starvation or communicate such findings and influence the extreme destitution comparable to pastoralists American research community, and hence the in northern Kenya or southern Ethiopia, there United States agricultural community, through are commonalities in terms of how risks are a variety of research and outreach publications. conceptualized and interact to cause problems. Contributions to Host Countries. For example, it has been forwarded by Contributions to our host countries will mostly Holechek et al. that beef producers in New be felt through our outreach activities Mexico should diversify their assets and (described above) and training of host-country investments to mitigate economic downturns nationals. Outreach will primarily have impact that repeatedly result from cyclic fluctuations on project beneficiaries—pastoralists and in beef prices. This is exactly the same concept agro-pastoralists—but it will also have impact that we have for East African pastoralists. on development professionals and their Education and access to investments are the organizations that link to us directly. In the main constraints for New Mexico ranchers— training sphere our past contributions have also similar to prominent implementation included computers, books, sponsorship for constraints for East African pastoralists. people to attend international conferences and Whether drought cycles are predictable or not, other technical support for our main academic and the possible influence of phenomena like partner in Kenya, Egerton University. A El Niño on precipitation regimes, is a core broadening of our collaborative research role

68 Annual Report 2003 will benefit KARI-Marsabit (Kenya) and capital resources to first organize a community OARI-Yabelo (Ethiopia). savings and credit association. This would be Linkages and Networking. This has been an impetus for the group to procure production previously covered in our section on Outreach. inputs and invest to improve their marketing Collaboration with IARCs and Other capability to make themselves less vulnerable CRSPs. We collaborate with the International to trading bottlenecks. A group, for example, Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in both could purchase a large truck and independently Ethiopia and Kenya. We typically hold our handle livestock shipping. The outreach entity workshops at ILRI conference facilities. Some would only provide the initial training and a administrative and logistical support is few select inputs to get it rolling. The success provided to us by ILRI. We have had a link to of such an endeavor would rely heavily on the Dr. Simeon Ehui and the Livestock Policy availability of livestock and grain markets and Analysis Program (LPAP) based at ILRI- their efficiency of operation. Our initiatives Ethiopia. We have been strengthening ties in in livestock marketing research, and the past year to the Crisis Mitigation Office attempting to forge a partnership with (CMO), created under the auspices of ELFORA/MIDROC (see Activities Two and ASARECA, headed by Dr.Jean Ndikumana of Seven) also are key elements indicating our ILRI-Kenya. We have also linked to Dr. Patti awareness of the importance of commerce and Kristjanson, also of ILRI-Kenya. The other the private sector. Taken together, these areas CRSP we link to is the BASIS CRSP. Drs. of emphasis reflect the functioning of free Peter Little and Christopher Barrett, U.S. PIs markets, a role for agribusiness, and for the GL-CRSP, and Prof. Abdillahi Aboud, developing a capability for pastoralists to regional PI, are also participants with the empower themselves. BASIS CRSP. The GL-CRSP and BASIS Contributions to and Compliance with CRSP share an interest in policy and economic USAID Mission Objectives. Our project issues that deal with cross-border relations. contributes to and complies with Mission objectives in each country by dealing with food OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS security, economic growth, the environment, and privatization issues. We have solid Support for Free Markets and Broad- contacts with prominent people in USAID Based Economic Growth. Interventions that Missions in both Kenya and Ethiopia. will be advocated by our project will be in Concern for Individuals. Our project direct support of free markets and economic incorporates a concern for individuals in growth. Some of this has been previously several ways. One is through technical and described. This prominently involves linkages advanced training opportunities, with a focus between markets and formation of benefits- on host-country nationals at the master’s and oriented cooperatives to empower pastoralists doctoral levels. Other evidence is provided at the local level. At our recent biennial by how we have organized our applied workshop in Njoro (2001), some presentations research and outreach. For research, we realize dealt with outreach ideas to assist pastoralists that improved risk management will ultimately to form their own cooperative associations to occur at the level of the individual. For spur development processes—the idea being outreach, priorities like public education, that a local association could form and pool conflict mitigation, and formation of benefits-

69 Global Livestock CRSP oriented cooperatives are a testimony to the travel and operating funds from the BASIS value we place on helping individuals improve CRSP, funds from a grant from USDA/ their lives by being able to deal with risk by Rutgers, and funds for food aid research via making more informed choices. a Hatch grant. Support for Democracy. Voluntary, benefits-oriented producer cooperatives are TRAINING one form of grass-roots democracy in action. We have also been asked by our outreach Degree Training partners to help pastoralists in pilot projects to better communicate their needs and desires In progress to local politicians. Abdullahi Dima Jillo, Ph.D., 2005, Human Humanitarian Assistance. Our program Ecology, Egerton University, Njoro, of applied research and outreach is the Kenya. embodiment of humanitarian assistance. Hussein Mahmoud, Ph.D., 2003, Outreach will, in large measure, help set an Anthropology, University of Kentucky, agenda to guide more research as well as Lexington, Kentucky, USA. outreach. Research will therefore be very Mark Mutinda, Ph.D., 2006, Human Ecology, relevant to solving problems related to the Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. “human condition” in the study region. Nicholas Ole Kaikai, M.S., 2005, Human Ecology, Egerton University, Njoro, LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS Kenya. Sharon Osterloh, M.S., 2003, Agricultural The value of leveraging for PARIMA Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, during 2002-03 was USD 329,350.00. This New York, USA. is broken out as follows: (1) A total of USD Amare Teklu, Ph.D., 2004, Natural Resource $175,000.00 was contributed by the USAID Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New Mission to Ethiopia for outreach and action York, USA. research activities in an accompanying project entitled “Improving Pastoral Risk Completed Management and Human Welfare Among Moses Esilaba, M.S., 2002, Human Ecology, Pastoral and Agro-pastoral People: A Pilot Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. Outreach Project for the Southern Ethiopian Clement Lenachuru, M.S., 2002, Human Rangelands.” These funds were channeled Ecology, Egerton University, Njoro, through Utah State University and include Kenya. field operation, PI salary support, and Godfrey Nato, M.S., 2003, Human Ecology, international travel; (2) a total of USD Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. $32,850.00 was contributed by the John Tangus, M.S., 2002, Human Ecology, University of Kentucky. This included Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. travel support for the PI as well as travel Waktole Tiki Uma, M.S., 2002, Human and stipend support for graduate students; Ecology, Egerton University, Njoro, and (4) a total of USD $121,500.00 was Kenya. contributed by Cornell University. This included stipends for four graduate students,

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Non-Degree Training (Post-Doctoral with the goal of engaging Ethiopian Associates) pastoralists in terms of mentoring on women’s group formation, micro-enterprise In progress development, and non-formal educational Solomon Desta, Post-doctoral associate, activities, and thereby inspiring Ethiopian 1999-present, Pastoral Development, Utah women (in particular) towards further State University. achievement. Over 630 Ethiopians (about Getachew Gebru, Post-doctoral associate, 80% female) attended these gatherings. 2000- present, Animal Production Fourth Steering Committee Meeting for Systems, Utah State University. the Ethio-Kenya Cross-Border Initiative. Held February 26-27, 2003, in Moyale, Kenya. Non-Degree Training (Workshops, Short Twenty-six leaders of the cross-border initiative Courses, Field Tours) (17 from Kenya and 9 from Ethiopia) met to plan activities for the coming year. This includes Outreach (funded by the USAID Mission efforts to obtain legal recognition for the cross- to Ethiopia) border initiative from Kenyan and Ethiopian Third Cross-Border Collaboration, authorities. Activity Harmonization, and Information Training Pastoralists in Management of Sharing Workshop for Ethiopia and Kenya. Local Savings & Credit Associations. Held December 16-17, 2002, at the SORDU Performed continuously throughout the fiscal Conference Hall, Yabelo, Ethiopia. The year. Total participants equaled 791 (77% meeting was co-sponsored by PARIMA female) in six locations across southern Outreach and CIFA (Community Initiatives Ethiopia. Members of associations are Facilitation and Assistance) of Kenya. The receiving training in the management of small- purpose of the meeting was to continue a scale savings and credit associations. dialogue started two years ago regarding building First Pastoral Producers Tour to of more harmonious relationships across the Livestock Processing and Marketing Ethio-Kenya border. Specific foci included Facilities in the Ethiopian Highlands. livestock marketing issues, peace building, Eight leaders of three risk management pilot reciprocal use of natural resources, and livestock projects in Dida Hara and Moyale, Ethiopia, health. Outcomes are documented in a were selected to go on a three-day tour of proceedings volume (see publications). Over 90 livestock processing and marketing facilities people attended, with about 17 from Kenya and in the Ethiopian highlands during January 15- the rest from Ethiopia. Attendees included 20. Sites visited included slaughter-houses at pastoral leaders, development agents, border Modjo and Debre Zeit (ELFORA/MIDROC), administrators, and policy makers. the Shoa Tannery, and the Livestock Marketing Second Cross-Border Pastoral Authority (LMA) in Addis Ababa. Tour Women’s Tour. Held December 18, 2002 members learned about quality and size through January 4, 2003. Five dynamic requirements for animal processing and leaders of pastoral women’s groups in exports. One purpose for the tour was to northern Kenya were taken across the Borana expose producers to aspects of the livestock Plateau to 13 locations in the woredas of marketing chain and enable them to make Yabelo, Liben, Hageremariam, and Moyale contact with industry representatives.

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Local Exchange Visits for Pastoralists (NALRC) of KARI at Marsabit, Kenya. The to Pilot Projects. Twenty-two leaders of purpose of the meeting was for the PARIMA five risk management pilot projects (16 team to become more familiar with the KARI- females and six males), along with six Marsabit Station (e.g., National Arid Lands development agents, were taken on day-long Research Center) in terms of research tours to review risk management pilot emphasis and needs for capacity building. projects in neighboring communities in About 15 people attended the meeting, with Negele, Dida Hara, Finchewa, and Moyale three from PARIMA and 12 from KARI. during the second quarter of the fiscal year. Research Planning Meeting to Establish Second Pastoral Producers Tour to Collaboration Priorities for the Oromia Livestock Processing and Marketing Agricultural Research Institute (OARI) in Facilities in the Ethiopian Highlands. Southern Ethiopia. Held on June 15, 2003 Twenty-seven leaders of risk management at OARI Headquarters in Addis Ababa, pilot projects from the Guji and Borana Ethiopia. The purpose of the meeting was for zones traveled to Mojo and Debre Zeit to the PARIMA team to become more familiar view livestock export facilities and conduct with the new OARI-Yabelo pastoral research meetings with representatives of the center in terms of research emphasis and needs Ethiopian Livestock Exporters Association for capacity building. About 15 people (ELEA), Livestock Marketing Authority attended the meeting, with two from PARIMA (LMA), Oromia Pastoral Development and 13 from OARI. Commission (OPDC), Action for Development Research Planning Meeting to Establish (AFD), and PARIMA. This tour occurred during a Provisional Work Plan for Collaboration September 4-7, 2003. Total attendance at the Involving OARI, KARI, FESNARE/ meetings was 53. Egerton, and PARIMA 2003-6. Held on July First Livestock Traders Tour to the 12-13, 2003 at the National Arid Land Southern Ethiopian Rangelands. Involved Research Center (NALRC) of KARI at leaders of trade corporations and animal industry Marsabit, Kenya. The purpose of the meeting from the private and public sectors (i.e., LMA, was for OARI, KARI, FESNARE/Egerton, MIDROC/ELFORA, LUNA, Modjo Exporters, and PARIMA to draft priorities for a three- EMPIX, and representatives of Middle East trade year collaborative work plan. About 25 people units). They undertook a tour of range attended the meeting, with Drs. Getachew livestock production areas and met with Gebru and Solomon Desta and Prof. Aboud pastoral communities in southern Ethiopia in from PARIMA/Egerton, five from OARI and a follow-up of previous meetings. This tour the balance from KARI. The meeting was occurred during September 14-18, 2003. The followed by a brief visit to Egerton University total number of participants was over 50. at Njoro. Kenyan Pastoralists and the Policy Research/Policy Environment: Linking Research with Research Planning Meeting to Establish Decision Making. Held August 8 at the Collaboration Priorities for the Kenya Headquarters of the Kenya Agricultural Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in Research Institute (KARI), Nairobi, Kenya. Northern Kenya. Held May 6-9, 2003 at the The purpose of the meeting was to establish a National Arid Land Research Center dialogue between the PARIMA team and

72 Annual Report 2003 decision-makers who affect pastoral areas in Layne Coppock, Associate Professor, Kenya. Invitees included representatives of Department of Environment and Society, relevant Ministries, District County Councils, Utah State University, Logan, Utah. District Commissioners, Members of Cheryl Doss, Director of Graduate Studies, Parliament, representatives of NGOs, and legal International Relations Program, Yale scholars. The morning session consisted of University, New Haven, Connecticut. several invited papers, while the afternoon Peter Little, Professor, Department of session consisted of a discussion with respect Anthropology, University of Kentucky, to the “way forward.” Over 30 people attended Lexington, Kentucky. with media coverage provided. John McPeak, Assistant Professor, Department Ethiopian Pastoralists and the Policy of Public Administration, Maxwell School, Environment: Linking Research with Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. Decision Making. Held August 15 at the International Livestock Research Institute Ethiopia (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The purpose Simeon Ehui, Head, Livestock Policy Analysis of the meeting was to establish a dialogue Program, International Livestock Research between the PARIMA team and decision- Institute (ILRI). makers who affect pastoral areas in Ethiopia. Gezahegn Ayele, Research Economist, Invitees included representatives of relevant Ethiopian Agricultural Research federal and Oromia state Ministries, Members Organization (EARO). of Parliament, and representatives of NGOs. Darlene Cutshall, STI Coordinator, USAID The morning session consisted of several Mission to Ethiopia. invited papers, while the afternoon session Alemayehu Reda, Assistant STI Coordinator, consisted of a discussion with respect to the USAID Mission to Ethiopia. “way forward.” Over 40 people attended with Dadhi Amosha, Technical Expert and media coverage provided. PARIMA Liaison, Oromia Pastoral PARIMA Research Meeting: Synthesis Development Commission (OPDC). of Results from the Quarterly Repeated Fisseha Meketa, Senior Expert, Save the Survey. Held 18-19 September 2003 at Children (SCF/USA). Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. The Sora Adi, Senior Expert, Borana Lowlands purpose of the meeting was to review results Pastoral Development Project (BLPDP/ from the quarterly repeated survey undertaken GTZ). by PARIMA from 2000-2002 and begin a Aliye Hussen, Director General, Oromia process of synthesis and write-up. Five Agricultural Research Institute (OARI). PARIMA researchers attended this meeting. Feleketch Lemecha, Senior Staff Member, Oromia Agricultural Research Institute. COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Kenya United States of America Abdillahi Aboud, Professor, Department of Christopher Barrett, Associate Professor, Natural Resources and Faculty of Department of Applied Economics and Environmental Studies and Natural Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, Resources (FESNARE), Egerton New York. University.

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Frank Lusenaka, Lecturer, Department of Cornell University Natural Resources, Egerton University. Dept. of Applied Economics and Management Jean Ndikumana, Team Leader, Crisis Ithaca, N.Y. 14853-7801 Mitigation Office (CMO), International Phone: 607-255-4489 Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Fax: 607-255-9984 Patti Kristjanson, Research Scientist, International Livestock Research Institute. Syracuse University. Michael Ochieng Odhiambo, Executive Department of Public Administration Director, RECONCILE, Nakuru. Maxwell School Chachu Tadecha, Director, Community Syracuse, N.Y. 13244 Initiatives Facilitation and Assistance. Phone: 315-443-6146 Mollu Dika, Staff Member, Arid Lands Fax 315-443-9721 Resource Management Project (ALRMP). Miriam Cherogony, Staff Member, K-REP Kenya Development Agency. Allyce Kureiya, Staff Member, SNV-Isiolo. Egerton University Boru Halake, Staff Member, Arid Lands Faculty of Environmental Studies and Natural Resource Management Project (ALRMP). Resources Godana Doyo, Staff Member, Arid Lands P.O. Box 536 Resource Management Project (ALRMP). Njoro, Kenya William Shivoga, Senior Lecturer, Department Phone: 254-37-62038 of Environmental Sciences and Faculty of Fax: 254-37-61213 Environmental Studies and Natural Resources, Egerton University. Crisis Mitigation Office Daniel K. Too, Senior Lecturer and Chair, International Livestock Research Institute Department of Natural Resources, Egerton P.O. Box 30709 University. Nairobi, Kenya Phone: 254-2-630-743 COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Fax: 254-2-631-481

United States of America Community Initiatives Facilitation and Assistance Utah State University P.O. Box 324 Department of Environment and Society Marsabit, Kenya Logan, UT 84322-5230 Phone: 435-797-3270 Arid Lands Resource Management Project Fax: 435-797-4048. P.O. Box 53547 Nairobi, Kenya University of Kentucky Phone: 254-2-227-496 Department of Anthropology Fax: 254-2-227-982 Lexington, KY 40506-0024 Phone: 859-257- 6923 Fax: 859-323-1959

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Kenya Agricultural Research Institute Oromia Pastoral Development Commission P.O.Box 57811 P.O. Box 8770 Nairobi, Kenya Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: 254-2-583-301 Phone: 251-1-155-303 Fax: 254-2-583-344 Fax: 251-1-515-905

Department of Livestock Production Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Ministry of Agriculture and Rural P.O. Box 16695 Development Addis Ababa, Ethiopia P.O. Box 30028 Nairobi, Kenya Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization Phone: 254-2-721-005 P.O. Box 2003 Fax: 254-2-721-983 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: 251-1-612-633 Ethiopia Fax: 251-1-611-222

Livestock Policy Analysis Program Save the Children USA International Livestock Research Institute P.O. Box 387 P.O. Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Telephone: 251-1-164-490 Phone: 251-1-463-495 Fax: 251-1-653-615 Fax: 251-1-461-252 Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Action United States Agency for International P.O. Box 548 Development Mission to Ethiopia Code 1110 P.O. Box 1014 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: 251-1-510-508 Phone: 251-1-510-088 Fax: 251-1-531-530 Fax: 251-1-510-043 PUBLICATIONS Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau P.O. Box 8770 Barrett, C. 2003. Integrating qualitative Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and quantitative approaches: Lessons from the Phone: 251-1-155-303 pastoral risk management project. In Fax: 251-1-515-905 R.Kanbur (ed.) Q-Squared: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Oromia Cooperative Promotion Bureau Poverty Appraisal. Published by Permanent P.O.Box 8648 Black (Delhi). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Barrett, C., F. Chabari, D. Bailey, P. Little, Phone: 251-1-158-737 and D.L. Coppock. 2003. Livestock pricing Fax: 251-1-515-905 in the northern Kenyan rangelands. Journal of African Economies 12(2): 127-55. Desta, S., and D.L. Coppock. 2003.

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Pastoralism under pressure: Tracking system Gebru, G., S. Desta, and A. Aboud. 2003b. change in southern Ethiopia. Global Summary of a Joint Meeting of OARI, KARI, Livestock CRSP Research Brief 03-04- FESNARE/Egerton, and PARIMA Concerning PARIMA. University of California, Davis. Collaboration in Research and Capacity 4 pp. Building for 2003-6. Internal report. 18 pp. Desta, S., D.L. Coppock, S. Tezera, and F. Lenachuru, C. 2002. Influence of Formal Lelo. 2003. Pastoral risk management in Education on Risk Management: Effects of southern Ethiopia: observations from pilot Investment in Livestock and Asset development projects based on participatory Diversification among the Il-Chamus rural appraisals. Pages 1921-30 in Allsopp, Community of Baringo District, Kenya. N., A. Palmer, S. Milton, G. Kerley, K. Master’s thesis. Dept. of Natural Resources, Kirkman, R. Hurt, C. Brown, and R. Hobson Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 101 pp. (eds.). Rangelands in the New Millennium— Little, P.D. 2003. Rethinking Proceedings of the Seventh International interdisciplinary paradigms and the political Rangelands Congress. Held 26 July to 1 ecology of pastoralism in East Africa. Pages August at the International Convention Centre, 161-177 in (T. Bassett and D. Crummey, eds.) Durban. Published on behalf of the VIIth IRC African Savannas: New Perspectives on by Document Transformation Technologies, Environmental and Social Change. James Irene, South Africa. Currey, Oxford, UK. Desta, S., S. Tezera, G. Gebru, C. Tadecha, Luseno, W., J. McPeak, C. Barrett, G. D. Amosha, S. Adi, I. Adan, and D.L. Coppock Gebru, and P.D. Little. 2003. Assessing the (eds.). 2003. Proceedings of the Third Cross- value of climate forecast information for Border Collaboration, Activity Harmonization, pastoralists: Evidence from southern Ethiopia and Information-Sharing Workshop. Held 16- and northern Kenya. World Development 31: 17 December, 2002, at the Conference Hall of 1477-94. the Southern Rangelands Development Unit McPeak, J. 2003. Fuelwood gathering (SORDU), Yabelo, Ethiopia. 36 pp. and use in northern Kenya: Implications for Esilaba, M. 2002. Conflict Resolution and food aid and local environments. Global Risk Management among Pastoral Livestock CRSP Research Brief 03-01- Communities in Samburu District, Kenya. PARIMA. University of California, Davis. Master’s thesis. Dept. of Natural Resources, 4 pp. Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 85 pp. McPeak, J., and P.D. Little. 2003. Pastoral Gebru, G., A. Belayneh, and D. Amosha. sedentarization and community resilience in 2003 (eds.). Proceedings of the Bush response to drought: perspectives from Management Review Workshop. Conference Northern Kenya. Global Livestock CRSP held 26-27 November 2002 at the Conference Research Brief 03-02-PARIMA. University Hall of the Southern Rangelands Development of California, Davis. 4 pp. Unit, Yabelo, Ethiopia. 40 pp. Nato, G. 2002. Succumbing to, and Gebru, G., S. Desta, and A. Aboud. 2003a. Coping with, Destitution: The Case of the Trip to the KARI National Arid Lands Pastoral Population in Kampi Turkana of Research Center (NALRC) at Marsabit, Marigat Division, Baringo District. Kenya, on behalf of GL-CRSP PARIMA. Master’s thesis. Dept. of Natural Resources, Internal report. 18 pp. Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 118 pp.

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Shivoga, W., and D.L. Coppock. 2003. Aboud, A., M. Mutinda, M. Odhiambo, S. For pastoralists the risk may be in the drinking Desta, and D.L. Coppock. 2003. Kenya’s water: The case of Kargi, Northern Kenya. pastoral development policies: the unfortunate Global Livestock CRSP Research Brief 03- history and hope for the future (abstract of 03-PARIMA. University of California, Davis. volunteer paper). African Journal of Range & 4 pp. Forage Science (Special Edition for the Steinhoff, N. 2003. Voice for the Seventh International Rangeland Congress) voiceless: Empowering East Africa’s 20(2): 198. impoverished herders. Utah State University Barrett, C. 2002. Poverty traps and their Magazine, Spring. 9(1): 20-23. relevance to the Global Livestock CRSP. Tangus, J. 2002. Influence of enterprise Keynote Presentation made at the GL-CRSP diversification on risk management amongst Program Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, Samburu pastoralists of Kenya. Master’s Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. thesis. Dept. of Natural Resources, Egerton Barrett, C., D.L. Coppock, P.D. Little, and University, Njoro, Kenya. 78 pp. J. Stuth. 2002. PARIMA/LEWS livestock Tezera, S., S. Desta, and D.L. Coppock. marketing collaborative project. Presentation 2003. Improved pastoral livelihood security made at the GL-CRSP Program Conference through education—experiences of the 2002. Hotel Washington, Washington, DC. PARIMA project in southern Ethiopia. Held on 9-12 October. Ruminations—Newsletter of the Global Coppock, D.L. 2002a. The PARIMA Livestock CRSP. University of California, project: Problem model and project Davis. Winter Issue: 3-5. achievements, 1997-2000. Presentation made Uma, W. 2002. Indigenous Institutions at the GL-CRSP Program Conference 2002. in Resource and Risk Management among Hotel Washington, Washington, DC. Held on Borana Pastoralists of Southern Ethiopia. 9-12 October. Master’s thesis. Dept. of Natural Resources, Coppock, D.L. 2003b. Humans and Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. 119 pp. ecosystem dynamics in the southern Ethiopian rangelands. Invited lecture for the series ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS entitled, “Colloquium in the Life Sciences.” Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Held Aboud, A.A. 2002. The PARIMA project: on 31 March. Degree training overview 1997-2002. Coppock, D.L. 2003c. Overview of the Presentation made at the GL-CRSP Program PARIMA project and relevant issues. Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, Presented at a meeting entitled, “Kenyan Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. Pastoralists and the Policy Environment: Aboud, A.A., and D.L. Coppock. 2002. Linking Research with Decision-Making.” Capacity building in the Faculty of Headquarters for the Kenya Agricultural Environmental Studies and Natural Resources Research Institute (KARI), Nairobi, Kenya. at Egerton University, Kenya: Pastoral risk Held on 8 August. management and watershed rehabilitation. Coppock, D.L. 2003d. Overview of the Presentation made at the GL-CRSP Program PARIMA project and relevant issues. Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, Presented at a meeting entitled, “Ethiopian Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. Pastoralists and the Policy Environment:

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Linking Research with Decision-Making.” Desta, S., D.L. Coppock, S. Tezera, and F. International Livestock Research Institute Lelo. 2003. Pastoral risk management in (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Held on 15 southern Ethiopia: observations from pilot August. development projects based on participatory Coppock, D.L., and A. Aboud. 2003. rural appraisals (abstract of an invited paper). Improving pastoral risk management on East African Journal of Range & Forage Science African rangelands (PARIMA). Project (Special Edition for the Seventh International presentation made to the Committee of the Rangeland Congress) 20(2): 222. Strategic Partnership for Agricultural Research Gebru, G. 2003. The Pastoral Risk and Education (SPARE), as part of the Management (PARIMA) project in Ethiopia. program renewal effort of the Global Presentation made to a workshop entitled Livestock CRSP. University of California “Resource Conflict,” sponsored by the Center, Washington DC. Held on 16 June. Ethiopian and Norwegian Chapters of the Desta, S. 2002a. The PARIMA project: Dryland Consultative Group. Mekelle Outreach overview 2000-02. Presentation University, Ethiopia. Held 27-28 July. made to the GL-CRSP Program Conference Gebru, G., S. Desta, and D.L. Coppock. 2002. Hotel Washington, Washington, DC. 2002. Managing risk in pastoral systems: Held on 9-12 October. Research and outreach experiences of the Desta, S. 2002b. Gender perspectives PARIMA project in southern Ethiopia and from the PARIMA project: Outreach northern Kenya. Poster presented at the GL- experiences with pastoral women’s groups in CRSP Program Conference 2002. Hotel northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia. Washington, Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 Presentation made to the GL-CRSP Program October. Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, Gebru, G., and S. Desta. 2003. Managing Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. drought to improve food security in pastoral Desta, S. and G. Gebru. 2003. State of systems. Invited presentation for the meeting pastoral production and food security: The entitled, “Annual Conference of the Ethiopian case of the Borana pastoralists of southern Veterinary Association.” Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Invited presentation for a workshop Ethiopia. Held on 5-7 June. entitled, “Towards Sustainable Food Security Little, P.D. 2002. Caught in a cycle: Long- in Ethiopia: Integrating the Agri-Food Chain.” term perspectives on pastoral sedentarization Ethiopian Development Research Institute/ in Baringo District, Kenya. Paper presented International Food Policy Research Institute. as part of a panel on “Pastoral Risk Ghion Hotel, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Held on Management in Northern Kenya.” Annual 15-16 May. Meeting of the African Studies Association, Desta, S., G. Gebru, and M. Shibru. 2003. Washington, D.C. Held on 5-7 December. Ethiopian pastoral systems and food security Little, P.D. 2003. Cross-border cattle trade issues: Experience of GL-CRSP PARIMA in and traders in East Africa. Paper presented at southern Ethiopia. Invited presentation for the a workshop entitled, “Pastoral Markets in “Food Security Conference 2003.” Ethiopian Africa and the Middle East.” International Science and Technology Commission. United Congress for Anthropological and Nations Conference Center, Addis Ababa, Ethnological Sciences, Pisa, Italy. Held 9-10 Ethiopia. Held on 13-15 August. July.

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Luseno, W., and C. Barrett. 2002. Program Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, Assessing the value of climate forecast Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. information for pastoralists: Evidence from McPeak, J. 2003. Individual rationality southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. Paper and collective irrationality in pastoral presented as part of a panel on “Pastoral Risk production: Evidence from northern Kenya. Management in Northern Kenya.” Annual Paper presented as part of a panel on “Pastoral Meeting of the African Studies Association, Risk Management in Northern Kenya.” Washington, D.C. Held on 5-7 December. Annual Meeting of the African Studies Lusenaka, F., A. Aboud, and D.L. Association, Washington, DC. Held on 5-7 Coppock. 2003. Improved management of December. pastoral risks: perspectives from northern McPeak, J., and C. Doss. 2002. Are Kenya and southern Ethiopia (abstract of a household production decisions cooperative? volunteer paper). African Journal of Range & Evidence on migration and milk sales from Forage Science (Special Edition for the northern Kenya. Paper presented as part of a Seventh International Rangeland Congress) panel on “Pastoral Risk Management in 20(2): 206. Northern Kenya.” Annual Meeting of the Mahmoud, H. 2002. Trust and social African Studies Association, Washington, D.C. relations: Risk management strategies among Held on 5-7 December. cattle traders in northern Kenya. Poster McPeak, J., G. Haro, and G. Doyo. 2003. presented at the GL-CRSP Program Linkages between environmental management Conference 2002. Hotel Washington, and conflict management: Experiences from Washington, DC. Held on 9-12 October. northern Kenya. Paper presented at a Mahmoud, H. 2003. The construction of workshop entitled “Reconciling Rural Poverty property in northern Kenya. Paper presented Reduction and Resource Conservation: at a conference entitled, “Changing Properties Identifying Relationships and Remedies.” of Property.” Max Planck Institute for Social Cornell University, Ithaca. Held on 1-3 May. Anthropology, Germany. Held on 2-4 July. Osterloh, S. 2002. Microfinance in Mahmoud, H., and E. Silver. 2003. adverse environments: The experience of KDA Ecology and the social construction of space in northern Kenya. Paper presented as part of and conflict in northern Kenya. Paper a panel on “Pastoral Risk Management in presented at the “Tenth Annual African Studies Northern Kenya.” Annual Meeting of the Consortium” for a workshop on “War and African Studies Association, Washington, D.C. Peace in Contemporary Africa.” University of Held on 5-7 December. Pennsylvania. Held on 31 January. Uma, W., G. Gebru, A. Aboud, and P.D. McCarthy, N., and M. DiGregorio. 2003. Little. 2003. Borana pastoralists of southern Herd mobility and water point use in northern Ethiopia: The role of indigenous institutions Kenya. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting in resource and risk management (abstract of of the American Agricultural Economics a volunteer paper). African Journal of Range Association Meeting, Montreal, Canada. Held & Forage Science (Special Edition for the on 27-30 July. Seventh International Rangeland Congress) 20 McPeak, J., and G.Gebru. 2002. The (2): 201. PARIMA project: Research overview 2000- 02. Presentation made to the GL-CRSP

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PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

Lead Principal Investigator. D. Layne Coppock, Department of Environment and Society, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5215. Phone: 435-797-1262; Fax: 435-797-4048; Email: LCoppock@ cc.usu.edu. Regional Principal Investigator. Abdillahi Aboud, Department of Natural Resources, Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya. Phone: 254-37-62038; Fax: 254-37-61213. Principal Investigator. Peter D. Little, Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0024. Phone: 859-257-6923; Fax: 859-323-1959; Email: [email protected]. Principal Investigator. Christopher B. Barrett, Department of Applied Economics and Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7801. Phone: 607-255-4489; Fax: 607-255-9984; Email: cbb2@ cornell.edu. Principal Investigator. John G. McPeak, Department of Public Administration, Maxwell School, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244. Phone: 315-443-6146; Fax: 315-443-9721; Email: jomcpeak@ maxwell.syr.edu.

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SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WATERSHEDS: THE RIVER NJORO, KENYA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

This report covers the first year of a through the integration of scientific research multidisciplinary research effort focusing on findings with stakeholder analyses to support biophysical and human-related factors local communities and decision-makers in governing watershed processes for the purpose effectively identifying and implementing local of improving long-term sustainability of rural solutions to enhance the successful watersheds in Kenya and East Africa. The implementation of land management practices research area is a critical watershed in the Rift for the improvement of environmental Valley of Kenya that has undergone recent and condition and people’s livelihoods. rapid land use change and population growth with associated negative impacts to water RESEARCH resources, human health, rural livelihoods, and the local economy. The core research focus is A summary of the advances achieved over on the upland portion of the watershed where the previous year is as follows. Significant livestock and smallholder agriculture are investments have been made to build team significant components affecting the economic cohesion, physical capacity, and a financial and ecologic health of the watershed system. and administrative management structure for A multidisciplinary team composed of faculty the project, achieving a solid foundation for and partners from U.S. and Kenyan institutions the full project and the establishment of a have assembled data regarding the River Njoro center of excellence in watershed research at watershed. Consultations are ongoing with Egerton University. The project has generated various stakeholders in the watershed on interest in the watershed among diverse water matters such as water quantity and water actors in Kenya. Senior SUMAWA project quality. The first phase of the project covers a researchers have already been solicited for preliminary assessment that will serve as the input on various local, regional, and national basis for future research. During the past year, water management issues at meetings and significant improvements have been made in other decision-making forums. Significant capacity building for the research team gains have been made in understanding the members and stakeholders. The focus of the dynamics governing watershed response previous year’s efforts was on secondary and within both the biophysical and human-related primary data collection and analysis, component of the project. Abundant participatory rural appraisal, watershed secondary data has been collected from various analysis, geographic information system and governmental organizations, universities, and remote sensing, and the initiation of exchange non-governmental organizations. A program visits among watershed stakeholders. for the collection of primary data (field, remote Interventions and outreach will be developed sensing, modeling) has been initiated. An

81 Global Livestock CRSP initial assessment has been made of livestock research and GIS. The geospatial trends, practices, and watering sites in the characteristics of the watershed, including watershed as well as of agricultural farming soils, geology, vegetation, land cover, land use, practices and biophysical conditions in high and other relevant data, have been used to risk areas recently settled in the upper create an atlas of the watershed. This atlas is watershed. Multiple presentations have been suitable for use in landscape assessment, delivered with several abstracts, papers, and identification of problem areas, stakeholder posters submitted to national and international involvement and education, and in the conferences. The training component of this development of statistical and physically-based project is large: to date, 14 students (11 models. Large- and small-scale maps describing Kenyans, 3 U.S.) have been brought into the the watershed have been created. These maps project for their graduate training and research. are in both digital and hard-copy format and are Findings related to specific tasks are discussed suitable for use by scientific investigators or as in the following section. outreach tools for stakeholder education or involvement. Activity One: Watershed Characterization Our problem model relates the explosive growth in population, coupled with the changes The primary focus of this activity was to in Kenyan governmental policy relating to de- collect the necessary secondary and primary data gazetting National Forests in the early 1990s, to to fully characterize the watershed and establish significant deleterious effects on the a baseline for ongoing research efforts. environment, human health, and economic A geographic information system (GIS) security. The downstream effects associated with database was designed and implemented that land cover change, specifically deforestation, are describes and characterizes the physical and to be evaluated using fieldwork and hydrologic social characteristics of the River Njoro modeling tools. Remote sensing and image watershed. The majority of site locations for classification techniques were applied in the biophysical and human research have been previous year to determine the extent and located using a global positioning system and intensity of deforestation. Calculations of the are being converted into GIS format. GIS data precise amounts of loss are ongoing, but layers for over 20 spatial characteristics have preliminary findings clearly show that large been either created or imported from existing tracts of indigenous and plantation forests have sources. Important data layers include digital been cleared for small-scale agriculture terrain, soils, vegetation, land management, (Figure 1). political boundaries, roads, climate, location Sampling locations for water quantity, of precipitation and runoff gauging stations, water quality, and rainfall have been identified and community locations. Several images and in most cases established as permanent from Landsat platforms have been imported monitoring stations. The watershed hydrology into the Njoro GIS database. These images and ecology team implemented a suite of have been collected on a decadal scale in sampling regimes throughout the upper part coordination with the collection of Kenyan of the watershed and in Lake Nakuru. Two national census data (1978, 1989, 1999, 2002). historical but abandoned runoff measurement Preliminary watershed characterization has stations were located and revitalized, and data been completed through the integration of field was collected throughout the spring and

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Figure 1 - Classified Landsat imagery for 1986 (a) and 2002 (b). The images are classified such that forests show up as bright sections of the image. The numbered locations on the map show the location of indigenous forest (1) and the conversion of forested areas to small-scale agriculture (2).

ab

summer. The Ecology team has instituted • Heavy metal concentrations in sediments sampling protocols for aquatic investigations of Lake Nakuru, River Njoro mouth, storm in the Lake Nakuru National Park (water quality water, 1994-1995. and sediment sampling), along the River Njoro, • River Njoro water quality parameters/ and for terrestrial ecology investigations. physical-chemical habitat characteristics: The sample locations identified above were flow, water temperature, color, total visited numerous times for the purposes of water suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, total quality and quantity characterization. Water dissolved solids (TDS), DO, pH,

quality and quantity were measured on a conductivity, salinity, NO2, NO3, NH3, total

continuous basis during the dry season (January- nitrogen (Tot-N), KN, PO4, total March, 2003) and the wet season (April- phosphorous (Tot-P), biochemical oxygen September, 2003). A large amount of hydrologic demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand runoff data were collected, including twice-daily (COD), heavy metal concentrations, 2000- stream discharge measurements at two gauging 2002. stations in the upper-portion of the watershed • Lake Nakuru Plankton productivity and throughout the sampling periods. composition, 2003. Secondary data for watershed and ecology • River Njoro/Lake Nakuru water and components were collected from a variety of sediment quality, 2001-2002. institutions and published reports in order to • Sewage Effluent Quality Data-Town establish baseline and trends related to watershed Sewage Treatment Works, 1996-2001. and ecological health. Historical and baseline • Water bird trends, 1990–2003; plus tabular data were collected for the following: threatened bird species and breeding sites. • Demographic trends in the catchment, • Wildlife trends (numbers and biomass), 1989-2001. 1986 – 2000. • Lake Nakuru levels, 1956-2000. • Relative humidity (%) and air temperature • Lake Nakuru physicochemical parameters from the Kenya Agricultural Research (lake water temperature, transparency, Institute (KARI) Plant Breeding Station, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, conductivity, Njoro, 1972-1999. and orthophosphates), 1994-1998. • Lake Nakuru visitor statistics.

83 Global Livestock CRSP

Water-related diseases appear to be related diseases in the watershed, with widespread in the watershed, and have particular focus on typhoid and diarrhea emerged as a priority problem in all three diseases. Registered cases of typhoid, communities located in the lower and middle bacillary dysentery, amoebiasis, and diarrhea portions of the watershed where participatory diseases over the last five years are being rural appraisal (PRA) problem analysis collected and analyzed by Egerton University discussions have been completed (Barut, and M.S. student Joseph Kiragu at three locations Rumwe and Mwigito sections of Njoro Town). in the watershed: Nessuit Dispensary (upper Water-related diseases are ranked second out zone), Njoro Health Center (middle zone), and of four priority problems in Barut, eighth out Barut Dispensary (lower zone). Disease of ten in Rumwe, and third out of ten in patterns by age, sex, season, and residency will Mwigito. PRA activities in Kaptembwa, be analyzed, and the underlying causes Ngata, and Nessuit are incomplete or have not evaluated in a thesis prepared for December yet started. One underlying cause of the high 2003. Data to analyze the private and public rates of water-related diseases in the watershed costs of this disease burden in the watershed is very poor access to safe water supplies, will also be assembled as part of this research. resulting in consumption of fecally These results will provide a foundation for contaminated drinking water and insufficient subsequent scientific investigations into quantities for basic personal and domestic drinking water quality, water supply, and hygiene. Water supply infrastructure for sanitation and hygiene conditions in the domestic use is far from adequate in many watershed (see Activity Four) and stakeholder communities in the watershed where discussions on the causes and solutions for significant sections of the population, mostly improving environmental health conditions at the poorest, collect and transport water by hand sub-group, community, and watershed scales. from the river or from communal boreholes Findings will be introduced at stakeholder and where water charges are relatively high. community meetings for discussion and Evidence from Egerton University indicates evaluation of actions that affect the domestic that groundwater, the main developed source water supply conditions and community health of domestic water supply in the watershed, in the watershed. may also be contaminated by fecal matter, and if untreated, poses a health risk. Health Activity Two: Socio-Economic Assessment problems identified in the PRA exercises so far include: Tasks associated with the socio-economic • Typhoid (Barut, Mwigito) assessment were designed to collect baseline • Diarrhea (Barut, Mwigito) and historical data. These data are used in • Amoebas (Rumwe) economic modeling and analysis as well as in • Eye infections (Rumwe) the development of intensive household • HIV/AIDS (Barut) questionnaires and community outreach. • Malaria (Barut, Rumwe, Mwigito) An M.S. student has started collecting case • Pneumonia and flu (Barut, Rumwe, statistics on typhoid and diarrhea diseases Mwigito) treated at clinics and hospitals in the watershed Research at Egerton University is over the last five years to analyze water and underway to identify the patterns of water- sanitation-related disease patterns.

84 Annual Report 2003

Modifications were made this summer to and agroforestry technologies adapted from improve the research proposal and data farmer conditions and practices in the area. collection protocol for this M.S. research The study includes 15 small farm project. The work should be completed by households, nearly all having settled in the the end of 2003. watershed within the last ten years, with many Livestock assessment has been initiated at only three to five years ago. All are located the household and watershed scale. The above Nessuit center, between 2,747 and 2,378 determination that intensive and extensive meters elevation, on sloped lands in close grazing has been occurring at the watershed proximity (<200 m) to first-order streams and headwaters is a significant link between springs. Six are headed by females. Farms grazing pressures, economic utilization, and range in size from two to ten acres, with an watershed health. average of 5.4 acres. Eight out of the 15 Copies have been obtained of archival households own cattle, ranging from one to documents and reports from the Njoro 15 head. Sheep and goats are less common. Division Agricultural Office that contain Only two households have no livestock at all, useful information on market prices for goods while four have only chickens. Out of the 15, and inputs, livestock diseases, grazing nine are using chemical fertilizers, and three practices, and extension activities. of these also apply chemical pesticides. Fieldwork was conducted this summer to Reported application rates for fertilizers vary assess agronomic and forestry practices of from about ten to 50 kg./acre. small farmers recently settled in the upper A variety of types of data and methods are reaches of the watershed. The goals of this being used in this study, including in-depth research are to understand how poor rural interviews, soil analyses, biophysical producers in this keystone position in the assessments, agro-economic inputs, yields and watershed relate to larger issues of natural income data, perceptions of environmental and resource management, local ecology, and resource conditions, inventory of tree species, subsistence strategies, as well as to evaluate uses, and forestry and conservation opportunities to adapt and develop indigenous management practices for each of the 15 farm resource management strategies, focusing in households. These data are being augmented particular on the use and integration of with outside informant interviews, archival agroforestry species to improve soil and research, botanical and ethno-botanical resource conservation. The research will information, geographic analyses and soil develop an in-depth understanding of erosion risk assessments for each location, potentially viable production methods, economic assessment of production systems, technologies, constraints, and farmer and research literature. The final report in the willingness to participate in promising changes form of a thesis is expected by September and will make recommendations for extension 2004. actions and methods to improve agricultural Key issues emerging from the study so far production and farmer livelihoods while indicate varied land tenure status (most have simultaneously improving watershed health no formal title, some renting) and ethnic and resource conservation among this group divisions and tensions among the three resident of producers in the watershed. Included will groups (Ogiek, Kipsigis, and Tugen) in relation be a recommended list of appropriate species to land access. Differences in knowledge of

85 Global Livestock CRSP resource management strategies, farming economic conditions typical of these upper experience, and agronomic traditions also watershed farmers. widely affect practices and perceptions. For The design of the baseline household example, Ogieks are traditional hunter- survey is ongoing, with comments solicited gatherers with extensive knowledge of from the other research components and the indigenous tree species and uses, while U.S. Co-PI. A half-day meeting to clarify the Kipsigis and Tugen have brought their former goal, objectives, methods, sampling strategy, agro-pastoral practices with them. organizational steps, and tasks for the design Access to markets is a major constraint on and execution of the baseline survey was held agricultural income and production in this part during the summer with the U.S. Co-PI. A of the watershed where the road network is quantitative economist with survey experience very poor or nonexistent. Because yields and has been identified to help in the design and farm income are often inadequate, many execution of the survey, and plans are being residents in this part of the watershed try to formulated to recruit a survey team and begin diversify their income with wood-related surveying households in the fall. products (fuelwood, charcoal, and timber) extracted from the already threatened upland Activity Three: Stakeholder Involvement forests, further exacerbating the rapid rate of deforestation underway since the early 1990s. This research project relies heavily on the Wood product shortages within the watershed interaction of physical and social scientists. and in Nakuru Town fuel strong demand for Our intended goal is to fully embed findings these products. The study highlights a major from stakeholder involvement into the problem for resource management: without development and implementation of alternative sources and with insufficient biophysical research, and for the research income from farming, poor rural families often findings to be available to interested have no choice but to turn to the remaining stakeholders throughout the term of the natural resource base (trees, in this case) to project. Towards meeting that goal, members survive. of the stakeholder involvement team initiated At each household survey location, soil participatory meetings at the household and samples were collected to measure the soil’s community level at sites throughout the upper physical and nutrient qualities. Global portions of the watershed. positioning systems (GPS) locations will be Stakeholder workshops (barazas) and used to extract topographic and geographic interactions in six target communities and a data from available geographic information two-day watershed-wide stakeholder system (GIS) layers in the analysis phase. Two workshop were successfully held between visits to the International Center for Research December 2002 and April 2003. The project in Agroforestry (ICRAF) were made to collect was introduced to stakeholders throughout the information on agroforestry best management upper portion of the watershed. Project goals practices. This information will be analyzed and issues were discussed, and perspectives and combined to evaluate and propose on the use of the watershed were shared. Basic environmentally sustainable agroforestry information on the communities, stakeholders, practices and improved farming methods that and institutions involved in the River Njoro would be appropriate for the biophysical and watershed was gathered.

86 Annual Report 2003

The communities along the Njoro River resource use and decision-making. The are composed of sub-groups with diverse findings indicate that women have key livelihood interests and activities dependent responsibility and decision-making roles for on the natural resource base, in particular to domestic water supply from the river and water and riparian resources in the public firewood collection along the banks, men for domain in the watershed. The first stage of livestock watering and grazing decisions (esp. the stakeholder PRA activities have focused large livestock such as cattle) and small-scale on identifying and understanding these irrigation, and young men for water extraction, different sub-groups in relation to surface fodder collection, and other resource water and river bank conditions in the riparian extraction activities for cash sales or hired corridor. Table 1a summarizes some initial work. Men and women both are involved in results from the participatory assessments in timber/wood gathering for house building, and four of the six communities. It shows the in maize cultivation decisions, while men involvement of different sub-groups in alone are involved in wheat cultivation. Direct Table 1a - Resource extraction and uses by communities along the Njoro River.    (  
@  .         B            << + "   ' 414 41

4 : <4 
'  ,
!@ !' !'( B( B(1 B(1 <" ,< ,; "C @  7  ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; !" 7  ;A ; ; ; ; ; +, 7  ; ; ; ; ; ; ," 7  ; ; ; ; ;   ; ; ;A ; ; ; ; ; !"  ; ; ;A ; ; ; ; +,  ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ,"  ; ; ; ; ;  B% ; ; ; ; ; ; !" B% ; ; ;A +, B"  ; ; ; ; ; ," B"   %  ;; ; ; ; ; ; !" %  +, %  ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ," % 2 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Source: Initial PRA Reports (2002-2003)  D Resource extraction and use codes are on the next page. ;C 2852 5"1 C 2 " "  5"1 AC$D $5 24D ?2$ .$ 1 Q % Q . 1 1$ . % 25  92 .1: Q % Q . % %  1 1$ .%  2.!F/,9(4(:G% 2 % , % 2%!" ! ?, $$  % , % 9 "?( ?!" 2%? $ ,%  :9(4( 6 :G  221 1$ . % 25 , % 9&?+*:G
5
2$9'!?+*:G*)+#?.  1 ? % 6 )2! ,D9&': 2Q % Q$2$ $ 5%,%2%,  1$%  ,"+)? 1 1$ .% 2 % , % 9(4(: #2$ P Q. ,"

87 Global Livestock CRSP

Table 1b - Resource extractions and uses by institutions, industries, commercial, and other actors along the Njoro River.

   $ 
@  .      <    B        (@ @@     < +"   (4( (4' '( #+ (
' +* &' 67 6
6  3 34 34  & &B I 7/ +, +, ;; ;;;;9: '2 5 +, !D ;;; ;9A:
5
2$ +, 6)! ; ," ,% ;9: 7 F ," *"6 ; ;9: A 5 ," *16 ; ;9: A 5 ," !F ;9: ;
" ," *&6$,  ; ;9: A
 ," J0 ; ; ; ; ; ;9@: ; ," *)+# ; ; ; ; ; ;9: A ," /4'$  ;9: J 1 ," D ; 6 ;C 2852 5"1 Source: Initial PRA Reports (2002-2003) AC$D $52$ .$+) 1 9K:C .28  %$ 11 5 F2 8 

Resource extraction and use codes in Tables 1a and 1b: D: fetching water for domestic use FDC: grass fodder collection for sale L-L: watering large livestock at the river FDG: grass fodder livestock grazing along river L-S: fetching river water for or watering small banks livestock at the river VG: growing vegetables along the side of the river S: fetching water for transport and sale (e.g., potatoes) IR: river withdrawals for irrigation adjacent to river VG-M: growing maize along the side of the river BL: fetching water for construction and building VG-W: growing wheat along the side of the river for houses sale C: cultural uses, such as baptisms BM: gathering wood, bark, parts of trees for house SD: extracting sand from river for construction building materials RK: extracting rocks and gravel from river for HB: gathering herbs and other plant matter for construction medicinal purposes (roots, barks, leaves) HS: humus gathering along banks for tree nurseries HY: bee-keeping for eventual sale of honey FW: gathering fuelwood along banks for domestic GW: groundwater extraction by borehole uses, for sale, and for charcoal making WW: wastewater discharge to river

88 Annual Report 2003 and separate engagement with each of the problems are less important in Rumwe, the relevant sub-groups should be built into community along the section of the Njoro subsequent PRA activities and stakeholder River that runs through Njoro Town. This may dialogues when developing and discussing be because it has the best domestic water alternative options for improved management supply conditions of the three communities, of riparian resources. The initial PRA serviced by communal boreholes and piped activities were done in mixed groups with house connections, although poorer segments relatively poor representation of women and of the local population rely on the river as their no youths. This should be rectified in future water supply source. PRA activities, with better representation of Future activities with stakeholders will women and youths, and organizing separate revolve around the policies and legalities PRA activities with each sub-group. governing the management of natural The PRA information shows that the resources in the watershed. As a first step in exploitation of water, riverbed materials, and developing an intervention in this regard, vegetation in the riparian zone (medicinal relevant tools for management and assessing herbs, firewood, and fodder) by people from individual and environmental rights were outside the community is significant, located. Copies of the recently enacted especially in the middle and lower parts of the Government of Kenya (GOK) Environmental watershed (see Table 1a). Better identification Coordination and Management Act (2002) and of, active engagement with, and inclusion of other GOK acts and laws governing use, rights, these groups will be necessary in planning and standards, and responsibilities for management implementing local community actions to of watershed resources were obtained (The improve conditions and conserve riparian Water Act-Chapter 372 of the Laws of Kenya; resources. The planned tiered workshops offer The Tea (Amendment) Act, 1999; The Kenya an opportunity to begin engaging in dialogue Roads Board Act, 1999; The Environmental to develop cooperative solutions between Management and Coordination Act, 1999). A communities and “outsiders,” in cases where preliminary extraction and summary of outsiders are actually from other communities relevant sections was prepared as the basis for within the watershed (see Table 1a). Some of further discussions and dialogue with these outsiders are in fact institutional, public, stakeholders on their practical administration, or commercial enterprises in the watershed. effectiveness, and implementation. Table 1b provides an initial list of institutional, commercial, and public actors and their Activity Four: Capacity Building resource extraction activities as identified in the initial PRAs. Numerous capacity building activities Community problems and priorities for were completed to enhance the physical, resource management along the Njoro River intellectual, and team capacity for the long- revealed in the PRA activities are listed in and short-term success of the project. Table 2. Water scarcity and water quality The management structure of the Kenyan problems for human and livestock health, and U.S.-led research teams was optimized, related human diseases, and fuelwood scarcity as the research team was altered and divided are top-ranked problems in two of the three into four components based on individual communities so far investigated. Water supply skills and the objectives and activities of the

89 Global Livestock CRSP

 













 + 







< "

 G

4..

1 9:G

G1$  %1G1

Source: Initial PRA Reports (2002-2003) Initial PRA Source:

"%G"1 G 21"G8 2D".$G  L2", .$ ?5  9:G2.8 .$,9+, :

 $  .D "G$2D." .2$ .,% G$2D.D .1 2 

+4..,% 2$ "%, G 5, .,%".8 %2$ ?$ 5? %"8 G 5 ..$ G $2D.$ G$ G  L2D 8  5G 1"., 8 9.*1 ,:

+ $  1$5 G"  . G$L5 .2"$ G 5 ?D 8  5G2 $ $ ? %?  8$.$ 

1F 2"  

8 GD8 "  8$ $ . $, "% "? . $$"?   5".OD 8$

JL ..2  8  G 1$1 G$2D. 2  

$2D.2$8 

    E:  able 2 - Community problems and priorities for resource management along the Njoro River. Njoro the along management resource for priorities and problems Community - 2 able

#..2 98 :,  +8  51  2$$59:G$2D.$ 8 2 G18 1 2G%$$, 

(,2 8 4 $2 $D - ?. 1$5 ? ,$$ 1$5 9,%2%%8 % ,:G $2 

7  M$5, ? "%4225 1N546 5 5 G, $  7 4    92" 1$$ 8 , : 2521  $  %1G"2 "18$   6 $, 9225: . G.$ 1$ ,%G2$" ,,$$  $$ 8 ,  &   G, 22 1?$2D. ," 5 ?"" 2$$ 2  ' 21"9 L2.% 8 : 7 D25,  (,2 G$,$ 8 $.D$$2 "  "1F 2G$2D."  

6$ " '$.% 8 G$ G 21"G 2.8 " . 8 D2 "

J$ 225 #8$$" 2 2 %  7 D!D
5
2$ (2D. ," 5 ?"" 2$$ 2 # 25 0 1$5 G D   0 1$5  !F (2D.1"  1$ (2D.D,$ " G$2D., %1.1-   1" )  (8 2D    $211 G DG L1 8  " (2D. L  82 9$ :   J2 1%$ G " ?8 !F$2D22 J" 08 5.5  ,%,D%

' $5..  # M .2 !, 22 1? M  " ?$2D." .2$  

B = Barut; R = Rumwe (Njoro); M = Mwigito (Njoro) Mwigito = M (Njoro); Rumwe = R Barut; = B T

90 Annual Report 2003 project. Several team members were dropped project, and construct a shared logical from the project due to overlapping abilities, framework and tools with which to implement while other scientists were brought into the and manage the full three-year project. project when specific needs were identified. To address the physical capacity needs in A two-day workshop for the entire research Kenya, equipment, computers, software, and team was held in which team members were educational needs were identified. Where exposed to the language and objectives of each possible, these needs were addressed via of the four research components. The budget capacity building in order to ensure project cut resulted in the cancellation of a planned success and to help develop Egerton two-day training to expose the entire research University into a regional center of excellence team to PRA and GIS methods and in integrated watershed studies. Numerous objectives. Consequently, the project team capital expenditures critical to the short- and has experienced some difficulty integrating long-term success of the project were made. and interlinking research activities and A summary list follows: planning across components, especially due • Rental of a secure facility with multiple to the general lack of experience with GIS, offices for research staff, project leaders, and how it can be used to integrate data sets fiscal manager, and students. Computers, across scales and disciplines. Further books, and other resources dedicated to the contributing to difficulties integrating SUMAWA project are maintained in this components is the lack of skills among office suite. project researchers and students in database • Acquisition of telephone and internet design, manipulation, and information capability dedicated to the SUMAWA management, and the absence of a GIS project. technician to manage the GIS data sets to • Delagua Portable Field Kit to test drinking facilitate access to project data by water quality (fecal and total coliform researchers and students from different counts), designed for and extensively used components. in developing countries, was acquired and Management and budgeting capacity an initial orientation provided to the Ph.D. was enhanced through attendance at a three- student who will be responsible for using day management training seminar held in the equipment in her research. Washington, D.C. following the Global • Four desktop personal computers Livestock CRSP Program Conference. The (Egerton). facilitator was the president of Team • Five laptop computers (Egerton, Moi, Technologies, a consulting firm specializing Fisheries, Wyoming, Davis). in international development project • Two GPS receivers. management and grantsmanship. All team • External hardware for computers: scanner, PIs and co-PIs attended. Special attention printer (3), multi-function machines (2). was given to the use of logframes in grant • Two digital cameras. writing and the conceptualization of • Various hydrologic, soil, and ecological projects. The training exercises were crucial sampling equipment. in helping the project team leaders to define • Establishment of a project library with a common vision of the problem model, over 20 recent books and 200 journal develop the long-term goals of the research articles.

91 Global Livestock CRSP

• Specialized software for project prepared that details the problem statement, investigations, including initial training project objectives, scope of work orientation: Epi Info 2002, the World accomplished to date, and proposed research. Health Organization/Center for Disease Each research component team contributed Control epidemiological and disease material to the poster. In addition, the Lead surveillance statistical software package; PI (S. Miller) gave a presentation on the SYSTAT, a complete statistical software SUMAWA project, including both long-term package; ArcView3.2 and ArcGIS, GIS project goals and intermediate findings. software packages; and Imagine, a remote sensing software package. GENDER Activity Five: Submittal of Long-Term Research Proposal to GL-CRSP and Women in the River Njoro Watershed are Extension of Research centrally responsible for domestic water supplies, family health and hygiene, firewood collection, In this phase of the project, a full proposal and they carry out important roles in both farm for submittal to the GL-CRSP was developed. and non-farm household income production This proposal is intended to build on the capacity activities that have implications for the building and preliminary data analysis performed sustainability of watershed resources. during the current research phase. This proposal Furthermore, a larger portion of poorer is a multi-year (3-5 years) intensive applied households in rural and urban areas tends to be research program integrating watershed headed by women. For this reason, gender assessment using cutting-edge research and analysis is included in the participatory rural stakeholder involvement. appraisal methods being used during the A core function of this research group was assessment phase with communities in laying the to develop a scientifically defensible approach foundation for stakeholder involvement in to integrated watershed assessment. The managing the watershed. PRA exercises identify submitted proposal was funded by the GL-CRSP the roles, responsibilities, and activities of for a three-year period. The research within the women relative to men, youth, and other actors proposal will build on the capacity building and in the analysis of different benefits provided by preliminary data analysis performed during last local watershed resources community members. year’s research phase and is a multi-year (3-5 This information will allow for organizing years) and intensive (integrated watershed subsequent phases of project outreach and assessment using cutting-edge research and dialogue using separate strategies for men, stakeholder involvement) research program women, and youth, as needed for the resources aimed at both understanding the system issues in question. The inclusion of female dynamics governing a complex and evolving representatives in the planned exposure visits, watershed and improving people’s tiered workshops, and stakeholder trainings livelihoods within the watershed. will also be key to ensuring that diverse Several key members of the research stakeholder interests, perspectives, and team traveled to Washington, D.C. to impacts, particularly for poor households, are participate in the GL-CRSP Program represented in developing interventions and Conference. A poster presentation was management plans for the watershed.

92 Annual Report 2003

POLICY resources. An informational program will be developed that exposes local landowners and One of the primary research thrusts in this managers to these tools for taking control of project is stakeholder involvement and their local land management. Copies of the outreach. Through the participatory rural recently enacted GOK Environmental appraisal mechanism, we have started to assess Management Act (2002) and other GOK acts the feasibility of possible interventions. The and laws governing use, community rights and problems inherent to the River Njoro responsibilities for management of watershed watershed were initiated at the highest levels resources have been obtained, which will of government in the form of political favor form the basis for further analysis, for support. Thus, the question of public policy discussions, and dialogue with stakeholders involvement is central to understanding the on their practical implications and mechanisms controlling land tenure, implementation. management, and stewardship. For example, Central to the successful implementation preliminary results indicate that in Nessuit, of interventions has been the identification which includes the most recently settled of key stakeholders and policymakers that upper portion of the watershed, sub- are in positions of authority (whether that communities are based on a mixture of be moral, ethical, or managerial) and historical and recent settlement patterns, and ensuring that they are committed to the tribal and land tenure differences. In the success of the proposed intervention. We much older Ngata area of the watershed, the have initiated a series of tiered workshops two sub-communities are geographically that are taking place longitudinally within divided by the River Njoro, and little to no the communities of the watershed. cross-communication occurs between these Community leaders and policymakers are sub-communities. Understanding the included in these workshops, the aim of which different local and regional issues is is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge from essential to establishing successful linkages the research (biophysical, socio-economic) among science, policy, and land realm into the applied realm. management since decision-making must Outreach through personal communication account for realities on the ground. and networking is ongoing in Kenya, and the In the long-term (after this year), activities Host Country PI and Co-PIs serve as science with stakeholders will revolve around the ambassadors to land managers, politicians, and policies and legalities governing the policy makers. Long-term efforts are aimed watershed. The Kenyan government has at establishing professional relationships with recently issued a series of environmental policymakers beyond those in the watershed, rulings and legislation which change the including at the national or international level, historic paradigms of natural resource NGOs, and the Ministry of Water. Invitations management. Members of the research team to ministry officials will be extended for will be responsible for assessing the regional seminars and conferences, such as the usefulness and applicability of these laws proposed May seminar series and the June within the context of the watershed and the WEAP training. It is proposed that research potential for empowering local communities briefs prepared for the GL-CRSP be made and stakeholders for greater control over basin available to government ministries.

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OUTREACH the stakeholder PRA activities have focused on identifying and understanding these Outreach and stakeholder involvement are different sub-groups in relation to surface the lynchpins of this research effort. There is water and river bank conditions in the riparian an equal commitment to biophysical research corridor. This approach will show the linkages and the transfer of knowledge and technology among various land management activities and back and forth between research and social downstream water quality and quantity. scientists. One of the benefits of having Local involvement and knowledge transfer faculty from Egerton University central to the is integral to several project components. Data project is that the university itself is a collection efforts have been initiated at local stakeholder within the watershed. There is a schools. In the coming year, meteorological strong commitment on behalf of the university stations will be installed at two local schools administration and faculty to assume who will participate in data collection efforts. stewardship in order to understand and Scientists from the research team will interact improve the overall condition of the with students and teachers at these schools to watershed. explain key scientific principles and encourage Outreach activities at the community level an understanding of the environment and the have occurred in the communities located in impact of humans on their surroundings. Pond the upper portions of the watershed. aquaculture is a promising prospect for Stakeholder workshops (barazas) and improved and diversification economics in the interactions in six target communities and a watershed. A demonstration project has been two-day watershed-wide stakeholder initiated on the Egerton campus. Local workshop were successfully held between citizens will be incorporated into the project December 2003 and April 2003. Project goals in order to encourage the establishment of and issues were discussed, and perspectives these ponds. The Kenya Fisheries Department on the use of the watershed were shared. Basic is responsible for identifying interested parties information on the communities, stakeholders, and facilitating their involvement. and institutions involved in the River Njoro watershed was gathered. These data are being DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT made available to the participants and their input will be encouraged throughout the life Environmental impact and relevance. of the project. Over the years, degradation of water resources The primary economic driver in the upper in terms of quantity and quality within the watershed is agriculture, primarily at the River Njoro watershed has occurred due to smallholder (household) scale. Grazing in the poor watershed management. This has upper portions of the watershed is critical to resulted in serious degradation of the people’s economic security. However, the ecological integrity and hydrologic cycle communities along the Njoro River are within the watershed. This is shown by loss composed of sub-groups with diverse of biodiversity, habitats, and interference with livelihood interests and activities dependent the hydrologic processes, i.e., infiltration into on the natural resource base, in particular to groundwater, run-off and interception of water and riparian resources in the public raindrops within the watershed. Consequently, domain in the watershed. The first stage of the trend has resulted in declining socio-

94 Annual Report 2003 economic well-being of inhabitants and their environmental legislation and the development livestock, threatening Lake Nakuru and the and implementation of watershed community surrounding national park, which is a major action plans are intended to support the income generating resource through tourism. improvement of people’s health and The long-term goal of improving watershed livelihoods. health will be achieved through incremental Agricultural Sustainability. Given that improvements and demonstrable successes small- and medium-scale agriculture are the within the Njoro watershed. These successes primary economic forces in the watershed, it will serve as models for transferable practices is critical that principles of sustainability be to other watersheds in the region. Appropriate developed and implemented in the watershed. indicators for watershed and ecological health In the coming year, we will identify assessments will be determined during the appropriate interventions and practices to coming year. These indicators will be improve farming, forestry, soil management, determined from secondary, primary, and income opportunities, water supply conditions, simulation data and serve as a baseline for and community watershed awareness and interpretation of improvements over the next develop proposals to establish demonstration several years. Instrumentation and monitoring sites, behavioral trials, and other activities to will supplement the interpretation of these test effectiveness and acceptability jointly with indicators. Water resources are of critical stakeholder and community participation. importance to the stakeholders, and it has been These interventions will be developed in observed that water quality and quantity, both coordination with members of the socio- in the surface and groundwater supplies, has economic team to ensure feasibility and been decreasing over the past decade due to practicality of implementation. land tenure changes. During the coming year In the coming year we will test and we will plan and begin to implement demonstrate the feasibility of aquaculture in interventions designed to improve the quantity the watershed. One of the principal hindrances and quality of water resources (agroforestry, to economic development in the region is the assessment techniques for land managers, and overwhelming dependence on maize alternative grazing and cropping systems). production. By introducing other mechanisms The stakeholder involvement group is focusing for economic and food security we intend to on developing good relations with demonstrate the importance of diversification stakeholders and managers within the and alternative agricultural practices. The test watershed, and policymakers who have control site will be on the Egerton University campus. over the manner in which the watershed is An integrated effort, this program will serve governed. These foundations of strong a dual scientific and outreach role: the ponds stakeholder interaction and outreach will will be managed by scientists from Moi support the short- and long-term success of University who are interested in implementation of interventions and experimental design and maximization of knowledge transfer. Ongoing dialogue with pond aquaculture systems, while team land managers and policymakers will be members from the Department of Fisheries supportive of this indicator as well. will manage a citizen outreach and training Longitudinal site visits and exposure of component that will draw upon the local stakeholders to empowerment tools, such as population to construct, manage, and track the

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economics of the pond project. This year’s validity to Kenya and the U.S. The problems objective is to establish a functional and facing residents of the Njoro watershed are economically feasible aquaculture undoubtedly more critical than those in demonstration site that will serve as a site for developed nations such as the U.S., but technology transfer. Other demonstration sites parallels exist nonetheless. For example, the and technology transfer schemes will be watershed is comprised of a mixture of implemented in future years. stakeholders with a variety of complementary A pilot project related to strategies for on- and competing interests, including agriculture, farm water management on steep slopes will livestock grazing, business, residents, and the be developed. Results of the preliminary phase environment itself. Land cover and land use indicate that there is a continuous cultivation are rapidly changing due to population without adequate soil conservation measures pressures and policy decisions with resultant on the steep slopes of the watershed. negative off-site impacts. This research project Sustainable management of the agricultural will provide a demonstrable method for lands can be achieved through agroforestry, integrating biophysical and human-focused hedgerows, and grass strips to reduce soil loss research for sustainable watershed and runoff. These simple agroforestry management in an agricultural setting. The technologies will need to be established on the overall purpose of the research is to develop steep slopes in order to determine the soil tools and techniques that will allow local losses. This will also assist in assessing their stakeholders, managers, and policymakers to effectiveness and adoption as soil conservation obtain a clear understanding of the processes technologies. governing the system. These tools and Evaluation of the potential for agroforestry technologies will be transferable to other and tree nurseries for economic and ecological systems, including the U.S. benefits is an ongoing effort. Data recorded Contributions to Host Country. In the from 13 sites along the River Njoro suggest coming year preliminary tools, such as that five key indigenous tree species occur hydrologic and ecologic models, will be along the river. These are: Acacia developed that will describe the processes xanthophloea, Acacia abyssinica, Cussonia governing watershed health and the response holstii, Podocarpus, and Olea africana. The to changes in land management and tenure. zoning of these trees along the river profile These tools will provide a scientific basis to signifies altitude as the major cause of the interested parties, such as land managers, zoning. Community tree nurseries exist in the policymakers, and local residents interested in watershed, and an assessment of their impacts understanding their physical environment. and usage within the watershed will provide A series of interventions for the baseline data for the potential to implement improvement of economic stability, ecologic larger-scale interventions to improve forest health, and hydrologic resources are planned. health. These interventions include demonstration Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. It has plots for pond aquaculture, agroforestry, long been recognized that water resources and alternative agricultural practices, and water their effective use and management for long- distribution. It is anticipated that these term sustainability are crucial to agricultural interventions will have a localized beneficial stability. This statement applies with equal impact. An outreach component will be

96 Annual Report 2003 implemented that links local landowners to the addition to these more formal partnerships, planned interventions so as to facilitate their linkages have been made with a project funded adoption on other regions of the watershed that by the Rockefeller Foundation in Kenya, the would have a larger-scale impact on watershed Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), health. A school-based outreach and education the Lake Naivasha Riparian Conservation component will introduce schoolchildren to Committee, and the Friends of Mau land stewardship and environmental Watershed. Linkages are being developed awareness. with the USAID Mission in Nairobi, the The Njoro watershed will be established Rockefeller Foundation, the Macaulay as an experimental watershed with the addition Institute (Aberdeen, Scotland), and the of continuous monitoring stations for rainfall Wyoming GIS Center. and runoff. Kenya has a sparse network of Collaboration with International rain gauges and there is a paucity of useful Research Centers (IARCS) and other runoff data. Our team has been unable to CRSPs. Strong collaborative relationships uncover any records of event-based runoff in have been developed with the Pond Dynamics/ the Rift Valley; this knowledge gap is a serious Aquaculture (PD/A) and the Soil Management hindrance to scientific understanding of the (SM) CRSPs. In the year that has just fundamental processes that govern hydrologic concluded, significant funding and technical response as well as water quantity and quality. leadership was provided by the PD/A CRSP. These monitoring stations will provide a The formal agreements with Moi University means to use cutting-edge tools and models and the Fisheries Department were greatly for scientific assessment and land enhanced by the participation of the PD/A management. CRSP. In the coming years, we have an There is a significant training component agreement to interact with team members of for Kenyan students and researchers. Nine the Trade-Offs project (funded by the Soils Kenyan students will be trained during the CRSP, Lead PI John Antle), which is utilizing upcoming year, many of whom will continue a trade-off model for household and their careers working for ministries and agricultural economics. This will be a policymaking organizations. The successful collaborative effort aimed at utilizing cutting- training of students in integrated and edge tools that link biophysical and human- sustainable research and decision-making will related inputs in watershed assessment, be beneficial to Kenya. planning, and interpretation. Data collection Linkages and Networking. While this efforts for agricultural economics and problem project is relatively nascent, there have been model development will be coordinated, and significant strides taken towards networking data regarding on- and off-site impacts and developing institutional linkages. This associated with decision-making and project was conceived as a multidisciplinary economic impacts will be shared between the effort requiring the involvement of multiple groups. educational and institutional partners. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Linkages have been established among the following Kenyan institutions: Egerton Support For Free Markets and Broad- University, Moi University, Kenya Fisheries Based Economic Growth. One of the Department, and Kenya Wildlife Service. In primary goals of enhancing watershed health

97 Global Livestock CRSP and agricultural sustainability is to foster Concern for Individuals. The outreach economic stability and growth. The inability and stakeholder involvement components of of local smallholders to transport goods and this project are targeted at the community and services beyond the local market was household level. Central to the successful identified as a hindrance to development and implementation of interventions is identifying growth. This barrier may best be key stakeholders and policymakers that are in surmounted through a policy and legal positions of authority (whether that be moral, framework. However, the implementation of ethical, or managerial) and ensuring that they local and regional interventions are planned to are committed to the success of the proposed enhance economic growth. Examples of these intervention. We have arranged for a series economic stimulants include upland grazing of tiered workshops that will take place practices, pond aquaculture, agroforestry, and longitudinally within the communities of the sustainable agriculture techniques (especially watershed. Community leaders and policy related to steep slopes). In addition to land makers will be included in these workshops, management practices directly related to whose aim is to facilitate the transfer of enhanced productivity, the project objectives of knowledge from the research (biophysical, socio- improving water quality and human health will economic) realm into the applied realm. The directly improve local economics as stress is concept behind this structure is to ensure that reduced within the system. watershed- and community-scale activities are Contributions to and Compliance with not disconnected from the intended goal of Mission Objectives. The research activities improving the livelihoods of individuals. directly address three strategic objectives as Support for Democracy. One of the defined by USAID: building human principles of good governance and successful capacity through education and training, democratization is the establishment of protecting the world’s environment for long- functioning policies and legalities related to term sustainability, and encouraging broad- people’s livelihoods and environment. As a first based economic growth and agricultural step in developing an intervention in this regard, development. One of the four Kenyan relevant tools for management and assessing USAID Mission objectives is to promote individual and environmental rights have been natural resources management, and this located. We intend to foster pubic participation project directly addresses that critical need in in the governance of their environment by Kenya. Spatial analysis has been widely used exposing them to their rights established under in support of decision support for agriculture the recently enacted GOK Environmental and land management practices, and several Coordination and Management Act (2002) and of the team members, including the PI, have other GOK acts and laws governing use, rights, extensive experience in those areas. Long- standards, and responsibilities for the term sustainable development in Kenya will management of watershed resources and hinge on the successful implementation of improvement of economic security. To date, a emerging scientific tools. This project will preliminary extraction and summary of relevant provide a mechanism to adequately prepare sections has been prepared as the basis for students and faculty to act as resource further discussions and dialogue with managers and utilize emerging technology in stakeholders on their practical administration, their research analyses. effectiveness, and implementation.

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Humanitarian Assistance. Aside from Luke Kessei, M.Sc., 2003, Environmental the short- and long-term objectives of Science, Egerton University. enhancing people’s livelihoods, there is no Samuel Kibichii, M.Phil., 2003, Fisheries humanitarian component to this research. Management, Moi University. Joseph Kiragu, M.Sc., 2003, Environmental LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS Science, Egerton University. Timothy Krupnik, M.S., 2003, International University of Wyoming Global Perspectives Agricultural Development and Resource Program: $1,500. Management, University of California- University of Wyoming International Travel Davis. Grant: $2,000. Charity Munyasya, M.Sc., 2003, Natural University of Wyoming Graduate Student Resources, Egerton University. Assistantship. Elijah Oyoo, M.Phil., 2003, Fisheries University of California Graduate Student Management, Moi University. Assistantship. Godfrey Ndonye, M.Sc., 2003, Environmental Utah State University–Data sharing and Science, Egerton University. project facilitation with the GL-CRSP Peter Muriuki, M.Sc.,2003, Environmental PARIMA project. Science, Egerton University. Montana State University – Research linkage Henry Sumba, M.Sc., 2003, Environmental with the Trade-Off Analysis Project (Soils Science, Egerton University. CRSP-funded project). Kenya Wildlife Service–Research and Non-degree facilitation linkage. University & research exposure visit to U.S. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute– institutions - William Shivoga, Francis Research and outreach linkage. Lelo, Charles Maina-Gichaba. June 23 - Egerton University–Data and information- July 5, University of Wyoming and Utah sharing linkage with Agricultural Research State University. Library (Rockefeller-funded project). International Rangeland Congress, Durban, Friends of Mau Watershed–Information and South Africa. Stephen Huckett, Utah State outreach linkage. University, July 26 - August 1. Lake Naivasha Riparian Conservation Committee–Information and outreach COLLABORATING PERSONNEL linkage. United States of America TRAINING Marion Jenkins, University of California- Davis In Progress Scott Miller, University of Wyoming Tracy Baldyga, M.S., 2003, Rangeland Sian Mooney, University of Wyoming Ecology & Watershed Management, University of Wyoming. Kenya Stephen Huckett, Ph.D., 2006, Forest, Range, Simion Cheruiyot, Egerton University and Wildlife Sciences, Utah State Lois Chiuri, Egerton University University. Nancy Gitonga, Fisheries Department

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Shadrack Inoti, Egerton University Moi University Francis Lelo, Egerton University Department of Fisheries David Liti, Moi University P.O. Box 3900 Simon Macharia, Fisheries Department Eldoret, Kenya Charles Maina-Gichaba, Egerton University Phone: 254-321-63111 Mucai Muchiri, Moi University Kenya Ndettei, Kenya Wildlife Service Fisheries Department J.F.E. Odanga, Moi University P.O. Box 12912 Jethro Onyando, Egerton University Nakuru, Kenya Desterio Ernest Ouma, Egerton University Phone: 254-037-41123/4 William Shivoga, Egerton University Kenya Wildlife Service COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Lake Nakuru National Park Nakuru, Kenya United States of America PUBLICATIONS, ABSTRACTS, AND PRESENTATIONS Montana State University Dept. of Ag. Economics and Economics Shivoga, W.A., F. Lelo, C. Maina-Gichaba, P.O. Box 172920 M.W. Jenkins, and S.N. Miller. 2002. Bozeman, MT 59717-2920 Integrated Stakeholder Participation and Watershed Assessment in the River Njoro University of Wyoming Watershed, Kenya. Poster Presentation to the Department of Renewable Resources Global Livestock Collaborative Research P.O. Box 3354 Program Conference, October 9-12, 2002, Laramie, Wyoming 82071-3354 Washington, D.C. Miller, S.N., W.A. Shivoga, F. Lelo, C. University of California – Davis Maina-Gichaba, M. Muchiri, and M.W. Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering Jenkins. 2002. Multidisciplinary Research for One Shields Avenue Sustainable Management of Rural Watersheds: Davis, CA 95616 the River Njoro, Kenya. Oral Presentation to the Global Livestock Collaborative Research Utah State University Program Conference, October 9-12, 2002, Dept. of Forest, Range, and Wildlife Sciences Washington, D.C. 5230 Old Main Hill Huckett, S., D.L. Coppock, W.A. Shivoga, Logan, UT 84322-5230 F.K. Lelo, and S.N. Miller. 2003. Comparing processes of stakeholder participation in Kenya community-based watershed programs: the Little Bear River, Utah, USA, and River Njoro, Egerton University Rift Valley Province, Kenya. VII International Department of Environmental Science Rangeland Congress. July 26th – August 1, P.O. Box 536 2003, Durban, South Africa. Njoro, Kenya Phone: 254-037-62185

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PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

United States Lead Principal Investigator. Scott N. Miller, Ph.D., Department of Renewable Resources, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, 82071. Phone: 307-766-4274; Fax: 307- 766-6403; Email: [email protected]. Co-Principal Investigator. Marion Jenkins, Ph.D., Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616. Phone: 530-754-6424; Fax: 530-752-7872.

Kenya Host Country Principal Investigator. William A. Shivoga, Ph.D., Department of Natural Resources, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Co-Principal Investigator. Francis Lelo, Ph.D., Department of Natural Resources, Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Co-Principal Investigator. Charles Maina-Gichaba, Ph.D., Egerton University, P.O. Box 536, Njoro, Kenya. Co-Principal Investigator. Mucai Muchiri, Ph.D., Moi University, P.O. Box 3900, Eldoret, Kenya.

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INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT OF PASTORAL-WILDLIFE INTERACTIONS IN EAST AFRICA: IMPLICATIONS FOR PEOPLE, POLICY, CONSERVATION, AND DEVELOPMENT IN EAST AFRICA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

During 2002-03, the POLEYC project in a short time span. It requires building continued to develop and disseminate linkages to policymakers and providing information requested by decision-makers in information to constituencies who, in turn, East Africa for their use in balancing the needs approach the policy makers with their desires. of wildlife conservation with the needs of With the news that our project was to be pastoral land users, while ensuring the terminated, we felt that our investment in this sustainability of semi-arid ecosystems in area would not come to fruition in the time Kenya and Tanzania. Our approach is to remaining. Instead, we believe that we can combine geographic information system (GIS) have more impact on policy by completing our technology with computer simulation models integrated assessments and disseminating of the ecosystems (including the pastoral those results. The assessments that we households which are part of them) to perform complete will be useful to policy makers after integrated assessments (IAs) of our study our project has ended. areas. These IAs predict the likely outcomes of possible future actions or events such as Objective b: Hold meetings in Dar es Salaam human population growth, animal disease and Nairobi with USAID Mission personnel control, changes in livestock stocking rates, and important national level policymaking etc. on wildlife, pastoral livestock, pastoral organizations. well-being, and ecosystem health. We have made progress on a variety of activities during Several meetings were held in Kenya and the current year. Tanzania to meet this objective. In November 2002, Dave Swift and Mike Coughenour had RESEARCH a one-day meeting in Dar es Salaam, with representatives of the Tanzania Wildlife Activity One: Influencing Policy Division (TANAPA) and the Institute of Resource Assessment from the University of Objective a: Develop an analysis of the Dar es Salaam. There we presented our important legislation and policies affecting general approach, the results from natural resource management in the pastoral Ngorongoro, and our plans for Tarangire/ areas of Kenya. Manyara. In January 2003, POLEYC personnel met This objective was deleted. Our plan to with 23 individuals from 13 East African influence policy was envisioned as the organizations, all stakeholders in the Kajiado beginning of a multiple year activity. We have area, to present results of our work there (see learned that policy change cannot be affected Activity 3, Objective b).

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Objective c: O. Ole Kamuaro will meet with of all of the stakeholders in the NCA area, and the Kenya Pastoral Forum to gather their they appear to be satisfied with the results and input on scenarios to be analyzed at Kajiado, our various presentations of them. and help to plan a workshop for Members of Parliament from the pastoral areas and their Objective c: Assess, and where possible, staffs. Hold workshops for pastoral zone quantify, the influence of POLEYC results Members of Parliament in Kenya. Describe upon policy development. the results of IA at Kajiado and discuss problems and possible solutions in the pastoral This area is still not clear. It is uncertain areas relating to wildlife conservation, human to what extent the NCA will respond in a well-being, and ecosystem integrity. thoughtful manner to our results and to what extent their decisions are driven by outside forces This objective was deleted for the same associated with their Board of Directors and the reason as above. area’s designation as a World Heritage Site.

Objective d: Hold workshop for pastoral zone Activity Three: Integrated Assessment of members of Parliament in Tanzania. Describe the Amboseli Group Ranches, Kajiado the results of the IA at the Ngorongoro District, Kenya Conservation Area (NCA) and discuss problems and possible solutions in the pastoral Objective a: Complete field studies and areas relating to wildlife conservation, human integrate results into IA for Amboseli; i.e., well-being, and ecosystem integrity. attitudes towards wildlife and pastoral impacts on vegetation patterns. This objective was deleted for the same reason as above. Attitudes towards wildlife. In order to quantify local intensities of wildlife-people Activity Two: Integrated Assessment for conflicts, records of conflicts are being kept the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, by locally hired enumerators in five areas. Tanzania The positions of the locations of wildlife- people conflicts are currently being taken by Objective a: Address any questions or issues global positioning systems (GPS). Preliminary arising from the integrated assessment results. interviews with focus groups and key informants were carried out. The purpose was to gather No new questions or issues arose following information on the local types of human-wildlife our presentation of the IA results. conflicts, animal species involved, land users’ strategies to minimize the costs of wildlife, and Objective b: Gather insights into outstanding sources and types of economic benefits from problems amenable to integrated assessment wildlife and tourism in the study areas. Ninety- results. six Maasai household heads and 96 of their dependents were randomly selected for No new outstanding problems were interviews. This sample was stratified by land identified. The problems addressed by the use, age, and gender. These interviews are now original IA for this area included the concerns in progress.

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Pastoral impacts on vegetation patterns. within all plots at monthly intervals over a year Fieldwork in Kajiado focused on describing to determine the local level effects of the impacts of landscape fragmentation settlement on the utilization patterns and through sedentarization, altered grazing and distribution of wildlife and livestock over time. land-use patterns, and subdivision on These results will then be analyzed in vegetation and wildlife as well as the conjunction with aerial counts of wildlife to sustainability of pastoral production in the determine the effects of changes in settlement group ranches north of Amboseli National patterns on wildlife and livestock at multiple Park. We continued to expand our mapping scales. Impacts on vegetation composition of natural resources including water points, were recorded for each plot along the transects olopololi (grazing reserves), and settlements using pin frames. using GPS receivers. Data on the effects of Initial analyses of the ecological field work settlements on wildlife and vegetation were in Kajiado suggest that fragmentation and collected using dung counts and pin frames, sedentarization are having a significant impact respectively. The effects of fragmentation on on the spatial and temporal patterns of livestock movements, pastoral production, and settlement and grazing with important losses were documented through individual implications for wildlife, vegetation, and interviews and intensive herd following. livestock. Settlement patterns tend towards Study sites were arrayed along a gradient increasing aggregation in intact group ranches, of sedentarization and subdivision running as resources become limiting in the face of north from Amboseli National Park, including human population growth and sedentarization Olgulului/Lolarashi, Eselenkei, and Osilalei around infrastructure points and key resources. Group Ranches. Natural resources, With subdivision, and the erosion of settlements, seasonal movement patterns, and communal controls on distribution, settlements land-use characteristics were mapped at each disperse across individual parcels creating a site in conjunction with research conducted by blanket of human impact across the landscape. Shauna BurnSilver. We are in the process of Both of these patterns contrast sharply with analyzing differences in land-use patterns and the more fluid historical patterns of settlement, sedentarization between sites and also using and result in two divergent processes at the recorded historical patterns in order to assess landscape level: 1) polarization of the the relative effects of subdivision and key landscape due to extremes of use and disuse; resources (e.g., water) on the observed spatial and 2) an homogenization of the landscape and temporal patterns of settlement and land- with dispersed human disturbance. The use. One of the primary components of dynamic shifting mosaic of settlement, so fragmentation in the arid rangelands of characteristic of pastoralism in the absence of Kajiado is the spatial and temporal distribution fragmentation and sedentarization, is lost in of settlements. In order to document the effects both scenarios and the results are evident in of settlements on the rangeland resource- the area’s vegetation composition-key species including both vegetation and wildlife-we disappear with intensive use and woody established 10X20 meter plots along transects vegetation expands in the absence of radiating from both current and abandoned settlement. This is clearly revealed in our settlements of different ages in Eselenkei initial analyses of transect level vegetation Group Ranch. We collected animal dung patterns, where we see that dynamic settlement

104 Annual Report 2003 results in both a temporal and spatial mosaic. scenarios built on the accumulated knowledge Wildlife appear to respond to the current and of this group of stakeholders and previous lingering effects of human settlement at meetings with pastoralist stakeholders vis à vis multiple scales. Initial results also suggest that the issues of subdivision/fragmentation and its subdivision has an impact on mobility patterns potential impacts on people, the ecosystem, in response to within- and between-year livestock, and wildlife in Amboseli. The group variability. also discussed methods to leverage the ongoing efforts of the representative groups Objective b: Meet with other stakeholders to better disseminate research results to the (e.g., both government and non-governmental wider community of pastoralists at the local agencies) in the Amboseli area who are level and policy makers at the district and working to impact the course of subdivision; national levels. It was agreed that POLEYC map their approaches, clarify the common would disseminate the results of the IA research, dissemination, and policy impact scenarios to each of the stakeholders present, roles of each group in the overall process. If and further discussions on ways to leverage appropriate, integrate their approaches to ongoing efforts would occur. managing the process of subdivision into the IA scenarios developed by POLEYC. Objective c: Model IA scenarios for the Amboseli group ranches to illustrate trade-offs A Kajiado stakeholders meeting took place involved with different management and policy in Nairobi on January 15th, 2003 at the decision - disseminate results of Amboseli IA International Livestock Research Institute scenarios to group ranch leaders/members, (ILRI). Twenty-three individuals attended important stakeholders, and groups at other from the following institutions and POLEYC project sites. organizations: African Wildlife Foundation, African Conservation Centre, Kenya Wildlife The scenarios that were refined under Service, Land Use Change Impacts and Objective b included investigations Dynamics (LUCID), ILRI, the University of concerning landscape fragmentation through Nairobi, Narok County Council, Elangata subdivision, loss of access to swamps and Wuas, the Amboseli Tsavo Group Ranch private lands for Amboseli wildlife, conversion Conservation Association, Netherlands of Chyulu Hills grazing areas to other uses, Development Organization (SNV)-Kajiado, and changes in the breeds of cattle raised. and members of the POLEYC GL-CRSP team. These scenarios were addressed by heavily The purpose of the workshop was to bring modifying and updating a SAVANNA together a majority of the stakeholders who in application prepared under the Integrated collaboration with various organizations, and Modeling and Assessment for Balancing using a wide variety of means, are currently Wildlife Conservation and Livestock wrestling with the question of land Production in a Transboundary Region of East fragmentation and subdivision in the Amboseli Africa (IMAS) project, much of which area. The POLEYC project subsequently used occurred in the last year. Also in the last year, the results of this workshop to further refine P. Thornton heavily modified the PHEWS the set of existing Integrated Assessment model applied to NCA to better represent the modeling scenarios for Kajiado. These complex diversification of livelihoods in

105 Global Livestock CRSP southern Kajiado District. Finally, a series of fewer stock may increase food insecurity for spatial data layers were prepared to represent Maasai. Results were disseminated to levels of fragmentation described in the stakeholders and policy makers as described scenarios modeled, such as maps of isolated in Activity Four. group ranches, as well as 196, 10, 5, 3, and 1 km2 parcels. Objective d: Disseminate IA results to the Modeling for the scenarios was completed range of policymakers concerned with in 2003. The myriad of simulations that were subdivision and conservation issues explored needed (e.g., 20 replicated simulations were in the Amboseli IA scenarios. run for each fragmented parcel inspected) required that R. Boone prepare an optimized Results of the Kajiado IA scenarios were infrastructure for conducting SAVANNA disseminated in July 2003, in a series of seven simulations. Questions regarding the effects meetings across the Kajiado study area. Six of fragmentation on livestock or wildlife that meetings were open to all community did not pertain directly to household welfare members (Imbirikani, Kalesirua, Emeshenani, were modeled by R. Boone, then the Lenkisim, Eselenkei, and Osilalei), and infrastructure to run those simulations was included group ranch committee members, provided to P. Thornton, who modified the files local chiefs and subchiefs, elders, women, and to incorporate PHEWS modeling to look at warani. One meeting occurred at Kenya household effects, and repeated the Wildlife Service-Amboseli Headquarters. simulations. Over 500 individuals attended the community In general, fragmentation analyses meetings. Results were disseminated in demonstrated that fewer livestock could be English and then translated into Maa. The supported on a landscape of a given area (e.g., POLEYC team (S. BurnSilver, R. Boone, and group ranch) if that area was fragmented into J. Worden) used flip charts and maps in the small parcels. Animals that may access presentations. IA results focused on the central patchily distributed forage may be prevented issue of subdivision and alternative impacts from reaching high quality sites in a for livestock, people, and wildlife under fragmented landscape. Elimination of access realistic alternatives for subdivision pathways to swamps outside of Amboseli for elephants that were identified by pastoralists and local led to small changes in populations, and if all stakeholders themselves. Questions asked of swamps disappeared, losses of elephants the POLEYC group after the meetings would be catastrophic. When Amboseli highlighted that pastoralists had not only wildlife were restricted to the park through understood the results, but found them useful fencing of private lands, for example, wildlife in assessing the advantages and disadvantages numbers declined by 75% in 25 years. associated with the choices facing them Conversion of the Chyulu Hills to agricultural regarding subdivision. The results strongly areas caused dramatic declines in livestock highlighted the fact that there is not one set of populations within Imbirikani Group Ranch unilateral effects associated with subdivision and beyond, but losses must be weighed across all areas; instead, the impacts of against gains from the new agricultural lands. subdivision differ depending on the ecology Lastly, preliminary analyses indicate that and rainfall of each individual area. These changing livestock breeds to include larger, results were timely, as group ranch members

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in Imbirikani, Olgulului/Lolarashi, and scenarios on wildlife inside and outside the Eselenkei Group Ranches are preparing for park. Identify areas of current and potential votes on the subdivision issue in the near wildlife-livestock conflicts. future. A non-technical version of the final report for Kajiado is being prepared, and 200 Household interviews conducted by S. copies will be translated (into KiSwahili) Lynn in Sukuro, and in process in Loiborsoit and disseminated in the study areas in and Emboreet, cover the spatial and temporal January 2004 (corresponding with a trip to aspect of wildlife-human-livestock conflicts, Kenya by S. BurnSilver). though analyses have not yet been completed due to her recent return from the field. Planning Activity Four: Integrated Assessment of the for the collection of ecological data on wildlife Tarangire/Manyara Ecosystem, Tanzania and livestock movements and densities across the villages of Sukuro, Emboreet, and Loiborsoit Objective a: Characterize the Tarangire/ was completed during the 2003 field season. S. Manyara Ecosystem (TME) Landscape; create Lynn has selected areas for wildlife/livestock a plant community map of the region through area counts and walking transects, and a supervised classification of a Landsat research schedule has been drawn up. All Thematic Mapper (TM) image. Use existing field assistants used during the 2003 field and new data to describe physical landscape season are available for the 2004 field structure. season, and additional prospective hires have been explored. Actual data collection A plant community map was created by was not completed due to many logistical Istituto Oikos and is available for our team’s difficulties encountered during the upstart use. This negates the need to create one for of that field season. this project. However, a land use/land cover According to T. McCabe, most change analysis will be conducted using 2-3 individuals and groups mentioned problems sequences of satellite Landsat TM images. A associated with wildlife. With respect to wildlife, rudimentary analysis was conducted by Istituto wildebeest were singled out as having the greatest Oikos, but we will perform an analysis at an impact. Wildebeest calves are infected with the increased resolution and include data from a malignant catarrhal virus, which is infectious to new 2003 Landsat TM image. Funding was cattle for the first three months following their made available to a graduate student from the birth. The virus is benign to wildebeest but deadly University of North Carolina to scan several to cattle, and the only way to prevent infection is topographic maps of Simanjiro, to cover the to move cattle away from the areas where the villages of Loiborsoit (the focus of her study), wildebeest are giving birth. While the distances Emboreet, and Sukuro. These data will moved in Simanjiro are relatively short, the contribute significantly to the physical necessity to move puts an additional burden on landscape structure description. The scanning the household labor supply, especially is expected to be complete by the end of 2003. considering that most of the people who move with the cattle are children currently enrolled in Objective b: Map spatial and temporal habitat school. In addition to the wildebeest, lions and partitioning across the TME; investigate hyenas were mentioned frequently as killing effects of various livestock management livestock.

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Objective c: Investigate the roles of cultivation themselves as an agro-pastoral people, and other land use changes in current and future practicing a diversified livelihood strategy TME dynamics, particularly as related to Maasai based on the raising of livestock and land use and wildlife conservation. Create map cultivation. Although livestock remains at the of current and potential cultivation. Explore core of their economy, cultivation plays a very whether social linkages create a socially important role both in terms of nutrition and expanded landscape. in terms of providing an income. Secondly, the ability of the Maasai in that region to act The investigation into the roles of cultivation as middlemen in the Tanzanite business has and other land use changes in current and provided a means by which they can invest in future TME dynamics hinges on ecological tractors and other agricultural inputs. data to be collected in the February-May 2004 The village lands in the areas to the east wet season. Household interviews included of Tarangire National Park are being questions related to this area of inquiry, but subdivided into individual plots. Although ecological measurements are needed for a individuals do not hold title deeds, land complete analysis. Maps of current and allocation records are kept in each village, and potential cultivation will be created after the land is treated as if it is individually owned; classification of TM imagery, and analysis however, there are very different views on how of land use/land cover change. land should be used in the future among different Land use is complicated by the Maasai ages groups. The older men would like privatization of land holdings, competing much of the area to remain as common grazing views of how the land should be used by land, open to all. The younger men tend to favor people in different age groups, the rapid a more privatized tenure system, with individuals expansion of cultivation, and grazing areas holding title to the land. At this time the land managed at the village level. In general, tenure systems appears to be in a state of flux, people in villages located along the eastern and that could also be influencing the rapid rate border of Tarangire National Park keep their of agricultural expansion. livestock close to their bomas (or enkangs) during the wet season and move toward the Objective d: Collect data for the PHEWS park in the dry season. Availability of water modeling effort; T. McCabe and S. Lynn will and the presence of large farms are problems collect original data for PHEWS application and restrict the areas that livestock can use. in the TME. Individuals are supposed to use grazing land within the village boundaries, but it should be A significant amount of data were noted that villages can be quite large (1000 collected by S. Lynn in 2003 for the PHEWS sq. km. and larger). Labor for herding is also modeling effort in the village of Sukuro. becoming a problem as the many young men Additional data are currently being collected are now engaged in agricultural pursuits, by her research team in neighboring Loiborsoit migrating to find work, and going to school. and Emboreet villages. The adoption of cultivation began in the Tarangire area in the early 1970s. The major Activity Five: Integrated Assessment of the expansion of cultivation appears to have Greater Meru Ecosystem occurred in the 1980s. The Maasai now view

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Objective a: Complete a needs assessment and survey, vegetation mapping, and socio- analysis of the policy environment with local/ economic data on Borana/Somali pastoralists national stakeholders and establish the IA and Meru cultivators. scenarios to be evaluated. A remote sensing analysis was done on The needs assessment was not completed; 1987 and 2001 Thematic Mapper images of however, we feel that our previous the Meru Conservation Area (MCA) by J. workshops and meetings were adequate to Otuoma in order to detect any landscape identify the important issues from changes over the last two decades. Supervised stakeholders (e.g., the Ellis workshops classifications were carried out by the during the Assessment Phase of the project, development of ground-truthed “training data the Ellis, Coughenour, et al. field expedition sets.” The vegetation in each area was in January 2001). We have been in good characterized by percent cover of dominant contact with Kenya Wildlife Service plant species, sizes of plants, densities and throughout - it is they who called for the distributions of livestock and humans, and Meru assessment. The model will be used topographic features. to assess the following issues: Remote sensing analyses showed •Effects of land conversion to agriculture significant changes in land cover in the MCA’s on wildlife carrying capacity. buffer zones between 1987 and 2001. On the • Consequences of fencing wildlife western boundary of the Meru National Park, inside the park on their carrying capacity, large areas of natural vegetation that existed andwildlife population management mainly as open wooded grassland in the early recommendations. 1980s had been taken up by migrant agricultural •Effects of livestock grazing north of communities and fragmented into extensive the park on forage supplies for wildlife. smallholder cultivation units and human •Effects of wildlife on forage loss for settlements. In the pastoral zones of the northern livestock. and northwestern boundaries, the vegetation •Effects of loss of watering points for structure had changed from shrub grassland in wildlife due to human and livestock the early 1980s to bush and shrub thickets. Also utilization. notable in this zone was the development of a • Carrying capacity of grazing lands large herbaceous layer of forbs in between the outside of park for livestock alone, bush and shrub thickets in areas that originally livestock and wildlife, and wildlife alone, were covered with grass. This was partly in various combinations. This will be attributed to overgrazing arising from a assessed in terms of grazing effects on continually reducing pastoral grazing range plants as well as animal forage and partly to lack of burning regimes in the requirements. pastoral areas. On the southern park boundary, • Identifying potentially underutilized areas that existed as natural bushland areas due to lack of water. vegetation in the early 1980s had significantly changed to homesteads and farmlands. Objective b: Complete collection of field and A field study was carried out by J. Otuoma remotely sensed data to support model to assess changes in human populations, land applications, purchase of a TM image, vet. uses, and conflicts with wildlife. Eighty

109 Global Livestock CRSP households in the Meru North and Isiolo model testing. For example, the model Districts were randomly selected for a requires weather data, GIS maps, and attribute questionnaire survey. The questionnaire data for soils and vegetation, human and addressed household details, land use/land livestock population data, wildlife population tenure, livestock production, agriculture, and data, and vegetation biomass data in time and wildlife/livestock/human conflicts. over space. Data were synthesized from a Questionnaire surveys indicated that by variety of sources. 2002, 70% of the human population in the Although the model-based assessment is MCA’s buffer zones were agriculturalists who not complete, we have assembled a database arrived after 1980. The introduction of that will prove to be useful not only for the cropping agriculture alongside pastoral assessment here, but for future analyses and livestock production and wildlife management assessments conducted by others in the future. has made very demanding use of resources in Such a data set did not exist until now. It this semi-arid eco-climatic zone by spatially includes GIS data, weather data and maps, and reducing pastoral grazing fields, occupying data on vegetation, livestock, and wildlife. animal home ranges, and diverting water courses from livestock and wildlife to facilitate Objective d: Initiate modeling exercises of IA the irrigation of agricultural plots. The scenarios. situation has led to a decline in the resource base, which has increased wildlife/livestock/ The modeling exercises have not been human interactions and led to wildlife/livestock/ initiated yet, and are a major part of the work human conflicts related to resource access. The for the upcoming year. veterinary survey was dropped, because we felt that other researchers were covering that aspect Activity Six: Regional GIS/RS Analysis (e.g., Jeff Mariner and Richard Kock). Objective a: Establish spatial and temporal Objective c: Adapt the SAVANNA/PHEWS patterns and trends of range condition and modeling system to the Greater Meru degradation in Kenyan rangelands. Evaluate Ecosystem (GME). the state of connectivity between wildlife reserves in the Kenya-Tanzania border region. An ecosystem model-based assessment is Assess trends in livestock productivity. underway, to be completed in spring 2004. This assessment will support the development The project has fully supported Joyce of a strategic management plan for the Meru Acen’s Ph.D. studies in Ecology at Colorado ecosystem by quantifying the impacts of State University between 1999 and 2003. Her alternative management, and developing research is focused on the long-term patterns procedures on wildlife restoration, ecosystem in the condition of rangeland vegetation and integrity, and community needs in terms of regional herbivore species distribution and livestock production and economic status of habitat suitability in selected pastoral regions pastoral people. in northern and southern Kenya. The main The application of the SAVANNA objective of the study was to determine spatial ecosystem model required the preparation of and temporal patterns of range condition using numerous data sets for model inputs, and for advanced very high resolution radiometer

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(AVHRR) normalized difference vegetation strategies of Maasai households in Kajiado are index (NDVI) time series, both through considered in analyses. Contribution of analyses of vegetation response to rainfall in women to diversification strategies and relation to ungulate population density and of household economics were considered in the herbivore species distribution based on TME and GME as well. The attitudes of multiple ecological variables in order to Maasai women (young and old) towards characterize habitat suitability for wet- and wildlife as a unique group are considered dry-season grazing. The study is ascertaining explicitly in the work of J. Roque de Pinho. evidence of long-term degradation along the Womens’ groups have been targeted for rainfall gradient represented by the four outreach efforts in Kajiado because these districts covered in the study and answering groups have an active voice in land use questions regarding evidence of range management and economic decisions in the degradation in the study areas over the 18-year Amboseli Group Ranches. period, and relationships between range condition, climatic factors, and herbivore POLICY densities. Monthly rainfall totals have been compiled The IA applications that we plan are very for the study period, and vegetation response directly policy-oriented. In these situations, to rainfall (above or below expected response) contentious issues having to do with land use is used to determine the spatial and temporal and conservation policy are under review and patterns of range condition. AVHRR NDVI policies are very likely to be changed. Our IA data at 8 km. resolution from the Africa Data applications have an excellent opportunity to Dissemination Service (ADDS) data archive, enlighten policy makers about the probable averaged by month for the study period (1982– outcomes of their alternative policy choices. 1999), are used as indicators of primary Some of these applications are also productivity and biomass quantity. Ungulate management-oriented (Meru). In these cases, population distribution data were obtained policies may also be influenced by weighing from the Kenyan government’s Department of the results of the IAs and the implications for Resource. Most were conducted at a spatial development and conservation policy, resolution of 5X5 km. Temporal patterns are nationwide. examined at monthly and seasonal time scales. OUTREACH GENDER Our outreach targets are many, and our This program has a fairly large number of approaches vary depending upon our audience. women scientists. Most of the graduate We disseminate our results to all decision- students on the project are women (Acen, makers who have an impact on the Roque de Pinho, Lynn, BurnSilver). Several management of the resources of the pastoral of the senior investigators are as well (Galvin, zones of Kenya and Tanzania. This includes Reid, Serneels). Gender issues such as access individual pastoral herd owners and their to resources and decision-making roles are families who make a multitude of decisions addressed in our socioeconomic surveys. about marketing, stocking rates, animal Contributions of women to the diversification disease control, coexistence with wildlife, and

111 Global Livestock CRSP other issues. This has been accomplished by opportunity to begin to apply models and other dissemination of results of our studies in non- aspects of integrated assessment to livestock technical language, in written reports in development-related problems. These KiSwahili, and in oral presentations in Maa. technologies have, heretofore, been used only We also interact with NGOs in the pastoral to a limited extent in this sort of development zones and with pastoral groups, such as the context. Our development-relevant goals are group ranch committees in Kajiado. These to assist pastoral people, policy-makers, and communications include those described agencies in weighing alternative development above and more technical English language and conservation strategies before reports, where appropriate. We provide results implementing problematic development or that are useful for management to our conservation policies or procedures. As a institutional collaborators, such as the result of work and demonstrations carried out Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority in the first phase of our GL-CRSP project, and (NCAA) and the Kenya Wildlife Service due to our outreach and communication (KWS). We are currently training Wycliffe activities, we have been asked by Mutero of the KWS in the use of the conservation agencies (i.e., NCAA), SAVANNA modeling system and its wildlife, land, and conservation application to integrated assessments. His management agencies (i.e., KWS) and training is going on at Colorado State University pastoral people (i.e., Amboseli-Tsavo Group (CSU), and it is expected that KWS will Ranch Conservation Association) in East incorporate the use of SAVANNA into their Africa to assist them in development normal planning process. We interact with planning using integrated assessment. As decision-makers within government ministries we continue with these applications, the that are responsible for decision-making within results will benefit the host countries in the pastoral zones. These communications take terms of development and conservation the form of face-to-face meetings and workshops planning and policy analysis. The project has designed to describe our IA approach and the a large team, which has the net result of results we have obtained. We maintain open creating multiple linkages with numerous communications with the USAID Missions in agencies and institutions in East Africa. IARC both countries, briefing them on our work and collaboration is through ILRI, our primary providing them with our reports. We continue collaborator. to develop Research Briefs, suitable for most of Environmental Impact. The project the non-technical audiences mentioned above. improves the environment by suggesting management options that will maintain or DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT improve grazing conditions and balance wildlife and livestock uses. Our Integrated Assessment approach was Agricultural Sustainability. The IA developed to address issues of conflict and approach that we use, incorporating the complementarity between conservation and SAVANNA modeling system, is able to livestock development in arid and semi-arid emulate long-term ecosystem dynamics, portions of East Africa, where wildlife and enabling us to determine if specific pastoralists have traditionally shared the management actions are likely to lead to ecosystem. GL-CRSP support provided an sustainable resource exploitation strategies.

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Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. Support for Democracy. Project activities Lessons learned in studying the semi-arid involve stakeholder input and responses, systems of East Africa can and do shed light therefore promoting linkages within East on management problems in semi-arid systems African societies between stakeholders and in the U.S. In particular, techniques for policymakers, a cornerstone function of mitigating wildlife/livestock conflicts are democracy. applicable to situations in the U.S. where similar conflicts exist. LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS Contributions to Host Countries. We are assisting the resource management agencies The following projects contributed of Kenya and Tanzania with planning for land leveraged funds to the POLEYC project during management in areas where wildlife and the period October 1, 2002-September 30, livestock are in potential conflict. Our results 2003. should assist the host countries in the National Science Foundation – PI: Niall development of management plans that will Hannan. “Biocomplexity in African improve wildlife conservation and pastoral Savannas.” Project Period: 5/02-5/06. Project well being. uses SAVANNA Ecosystem Model to model Linkages and Networking. We have interactions among soils, vegetation, fire, and developed important working linkages with herbivory in African savannas. Model many governmental, parastatal, and non- parameterization and testing contribute to GL- governmental agencies in both countries. CRSP modeling activities in East African sites. Collaboration with International University of Alaska/NSF – PI: Mike Research Centers (IARCs) and CRSPs. Coughenour. “Modeling Spatial Plant-Geese One of our most important collaborators in the Interactions in the Yukon Delta.” Total Award: project is ILRI. We work closely with Robin $ 314,403. Project Period: 6/00-5/05. Project Reid, Philip Thornton, and Mrigesh Kshatryia uses SAVANNA Ecosystem Model. Model of that organization, among others, on many parameterization and testing contribute to GL- aspects of the project. CRSP modeling activities in East African sites. NOAA Office of Economics and Human OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Dimensions of Climate Fluctuation – PI: Kathleen Galvin. “Responses to Climate Support for Free Markets and Broad- Variability and Utility of Climate Forecast Based Economic Growth. Our IA assessments Information for the Livestock Sector in Arid demonstrate (and therefore support) the need for and Semi-Arid Zones, South Africa.” Total broader market involvement of pastoral peoples Award: $358,914. Project Period: 7/98-7/ and for the growth of national economies of East 02. P. Thornton developed a model to identify African countries, in order to improve both the impact of climate variability on household human economic welfare and environmental economy. Both Thornton (ILRI) and R. Boone sustainability. (Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory/CSU) Concern for Individuals. The Integrated linked the household model to the SAVANNA Assessments are focused on household level ecosystem model. Funds from the NOAA actions and impacts; therefore, the project grant were leveraged to the GL-CRSP to help promotes concern for individuals. P. Thornton and R. Boone link the SAVANNA

113 Global Livestock CRSP and PHEWS models for applications to the University of Nairobi. NCA and Kajiado GL-CRSP sites. Oltisatti Kamuaro, Ph.D. student, 2004, Range People, Livestock, Environment Ecology, University of Nairobi. Program Funds and ILRI Core Funds – Program Head: Robin Reid. Multiple Non-degree Project Activities under the general project Stacy Lynn, U.S., Swahili course, Tanzania. heading of “Land-Use and Settlement Wycliffe Mutero, Kenya, 4 months training at Patterns in Pastoral Ecosystems of Northern CSU on use of SAVANNA modeling. Tanzania and Southern Kenya.” The following research activities were COLLABORATING PERSONNEL leveraged: salary for project supervision for R. Reid, travel funds and costs of United States of America community workshops in the Mara, the Michael Coughenour, S. Research Scientist, salary of biometrician to assist both A. NREL. Muchiru and F. Atieno in data analyses, and Kathleen Galvin, S. Research Scientist, NREL. overhead costs of GL-CRSP activities not Randall Boone, Research Scientist, NREL. covered by GL-CRSP funds. Amount Shauna BurnSilver, Project Manager and Leveraged: $3,500. Ph.D. Candidate, NREL. James DeMartini, Professor, CSU. TRAINING Terrance McCabe, Professor, University of Colorado. During the last funding year, we supported Jeff Worden, Ph.D. Candidate, NREL. six Ph.D. students and one M.S. student. We Stacy Lynn, Ph.D. Candidate, NREL. hosted a number of non-degree training Joana Roque de Pinho, Ph.D. Candidate, workshops in Kenya and Tanzania, as well as NREL. dissemination meetings, and training at CSU for one Kenyan scientist in SAVANNA and ILRI IA methodology. Robin Reid, Senior Systems Ecologist. Philip Thornton, Research Scientist, ILRI, In progress Nairobi, and Edinburgh, Scotland. Joyce Acen, Ph.D. student, 2003, Ecology, Meshak Nyabenge, GIS Analyst. Colorado State University. Joseph Ogutu, Ecologist and Modeler. Jeff Worden, Ph.D. student, 2003, Ecology, Leah Muraya, Data Analyst. Colorado State University. Mrigesh Kshatriya, Ecosystem Modeler. Shauna BurnSilver, Ph.D. student, 2003, Suzanne Serneels, Geographer, Remote Human Ecology, Colorado State Sensing. University. Russ Kruska, GIS Lab Leader. Stacy Lynn, Ph.D. student, 2004, Ecology, Kamau Kimani, Project Manager and Colorado State University. Geographer. Joana Roque de Pinho, Ph.D. student, 2004, Human Ecology, Colorado State Kenya University. Jenesio Kinyamario (Kenyan PI), Professor, John Otuomo, M.S. student, 2004, Botany, University of Nairobi, Dept. of Botany.

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John Mworia, Research Associate, University Emmanual Gereta, Consultant to TANAPA. of Nairobi. Angello Mwilawa, Livestock Research John Otuoma, M.S. student, University of Scientist, LPRI, Mpwapwa. Nairobi, Dept. of Botany. Francis Ole Ikayo, Director, Inuyat e-Maa. Jesse Njoka, Professor, University of Nairobi. Peter Toima, Director, Maasai Advancement Stephen Mbogoh, Professor, Univ. of Nairobi. Association, Arusha. Mrigesh Kshatriya, Research Scientist, ILRI. Carol Sorensen, ERETO, Ngorongoro. Kamau Kimani, Research Associate, ILRI. Gaspar Leboy, ERETO, Ngorongoro. Jackson Wandera, Land Use Planning Cuthbert Nahonyo, Professor, University of Coordinator, SARDEP. Dar es Salaam. Wilber Ottichilo, Director General, RCMRD. Elifuraha Mtalo, Director, UCLAS. David Western, Director, ACC. Patricia Moehlman, Private Consultant. Jan Grootenhuis, Veterinarian, Private Fatheem Banyikawa, Research Scientist, Consultant. SUNY and Serengeti Research Institute. Paul Rwambo, Veterinarian, Private Consultant. Uganda Richard Bagine, Research Director, KWS. Joyce Acen, Ph.D. Candidate, NREL. Wycliffe Mutero, GIS Leader, KWS. Michael Kipkeu, Senior Warden, Amboseli NP. COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Mark Jenkins, Senior Warden, Meru NP. P. Ole Kamuaro, Assistant to the Director, Kenya Natural Environmental Secretariat, and International Livestock Research Institute, Ph.D. Candidate, Univ. of Nairobi. Nairobi Nick Georgiadis, Director, Mpala Research University of Nairobi Centre. Kenyatta University, Nairobi James Likampa, Group Ranch Representative, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi Imbirikani. Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi David Salaash, Group Ranch Representative, Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Eselengei. Development, Nairobi Leonard Partimo, Group Ranch National Environment Management Authority, Representative, Olgululuri/Lolarashi. Nairobi Ole Sitaya, Group Ranch Representative, Mpala Research Centre, Nanyuki Osilalei. Amboseli/Tsavo Group Ranches Conservation Joseph Miaron, Manager, Amboseli/Tsavo Association, Loitokitok Group Ranch Conservation Association. Semi-Arid Regional Development Program, Kajiado Tanzania African Conservation Centre, Nairobi Alan Kijazi (Tanzanian PI), Acting PACT CORE, Nairobi Conservator, NCAA, Ngorongoro. SOFRECO, Clichy, France (working in GME) Victor Runyoro, Chief Ecologist, NCAA, African Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi Ngorongoro. Emmanual Chausi, Conservator, NCAA, Ngorongoro.

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Tanzania BurnSilver, S., R.B. Boone and K.A. University of Dar es Salaam Galvin. 2003. Linking pastoralists to a Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, heterogeneous landscape: the case of four Ngorongoro Maasai group ranches in Kajiado District, Inuyat e-Maa, Arusha Kenya. In: People and the Environment: African Wildlife Foundation, Arusha Approaches for Linking Household and Tanzanian National Parks, Arusha Community Surveys to Remote Sensing and Livestock Production Research Institute, GIS. J. Fox, R.R. Rindfuss, S.J. Walsh, and Mpwapwa V. Mishra, eds., Kluwer Publ., Boston. Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, Runyoro, A.V., K.A. Galvin, P.K. Ngorongoro Thornton, S.J. Lynn, and J. Sunderland. University College of Lands and Architectural 2003. Livelihood strategies: the Maasai Studies, University of Dar es Salaam pastoralists of Ngorongoro Conservation Executive Pastoral Council, Ngorongoro Area. Proceedings of the Tanzania Wildlife Istituto Oikos, Verese, Italy (working in TME) Research Institute Annual Meeting, Arusha, Tanzania. PUBLICATIONS Thornton, P.K., K.A. Galvin, and R.B. Boone. 2003. An agro-pastoral household Research Briefs model for the rangelands of East Africa. Boone, R.B. and S.B. BurnSilver. In Agricultural Systems 76:601-622. press. Assessing effects of landscape fragmentation using normalized difference ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS vegetation indices. Research Brief by the Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Boone, R.B. and N.T. Hobbs. Lines Program, University of California, Davis. around fragments: effects of fencing on large Swift, D.M. and R. B. Boone. In press. herbivores. International Rangelands Effects of cultivation within Ngorongoro Congress. July 2003. Conservation Area, Tanzania. Research BurnSilver, S. 2003. Land Use and Brief by the Global Livestock Collaborative Impacts of Ongoing Fragmentation in a Research Support Program, University of Pastoral Landscape: An Example from Four California, Davis. Maasai Group Ranches, Kajiado District, Kenya. Poster Presented at VIIth Scientific Publications International Rangelands Congress, Durban, Coughenour, M. 2002. Ecosystem South Africa. Modeling in Support of the Conservation of Coughenour, M. 2003. The Ellis Wild Equids - The Example of the Pryor Paradigm: balance humans, herbivores, and Mountain Wild Horse Range. IUCN Equid rangeland systems. Presented July 31, 2003 Specialists Group Report. IUCN. Gland, at: Symposium on the SCALE Project-a tribute Switzerland. (In press). to Jim Ellis. VIIth International Rangelands Coughenour, M. The Ellis Paradigm: Congress, Durban, South Africa. balance humans, herbivores, and rangeland Coughenour, M., R. Boone, K. Galvin, P. systems. African Journal of Range and Thornton. 2003. Integrated modeling and Forage Science (in press). assessment systems for balancing food

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security and wildlife in East Africa. Presented Galvin, K.A., P.K. Thornton, and J. Roque July 30, 2003 at: Symposium on Conservation, de Pinho. 2001. Integrated modeling and Farming, and Integrated Land Use: optimizing assessment for balancing food security, the overall benefit of land use options for conservation, and ecosystem integrity in East people and the environment, VIIth Africa. Invited paper presented in the session, International Rangelands Congress, Durban, Beyond Rhetoric and Reproach: New South Africa. Directions in Anthropology and Conservation Coughenour, M. 2003. Rocky Mountain, at the American Anthropological Association Yellowstone, and Serengeti National Parks: meetings, Nov. 28 – Dec. 2, Washington, D.C. Spatial Ecosystem Modeling and Integrated McCabe, J. Terrence. 2003. Livelihood Assessments of Interactions Between Humans Diversification among the Maasai of northern and Natural Systems. Presented October 8, Tanzania: Challenges for Conservation and 2003 at: Beyond the Arch: Community and Conservation Policy. Paper presented at: Conservation in Greater Yellowstone and East Beyond the Arch: Community and Africa. Yellowstone 7th Biennial Scientific Conservation in Yellowstone and East Africa. Conference, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone 7th Biennial Scientific Wyoming. Oct. 6-8, 2003. Conference, Mammoth Hot Springs, Galvin, K.A., P.K. Thornton and R.B. Wyoming. Oct. 6-8, 2003. Boone. Climate Variability, Spatial Scale and McCabe, J. Terrence. Conservation and Impacts on East African Livestock Herders. Indigenous Peoples: Challenges for New International Rangelands Congress. July 2003. Leadership in Protected Areas. Paper Galvin, K.A. 2002. Use of integrated presented at the 100th annual meeting of the assessment for balancing food security, American Anthropological Association. New conservation, and ecosystem integrity in the Orleans. Nov. 20-24, 2002. rangelands of East Africa. Paper presented at the University of Wyoming Seminar Series in PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR the Department of Anthropology. November 13. Galvin, K.A. 2002. Integrated assessment Lead Principal Investigator. David of pastoral-wildlife interactions in East Africa. Swift, Senior Research Scientist, Natural Socioeconomic considerations and Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State socioeconomic modeling. Paper presented at University, Fort Collins, CO 80523. Phone: the Global Livestock CRSP Program 970-491-1981; Fax: 970-491-1965; Email: Conference, Washington, D.C., October 8-12. [email protected]. Galvin, K.A., R.S. Reid, S. BurnSilver, and R.B. Boone. 2002. Linking communities and households to climate variability and land cover/land-use change at different scales in farming and pastoral systems of East Africa. Paper prepared and presented by R.S. Reid for the Workshop on Linking Household and Remotely Sensed Data: Methodological and Practical Problems, East-West Center, Honolulu, January 3-8, 2002.

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LIVESTOCK MARKETING IN KENYA AND ETHIOPIA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Livestock marketing is critical to the the household level? Can we be sure that development of arid and semi-arid lands in potential benefits to changed market Kenya and Ethiopia. Donors are showing conditions at the local level will not be renewed interest in funding livestock unobtainable due to blockages at higher levels? marketing activities. Livestock market Can we identify policies at the international improvement offers the potential to reduce level that will encourage trade, or are currently poverty in areas that are identified as the inhibiting trade? Can we be sure that market poorest in these countries. Such activities also interventions designed for normal times are allow donors to move from a “relief” mode to flexible enough to address needs in crisis a “development” mode in dryland areas, as periods? The goal of this project is to gather there is growing frustration with dryland together researchers working on livestock activities being in permanent “relief” mode. marketing in Kenyan and Ethiopian marketsheds However, the research community is not to begin developing an understanding of these currently able to provide donors with clear and issues, and how these marketsheds are influenced specific information to use in designing by larger regional and international factors. The livestock marketing activities. It is not at all outcome will be the publication of these various clear how research findings at the macro, meso, insights, and the provision of a set of and micro levels are to be reconciled and used in recommendations to donors interested in program design. It is also not clear how markets livestock market development. should be designed to meet marketing needs in both “normal” and “crisis” periods. At this point RESEARCH in time, it is difficult to provide specific recommendations based on research to donors. The goal of the program was to prepare What is missing is an overall sense of how for a workshop on livestock marketing in East interventions at different levels and for Africa, hold this workshop, and conduct different states of the world fit together, how targeted follow up research following this they should be prioritized, and how they workshop. We take each of these in turn. should be sequenced. While changes at all Preparing for the workshop. We levels are needed, where should we start? How conducted a literature review in the United will changes at one level influence changes at States to identify who was currently working a different level? Are any types of on issues of livestock marketing in Kenya and interventions pre-conditions for success of Ethiopia, and completed an annotated other interventions? Most specifically, can we bibliography that summarized works we were be sure that changes in the market structure at able to obtain and noted other works that were higher levels will lead to poverty reduction at possibly relevant but not able to be obtained

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(largely government reports and project to understand how externally funded market- documents fell into this category). We used based crisis interventions can be made the results of the literature review to identify compatible with traditional crisis coping researchers involved in livestock marketing in strategies. The third highest priority was to East Africa. We invited these researchers and investigate what can be learned from studying some selected policy makers to meet at a market cooperatives and marketing workshop where livestock marketing would partnerships that are successful and those that be discussed (see Collaborating Personnel for have failed to understand both the potential a list of participants). and the pitfalls that confront such Conducting the Workshop. organizational responses to inefficiencies in Thematically, we divided the discussions into the established marketing chain. We hope to four different topics. We first considered be able to follow up on these priorities by issues of household level marketing. We then defining and implementing research projects discussed issues related to crisis period that investigate these and other priority topics. marketing. The third topic considered was Targeted Follow-Up Research. The market level issues at the local and sub-area original timeline for this project called for (district or regional) level. Finally, we targeted studies to be conducted following the considered national and international issues of workshop and taking place within fiscal year livestock marketing. For each topic, we first (FY) 03; however, this was not possible due discussed what is already known on this topic, to the need to reschedule the workshop as and then discussed what needs to be known. detailed below. We now hope to undertake These discussions were particularly enlivened these activities in FY 04. by having both researchers and practitioners Progress. The main impediment to the involved in the workshop, and this helped to project’s progress was due to rescheduling the steer research priorities to topics of practical workshop from March 2003 until August and timely importance. We concluded the 2003. The original date was not feasible due workshop by an exercise in which the to security concerns that arose during the participants ranked research priorities. In this buildup to the Iraq war. Both workshop summary, we discuss the top three priorities participants and, more importantly, embassy as examples, and refer the reader interested in representatives in Nairobi expressed concern the overall ranking of priority topics to the about holding a high profile workshop during details contained in the workshop proceedings this period. This was especially true as the (available via email from the PI and on the workshop was originally scheduled to be held GL-CRSP website, http://glcrsp.ucdavis.edu). on the USAID grounds in Nairobi. In light of The highest research priority was to develop these concerns, we rescheduled the workshop understanding of whether interventions to the next feasible date that would ensure the (provision of market information, trade maximum participation level, which turned out intelligence, weather information, definition to be mid-August. This caused us to modify of market standards, etc.) influence household our original workplan to keep the preparation level decisions to market livestock in the for the workshop and the workshop in FY context of increasing understanding of the 2003, while moving the targeted studies and overall process of how households decide to publication of the targeted studies into FY sell livestock. The second highest priority was 2004.

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GENDER DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT

There was no specific gender component Environmental Impact. There was no to the project over the past year. Topics environmental impact in this initial year. identified as meriting further research did, in Looking toward the future, if we accept that some cases, have a gender component. livestock accumulation and low sales rates have an adverse environmental impact, POLICY improving market efficiency should reduce pressure on rangeland resources. If we do not The project brought local level non- accept that this is the case, then the governmental organization (NGO) environmental issues become how we design representatives to the workshop in Nairobi. market institutions that do not create a negative The goal was to have these front line environmental impact. The connection development actors discuss with researchers between stocking pressure and environmental both what is known about livestock marketing degradation is currently under some debate in and what needs to be researched to help them arid and semi-arid environments, and we are better serve the population in the area they not convinced of the contention that work. The benefit of this interaction was widespread grazing-induced degradation is twofold. One, researchers were able to hear occurring. However, we are convinced that from front line agencies what they are being designing market interventions has to be done asked to do by donors, and were able to carefully with an eye towards preventing provide guidance based on previous research unintended adverse environmental on how best to meet these demands and also consequences. This was a topic of our identify where further research would be discussion at the Nairobi workshop needed to help them meet these demands. particularly as it pertained to designing and Two, development agents were able to obtain implementing crisis period and recovery from advice and be updated on the latest research crisis period strategies. findings that were not likely to be available to Agricultural Sustainability. Livestock them in the rural areas where they are based. marketing is a good example of the type of With regard to national policy, the project is intervention that is extremely sustainable over still in its early phase, so there is little to report time. Livestock marketing exists in the area, in terms of outcomes. However, we can say and has existed for quite some time. Clearly that the Livestock Marketing Authority in people are buying animals produced in Ethiopia and the Livestock Marketing Council livestock raising areas, and clearly people in in Kenya were active and engaged in our livestock raising areas are selling animals in workshop, and the relevant ministries have the market. The question is how do we reduce been advised of our project and our inefficiencies in this market to improve market deliberations in August. functioning and improve the well-being of agricultural producers. There are very few OUTREACH physical inputs required, and not all that many capital costs. It is a question of finding out The project did not have an outreach what is working, and identifying how to build component as it was in its initial year. upon success and eliminate inefficiency. The

120 Annual Report 2003 project is an attempt to use research as a tool Collaboration with International to identify such opportunities, and the Research Centers (IARCs) and other approach of working with policy makers is the CRSPs. As noted in the preceding point, both strategy we have chosen to ensure the IFPRI and ILRI are turning toward livestock findings have an impact on the ground. marketing, and we have established linkages Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. with them and have a particularly strong link There were none over the past year. As the with ILRI researchers. We work in close project continues to develop, there may be collaboration with the GL-CRSP PARIMA new information on market efficiency or project, as the core members of the LiTEK crisis period mitigation that have some project are all PARIMA members. In addition, relevance to U.S. livestock production areas. we work with the GL-CRSP Livestock Eearly Contributions to Host Country. We Warning System (LEWS) project, as we share held our workshop in the region and used an interest in improving market efficiency. the national carrier for transport between LEWS is particularly interested in the role of Ethiopia and Kenya. Looking toward the information delivery in marketing, and we future, livestock-raising areas tend to be the have discussed this issue with LEWS poorest areas of East Africa. To the extent representatives quite a number of times. that we can identify ways to raise living standards by improving market efficiency, OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS we will be identifying ways to improve well being without imposing great costs. Support for Free Markets and Broad- Linkages and Networking. There is Based Economic Growth. This is a project currently a great deal of interest in livestock based on improving free markets by marketing. Various organizations including the identifying and reducing inefficiencies through European Union (EU), the Food and Agriculture targeted research. Livestock raising is the key Organization (FAO), USAID, the International economic activity in arid and semi-arid areas. Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and the Improving livestock marketing offers the only International Food Policy Research Institute viable potential base for a future of broad- (IFPRI) have recently launched initiatives in based economic growth in this area. While livestock marketing. Both Kenya and Ethiopia other activities will undoubtedly be important are showing renewed interest in livestock to the economic future of arid and semi-arid marketing as a matter of national policy. GL- areas, none will be possible without ensuring CRSP has a long history of working in the the health of the core economic activity of pastoral areas at the community level, and is livestock raising and marketing. We have specially placed to represent this local level begun by prioritizing research activities for this perspective on livestock marketing issues. sector. Particularly as large, national, or international Contributions to and Compliance with policy initiatives are launched, we will be well- Mission Objectives. USAID is trying to move placed to work with these organizations to help interventions in pastoral areas from “relief identify what will be the local level impact of mode” to “development mode.” They are these policies, and how can we ensure that local looking at ways to ensure that mission producers capture some of the economic activities contribute to building a viable benefit the policies generate. economic future that prevents humanitarian

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crises, rather than addressing immediate the University of Kentucky and by Chris Barrett humanitarian needs in ways that do not head off at Cornell University. Getachew Gebru handled future crises. That is also the aim of this project. the in-country work in Ethiopia for this project. Concern for Individuals. Livestock Getachew is the post doctoral research associate marketing offers a way to build an economic for the PARIMA project. The following is a list future for areas that are the poorest of the poor, of individuals who attended the workshop: and are marginalized in the national economy. Abdi Hussein Abdi, Kenya Livestock Marketing We are identifying ways to improve the economic Council. opportunities facing the individual livestock Abu Abikar, FAO-Support to Livestock Export producer, and also the prospects for other in the horn of Africa (EXCELEX-HOR). individuals involved in different parts of the David Acker, Iowa State University. marketing chain. Teressa Adugna, Alemaya University. Support for Democracy. There is nothing Yacob Aklilu, Organization of African Unity- explicitly in the project that addresses support Interafrican Bureau for Animal Research for democracy. (OAU-IBAR)/Tufts University. Humanitarian Assistance. The research Dadhi Amosha, Oromia Pastoral Development focuses on how livestock markets function Commission. during crisis periods and also how markets Metalign Ayehu, Ministry of Finance and function to help people recover from crisis Economic Development. periods. The goal is to identify how to use Gezahegre Ayele, Ethiopian Agricultural market-based interventions to minimize the need Research Organization (EARO). for humanitarian assistance that takes place Chris Barrett, Cornell University. outside normal marketing channels. This will Samuel Benin, International Livestock both increase the sustainability of future crisis Research Institute (ILRI). period interventions and reduce their Montague Demment, Director, Global unintended impacts on market functioning. Livestock CRSP. Godana J. Doyo, Arid Lands Resource LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS Management Program (ALRMP). Ayele Gebre-Mariam, Africa Consult. We cooperated with the PARIMA project, Getachew Gebru, Utah State University. as the key members of the LITEK project are Ali Mohammed Gedi, Red Sea Livestock also PARIMA members. Trade Commission. David Hadrill, FAO Project Manager, TRAINING DireDawa. Guyo O. Haro, Global Environmental Facility There was no training component of this (GEF)/German Agency for Technical project. Cooperation (GTZ-IS). Mary Hobbs, USAID/Regional Economic COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Development Services Office (REDSO). Aliye Hussen, DG, Oromia Agric-Research The lead investigator on the project over Institute. the past year was John McPeak at Syracuse Belachew Hurrissa, Livestock Marketing University. He was assisted by Peter Little at Authority (LMA).

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Mohammad Jabbar, International Livestock PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR Research Institute (ILRI). Abdullahi Dima Jillo, Egerton University. Lead Principal Investigator. Dr. John Robert Kaitho, Texas A&M University. McPeak, Dept. of Public Administration, Stephen Kariuki, Pastoralist Integrated Maxwell School, Syracuse University, Support Program (PISP). Syracuse, NY 3244. Phone: 315-443-6146; David Kinyua, REDSO/Food Security. Fax: 315-443-9721; Email: jomcpeak@ Charles Lesingiran, Food for the Hungry maxwell.syr.edu. International. Peter Little, University of Kentucky. John McPeak, Syracuse University. Ali Hassan Mohamed, FARM-Africa. John Morton, University of Greenwich. Diana Putman, USAID/REDSO. Maren Radeny, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Mulugeta Shibru, CARE-Ethiopia. Jerry W. Stuth, Texas A&M University. Chachu Tadicha, Community Initiatives Facilitation Assistance (CIFA). Alemu Wosenyeleh, ELFORA Agro Industries. Fred Zaal, Amsterdam Institute for Global Isues and Development Studies (AGIDS)– University of Amsterdam.

COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS

This short-term project was led by John McPeak at Syracuse University and there were no formal collaborating institutions.

PUBLICATIONS

No journal or book chapter publications were completed in the past year on this project. The two outputs of the project were the annotated bibliography distributed at the Nairobi meeting, and the workshop proceedings that have been electronically distributed to workshop participants. The annotated bibliography is available at: http://glcrsp.ucdavis.edu.

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MANAGING NATIONAL PARKS IN THE CONTEXT OF CHANGING HUMAN POPULATIONS AND ECONOMICS: STRENGTHENING COLLABORATION BETWEEN RESEARCHERS AND MANAGERS WORKING IN AND AROUND SERENGETI AND YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARKS

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

The SEYE project is comprised of a set of Although the physical, biological, and discrete planning activities with the near-term socio-economic situations of the two parks are goal of solidifying collaboration between strikingly different (Berger 1991), profound researchers and managers associated with functional similarities exist (Frank et al. 1998). Yellowstone and Serengeti National Parks and Both systems are large and heterogeneous with their greater ecosystems. The planning strong topographically controlled vegetation activities include a workshop in Africa to bring gradients that range from semi-arid grasslands U.S. and African researchers and managers to closed woodlands or forests. Large migratory together to define collaborative opportunities. grazers track the spatial and temporal variability These activities will lay the foundation for the in resources along these gradients. Both parks future of the project, aimed at creating a more conserve only a portion of the ecosystems in formal ongoing collaboration on shared issues which they reside and on whose resources the of management, training, and research. The parks depend for their long-term sustainability. long-term goal is to contribute to the capacity Agents of disturbance are similar, including necessary to maintain and sustain these natural fire, livestock grazing, and animal diseases. areas as representatives of two of the world’s The dynamics of both systems are intimately premier national park systems and biodiversity tied to human activities, including hunting, preserves. grazing, recreation, and eco-tourism. Ecosystem simulation models developed for RESEARCH Yellowstone can be readily modified for extension to East African ecosystems Problem Model. Serengeti and (Coughenour and Singer 1996, Boone et al. Yellowstone are arguably two of the world’s 2002) and some such as POLEYC/SAVANNA most significant national parks. As large (funded in part by GL-CRSP) have already nature reserves, they are similar in that they been applied in both parks. contain biologically diverse and largely intact The research literature comparing the grazing ecosystems surrounded by pastoralists ecology of the two systems is rich, but there is and ranchers whose livelihoods are dependant no similarly comprehensive comparison of on livestock. In various ways, they have both conservation management issues and served as models for conservation in the strategies between Yellowstone and Serengeti context of competing human land uses in and National Parks, including the ecosystems and adjacent to the parks. communities in which they are embedded.

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The SEYE project is comparing and • First,a study tour was hosted for senior contrasting the ecological, socio-economic, Tanzanian National Parks (TANAPA) and policy contexts for the Yellowstone and staff in Yellowstone National Park Serengeti National Parks as vehicles to (YNP) in June 2003. conserve biodiversity and promote • Second, Dr. Glenn Plumb (YNP) and Dr. sustainable livelihoods. The comparison Lisa Graumlich traveled to the Greater will address several critical management Serengeti/Mara in August 2003 to meet challenges that are shared by the two park with stakeholders and discuss and systems, including: identify issue and problem models that • Human population is increasing along can form the foundation for long-term the boundaries of both parks; collaborations. • Population and land use change at the • Third, East African perspectives on park edges of the parks and reserves alter science and management were animal migrations in and out of reserves incorporated into the 7th Biennial and their interaction with livestock; Yellowstone Science Conference to be • Disease transmission between livestock held in October 2003. and wildlife alters the population Through these activities, we are dynamics of animals and constrains developing jointly defined objectives for management practices for the parks, future collaboration. The final step in pastoralists, and ranchers in the defining the relevant problems and problem ecosystem; models will take place in late January or • Regional economic stability is tied to early February 2004 when we will host a each park’s amenity values in complex, scoping workshop at Serengeti National and often disputed, ways; Park. We see such a workshop as the final • Effective management will address step in defining needs and opportunities for issues and processes that span a sustained, multi-year follow-on effort that jurisdictional boundaries, including would link U.S. land-grant university lands and policies outside the parks. researchers and land managers with their Comparative analyses of Yellowstone and counterparts in East Africa. Serengeti will be useful in their own right and at the same time will contribute to a REFERENCES larger effort to link current theoretical advances in conservation biology, Barrett, C.B. and P. Arcese. 1995. Are sustainability, and ecological resilience to integrated conservation-development projects practical issues of design and management (IDCPs) sustainable? On the conservation of (Barrett and Arcese 1995, Norton-Griffiths large mammals in Sub-Saharan Africa. World and Southey 1995, Gunderson et al. 1995, Development 23, 1073-1084. Ellis and Swift 1998, Brandon et al. 1998, Berger, J. 1991. Greater Yellowstone’s Walker 2002). native ungulates: myths and realities. Progress. Our progress was impeded by Conservation Biology 5, 353-1153. constraints on travel imposed by the political Boone, R.B., M.B. Coughenour, K.A. turmoil of 2003. Progress in the latter half of Galvin, and J.E. Ellis. 2002. Addressing 2003 has been strong, including the following: management questions for Ngorongoro

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Conservation Area, Tanzania, Using the 2004 was female (Anna Grace Kyoma). In Savanna Modeling System. Afric. J. Ecol. 40: meetings in Kenya and Tanzania, we sought 1-14. out female participants in our informal Brandon, K., K.H. Redford, and S.E. workshops. The extensive professional Sanderson (eds). 1998. Parks in peril: People, network of Dr. Robin Reid of ILRI facilitated politics and protected areas. Island Press, our contact with senior female researchers and Washington, D.C. managers. Coughenour, M.B. and F.J. Singer. 1996. Yellowstone elk population responses to fire POLICY – a comparison of landscape carrying capacity and spatial-dynamic ecosystem modeling In November 2003, we hosted two approaches. pp. 169-180 in J. Greenlee (ed.), Tanzanian policy makers at the Big Sky The Ecological Implications of Fire in Greater Institute and Yellowstone National Park to Yellowstone. International Association of brief them on the project objectives and to Wildland Fire. Fairfield, WA. discuss policy implications. The visitors were: Ellis, J.E. and D.M. Swift. 1988. Stability Mrs. M. Watondoha, Trustee of TANAPA and of African pastoral systems: Alternative Member of Parliament, Dr. H. Mwakyembe, paradigms and implications for development. Trustee of TANAPA and member of the East Journal of Range Management 41, 450-459. African Legislative Assembly. Mrs. Frank, D.A., S.J. McNaughton, and B.F. Watondoha invited Dr. Graumlich and Tracy. 1998. The ecology of the Earth’s colleagues to brief Parliament on project grazing systems. Bioscience 48, 513-521. results in 2004. Gunderson, L.H., C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light (eds.). 1995. Barriers and bridges to OUTREACH the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. Columbia University Press, New York.. Given the preliminary nature of our Norton-Griffiths, M. and C. Southey. project, we have not accomplished any specific 1995. The opportunity costs of biodiversity outreach activities. We intend to target conservation in Kenya. Ecological Economics national park managers and land resource 12, 125-139. decision makers at the regional level in the Walker, B. 2002. Ecological resilience in U.S., Kenya, and Tanzania with our future grazed rangelands: a generic case study. In efforts. Gunderson, L.H. and L. Prichard, Jr. (eds.), Resilience and the behavior of large-scale DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Environmental Impact and Relevance. GENDER Our project will contribute to developing a stronger scientific base for the management The project has made strong efforts to of Yellowstone and Serengeti National Parks ensure that women are strongly represented and the lands surrounding these parks. in all project activities. Towards that end, we Agricultural Sustainability. Our had several notable successes. One of the four project will enhance our understanding of senior TANAPA officials to visit YNP in June disease transmission between livestock and

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wildlife in and around Yellowstone and LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS Serengeti National Parks. Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. Our National Science Foundation, project will increase our understanding of the Biocomplexity in the Environment, Global ecological interactions between national park and Change, Globalization, and the Vulnerability the lands surrounding these parks. of Mountain Systems, 2001-2003, $80,000 Contributions to Host Country. We (Graumlich, PI). anticipate that our project will contribute to the capacity of Kenya and Tanzania to manage COLLABORATING PERSONNEL the national park and reserve lands in such a way that promotes ecological integrity as United States of America well as the economic development of Glenn Plumb, Supervisory Wildlife Biologist, surrounding communities. Yellowstone National Park. Linkages and Networking. We Kurt Alt, Research Biologist, Montana Fish, anticipate developing a strong network of Wildlife & Parks. U.S. and East African researchers and Andrew Hansen, Department of Ecology, managers who have common interests and Montana State University. experiences in managing national park lands. Michael Coughenour, Natural Resource Ecology Lab, Colorado State University. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Kenya Support for Free Markets and Broad- Dr. Robin Reid, International Livestock Based Economic Growth. We anticipate that Research Institute, Nairobi. this project will provide new perspectives on Samson Lenjirr, Chief Warden, Masai Mara economic development, in particular, nature- Game Reserve. based tourism in and around Yellowstone and Ole Kamauro, International Livestock Serengeti National Parks. Research Institute, Nairobi. Contributions to and Compliance with Mission Objectives. We are in touch with the Tanzania Kenyan and Tanzanian missions and are Dr. Charles Mlingwa, Director General, working to align our project with their Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute. objectives. Dr. Emmanuel J. Gereta, Principal Ecologist, Concern for Individuals. Our concern Tanzania National Parks. for individuals is manifest in our plans to Allan Kijazi, Acting Director General, develop training opportunities for young and Tanzania National Parks. mid-career researchers and managers from the host countries. Support for Democracy. We are not currently directly addressing support for democracy. Humanitarian Assistance. We are not currently directly addressing humanitarian assistance.

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COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS

United States of America

Montana State University Big Sky Institute 106 AJM Johnson Hall Bozeman, MT 59717

Kenya

International Livestock Research Institute Phone: 254-020-630749 Fax: 254-020-631499

Masai Mara National Reserve Phone: 254-305-22241

Tanzania

Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute Phone: 255-27-277-677 Fax: 255-27-254-8240

Tanzania National Parks Phone: 255-27-250-1930 Fax: 255-27-250-8216

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Lead Principal Investigator. Lisa J. Graumlich, Big Sky Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman MT, 59717. Tel: 406- 994-5320; Fax: 406-994-5122; Email: [email protected].

128 Annual Report 2003

COMMUNITY PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK-BASED FORESTED ECOSYSTEMS IN LATIN AMERICA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

The primary goal of this project is working and their institutions to effectively promote with communities in forested mountainous and assist sustainable rural development areas of Latin America to improve the within resource-poor agricultural regions of quality of life for small landholders through Latin America. This includes conducting land use and livestock management that is project and community workshops and sustainable at the family and community supporting short-term training and degree level, and sustainable for the environment training for host-country and U.S. students. at the level of the watershed. The project work is organized around four principal RESEARCH objectives: 1) identify the potentials and Problem Model and Approach. The goal limitations for community- of our project is to determine how livestock, sustainable management of natural agriculture, and natural resource uses can be resources and livestock, and incorporated into the environment in a manner improved quality of life; that is ecologically sustainable and that will 2) evaluate current practices of improve the livelihood of local residents, and livestock and natural resource to achieve this goal through working with and management and experiment with empowering local communities. The area alternatives; focus of our project is the interface between 3) generate a participatory process agricultural and forested ecosystems in for planning, implementing, and critical mountainous ecosystems in Latin monitoring current and alternative America. Livestock, especially cattle, practices; dominate these threatened and degraded 4) establish a long-term, ongoing landscapes, leading to two questions: 1) the community planning process for role livestock can and does play in the natural resource and livestock livelihood of the rural communities of our management. study sites; and 2) how livestock can be An important secondary goal is the study integrated into these forest ecosystems in a of the process of achieving community- manner that is ecologically sustainable. Our based sustainable development, including increased understanding of these regions and monitoring the project activities and their people has reinforced the need to take a developing an integrated, participatory, holistic approach at the level of the community process-oriented learning approach. and the watershed. To find viable answers to An important tertiary goal is to these questions, it is crucial to understand the strengthen the capacity of host-country physical, ecological, social, cultural, and researchers and professional practitioners economic context.

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The Problem Model defines a process for 5. Increased collaboration with describing, studying, planning, implementing, governmental institutions and and monitoring the integration of livestock, fostering of stronger linkages between agriculture, and natural resources uses into local government and community natural forest ecosystems to achieve organizations (see Activity Ten). sustainable production. This process is 6. A new initiative to develop a organized around four steps: 1) identify the systematic appraisal of the land tenure potentials and limitations within the situation in all three host countries (see community for sustainable management of Activity Six). natural resources and livestock and 7. Increased focus on policy and its improvement of quality of life; 2) evaluate influence on local land use current practices of livestock and natural and management (see Activities Eight resource management and experiment with and Ten, as well as the section that alternatives; 3) generate a participatory addresses policy). process for planning, implementing, and Greater integration of project research monitoring current and alternative practices; activities was achieved by reassessing our 45 and 4) establish a long-term, ongoing past activities in six categories and community planning process for natural reassembling key functional elements from resource and livestock management. The them into a sequence of nine activities successes we have achieved strongly following an overarching activity (Activity reinforce the value and necessity of a One), emphasizing our goal to develop a model participatory, process-oriented learning process for guiding community-based, approach. We have effectively designed an sustainable agricultural development. approach support with a “tool box” of strategies, tools, and methods that can be Activity One: Creating a Process of applied effectively and appropriately to rural Community-Based Participatory communities throughout Latin America. Agricultural Development The following initiatives, developed in the past year, were carried out successfully The most important expected outcome of through this year (2002-2003): Project PLAN is the creation of a process, or 1 Intensified farmer/investigator joint model, of community-based participatory experimentation with pasture agricultural development with a “tool kit” of improvement (see Activity Five). approaches, methods, and guidelines for use 2. Increased focus on wildlife/ by development agents and/or communities. productive system conflicts (see In our previous workplans, the creation of this Activity Four). process was assumed as an outcome of the 3. Increased participation of host- other activities. For year six, we developed country community representatives in this Activity One to focus specific work aimed our annual planning meetings. at the development of the process itself. We 4. Increased focus on community are using this activity retroactively to allow group organizations (women’s groups space to discuss advances related to this key and producer groups) (see Activity work. Nine).

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Objective 1.1: Conceptualization of the PLAN promoting local planning and management for model of development and its component sustainable development. We will present the processes. “process” and the “context” for this goal of sustainable agricultural use. The “process” The community-based, sustainable approach comprises four types of processes development model approach we have that guide and integrate ways of seeing and developed defines a process-oriented approach working: holistic systems process thinking, designed for use by communities and learning processes, participatory processes, development agents to facilitate local and local planning processes (Figure 1). capabilities favorable to and feasible for Below we describe the rationale for the

Figure 1 - Project PLAN model for a local sustainable agricultural development process.

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131 Global Livestock CRSP selection, application, and interaction of these others, that management and planning at a four processes. larger scale, like the watershed, require Holistic systems process thinking communities cooperating toward shared emphasizes the inter-relatedness of everything interests. -- the understanding that any action taken will Learning processes emphasize affect everything else. It requires investigative research processes and different consideration of the bio-physical context and ways of thinking. Understanding different of the socio-cultural-economic context and the ways of learning and seeing is important in linkages between them. enlarging our appreciation of different learning Systems thinking stresses the inter-related, styles, as illustrated with the learning wheel and interconnectedness of everything and focuses different types of knowledge illustrated by the on linkages and processes -- how things are following contrasts: scientific vs. indigenous, interconnected, the processes that connect universal vs. particular, experimental vs. them, and the processes and the dynamics of experiential (observation and reflection), field systems. It means seeing systems as complex dependence vs. field independence, multi- vs. networks of causes and effects with feedback inter-disciplinary, reductive vs. intuitive, loops. This way of thinking increases the disciplinary vs. systems approach, positive realist understanding of the impacts of change and vs. constructed, and science vs. wisdom. unpredictability as inherent aspects of complex Understanding these contrasts contributes to the systems. This way of thinking offers a more effectiveness of the project and the PLAN effective means to identify leverage points and Process Approach. Participatory processes are limiting factors, and offers an important tool applied to three general goals: to support sustainable planning and adaptive Achieving participation. The first goal management. (achieving active, involved participation of Holistic systems process thinking requires local community members) is assumed as an an approach that is interdisciplinary essential, desired, and pervasive component (integration of biophysical and social of this project, and for community-based sciences), collaborative (partnerships with rural agricultural development in general. academics, practitioners, local government, While participatory approaches are almost and communities), and comparative (working universally included in development at different scales and across multiple sites). projects, their application is often Systems thinking leads directly to an problematical. The levels of participation understanding of the interdependence of intended and achieved differ significantly landscape and community, to the recognition among projects, from pseudo-participation of the importance of outside forces (such as to real participation in which local people from market and state), and informs the need have a controlling role in project decision- for communal planning and adaptive making. It is also important to note that the management at scales larger than individual processes through which participation is farm households. Holistic systems thinking elicited are quite varied (and often unspecified leads to the understanding that ecologically and undocumented); plus, the same process sound agriculture requires decision-making, may vary considerably in its application planning, and management at scales larger than between projects and, as a consequence, the the farm, that the actions of one affect the response/impact achieved may not

132 Annual Report 2003

Figure 2 - Community participation to community empowerment. Application of seven complementary suites of techniques to foster, facilitate, and strengthen a participatory process leading to local community empowerment.

  

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correspond to that intended. The complexity processes employed and the training, cultural and subtlety of social dynamics coupled with sensitivity, and skill of the facilitator. The differences in culture and power relations choice of processes to generate participation between the development agent/facilitator and depends on the goal for the participation. the local people make it exceedingly difficult The goal for participation, and hence the to achieve appropriate and genuine processes used, may vary according to the participation. specific activity and the subjects involved, In the case of participation, the ‘devil is in whether the focus is farmer experimentation the details’—its application depends on the or capacity building.

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For the purpose of strengthening local interdependent stakeholders with different capacity (which leads to community (and often conflicting) interests find that they empowerment), Project PLAN designed a need to scale up their decision-making to the strategy that combines seven different sets of higher system level and share in problem processes and tools (participatory, learning, definitions, accommodate multiple and planning processes) to foster community perspectives and ‘rich pictures,’ and negotiate development (Figure 2). The application of collective management decisions at this higher this participation-empowerment strategy is level. Area-based planning requires a currently being evaluated; the analysis of the consensual approach, in that ways forward evaluation will be completed over the next need to emerge from interaction among the several months. stakeholders—interactive plan formation. Participatory processes to support Participatory processes to create and cooperation. This involves enabling and support a learning community. Increased strengthening cooperation, inclusion, and appreciation of the variability and equity, and the capacity for collective action unpredictability of impacts on farming systems within local communities. Conflict within from environmental uncertainty has led to communities has been identified as one of increased recognition of the necessity of the main factors preventing effective adaptive management supported by an community organization, communal ongoing learning process. Reviews of planning, and collective actions. A key successful projects have stressed the means to enable improved cooperation is the importance of having an ongoing learning fostering and supporting of transformative process as part of the project, as well as in conflict resolution skills and processes. local communities. While many different Transformative conflict resolution differs projects include an ongoing learning process significantly from negotiation and mediation; as part of their approach, few appear to include the transformative approach emphasizes the elements necessary to develop an effective understanding each others’ needs, values, and learning organization or learning community. goals, the sharing of knowledge, and working Learning organizations depend on attitude and toward common interests in ways that method. It is the social, organizational nature nurture mutual development. These and intent of this process that makes it primarily techniques are not designed or intended to a participatory process rather than a learning replace local informal customary means for process. In fact it is both. The two-way flow of dealing with conflict, such as the social the arrows in our process tree are intended to mechanisms used for livestock/crop draw attention to the on-going, back-and-forth conflicts in the La Cueva area of Bolivia, as nature of the interplay of the four processes. studied in this project (see findings under Ecologically sound agriculture (ESA) Activity Six). These transformative processes involves multiple levels of decision-making. can be incorporated into any system to help Learning communities, farmer field schools, reduce conflict and contribute to more or learning groups are essential, not only equitable, supportive relationships and because learning ESA is an interactive process, increasing social capital. but also because the shift involves the whole The change required may be entirely at the network of institutions and agencies in which higher system level where multiple the farm is embedded.

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Local planning processes are important levels higher than the farm (soil and water tools to favor and support sustainable land use conservation, habitats for natural predators, and ecologically sound agriculture. Effective bio-diversity conservation, etc.). adaptive planning is informed and guided by Our view of the four processes is one of related complementary processes including a mutual interaction. Technical spatial tools like problem-solving process, a visioning process, geographic information systems (GIS) may be and monitoring and evaluation processes. The combined with resource mapping by the first phase of our project developed and farmers, using indigenous classification employed an iterative, problem-solving criteria to create resource maps of the process with considerable success. However, catchment in a process designed to help long-term community planning must be based farmers construct a shared perspective on the more on visioning processes and the need to catchment, and scale up their concerns to the incorporate an effective participatory catchment level. This example illustrates a monitoring and evaluations process. Within rich interaction of systems thinking, with two- PLAN, we are now in the initial stages of way learning in a participatory manner that adapting and applying a participatory system enriches the worldview of both outsider and focused on four capitals: natural, human, insider. social, and financial/built. These four capitals encompass the essential elements of Objective 1.2: Analysis of case studies of the sustainability in a form relevant to people who use of methodological processes in the are struggling to support their livelihoods on application of Project PLAN. their abilities and the health and wealth of their agro-ecosystems. However, directing the focus The inclusion of Professors Cornelia and of managing change toward ecologically sound Jan Flora in year six was instrumental in the agriculture makes much greater demands on the development of the following series of five understanding of learning than does the specific objectives for an analysis and promotion of ‘more of the same’ within the evaluation of the project processes and impact: conventional paradigm. It also makes much 1. Codify and measure the processes, greater demands on understanding social process for participatory watershed than conventional agriculture. research and development; Systems thinking creates new ways of 2. Develop indicators for impacts related thinking and draws attention to large-scale to human capital, social capital, natural factors that influence the local system. Seeing capital, and financial capital in the four and understanding the large system and sites; observing its interconnections gives both 3. Link project activity to policy balance and inspiration to the efforts as a outcomes at the four sites in the three community. Ecologically sound agriculture host-countries; requires change, not only at the farm level, 4. Analyze the process of building a but also at higher agro-ecosystem levels, such cross-site learning community to work as watersheds, biotopes, and landscapes. ESA for ecosystem health and community requires multi-level management. Conditions empowerment across Latin America in for growing healthy crops and animals and for order to help include other researchers accessing biomass must be created at system and practitioners in the process; and

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5. Conduct a comparative analysis of in providing an effective means to promote a community-based participatory relevant and useful integration of the multiple research-development strategies, components of sustainable development. expanding on the current work to include those theories and practices in Objective 1.4: Reflection-in-practice on the Spanish and implemented in Latin impact of Project PLAN on the vision and America. practices of team members and partner The Floras created a matrix to provide a institutions. common, systematic framework to guide the compilation and analysis across all the project During the PLAN annual conference/ sites. The host-country assessments are in workshop, we designed a framework to carry progress and intended to be completed and out an auto-evaluation of the impact and value analyzed by August 2004. of the project’s activities including components focused on “reflection-in-practice.” All three Objective 1.3: Comparison of the factors and host-country teams are carrying out this auto- conditions that favor changes in the interaction evaluation. Analysis and conclusions are of ecological, productive, and social systems expected to be completed by June 2004. within the context of local processes in the three countries under the framework of Project PLAN. Objective 1.5: Development of a plan for the Determining specific activities and actions to publication and dissemination (in Spanish and promote sustainable agriculture and overall English) of PLAN products: educational sustainable development. materials and scientific results.

For the overall practices of land use and An impressive number of student theses natural resource exploitation, the development (licentiatura and M.S. theses) have been must be sustainable ecologically, economically, completed in the last two years of the project, socially, culturally, and politically. While one and several are expected to be completed within can identify problems and actions related to each the next year or two. While a large number of of these components, the difficulty is how to scientific publications and several book-length integrate them all. The PLAN-Ecuador team projects are in various stages of progress and developed a mechanism to do this by ordering completion, the process has been moving more them in a pentagon and then focusing on the links slowly than our original plans. Several between each of the components (Figure 3). manuscripts have been published or are in press, They have successfully used this framework several others have already been submitted for while working with local producers and families publication, and others are in draft form. Overall, in grassroots organizations to identify problem we expect a number of articles to be published areas specifically involved with two or more over the next two years. In addition to formal sectors. After identifying the problems, the scientific publications, the host-country teams researchers and community members then have produced a number of reports to be identified strategies to solve problems or disseminated to government agencies and to improve the local situation by focusing on actions communities as part of the impact and future that involved two or more sectors. The model, development of the ongoing activities in the while appearing simple, is a major step forward target regions of the project.

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Objective 1.6: Strengthening and training of local organizations throughout the six years host-country collaborators, institutions, future of Project PLAN, contributing to the researchers, and practitioners. construction of the PLAN development model. This model represents an approach- Each result under all the activities has oriented, process-oriented interdisciplinary been a response to a focus, methodology, perspective in which research and proposal, and unique chance that has been development and theory and practice are constructed jointly with the participation of inseparably intertwined.

Figure 3 - PLAN pentagon of sustainability.

ECOLOGICAL

SOCIAL ECONOMIC

POLITICAL CULTURAL

137 Global Livestock CRSP

Activity Two: Changing Land Cover/Land cash crop has introduced a unique set of Use at the Scale of the Watershed constraints on land use, since it requires seven years to reach maturity, during which time the Objectives 2.1 and 2.2: Assessment of patterns entire plant is harvested. The long-term, up- of land cover/land use change in all three sites; front investment required can only be studies of land use potential, soil vulnerability, undertaken by large enterprises renting land and environmental impacts within the from local producers. The new crops of agave watershed to inform plans for watershed azul require large blocks of open land protection and management. resulting in a shift in crops such that large blocks of domestic maize and pasture are These studies of land change are valuable taken out of production for seven years and/ for providing a historical perspective on or new lands are created by additional changes in land use within these regions. This clearing of natural vegetation including information will allow some analyses and tropical deciduous forest, which serves as assessment of the possible factors, events, an important source of non-timber forest and policies that have influenced these products and cattle grazing as well as being changes. These studies, therefore, provide important sites for biodiversity with high an important background for informing levels of endemism (see Activities Three and current management, planning, and policy Four). What makes this land use conversion activities. Descriptive studies of land use/ even worse is that intercropping with other land cover change have already been commercial or domestic crops or even with completed for four sites and documents cover crops is typically prohibited. As a reporting these results are in varying stages consequence increased use of agro- of being finalized: the Tomatirenda and the chemicals are required and heavy rates of Rio La Sal watersheds (Bolivia) for 1967 and soil erosion result with serious consequences 1997, the Ayuquila River, the Ejido Zenzontla for the watershed and future land use (Mexico) for 1971, 1993, and 2000, and the options. When the agave was grown on a Cosanga watershed (Ecuador) for 1997 and smaller scale, local producers often 2000. employed traditional methods with inter- Impact on livestock production, natural cropping thus maintaining soil cover and also forests, and watershed serves by the expanded deriving additional benefits from some of the cultivation of agave azul. Agave azul (Agave interplanted crops. tequilana Weber) is the variety of agave used The PLAN-Mexico team has been active in the fabrication of tequila. Tequila, one of in documenting these recent changes in land the most important cultural and commercial use/land cover change due to this new national drinks of Mexico, is experiencing a expansion of agave azul and evaluation of its boom in popularity and demand in the environmental and socio-economic impacts international market. In response to this with the objective of generating more increase in demand and future promise, sustainable alternatives and designing cultivation of agave azul has expanded effective strategies and policies to protect the dramatically in the last few years in Project environment and promote a better model for PLAN’s study area in Jalisco, generating major sustainable economic and social development changes in land cover/ land use. This particular in the region.

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Objective 2.3: Promotion of restoration of Activity Three: Understanding the watershed protection forests. Dynamics of Extensive Livestock Production The Ayuquila River is seen by local farming communities as a critical source of Objective 3.1: Elaboration of an analytical water for irrigation, livestock, and drinking framework to understand the dynamics of and is also seen as a resource in danger of being semi-extensive, extensive, and transhumance lost due to pollution and changes in water flow. livestock production systems. Through different regional initiatives of the PLAN-Mexico team, including interaction Extensive livestock production systems with several PLAN activities (including (ELS) are characterized by the large scale over environmental education), local communities which the animals are deployed and by the and stakeholders have become directly involved apparent low level of inputs invested in the in activities to improve the situation. One of these production. In Latin America, extensive cattle activities is the restoration of riverine forests systems have been targeted as a primary cause along the river. This past year, 2,100 seedlings of deforestation as well as a cause of increased of native tree species (1,300 provided by the social and economic inequality. Furthermore, project community tree-nursery in Zenzontla) cattle as exotic species, partially supported have been planted along the Ayuquila River by with widespread planting of exotic and students and local groups. invasive grasses, have been implicated in multiple aspects of environmental degradation. Objective 2.4: Analyses/studies documenting If this story is true, then what are the options the current status and trends in water to achieve sustainable production? management issues within the study area Project PLAN, as both a development and watersheds. research project, began by examining whether this story is true. An integrated, collaborative, The Rio Ayuquila is important to marginal and community participatory study of the farming communities along the river as a nature and dynamics of four different ELSs in source of protein (fish) and as a supplementary Bolivia, Ecuador, and Mexico reveals much source of income for some families through greater complexity and multiple coherent the sale of fish and chacales (endemic crayfish stories. Here we present some of the sold as ‘shrimp’). Pollution in the river from perspectives we have learned from this study untreated sewage, sugar refinery wastes, and in progress. agriculture has seriously degraded the quality Two initial points are important to of water and the abundance and diversity of consider: 1) Diversity of ELSs. ELSs have fish. Efforts over the last few years to reduce been developed in both traditional form and sources of pollutions and to recuperate the more recent variants in a wide range of watershed of the river have resulted in environments in many areas of the world and demonstrable improvements. Systematic show a wide range of variation in component monitoring of biological indices in the river and dynamics. In Latin America, ELSs are over the last year (four samples for fish and often associated with shifting (slash & burn) six for aquatic invertebrates) has shown agriculture and may include the practice of increases in populations of both groups. interplanting crops with grasses to increase the

139 Global Livestock CRSP production of livestock forage. The forests the size of an animal, coupled with its needs themselves are often included as a component and risks, is often manifested as an overlapping of the foraging systems, particularly so where series of concentric areas in which small the climates show strong seasonality in animals are kept close to the homestead, rainfall. medium-sized animals maintained within the 2) Variations among system components. daily domain of control from the homestead The extensiveness or intensiveness of (typically on the property of the farm), and livestock production systems is a relative larger animals arrayed over a much larger area. distinction-not only do systems labeled as This series suggests that intensification of “extensive” vary in their degree of production might be expected to be greater for intensification, but, more significantly, they smaller animals. vary in the degree of intensification among the However, in farm communities dominated different components of these systems. by small landholders, the radius of areas used A few of the general components of a by cattle may frequently be greater than the livestock production system are compared in area owned or controlled by individual Table 1 with respect to possible simple farmers. The problem of having access to characterizations of intensive vs. extensive appropriate land (sufficient in quality and expressions. We can offer examples where the extent) increases in complexity in seasonal degree of intensification of any single factor environments, such as occurs in our sites in does not necessarily co-vary with the other Bolivia and Mexico. Under these conditions, factors. As an example, some ELSs in Latin individual farmers with cattle must negotiate America may be so “extensive” in all arrangements with neighboring landowners to components that the animals behave and are obtain access to the type and extent of land treated as feral (e.g., mustangs). Contrast this needed to maintain their herds. Successful with “extensive” transhumant systems in production for these farmers requires southern Bolivia where the high level of managing complex social interrelations attention paid to the cattle may be designated complicated by environmental variability in as intensive within the simple comparisons time and space. portrayed in the table. Even the unimodal Forage availability in time and space. characterization of individual components, In west central Mexico and in southern such as management, has not been useful for Bolivia, strong seasonality alters the temporal understanding. Extensive production is not and spatial availability and quality of sources synonymous with a lack of management. One of forage. In west central Mexico and in the may argue that management occurs in all Timboy area of Bolivia, cattle are moved into production systems: the differences between the forest to feed during the wet season while systems are related to differences in the type pasture and crops are growing outside the of management. forest; then, at the end of the rainy season after Animal size and management the corn has been harvested, the cattle are implications. The type and degree of moved out of the forest to feed in mature intensification of a production system can be pastures and on stover in harvested corn fields. seen as an outcome of a complex interaction The changeover periods may often be critical, of a series of biophysical and socio-cultural- due to variability in the length and intensity economic factors. Within a given landscape, of the rains. Poor quality and availability of

140 Annual Report 2003 forage at the end the dry season may result in Why? This site is wetter than the others; the loss of animals that are already weak or rains come in the winter season when it is stressed. A sample of body condition of herds cooler. The farmers say that the cattle do not near Timboy, Bolivia, at the end of an extended do well in the damp, cold forest, and that cattle dry season showed one fifth of the cows to in forest then contract higher parasite loads. have a score of 0.75 out a scale of 1 to 5. However, in dry season, the forest still retains Farmers can compensate for difficult times by substantial forage for the cattle after the selectively moving particular cattle. pastures are done growing. Both cycles are The choice in cycle is not a simple one. compromises, but the costs are different. Figure 4 (following page) shows two Getting access to land and forage— sequences of the seasonal movement of cattle alternative social pathways. The reported between forest and pasture/cropland. Cycle “multiple coherent stories” arise from the A shows the movements described for west different pathways through which such central Mexico and the Timboy area of Bolivia. management is achieved. For example, in Below that, cycle B shows the movements Zenzontla, Mexico, producers achieve access followed in the La Cueva area of Bolivia, to the space needed by renting land; whereas which is the REVERSE pattern. At this site, in La Cueva, Bolivia, producers obtain use of the cattle feed in the pastures through the rainy the necessary land through reciprocal access season as they are growing; then, they move agreements among neighbors. This extensive into the forest to browse during the dry season. management system permits resource-poor

Table 1 - Variation in components of intensive vs. extensive livestock production systems. Shaded cells indicate typical components in the extensive systems studied.

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141 Global Livestock CRSP farmers to maintain more animals possible • Poor quality forage and, therefore, within the limitations of their individual lands. underweight and poor condition. The lower management requirements allow • Poor condition decreases resistance to allocation of limited resources and labor to disease and predation. other activities. The disadvantages that arise • Higher risk of predation. from intermingling of herds are: Agricultural options to improve the • Higher parasite loads and more rapid system. Various options to improve these spread of disease. Extensive Livestock Production Systems are • Inbreeding and lower rates of being studied through participatory action reproduction. research with individual farmers, local

Figure 4 - Typical seasonal migration shift of cattle in Mexico and Bolivia. A - Typical Seasonal Migration Shift of Cattle: B - Reverse Pattern Followed by Cattle in La Cueva: Wet Season Feeding in Forest Wet Season Feeding in Pastures Dry Season Feeding in Pastures and Crop Residues Dry Season Feeding in Forest

142 Annual Report 2003

Figure 5 - Current forage management (above) and proposed forage management (below).

Forage for Forage Use Critical Time Silage Use Silage

producers’ associations, and farming • The larger the type of livestock, the more communities. Figure 5 provides a comparison space/head needed. between the current ELS being followed in • The greater the foraging area/head Zenzontla, Mexico, and a proposed system needed, the lower the growth rate and to improve the availability of forage hence potential value/head. throughout the year. The proposed system • The greater the foraging area/head, the includes several integrated components less control possible. including agro-forestry, new forage crops, • The lower the value/head, lower and silage. Other options dealing with market prices, and higher costs of animal breeding and health are also being inputs lead to lower input/head in considered. These options, however, must resources or labor. be considered within the entire • Lower land tenure security; lower environmental and socio-cultural economic likelihood of investment in land system of the locality. improvements. Interaction of factors revisited. Consider In conclusion, cattle production should be the following series of hypotheses influencing examined within a holistic context, including the type of production system, investment in social, economic, cultural and ecological aspects. the system, and options for intensification: • The lower forage productivity/ha, the more space/head needed.

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Objective 3.2: Analysis of impact of cattle Canavalia spp.) that have high potential as foraging on native vegetation and important forage species. The tropical dry regeneration. forests present several advantages over typical monocultures of exotic grasses since the In Mexico, researchers have cataloged 423 forests provide overall higher levels of plant species eaten by cattle in the Sierra de biomass and a diversity of forage species Manantlan. Of those species, cattle eat the spread throughout the year. In addition to foliage of 201 species, flowers or fruits of 47 livestock forage, these tropical forests also species, the meristem of three species, and the provide many other valuable products for local entire plant of 34 species (the parts eaten for farming communities, such as foods, the remaining species have not been recorded). medicines, and wood. The distribution of these forage species according to plant family is interesting: while Objective 3.3: Evaluation of the options and the greatest number, 105, are of the family consequences of the extensive livestock Graminae, there are also 77 species of production systems. Leguminosae, 32 of Malvaceae, 15 of Verbenaceae, 14 of Compositae, and 13 of Mexico. The Mexico team is developing Moraceae. a book of contributed papers on the “Current Among tree species preferred as forage by State and Perspectives of Extensive Livestock cattle, several are important candidates for Production in the Sierra de Manantlan (SM)” agro-forestry uses (for livestock forage as well (Estado Actual y Perspectivas de la Ganaderia as other uses): Brosimum alicastrum (mojote), Extensiva en la Sierra de Manantlan). The Enterolobium cyclocarpum (parota), Guazuma book will be comprised of sections on the ulmifolia (guazima), Sideroxylon capiri current state of livestock production in (capiro), Prosopis laevigata (mesquite), Mexico, and, within the Sierra de Manantlan Chiocca alba, Bernardia gentryana, Ziziphus region (the focal region of Project PLAN), mexicana (amole), Pisonia aculeate (garabato sections on livestock production and society, prieto), Acacia riparia, and Leucaena the interaction of livestock and biodiversity, esculenta. the dynamics of livestock in tropical forests, Within these agro-ecosystems, while some extensive livestock production in the context exotic grasses (e.g., Chloris cayana, of a protected area, and perspectives on Andropogon gayanus, and Panicum directions of action. maximum) produce more biomass than most The model contemplated by livestock native species, some native species (e.g., producers for livestock development continues Verbesina greenmanii, Leucaena esculenta, to follow that of extensive livestock production and Acacia riparia) provide high levels of with low or no investments and limited crude protein (see publication Carranza, et al. interventions from the producer, with no 2002). There are also a number of native intensification of land use. From the view of species of grasses (Tripsacum, Ixophorus, the producers, the available resource has not Paspalum, Ripidocladum, Chusquea, Lasiacis, yet reached its limits—they currently see the and Pharus spp.) and, particularly, legumes existing forest as providing sufficient forage (Giricidia, Crotalaria, Phaseolus, Melilotus, during the rainy season. The limiting factor Desmodium, Aeschynomene, Acacia, and for livestock development has been the lack

144 Annual Report 2003 of available forage at the end of the dry season. not be seen as suitable alternatives to the The solution adopted has been to transform multiple values and high diversity of the dry forested areas (which have been the source of tropical forests themselves. forage during the rains) into planted pastures Bolivia. Introduced agro-silvo-pastoral to serve as the source of forage as much in the cattle production system. Livestock rainy season as in the dry season and with a production within this region is primarily higher production of forage per hectare than extensive and is often the cause of severe is currently available. Due to the lack of ecosystem problems: soil erosion, soil regulations on land use practices, this compaction, loss of soil fertility, loss of forage conversion of forests to pastures will probably species, invasion of undesirable weeds, and accelerate through the region. Such a degradation of the watershed. In collaboration conversion represents a serious problem for with PLAN, Centro de Estudios Regionales y the future since extensive livestock production Desarrollo de Tarija (CER-DET) has been is not sustainable under current practices with working with the Guarani to introduce a multiple negative impacts, such as the higher different, potentially more ecologically rates of soil erosion from pastures and the sustainable system of cattle production increase in the spread of destructive forest fires through a complex agro-silvo-pastoral due to burning of pastures. Further conversion management system appropriate to the of forests to pasture, with the associated biophysical conditions of this zone and degradation of soils and watersheds, will adapted to take advantage of local vegetation reduce the ability of these agro-ecosystems to structure. The strategy of introducing this maintain this type of exploitation, as well as cattle production initiative in the Guarani reducing the possibilities for other options. communities in the Itika Guasu region was From multiple perspectives—social, designed to contribute to the local management economic, and ecological—cattle production of indigenous Guarani territory with two has great implications in the future for the principal objectives: a) to improve the quality Sierra de Manantlan as well as other similar of life through diversification of livestock and regions of Mexico. The problem of increased commercialization; and b) to use this development and conservation in this region activity to promote greater local participation of Mexico will be closely tied to the production of the Guarani people in decision-making for of livestock in the future. Sustainable livestock the sustainable use and management of natural production appears to be possible only by resources at communal and regional levels maintenance of the diverse tropical dry forest within their indigenous territory. and protection of its soils, to be accomplished Analysis of transhumant cattle production through sustainable use of the forest for systems in Tarija. Cattle transhumance is a livestock forage and appropriate use of its practice encountered in various parts of the other beneficial products and services. world. It arises where environmental Successful agro-silvo-pastoral systems using conditions determined by the presence of some of the native leguminous, forage species mountains and seasonal variation in the may well play a valuable complementary role production of forage imposes a system of with the forests by increasing the sustainable family herd management that permits the production of crops outside of forests for dry translocation of the herds, or parts of them, season forage; however, these systems should between different ecological zones to track

145 Global Livestock CRSP favorable environmental conditions as they effective order in which to use these areas, a appear throughout the annual cycle. It is a cultural institution that controls the collective practice of montane environments, whose management of these discontinuous but ecological basis is the altitudinal migration of strategically linked “production territories. mammalian herbivores that follows the In this manner, a space of interaction and phenological wave of forage production along interdependence is constructed between altitudinal gradients. It is also a practice livestock producers and individual places— directly associated with small-scale family constituting an institutional arrangement production units, which typically occur in creating a collective management territory for these landscapes. Their production systems livestock production that includes biophysical are typically extensive in character, involving and socio-economic dimensions, generating a a great diversification of activities and the use transhumant territory. of the greatest area of land possible. These Through this mechanism, inaccessible family systems are characteristically isolated areas are incorporated into regional economic and marginalized. circuits, as is the case with the winter pasture Raising livestock in these variable and sites, which would probably be empty were it generally nonproductive montane not for these customary transhumant systems. environments of Tarija requires small The occupation of this inaccessible territory producers with limited access to fertile land by the transhumant producers has likely to seek spaces suitable for the livestock but favored the maintenance of environmental not good for crop cultivation. Livestock quality that provides efficient environmental production depends on the potential services. productivity of natural pastures, which in turn This transhumant cattle production system varies seasonally and altitudinally. The has thus evolved into an institution that fulfills seasonal movements of family herds among various functions, including the strengthening different ecological zones and altitudes of cultural identity based on the farmers’ provide a means to overcome this production practices. It also favors the environmental contingency in these montane incorporation of livestock production under regions. Transhumance is a possible local control of transhumant households and alternative in western Tarija due to the communities. The transhumant cattle conjunction of three different ecological production system is, by definition, part of a systems: 1) the alpine grasslands of the high logic of diversification that permits farm mountains and hills that surround the central families to reduce their risk in the context of valley of Tarija; 2) the pastures in the central constant change; therefore, it is part of a viable valley; and 3) the montane forests covering strategy in the fight against poverty. the foothills of the lower Andean mountain The re-evaluation of these transhumance ranges stretching out east of the central valley. cattle production systems is important, along Transhumant families move their herds with the reconsideration of the Tolomosa- seasonally among these three ecological zones Lacajes transhumant cattle production system, from one space to another, in the form of as a viable alternative for local development. discontinuous territories, rather like an In the interests of the sustainable development archipelago of productive islands. The groups of the region, this interesting livestock of transhumant farmers have developed an production practice should not be ignored. Its

146 Annual Report 2003

cultural, economic, ecological, and political deterioration of riparian zones, affecting implications are of vital importance for the multiple species of amphibians, turtles, and large part of the rural population of the territory fish, as well as riparian mammals such as studied here. otters. Forests also experience fragmentation and Activity Four: Optimizing the Interactions loss of natural habitats, affecting: a) forest- between Biodiversity and Agro-Ecosystems: dependent species, especially those dependent Conflicts and Uses of Animal and Plant on interior and/or dense, tall forests; b) those Species species that require larger blocks of forest such as mountain lions and jaguars, deer, several Objective 4.1: Development of an analytical species of bats and rodents, and a number of framework of the interactions between of endemic bird species. There is an increase production systems and biodiversity. in some species that are favored by the changes noted above. These include more widespread This objective is scheduled to be open-habitat and forest-edge species, such as completed by a special biodiversity group cowbirds, which results in a greater negative formed with representatives from each of the impact and competition with native forest- Project PLAN teams. The group is planning dependent species. a book containing the diverse wildlife/ Crop depredation by rodents: production system interactions, followed by evaluation of the ecological effects of rock syntheses including an analytical framework. barriers created for soil conservation in Mexico (M). All management actions have Objective 4.2: Assessment of the nature and multiple effects, several of which were not impact of several key conflicts between wildlife intended and/or not taken into account in and production systems. planning. In Mexico, one of the soil conservation practices (introduced prior to Impact of extensive grazing on Project PLAN) has been to move the many biodiversity. There are changes in forest stones in crop fields to create rock barriers along dynamics and forest plant communities due contour lines, impeding soil erosion. While this to compaction, differential selection of practice has continued to be encouraged under preferred forage species, elimination of rare Project PLAN, we have also instigated an or preferred plant species, and increased evaluation of the practice in terms of: 1) the dissemination of seeds of both exotics and values of these barriers for reducing soil erosion, open habitat plants into the forest interior in and 2) evaluating their effect on the attraction of new openings and sites disturbed by livestock fauna into the fields. These rock barriers may activity. attract some fauna, such as rodents, that may be Forest degradation also results in the pests of grain crops; however, they may also modification of microhabitats, a general provide beneficial refuges and foraging sites for increasing in the levels of light and heat native species that are beneficial and/or of accompanied by a reduction in availability of concern to conservationists. humid microsites needed by amphibians, as Amphibians and reptiles found included well as by some species of lizards, snakes, frogs (Eleutherodactylus hobartsmithii) and shrews, and rodents. Other effects include the lizards of the genera Sceloporus,

147 Global Livestock CRSP

Cnemidophorus, and Anolis, and juveniles of Reducing risk of attacks on cattle in high the iguana species, Ctenosauria pectinata. slope pastures. The unusual switch of behavior These species use the barriers as a refuge that causes bears to begin attacking cattle appears during the dry season. The principal mammals to be engendered when a bear is first able to feed found include four rodent species: Liomys at the carcasses of dead cattle left in high altitude pictus, Sigmodon mascatensis, Reithrodon- pastures, areas without frequent human presence tomys fulvescens, and Baiomys musculus. The which are close to forest edges. Therefore, one rock barriers provide the rodents safe refuges obvious preventive practice to reduce the from predators. These rodents are most likelihood of future bear attacks is for cattle abundant in the fields during the rains while producers/caretakers to check their herds the crops are growing, and breeding in these regularly and bury or remove any dead cattle. species corresponds to this time of peak Changing the use of high altitude forested production. The first two species were most areas from pasture to forestry or scientific abundant in these cultivated fields and are tourism. The high altitude pastures offer poor considered by local farmers to cause serious short-term benefits. Allowing the restoration/ damage to crop production. regeneration of these pastures to forest (with Cattle depredation by Spectacled or without enrichment planting of native Bears in Ecuador (E). Severe depredation timber species) would provide future value for of cattle occurred in Project PLAN’s target timber production and would restore critical communities, with more than 25 cases of habitat to the Andean Spectacled Bear. Due cattle attacked by the endangered spectacled to the high interest of the world conservation bear in the year 2002. No previous cases were community in the Andean Spectacled Bear, known in this area prior to these attacks. A organizations of local farmers and landowners study by PLAN researchers described the have a good opportunity to promote “scientific situation and presented hypotheses about tourism” through collaboration with Project possible causal factors leading to this unusual PLAN conservation NGO partners Fundación and costly case of livestock loss for the local Antisana (FUNAN) and Alianza Jatun Sacha/ farmers. This case was all the more important Centro de Datos para la Conservación (JS/CDC). due to the high global value placed on the Income from scientific tourism centered around endangered Andean Spectacled Bear—the the bear and high avian biodiversity of the area only bear species in South America. An could augment local farmer household income undetermined number of bears were poisoned as well as providing a fund to compensate those by local farmers in response to these episodes local farmers who lose cattle to bears. of depredation. The attacks appear to have Crop depredation by birds in Bolivia stopped since a local hunter killed the bear (B). A systematic study of depredation by thought to be responsible for the majority of birds on maize was made on six parcels: three the kills. Studies conducted by PLAN located near the river (lowlands with better researchers working with local farmers soil) and three located near the forest (steeper produced the following two recommendations slopes). Depredation on the maize crops was to reduce the likelihood of future losses and made during the time of seeding and to decrease the damaging conflict between germination and during the time of harvest. livestock and this potentially valuable The principal birds identified as pests for endangered species. maize were parrots and parakeets (principally

148 Annual Report 2003

Pyrrhura molinae and Pionus maximiliani), a represented stakeholders in river management jay (Cyanocorax chrysops), an oropendula strategies and their opinions on environmental (Psarocolius decumanus), a thrush (Turdus quality and management of the river should be rufiventris), and a cowbird (Molothrus included in larger-scale strategies. We presented badius). During the period of seeding and a description of the fishery of the Ayuquila germination (October to November), the losses and the results of surveys regarding the were very low, estimated as 1.4% in fields near perspective of fishermen towards the river and 1.6% in fields near forest. During environmental quality and river management. the time of the harvest (from the maturation of We suggested some strategies that could the maize to the harvest—April to June), losses improve the condition of the fishery in the were estimated as 11.4% in fields near the river Ayuquila. Riparian subsistence fisheries are and 14.5% in fields near forest. The difference little studied in the world, but represent a core in losses was significant between the seasons but process in regional management schemes. Our was not significant between fields near the river study strategy gives light to studies that should compared to those near the forest. These losses be carried out in other reserve areas where the were not seen as of great importance; however, well being of rural communities is coupled in years with a poorer yield, the losses may well with the conservation of natural resources. be more important. The higher losses when the maize is mature could be reduced significantly Objective 4.4: Development of environmental by harvesting the maize as soon as it is ready. education/environmental plan to engage local Further study is needed to identify and assess people in generating alternatives based on the economically feasible alternatives to control use of biodiversity. depredation by birds near the time of harvest. In Mexico, local educational programs Objective 4.3: Analysis of the importance of aimed at children and families using birds, subsistence fishing activities within the nature, and conservation themes have been Ayuquila River watershed (M). used as a means to raise interest in local people involved in nature and environmental The subsistence and artisanal fishery of the problems. This is part of a strategy to Ayuquila River is of major importance for the increase the participation of local well-being of rural communities in the Sierra community members in the process of de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve. The fishery identifying problems and in the activities of is unimportant in a commercial sense because Project PLAN. As part of this strategy, they there are multiple economic activities in the are preparing pamphlets and bulletins region. However, it has tremendous value for describing the activities and research of nutrition, recreation, social bonding, and as a Project PLAN investigators in ways that are source of traditional knowledge for river accessible and relevant to local communities— restoration. The fishery has been affected by producers and their families. The participants environmental problems including pollution and of Project PLAN are committed to working overexploitation. Some amelioration of these with the communities in the project’s study problems has occurred as a result of the area for the long-term, so these strategies intervention of reserve managers and researchers. developed under Project PLAN will be However, fishermen in the Ayuquila are under- continued.

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Activity Five: Experimenting with Forages, kikuyu grass pastures has a positive effect Crops, and Agricultural Management on milk yield. In Rotations 2 and 3, Practices to Improve Production and respectively, individual cows grazing pasture Sustainability of Agro-Ecosystems with greater than 15% lotus produced 27 and 40% more milk per day than cows grazing Objective 5.1: Experimentation with pasture grass pastures (0 to 5% lotus) (Table 2). Once improvement through improved forage mixes. established, the semi-improved and improved systems generated revenues that were 128 and A farmer-managed study was conducted 271% respectively of the yearly returns seen in the community of Las Palmas, Ecuador to with conventional pastures (Table 3). The quantify changes in milk yield that result when leadership role that producers assumed in this the legume lotus (Lotus uliginosis Schkuhr) research has encouraged local and regional is included in pastures dominated by kikuyu participation in pasture improvement grass (Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst). activities. Milk yield data were collected from dairy cows (Bos taurus) during three separate grazing Objective 5.2: Assessment and rotations. Each rotation consisted of up to experimentation with alternative forage 11 paddocks that were divided into three systems that strengthen the sustainability of treatment groups according to the percent the local traditional livestock production lotus of total vegetation within each section. system. Treatments were the following: 1) greater than 15% lotus; 2) 10 to 15% lotus; and 3) 0 A farmer-managed evaluation of improved to 5% lotus. Following data collection, an cultivars of three forage legume species enterprise budget analysis was conducted to adapted to temperate climates was conducted compare monetary returns on conventional, in Las Palmas, Ecuador. Two cultivars each semi-improved, and improved pasture of white clover (Trifolium repens L.), red systems. Results from this research clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and kura demonstrate that incorporating lotus into clover (Trifolium ambiguum M. Bieb.) were

Table 2 - Comparison of dairy cow milk production on kikuyu grass pastures with three different levels of lotus.     '"+    + + + !84 2 N46  N 4N$5 44444444444444444444444444444444(2,4 54444444444444444444444444444444 P(     4(     4(    2 =   #+   8A!!) 4  ,2 

150 Annual Report 2003

Table 3 - Returns (US $ ha-1 yr-1) prorated over a five-year period for conventional, semi-improved, and improved pasture management systems.

    )
'F&1/ 1/*    
1:   :    #2      + #     + ##     31   )
'F&1/ 1/* G33 /G6/ G09 B CA  #:B CCA  #   

sown into pastures on three farms. Design and implementation for the Establishment and performance of these introduction of non-native, herbaceous legumes was poor, likely because of low soil legumes to enable maize production on P and pH, and they are not practical degraded soils in abandoned fields (E). alternatives to the very well adapted Lotus uliginosis previously introduced to the region. In the wet highlands of Ecuador, the During this past year, the community tree conventional system of maize (Zea mays L.) nursery in Las Vantanas has produced 4,500 production is an erosive and extractive process tree seedlings for forage, timber, and fruits. that could be made more sustainable through The great majority were used for agro-forestry alternative management practices. A farmer- to create living fences to improve pasture assisted study was conducted in the agrarian separation, increase soil fertility (with community of Las Palmas, Ecuador to test the leguminous species), and provide cattle forage. use of lotus (Lotus uliginosis Schkuhr) living The principal research in this area has been in mulch for maize production. Treatments were Mexico, with the goal of improving soil no-till maize with: 1) 0 kg N ha-1; 2) 100 kg N fertility and forage availability in cultivated ha-1; 3) 200 kg N ha-1; and 4) lotus living maize fields (M) through agro-forestry mulch. Maize grain yields of the 200 kg N experiments with the introduction of and lotus living mulch treatments were double leguminous trees (Leucaena leucocephala and those of the 0 and 100 kg N treatments (Table L. esculenta) along contour erosion barriers 4). But these differences were not statistically within fields. Five different parcels are being significant (p = 0.10) at either location and studied as part of a collaborative research population density was not different among initiative with local farmers. After serious treatments at Location 1, but was different at setbacks in earlier trials with 100% die-offs Location 2. The lack of treatment differences in drought years, they have achieved a 92% for grain and population density may be survival rate of planted trees in the fields. The attributed to a high degree of random results from experiments are now being experimental error. Results demonstrate that analyzed. grain yields from maize produced in lotus living mulch are similar to those of no-till Objective 5.4: Experimentation with improved maize with 0 kg N ha-1, the closest crop production systems. Activities to increase approximation of conventional maize the production of cultivated crops through cultivation. Consequently, farmers who practices to rehabilitate degraded systems. produce maize in lotus living mulch can expect

151 Global Livestock CRSP

Table 4 - Maize yield and population density under four treatments at two locations in Las Palmas, Ecuador.    (     '   4  / 4   4  / 4   111111111111111"&1/111111111111111 11111111111111 &1/1111111111111 D"!%4        

D"!%4       

D"!%4      

((8" $2%      

3    D      #+    +   ,2 $8A!!%

to reap the soil remediation benefits of legume • Types of access to natural resources associations, with no yield loss. Maize (buy-sell, inheritance, ‘arriendo’, etc.) cultivation in legume living mulch could be a in the current system of land tenure in sustainable, low cost, and profitable alternative the zone. to the region’s conventional system of maize production, yet further study would be required Objective 6.2: Explore the nature of conflict before the use of legume living mulch could be situations over natural resources and the use recommended to farmers. of local conflict resolution mechanisms.

Activity Six: Improving Systems of Use and An important aspect of community Conflict Resolution over Natural Resources organization that has significant impact on livestock production systems and on natural Objective 6.1: Develop a useful framework resource sustainability is access to resources- of information in each site regarding the the rules and practices that determine a relationship between tenure systems and family’s ability to access and control land and natural resource management. Investigate other natural resources. Land and natural contextual factors (economic, cultural, resource tenure systems vary across the three political) that influence the relationship Project PLAN countries, with different between tenure systems and natural resource property systems and different specific management. Synthesis of information on property rights in each site. These different natural resource tenure systems and use of property systems and rights sometimes overlap natural resources, at site level and overall spatially, requiring careful management to project level: avoid potentially conflictive situations. In • Analysis of tenure norms and addition, land and other natural resources are practices: formal, customary, and not equitably distributed among households informal. in the communities. Although the • Analysis of current legal property communities are composed mostly of rights in each area. smallholder families, some families do not

152 Annual Report 2003 have sufficient land to support themselves, Agrarian legislation that promoted settlement while other families have been able to of Amazon frontier regions in the 1960s accumulate large extensions of land. Conflict required clearing and cultivation of at least over land and other natural resources is of 50% of the land claimed by the settler special interest to Project PLAN because household in order to claim title; that conflict often results in deficient natural requirement was reduced to 25% in 1972. resource management. Environmental legislation, on the other hand, One of the primary prerequisites established national reserves in the Quijos and promoting sustainable land use is secure land Cosanga watershed areas, forbidding the tenure and secure resource use rights. In our cutting down of forests. Often, the boundaries target communities, there are residents with of these reserves included land claimed by secure title, others with customary titles settlers, creating land tenure insecurity among without legal papers, squatters with or without those families. Aggravating this problem is rights, residents with conflicting titles, the fact that often state officials in charge of absentee landlords, and others without access the reserves and the land titling offices are not to land. Social sustainability is not feasible familiar with legislative conflicts and gaps, and without some regularization of these sometimes not even that knowledgeable about situations. This activity is designed to clarify the rules and regulations of their own agency. the legal and common law context within This creates confusion and uncertainty with which these communities fall. regard to land rights and land use regulations A full and well-developed picture of land among the families in the Quijos and Cosanga rights in the three countries will afford us an valleys, particularly those in the buffer zones understanding of the complexities involved in and along the reserve boundaries. the situation. This understanding will enable A study initiated in 2001 showed that land us to affect policy and conditions of land tenure distribution is highly skewed and that land – if not directly, then through our work with conflicts among households have highly local government, as part of the integrated negative impacts on the community. Further nature of our project activities. interviews and data analysis carried out this During the past year, the three countries past year show that a significant percentage have continued to collect information on the (11%) of the households in the Quijos and natural resource tenure rules and practices for Cosanga valleys do not own land and must their sites in order to better prevent and manage either enter into sharecropping agreements or land conflicts and improve livestock and work as day laborers. Those families who do natural resource management. not have legal title to the land they occupy In the Ecuador site (a watershed area make up 25% of landholders in the area—these settled over the last century, but more intensely families are vulnerable in that other families since the 1950s by farmers from other regions), or the state could make a claim for the land the majority of the households have legal they are working. The percentage is extremely documentation for their land. Land problems high in some communities such as Cosanga, persist, however. State policy in Ecuador, where 54% of the families have no legal particularly conflicting environmental and documentation to their land. This insecurity agrarian legislation, has been detrimental for with regard to land rights is a great obstacle to the environment and for tenure security. social cohesion and community organization,

153 Global Livestock CRSP particularly in those communities where tenure A possible reason for this caution is to avoid insecurity is highly prevalent. The impact of conflicts that may arise from parcelizing ejido tenure insecurity for natural resource land and granting full property rights to current management is also evident in the extractive occupiers. practices used by households that use short- Earlier PLAN research in one ejido term livelihood strategies such as lumbering. (Zenzontla) showed that in spite of egalitarian This study also found gender bias with regard rhetoric with regard to ejido land access, to land rights. In spite of constitutional distribution of land rights was not only guarantees to equal property rights for men somewhat concentrated, a substantial number and women, it was found that in 69% of the of community families (51%) had no access properties with legal title, only the male head to land or only indirect access. During this of household is listed on the title. Women held past year, a study in another community 12% of the titles and couples only 10%. (Ahuacapan) revealed that 47% were landless Interviews revealed that even where joint title and that the Gini coefficient (for land is held by the couple, in most cases the male concentration) was high: 0.86. head of household makes the major land Future land tenure work on the Ayuquila management and farming decisions, reflecting watershed will break down the municipal-level cultural values and norms prevalent in data by locality in order to have a more detailed Ecuadorian society. This control over these picture of land tenure relations. UdG household’s major asset—land—by male CUCSUR also plans to study land conflicts in heads of household contributes to the the Zenzontla ejido in order to establish with vulnerability of women and children. the community a conflict management process The Ayuquila River watershed in Mexico for the resolution of these disputes. contains numerous ejido communities, a The team working on land tenure and particular type of customary tenure regime conflicts in Bolivia has studied two very formalized in the Mexican constitution. In different situations. La Cueva is a community order to have a broader picture of formal land of smallholder farmers and livestock tenure relations in the lower Ayuquila producers. Pasture requirements over the watershed, the Universidad de Guadalajara, summer and winter seasons oblige livestock Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur (UdG owners to move their herds, at times causing CUCSUR) collected data over the past year conflicts over access to land for either grazing for eight municipal areas and established an or simply passage. Formal legislation does not Excel database. A preliminary analysis of the adequately deal with these types of land conflict database reveals that while private property is situations. While the potential for these conflicts the dominant property form (66%), ejidal land is high, research has found that informal rules represents a strong 34% of the production land. and practices among smallholder groups, driven Ejidos in Mexico have been undergoing by the need to keep disruptive conflicts at a change since the early 1990s when legislation minimum and the need to assure future access was passed that liberalized property rules with to land, avoid the escalation of disputes into legal regard to ejido land rights, approximating them and/or violent conflicts. to individualized private property. It appears The other Bolivian site is a Guarani that in the Manantlan area, ejidos have been indigenous community in Tomatirenda that has cautious to adopt full private property rules. experienced the loss of most of their land

154 Annual Report 2003 through the invasion of large livestock tenure problems. The most prevalent are: (1) producers. In its 1995 constitution, the concentrated land ownership structures leaving Bolivian state recognized indigenous territorial many households with little or no access to rights and the Guarani communities in land, and (2) conflicting rules and regulations southern Bolivia have attempted to reclaim among state agencies regarding land rights and their land. The regulations of the 1995 land use. Both of these problems contribute legislation, however, permit “third parties” (in to land tenure insecurity and poor management this case, the livestock owners) to make their of natural resources. These situations may then claim for land first; the amount these result in conflicts over land access, land rights, “terceros” are able to claim is based on the and land use among smallholders and between amount of livestock they own—5 hectares per smallholders and state agencies. An head of cattle plus 30-50% more land for future understanding of these conflict situations herd growth. The Guarani communities are permits communities and households to more then allocated land in unclaimed areas. Project effectively resolve conflicts or transform them PLAN has provided some support to this into positive socio-economic change. process, particularly in paralegal support. A monitoring of the ranchers’ claims has Activity Seven: Improving Food Security found that the sizes of their livestock herds and Health at the Level of the Family and are inflated in order to obtain more land. The Community result is that more land is allocated for the cattle of ranch owners than for the human Food-based approaches are often beings living in the Guarani communities. A illustrated as a sustainable approach because study by CER-DET found that Guarani the process empowers individuals and communities were allocated an average of 1 households to take ultimate responsibility for hectare per family while ranch owners were the quality of their diet by growing their own allocated 7.5 hectares per head of cattle— nutrient-rich foods and making informed medium-sized ranches range from 500 to 2,500 consumption choices. hectares and there are large ranches over 2,500 hectares. CER-DET has worked with the Objective 7.1: Validation of a food security Guarani communities in assisting them with instrument. legal and technical assistance to monitor the allocation process by verifying the actual In the past, focus groups were used prior existence and sizes of livestock herds. This to the survey and the following issues were assistance has included the training of local examined: local perception of food insecurity, leaders and paralegals in the communities. As concepts, causes, consequences, and strategies a result of the training and monitoring of the to confront the event. The focus groups were allocation process, the Guarani communities combined with transects and in-depth have identified 67,000 hectares of unclaimed interviews. Cognitive testing was conducted land for Guarani communities and have on each of the items included in the food detected false herd size claims, making security scale. Wording on the items for the available another 40,000 hectares. survey was changed based on the results of this Smallholder families in the project testing. These activities were focused on the goal communities of all three countries face land of the assessing the validity of an easy-to-apply

155 Global Livestock CRSP

food security tool in the communities where Ecuadorian sample had a higher Project PLAN works, and to examine the variability, which explains the correlation of the food security scale with differences in the results between household food supply and socio-economic Ecuador and those of Bolivia and variables. Mexico. Factorial analysis confirmed existence of • The food security questionnaire is a different levels of food insecurity. The results useful tool to monitor and evaluate showed that internal consistency of the scale was interventions to improve the food good in all three countries. The following data supply, both quantitatively and were produced. Mean food security score qualitatively. (number of questions responded affirmatively): • Other indicators need to be explored Bolivia: 10.6 (± 5); Ecuador: 6.6 (± 3.9); and included in the food security Mexico: 8.8 (± 4.1). Although the frequency of questionnaire. affirmative responses differs from one country • More research is needed to evaluate the to the other, with a lower frequency of affirmative correlation of the food security scale response in Ecuador, the pattern of response and dietary intake. among the three countries is very similar. Final • Future validation studies should conclusions are summarized below: include a larger sample size and more • The more severe the level of food variability within the sample for insecurity, the lower the number of validation. food items in the household at the time of the survey. Objective 7.2: Farmer experimentation • The results confirm the findings of a projects. previously conducted qualitative food security assessment: diet of the The preliminary results of the farmers’ majority of families living in the experimentation for food security can be PLAN work areas is high in summed up in several conclusions made by carbohydrates and low in the community workers in Bolivia, where the micronutrient rich foods, especially in experimentation has begun full scale: Bolivia and in Mexico. • The government of Bolivia has failed to • Social-demographical variables recognize the poverty that causes food showed low correlation with food insecurity in the rural areas of the country. insecurity, although the trend was Food security for all the nation’s people expected. should be made a priority on which to • Bolivian communities showed the focus. highest level of food insecurity, • The government of Bolivia should be followed by the Mexican communities. obligated to guarantee access to resources • The small sample size and the low such as credit, technology, infrastructure, variability within the sample basic services, health, roads, and (especially in Bolivia and Mexico) employment for all in order to fight imposed limitations on the analysis poverty. and could have affected the results. • Indigenous knowledge must be heeded • Despite the small sample size, the and promoted by institutions immersed

156 Annual Report 2003

in rural development as a way to the project. Her P.A. was Dr. Lucia L. Kaiser generate new forms of participatory in the Department of Nutrition at UC Davis. investigation. Following is a synopsis of her study, entitled • The Bolivian government should create a “Nutritional Implications of Living in a new mechanism, separate from the Biosphere Reserve in Sierra de Manantlán, Agrarian Reform of 1952, which allows Jalisco, Mexico.” This study explored the use more equitable land access to the rural of wild plants and perceptions of food population. insecurity in the reserve, by pursuing the • Macroeconomic policies should be revised following objectives: in order to better accommodate the rural 1. Identify edible wild plants used in the reserve areas. and explore reasons for their increase, • On the institutional level of the NGO, an maintenance, decline, or disappearance issue that must be addressed is the fact that based on in-depth key informant interviews problems arise when development and information from the management institutions conduct research over the long agency of the reserve. term, and the local people feel that the only 2. Explore, via key informants, cultural aspects benefit of that research in economic terms of gathering edible wild plants by season, is for the researcher himself. locality, food preparation techniques, and dietary uses, including the incorporation of Objective 7.3: Home gardens and irrigation wild plants into home gardens. in Mexico. 3. Determine the relationship between wild plant use and food insecurity using A program for the establishment of backyard household survey data. vegetable gardens was begun this year in the Results. At the start of the wet season community of Ventanas. This program provided (July and August), a limited number of edible six families with irrigation pumps and seeds for wild plants were available for gathering. With starting the gardens. The only requirement of key informants, the author gathered voucher the program on the part of the farmers is the specimens and information on 18 different preparation of the soil and maintaining fencing species. Five species of fungi and wild plants to protect the area from damage caused by were noted, but not collected due to scarcity and/ animals. Vegetables planted (chosen by the or difficulty of identification by botanists at the members of the community) were lettuce, University of Guadalajara, Autlán. One 44-year- cucumbers, cabbage, squash, tomatoes, cilantro, old woman who lived on the riverside of the and onions. reserve noted a definite decrease in the use of edible wild plants and foraging activity in Objective 7.4: Initial analyses and evaluation general. Subjects recognized the relationship of local perception of impact of household or between decreased availability of wild plants and community plant preparation on household agricultural practices, with increased chemical food security in Mexico. use thought a cause of decreased wild plant availability. Barbara Whitelaw, from the International With the exception of cactus (Opuntia) Agricultural Development program at UC species, wild plants were rarely transplanted Davis, did her Master’s thesis on this part of into home gardens. Feelings of shame and

157 Global Livestock CRSP

Table 5 - Food insecurity scores and percentages of households that collect wild plants.  , & ?, & ?, & !:   
    &  4     4  !  @  

 )#  A* )#* )#* ;  ;  ;  6 ' 2 94: 9:  9 :  !O) !O) 6 # 2 ,% &"  9:  9: 9:  94 : 6 # 2 ,%   &"  9:  9: 9:  94: 6 # 2 ,% ' 8  &"  9:  9:  9:  94: * S6 # 25       '2  6 ' 25'2        8     +$!'% "?  '   S 1 '  isolation were reported by key informants Informant responses between the forest regarding the use of wild plants. Perhaps more and river sides of the reserve showed pertinent, informants expressed a loss of differences in wild plant use, which could be knowledge of the uses and available species due to historical and socio-economic reasons. of wild plants. The younger generation relies Informants on the river side of the reserve heavily on purchased foods and agricultural reported wild plant gathering in response to commodities rather than gathering, and food insecurity, while the forest side reported information regarding the use of wild plants collecting wild plants as a way of life. is not passed on to youth. Some plants were Informants on the river side of the reserve popularly gathered, such as wild raspberries demonstrated knowledge of fewer species of and nopales (cactus), but these were not plants and fewer methods of preparation. viewed as a wild plant to be eaten in times Forest side informants, who used more species of food scarcity. Some women reported of wild plants, reported that elder members of feelings of shame associated with wild plant the community, grandparents and parents, use; wild plants are regarded as food only taught them to recognize and eat wild when there are no other options for eating. mushrooms. Many women thought the people in the Frequency of wild plant gathering was not reserve were the only ones using wild plants correlated with food insecurity; however, a in Mexico. Knowledge of wild plant use trend was seen in the forest side where hungrier outside of the reserve was practically people collected more wild plants. Table 5 nonexistent. illustrates food insecurity scores and percentages

158 Annual Report 2003 of households that collect wild plants. On both and natural resource activities in which women sides, with a food insecurity score of 14-18 participate, as well as to identify opportunities (indicating hunger is reaching the children), for development and propose alternatives. We families collected more wild plants. There was will analyze the differences in the form also a trend seen in the children’s food security livelihood diversification takes for men and scale. When the children experienced hunger women of households. on either side of the reserve, families tended to collect more wild plants. Objective 8.3: Experimentation with the Food security correlated differently with wild production and commercialization of plant collection on either side of the reserve. On alternative products and micro-enterprises. the river side, food insecurity was greater in households that collected wild plants. In the The micro-enterprises we analyze include forest side of the reserve, the opposite effect was micro-livestock, fish culture, vegetables, fruit seen; those who collected wild plants had a lower trees, handicrafts, medicinal plants/herbal score. A trend of higher household inventory remedies, handicrafts, and eco-tourism. We scores was observed when wild plants were will identify mechanisms to support micro- collected, indicating greater food variety found enterprises, including micro-credit. in the home. Objective 8.4: Analysis of the impact of Activity Eight: Improving Household and globalization on livestock production within Community Livelihood Strategies Through the context of all three countries. Diversification, Value-Added Options, and New Alternatives The major objective of this study is to analyze the interacting effects of biosphere Objective 8.1: Evaluate local strategies and reserve policies, migration, and a changing options for livelihood diversification. economic environment (potentially associated with a livestock revolution) on household We standardized methods across three decision-making regarding the allocation of countries in comparison with extensive land and resources to livestock and grazing. livestock production. The main focus will be Results from the study will help to determine to examine the likely advantages and policies that address rural poverty by disadvantages of the diversification of facilitating the participation of smallholders production systems in order to reduce the in Mexico’s livestock markets, while also dependency on one system, which in turn contributing to efforts to conserve biodiversity supports conservation of natural resources, by facilitating the development of ecologically increases household security, and minimizes and economically sustainable livestock risk. management systems. This activity focused on evaluating the Objective 8.2: Gender analysis of agriculture, potential of additional and/or non-traditional livestock, and natural resource use. types of micro-enterprises. It is important to evaluate the feasibility of such alternatives, The goals of this activity are to generate since the resources of the project can open information regarding agricultural, livestock, doors to a wider range of alternative productive

159 Global Livestock CRSP activities that might not have otherwise been goes hand-in-hand with the exploration of available to households. Including new production alternatives outlined in Activity activities in household economic portfolios Eight. may improve household well-being while buffering environmental stress caused by strict Objective 9.1: Support the development of dependence upon traditional productive local social groups such as women’s groups systems. Disseminating basic skills associated and producer’s groups. with conducting cost-benefit analyses will enable community members to continue to In Ecuador, the project team facilitated a evaluate their productive possibilities in the workshop that included the completion of a future, improving the sustainability of this strategic work plan for the group ALPHA, an activity. association of artisans from local communities A microcredit fund was established at the in the area. Five women and seventeen men Ecuador site to promote resource use change participated in this workshop, where they among smallholder families. FUNAN is identified existing problems within the providing the administrative support for the organization in order to address and solve fund. Eleven milk-producing families them. The group will be meeting continuously participate in this microcredit fund. The in the future, and with the assistance of the specific purpose is to improve milk production Ecuadorian team members, hopes to continue and introduce alternative production activities. strengthening the organization and working To date, the microcredit fund has financed 30 toward marketing products produced by the production initiatives with technical assistance artisans. from FUNAN. Among these experimental Also in Ecuador, the project team worked production activities are pig stables to improve with the Women’s Association of Cosanga to pig production and raising poultry, such as conduct a series of seven workshops designed quail. to identify strengths and weaknesses of the group. Ten women participated in these Activity Nine: Strengthening Community workshops. The participatory and democratic Organizations and Local Planning nature of the workshops allowed the women Processes to develop important insights into the function and future of the group. In each of the three countries, we have In Mexico, the collaboration between focused on the activities of local groups as a women’s groups and the Mexican team has means of supporting community-based continued over the year. The mojote project conservation and management activities. gained much momentum, and women as well Women’s groups in particular have been a as men and children participate in the focus, since women are easily and quite collection and sale of the seeds in El Grullo. commonly overlooked and passed by when it These activities provide families with the comes to resource management decisions and opportunity to supplement their incomes, as institutional support. Our approach is to well as to advocate for their interests in the continue working with established women’s form of an organized group that involves itself groups and foment the development of new in the production of the mojote products. The ones. The development of producers’ groups group and the Mexican team continue to

160 Annual Report 2003 explore means to increase the quality of the JAINA (JAINA) continue to work with the mojote products, and are currently focused on group to discuss and explore solutions to these discovering markets for the sale of the types of conflicts, and discover the best ways improved products outside of the immediate to foster progressive activity within the group. area. Groups of both men and women are Objective 9.3: Design and establish involved in the production of vegetables using management plans at the level of individual organic fertilizers and intercropping systems farms (Ecuador), communities (Bolivia, of squash, corn, and beans. The group is Mexico), and communal lands (Bolivia). attempting to return to traditional forms of agriculture that focus on natural means of Three farms are now serving as sites for maintaining the integrity of the soil and the joint farmer researcher experiments and as local biophysical systems. models within the community for the slower process of fostering community-wide plans in Objective 9.2: Evaluate and document the Mexico, at the La Cueva site in Bolivia, and processes of strengthening local organizations with the Guarani in the Tomitarenda watershed to improve their abilities with respect to their in Bolivia. The efforts to foster these plans goals: 1) production systems, 2) basic will continue into the future. Furthermore, the services, and 3) household security. development of a system to monitor the success of the management plans will be This year, PLAN team member April initiated as a participatory process, with local Sansom completed a comprehensive study of farmers themselves identifying indicators that the role of women in La Cueva, Bolivia in determine the utility of the plans. natural resources management, using women’s Farmers at the Ecuadorian site have been groups as the focal point for the study of the developing their management plans based on community dynamic. During this process, she sound livestock management techniques and explored the dynamic of the organization and research completed by students and colleagues with the women, investigated possibilities for of the project. Studies by the Ecuadorian team strengthening the function and role of the on the social, political, and economic effects group. The principal activities of the group in of livestock activities of local farmers will Fuerte Santiago were the production of allow the teams to elaborate the plans at the embroideries as a way to provide additional family level. Structures for the monitoring and income to the farming families of the women. continuous evaluation of the management Challenges that face the continuation of plans are still in the developmental stage, and this type of activity include allocating the a variety of team members are involved in the funds earned by the sale of the embroideries. development of these structures. For example, the question of how to divide Substantial increases in milk yields over the funds between the women themselves and the past year have been an extremely the group account caused distress within the encouraging result of PLAN research. The organization and provided an opportunity for basis for this increase in production was the the women to rethink their goals and the incorporation of a mixture of pasture forages interaction among the women in the group. designed to add protein to the animals’ diets Colleagues at Communidad de Estudios while adding nitrogen to the soil. Furthermore,

161 Global Livestock CRSP implemented management plan activities have yet to be quantified on the local level of included decreasing the stocking rate in smallholder cattle production systems in individual fields and the construction of Ecuador and Mexico. The agriculture crises drainage canals that allowed previously and the increase in the cost of land make it unusable portions of the fields to be brought more difficult to gain access to enough land into use by the farming families. The or pasture to maintain a herd of cattle. Those successes associated with the activities of the who have pastureland but no cattle find it more pilot management plans already implemented profitable to sell forage than to raise livestock. have encouraged fifteen other farm families An increasing number of landowners are to engage themselves in developing and finding it more favorable to rent their land applying plans. Moreover, the local while they seek salaried, off-farm government in the area has approached PLAN employment. personnel, hoping to collaborate on a large- Michelle Young and Fabián Calispa have scale basis to promote and advance the completed a case study investigation of development of similar adaptive farm smallholder dairy producers in the Cosanga management plans across the region. This is region of Ecuador and in the ejido of an extremely exciting opportunity for the Ahuacapan, in the Sierra de Manantlan Ecuadorian team, and a way to focus on scaling Biosphere Reserve (SMBR) in Jalisco, up the project activities from the family level Mexico. This study has verified that in to the regional scale. Ecuador the cost of production of 1 liter of milk at the farm level ranges from USD $0.18 Activity Ten: Linking Local Communities to $0.31, while the milk processors purchase to Local and Regional Institutions to the milk at an average price of USD $0.22. Support Planning and Policy for On the other hand, the international price of Sustainable Development. milk is as low as USD $0.08, which even with a 72% tariff would enter domestic markets at Objective 10.1: Examine the effects of public the cost of USD $0.13. It is therefore evident policy on the use and management of natural that milk producers, especially small-scale resources. producers, are in a precarious situation, faced with the imminent socioeconomic collapse of Preliminary analyses of the influence of their production systems and livelihoods. In external factors on patterns of change in local relation to the domestic price for milk, those land use, livestock production, and use of producers with the lowest production costs natural resources point to the economic power (USD $0.18/ liter) are currently still able to and control of the market. With differing compete with imported milk. It is the degrees of intensity across Latin American smallholders in regions like Cosanga, with countries, a series of political and economic production costs as high as US $0.31/ liter that structural adjustments are being imposed in are facing the greatest difficulties, as illustrated an effort to liberalize Latin American in the Table 6. economies, open them to foreign investment, Similar to the situation in Ecuador, the and create conditions for the advent of the Free substantial asymmetry between Mexico and Trade of the Americas Area (FTAA) in 2005. its North American neighbors in terms of Many of the impacts of these transformations physical, agroecological, infrastructural,

162 Annual Report 2003

Table 6 - Production costs and net income from smallholder dairies in Cosanga, Ecuador (May 2003). :    B   2C $ 1  5. 5 $  /$3$ . 2  0' %$5 2
 0' 92$ "% 1152..$5$: ! #2 40' '$ 2 1 (  0'
. 21 (  0' technological, and financial resources has put The study in Ahuacapan revealed that it is Mexico’s agricultural and livestock sectors at a rare household that does not have at least risk. Also at risk are the livelihoods of that 27.5% one member residing in the U.S. The current of the population who, as of 1994, depended on trend in Ahuacapan for most households is agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods. to look for off-farm sources of income, This is the context in which Mexican either in nearby urban centers or in the U.S. small-scale farmers and livestock producers Such a trend could affect cattle producing make production and resource-management households in a number of ways. Perhaps decisions. In an effort to understand the they will gain permanent access to larger impacts of economic liberalization policies areas of land as smallholders emigrate, in Mexico on household land-use decisions thereby increasing their production capacity. among small-scale farmers, 62 households Alternatively, smallholders could emigrate were surveyed in the ejido of Ahuacapan, and maintain ownership of their plots while in the SMBR in Jalisco, Mexico. In earning a fixed annual income by leasing their Ahuacapan, Mexico, those farmers still land to corporate agave producers (tequila operating small plots of land are re- companies), thereby reducing access to land specializing in maize production. The for both the landless and those looking to minority of landholders who have access to supplement their landholdings for cattle large areas of land (generally >10ha) tend production purposes. As is the case in to specialize in yearling calf production. Ecuador, the result of economic Their demands for supplemental forage liberalization for most smallholders is that resources are creating a market for maize they can no longer support themselves residue and other forage grasses. The minimal through agriculture. (but nonetheless relative) price support for maize combined with a demand for maize Objective 10.2: Design a plan to strengthen residues have made pasture (maize residue with local natural resource management capacity or without forage grass) the “best business in at the scale of the watershed and region. Ahuacapan.” However, the outcome for Establish coordination mechanisms among smallholders in Ahuacapan is uncertain. As natural resource management organizations maize prices in Mexico are eventually liberalized, and institutions, both internal and external to small farmers may or may not find it worthwhile the community, in order to identify community to produce maize merely for subsistence and sustainable management policies for the pasture rentals. watershed.

163 Global Livestock CRSP

In Ecuador, the project has developed Zapotitlán de Vadillo, Tolimán, and Tuxcacuesco. strong links with government officials at the Project PLAN actively participates in the municipal level (a county-level regional semimonthly meetings of this commission, government that is very important for local where aspects of the handling of the water of the policy, support of local community initiatives, river basin are discussed. A monitoring program and for coordination of activities in the region). has been initiated that will assist with the This collaboration has continued with the management of the watershed. Municipal of Quijos. Currently, Project PLAN In Bolivia, collaboration with municipal is contributing to the planning process through officials of Entre Rios has continued; in the facilitation of biophysical and addition, community members have been socioeconomic information (Heifer Project involved in meetings with Municipal officials; International, FUNAN, Terra Nuova, and JS/ thus, the project plays an informal but CDC), as well as assisting with themes of increasingly effective role as a facilitator for resources management and environmental improved communication and support impacts (FUNAN). between local government and these Parallel to this process of planning, the communities. Also, JAINA has been Cantonal Civic Committee was created with developing a proposal for collaboration with the purpose of contributing to the development the municipal planning officials in the design of the region and supporting the process of of community planning models. Community participatory planning. Project PLAN and regional planning is the responsibility of participates actively in this committee through the Municipal; however, they do not have the FUNAN, which is the representative of the staff or training sufficient for the challenge. NGOs that work in the region. The civic These officials have expressed interest in committee is a participation space that working with PLAN researchers as a resource represents the different sectors from civil to inform their planning. In April, with the society, facilitating access to decision-making backing and interest of the Municipal, JAINA and institutionalizing the process of planning presented a public demonstration about Project and participatory management. PLAN to inform the public and government In Mexico, Project PLAN team members officials about the nature of project activities. are also collaborators on the large project for the improvement of the Rio Ayuquila GENDER watershed. This project has opened important levels of dialogue between local regional Since its inception, Project PLAN has governments and local residents about mutual maintained a specific focus on gender issues interests in the sustainable development of and the needs of women in the project sites. natural resources and watershed protection. More women are involved in the project every An Intermunicipal Commission of the low year: they are students, collaborators, river basin of the Ayuquila River has been community workers, and co-directors of formed with assistance from Luis Manuel, the partner organizations. Women play an ever- Mexican coordinator of Project PLAN. The increasing role in the management of the intermunicipal commission includes the project itself. In Ecuador and Bolivia, women participation of the municipalities of Autlán, serve as directors or assistant coordinators of Grullo, Union of Tula, Lemon, Tonaya, the project teams in their respective countries.

164 Annual Report 2003

We believe that encouraging women’s Fundación Heifer Ecuador. Peasant and involvement in the overall management of the indigenous women from Bolivia, Peru, and project is one of the best ways to assure that Ecuador participated in this event for rural the opinions and needs of women will be women leaders. One of the results of this included and addressed within the scope of workshop was the establishment of a Regional activities on which we focus. Network of Andean Women in order to We have been working with women’s continue the process of forming women groups at each site, and have identified specific leaders and arrive at a common action plan. objectives for the coming year to further As a result of this year’s and past years’ develop the organization and activities of activities by local community women (such women’s groups in all sites. Several of our as organizing, training, and experimentation activities deal primarily with women’s with alternative income-producing activities), interests, such as Activity Seven, improving a significant change has been observed in the food security and health, and Activity Eight, participation of women in decision-making at improving household and community the local community and municipal levels. livelihood strategies through diversification, One of the women who has participated in value-added options, and new alternatives. Project PLAN and received training has been Family food security issues directly concern elected a municipal council member. women, as they are often principal decision- In Mexico, a new member of the Project makers in terms of food purchase and PLAN team is Rosa Ramirez, who as a native preparation. of the community of Cuzalapa and current In Bolivia, the strengthening of women’s resident in Zenzontla, serves as a liaison and organizations is an identified priority for next community organizer on the Mexican team. year. The participatory research conducted in Her collaboration with the project enhances the communities of Fuerte Santiago and Rio opportunities for exchange of ideas and la Sal last year provided the foundation for increased understanding between the these types of continuing activities with the communities and the project team. The ten women’s groups there. women who have organized themselves into In Ecuador, a women’s group in Cosanga a working group to generate income- has successfully ventured into collective small production activities tend to come from the animal production for market. During this past poorest households. They are also aware of year, 11 community women volunteered to what resources are available for potential receive training from the project as local production activities. Thus, for example, researchers to enhance and build on their past women and children from the poorest experience with production experiments. households have been gathering and Some women have also received gender processing mojote as a low-cost alternative to training in an effort to improve gender equity coffee. Based on this experience, the women’s in the local communities and reduce group has organized a mojote production patriarchal hierarchy. In this same vein, enterprise. They have purchased an industrial Project PLAN facilitated the participation of mill, requested a plot of land on which to build several Cosanga Valley women in the a locale for the mill and processing, and “Encuentro Andino de Mujeres Líderes” in secured funds from local government for the Quito (June 30–July 4, 2003) organized by building. They collect or purchase (at 10

165 Global Livestock CRSP pesos/kilo) the mojote beans, dry, toast, grind, Recursos Naturales - AGROSIG, and JAINA package, and label the processed mojote to sell in Bolivia) have developed the authority to as mojote coffee at 100 pesos per kilo. This work in the region and thus have working activity has increased the amount of income agreements with local authorities and women have control over. These women, communities. working together as a cohesive group, have In Mexico, the team has a collaborative improved community household interactions, working agreement with SEMARNAP (the reducing disputes and strains that generally government agency that administers the have existed within the community. biosphere reserve) that includes the primary Gathering the communities’ perceptions of target communities and other related development is one of the most important and communities where studies and activities have fascinating aspects of this relationship. Our been extended. The regional-scale work on increased documentation of processes the Ayuquila River watershed opened great occurring in the communities has provided potential for regional interaction with several valuable insight into the processes that inhibit regional government agencies at state (Jalisco) or encourage development of women’s and national levels. Some of the policy results organizations. This information will in turn of this collaboration include an Intermunicipal allow us to design focused strategies for Commission for the lower Ayuquila River supporting women’s activities in the years to watershed composed of eight municipalities. come. This Intermunicipal Commission has now set up a trust fund with monies from the POLICY municipalities, SEMARNAP, and the State of Jalisco to collect funds for financing Collaborating with governmental bodies environmental management activities and within the three countries is one of the ways programs by municipalities. that we can most positively influence Project PLAN team members in Mexico sustainable management in the long term. For are also active on the Ayuquila Watershed this reason, in Year Six we focused Activity Commission and the Board of Directors of the Ten on strengthening linkages between local Biosfera Sierra de Manantlán. Both of these government, regional institutions, and local governing bodies deal with management of groups for the purpose of affecting planning natural resources in the area, principally the and policy issues in the areas where we work. River Ayuquila and the Biosphere, and develop The linkages that we have fostered in the past policies concerning contamination and bio- years provide us with the strong background diversity threats. One concrete result of this on which to build the deeper relationships cooperation was a series of recommendations between project team members and developed by CUCSUR for the alternative government officials necessary to succeed. management of waste contamination going During the past years, key local counterparts into the River Ayuquila. This work was done (Instituto Manantlán de Ecologia y in collaboration with the Melchor Ocampo Conservación de la Biodiversidad in Mexico mill and the Ejido Las Paredes. - IMECBIO, FUNAN in Ecuador, CER-DET, In Ecuador, FUNAN continues to work Servicios Agroinformaticos de Apoyo a la directly with the new Ministry of the Planificación para la Uso y Manejo de los Environment, the government ministry in

166 Annual Report 2003 charge of natural resources and the to improve their levels of production and their administration of the Reserva Ecologica standard of living. The outreach aspect of this Antisana. All four institutions of PLAN- project has varied across the sites according Ecuador work with the Municipio in Baeza, to the particular history and conditions of each the regional government authority that site. For example, in Ecuador, the accumulated includes the area of our project. One of the experience of the team members (from four NGOs, FUNAN, has been brought into the different NGOs) has resulted in a cohesive and Cantonal Civic Committee to oversee holistic approach in their working relationship Municipal management. This invitation to with the site communities. The experience, participate in local governance is a direct result trust, and knowledge derived from this project of PLAN project activities in the area. This culminated in a much-improved working participation in local governance offers an relationship with the communities to the extent excellent opportunity to influence the that team members have been invited to discussion and definition of local policies in participate in local governance. At the those areas of concern to Project PLAN. individual level of households, the studies and Information gathered from this project that local experiments on different aspects of could inform Municipal-level planning and smallholder agriculture and rural life is regulations with regard to natural resource permitting rural families to access information management, local production, and local on which to make their household, production, organization has been shared with the Quijos and natural resource management decisions. Municipality. In this way, the project and At the community level, this information is community researchers are now in a position also available to local and regional government to influence local government policy. institutions as well as other communities in the area. The presence and activities of the OUTREACH project have motivated local organizations to coordinate their objectives and activities. The We have been developing and assisting project has also motivated and encouraged an local and regional efforts to increase the important sector of local communities in all welfare of small landholders and rural three countries, the women, to organize communities, increasing a sense of themselves so as to initiate and coordinate empowerment. This contributes to overall production and income-producing activities. economic stability and development for the host country. This is being done in part by DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT increasing the capacity of local institutions and researchers, as well as local communities, to Environmental Impact. One of the major approach land use problems through an goals of this project is the sustainable integrated interdisciplinary approach and a management of natural resources. Attaining variety of shared participatory methods and this goal will have a significant impact on the perspectives. environment, decreasing natural resource In all three countries, the conceptual model degradation and depletion and improving and methodology has been to search for biodiversity. Project activities in all three sustainable use and management of natural countries have contributed significantly to resources by rural communities as they strive knowledge and information, through farmer

167 Global Livestock CRSP experimentation and survey research, on the strengthening local organizations that rally impact of human activities on the land and its around product prices and markets. natural resources in each site. The strategy Contributions to Host Country. The has been to generate this information together results and experience of this project with the communities, and then analyze and contribute to local policy processes, as well discuss with them how to reduce the negative as regional and national policy agencies along impacts (such as deforestation, water quality, two lines. One line seeks to improve and soil erosion) of their use of natural smallholder livestock and agricultural resources. Local researchers have made an production in order to attain sustainable rural important contribution not only to the households and improve rural standards of generation of local knowledge, but also to living. The other line focuses on sustainable raising awareness within the community on management of natural resources in order to the issue of sustainable management of natural decrease both deforestation and soil resources and generating alternative and degradation and loss of biodiversity in fragile sustainable production practices. mountainous tropical zones. In Ecuador, for Agricultural Sustainability. Agricultural example, the research results from Project sustainability, together with sustainable PLAN were utilized as input for the policy management of natural resources, forms the discussions sponsored by the Ministry of basis of this project. Livestock and crop Agriculture during this past year’s production practices are examined with the Movimiento Nacional Pachacutec. goal of conserving natural resources for future Linkages and Networking. The agricultural production (such as soils and water methodology of this project is based on sources) and achieving economic linkages and networking. This occurs at sustainability of the household. Some of the various levels: between communities and specific objectives worked on during the past country team agencies (universities and year include: NGOs), among the country team agencies • Evaluation of native plants for livestock themselves, and between U.S. universities and feed, thus reducing the need to cut down host country institutions. These ties have more forest for pastures. continued to be strengthened during this past • Rotating and intercropping lotus and local year. The institutions working at each country kikuyu grass in established pastures in order site, through this project, have significantly to conserve soil cover, reduce erosion, and improved the coordination of objectives and increase livestock feed sources. activities, improving their impact in the project • Experimenting with corn varieties and site and their relationships with communities. cropping practices that increase In addition, one of the principal objectives of production, use less commercial inputs, the project has been to establish and strengthen and reduces the need to open more fields linkages and working relationships between by clearing into the forest. the communities and governmental agencies. • Improve local understanding of national During the past year in Ecuador, for example, and international trade patterns in order several local community producer and assess risks and to avoid over-dependence women’s groups have become active in local on uncertain product markets; this government and some of their members have understanding is being accompanied by joined the local Municipal Council.

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Collaboration with International smallholder families, including women and Agricultural Research Centers & Other children, is one of the principal objectives of CRSPs. CIAT (International Center for the project. In addition, the approach utilized Tropical Agriculture) carried out a training in project implementation is one of program in the Ecuador site. This training participatory planning and research, striving program worked initially with a group from to include as many community members, the project team and community members to across all population groups, into the project. establish a core of local researchers in Support for Democracy. Project PLAN’s agricultural production experimentation, the objective of improving rural communities’ Local Agricultural Research Committee living standards is a basis for the growth and (CIAL). This CIAL group has been working fortification of democracy. In addition, Project with local communities during the past year, PLAN’s approach (using participatory training additional local researchers in more methods and working with civil society) communities along the watershed. provides the opportunity for local communities to learn democratic norms and practices. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Improving local governance through training and participatory planning also contributes to Support for Free Markets and Broad- building democracy. Based Economic Growth. All three in- Humanitarian Assistance. A volcano in country sites are experiencing daily the the area of the Ecuador site erupted late last conflict between free markets at the year, covering the Cosanga valley with ash, international scale and broad-based economic putting at risk not only people’s health, but growth. Smallholder producers are unable also threatening many of their crops and to compete with multi-national corporations animals. Project PLAN, through its local who pressure national governments and institutions and members, was able to provide international agencies for the reduction of humanitarian assistance to the affected import quotas and tariffs. In the Ecuador communities. site, for example, the principal commercial agricultural activity is milk production and LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS the major buyer in the valley is a Nestle milk plant. The import of milk products into Substantial leveraged funds have been Ecuador has resulted in reduced Nestle obtained by our partner institutions in each prices to milk producers, prices that are country for projects related directly or in part below smallholders’ production costs. In to PLAN goals and activities. The total Mexico, a similar process has occurred as leveraged funds for our non-Wisconsin sorghum, soybean, rice, barley, and wheat partners were $91,450. For each partner, the imports have depressed agricultural prices individual grants are listed. For each grant below local producers’ costs. we list: 1) title or purpose of the proposal; 2) Concern for Individuals. Both the principal investigator(s) from Project PLAN; objectives and the methodology of Project 3) the source of funds (donor); 4) funds used PLAN demonstrate its concern for individuals. for PLAN activities; and 5) duration of the Improving the quality of life and living grant. standards of rural communities and

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United States of America Tuxcacuesco, Jalisco.” Oscar Cardenas, P.I., “Development of a measurement tool to from the Universidad de Guadalajara, $1,450. assess food insecurity in communities located “Water management of Ayuquila River in the Sierra de Manantlán biosphere reserve.” watershed.” Luis Manuel Martínez Rivera, P.I., Hugo Melgar-Quiñonez & Ana Claudia from the Programa ACUDE of the University Zubieta, P.I.s, from the University of of Guadalajara, $2,500. California Institute for Mexico and the United “Environmental and socio-economic States (UC MEXUS) Grants for Collaborative evaluation of agave azul in the municipality Projects, $25,000, June 2001 - Dec. 2002. of Tonaya.” Luis Manuel Martínez R., P.I., “Testing of a Household Food Security from the Programa ACUDE of the University Tool in Rural Communities of La Cueva, of Guadalajara, $2,700. Bolivia.” Hugo Melgar-Quiñonez & Ana “Management and conservation of the Claudia Zubieta, P.I.s, from the Gifford Center Ayuquila River watershed.” Luis Manuel for Population Issues - Small Grants for Martínez R., P.I., from the Programa ACUDE Research on Population, Food and the of the University of Guadalajara, $2,700. Environment, $3,000, June 2002 - May 2003. “Participatory restoration of the riverine forests in the watershed of the Ayuquila River.” Bolivia Claudia Ortiz Arrona and Luis Manuel “Study of three species of grass to improve Martínez R., from the University of forage available for cattle.” Milton Borda with Guadalajara, $2,400. Angelo Lozano and Grover Maella, P.I.s, from “Evaluation of populations of the ‘cotorra’ INTERMON, $5,000, Dec. 2001 - Dec. 2002. (Aratinga canicularis) as an exploited resource “Community commercialization of maize.” the Ejido Platanarillo, Colima.” Carlos Grover Maella and Henry Valdez, P.I.s, from Palomera García, P.I., from the University of INTERMON, $10,000, Aug. 2000 – Aug. 2003. Guadalajara, $1,140. “Sustainable livestock management.” Angelo Lozano, P.I., from INTERMON, TRAINING $15,000, Aug. 2000 – Aug. 2003. In Progress Ecuador Blanco, Carla, B.S., 2004, Biology, “Development of initiatives with local Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). residents for sustainable use of soils and Borda, Milton, B.S., 2004, Agronomy, forests.” Fundación Antisana, from Universidad Autonoma Juan Misael PROBONA, $15,000, Jan. 2000 – Jan. 2002. Saracho. Caranza Montaño, Eloy Fernando, B.S., 2003, Mexico Natural Resources Management, “Impacto de la ganadería sobre las aves Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). del ejido Zenzontla.” Sarahy Contreras Cardenas, Oscar, Ph.D., 2004, Land Martínez, P.I., from the National Fish and Resources, University of Wisconsin – Wildlife Foundation, $5,560, 2000-2002. Madison. “Socio-environmental analysis of Agave Corso, Orlando, B.S., 2003, Veterinary Azul (Agave tequilana Weber) in the Science, Universidad Autonoma Juan municipalities of Autlán de Navarro and Miseael Saracho.

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Del Carpio Borda, Ricardo, M.S., 2004, Whitelaw, Barbara, M.S., 2004, International Agronomy, Universidad Autonoma Juan Agricultural Development, University of Misael Saracho. California – Davis. Espinoza, Linder, Ph.D., 2005, Forestry, Universidad de Sevilla. Completed Flores, Marbella, B.S., 2003, Natural Adautt, Samuel, B.S., 2003, Agronomy, Resources Management, Universidad de Universidad Autonoma Juan Misael Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Saracho. Flores Beltrán, Laura Elena, B.S., 2003, Camacho, Arturo, B.S., 2003, Natural Natural Resources Management, Resources Engineering, Universidad de Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Gutierrez, Octavio, B.S., 2003, Natural and Esparza Carlos, Juan Pablo, B.S., 2002, Agricultural Resources, Universidad de Biology, Universidad de Guadalajara Guadalajara (CUCSUR). (CUCSUR). Melendez, Gabriela, B.S., 2004, Natural Gallardo Vazquez, Eduardo, B.S., 2003, Resource Management, Universidad de Agricultural Economics, Universidad Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Autónoma Chapingo. Perez Rangel, Rafael, B.S., 2004, Engineer, Guzmán de Jesús, Felipe, B.S., 2003, Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Agricultural Economics, Universidad Pratsch, Samuel, M.S., 2004, Conservation Autónoma Chapingo. Biology and Sustainable Development, Jurado, Monica, B.S., 2003, Biology, University of Wisconsin – Madison. Universidad Autonoma Juan Misael Ramirez Zavalza, José Felix, B.S., 2004, Saracho. Natural Resources Management, Llanes Espinoza, José Bernardino, B.S., 2003, Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Agricultural Economics, Universidad Reyes Castelan, Evelia, B.S., 2004, Autónoma Chapingo. Agricultural Economics, Universidad Martinez Rivera, Luis Manuel, Ph.D., 2002, Autónoma Chapingo. Watershed Management, Universidad de Rodríguez Durán, Juan Antonio, B.S., 2004, Guadalajara (CUCSUR). Natural Resources Engineering, Milofsky, Tessa, M.S., 2003, Agronomy, Universidad de Guadalajara (CUCSUR). University of Wisconsin– Madison. Ronquillo, Juan Carlos, B.S., 2004, Botany, Montero Solis, Flor Maria, B.S., 2003, Universidad Central. Biology, Universidad Veracruzana. Sansom, April, Ph.D., 2006, Land Resources, Olguín López, José Luis, B.S., 2003, University of Wisconsin – Madison. Agronomy, Universidad de Guadalajara Tapia, Carlos, B.S., 2004, Agronomy, (CUCSUR). Universidad Autonoma Juan Misael Sansom, April, M.S., 2003, Conservation Saracho. Biology and Sustainable Development, Valdez Esnor, Henry, M.S., 2004, Ing. University of Wisconsin – Madison. Agronomica, Universidad Autonoma Juan Velez Izquierdo, Alejandra, B.S., 2003, Misael Saracho. Agricultural Economics, Universidad Villena, Aldo, B.S., 2004, Forestry, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo. Autonoma Juan Misael Saracho.

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Non-degree Training Science, UW - Madison. Planning meeting, October 14 – 16, Madison, Young, Michelle, Graduate Student, WI. Eleven Project PLAN team members University of California, Davis. participated. Yuill, Thomas, Director, Professor, Veterinary Sixth Annual Conference of Project PLAN, Science, UW - Madison. July 21 – 26, 2003, Tarija, Bolivia. 35 Zubieta, Ana Claudia, Researcher, Nutrition Project PLAN team members participated. and Public Health, University of Association of Cosanga, February 8 and 22, California, Davis. 2003, Cosanga, Ecuador. Facilitator: Kattya Hernández. Eleven female Bolivia community members participated. Baldivieso, Herlan, Student, Climate and ALFA organization, June 2002 – January 2003, Botany, AGROSIG. Ecuador. Facilitators: Kattya Hernández, Calla, Rhinda, Sociology, JAINA. María Isolda. Eleven female community Cari, Christina, Agronomy, CER-DET. members participated. Carranza, Freddy, Agronomy, JAINA. Del Carpio, Ricardo, Agronomy and Business, JAINA. COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Castro, Miguel, Director, Lawyer, CER-DET. Corzo, Orlando, Student, Animal Science, CER-DET. United States of America Cuba, Ruben, Agronomy, Botany, CER-DET. Albrecht, Ken, Professor, Agronomy, UW - Espinoza, Linder, Researcher, Forestry, Madison. AGROSIG. Laca, Emilio, Professor, Range Science, Flores, Magaly, Agronomy, Biology, JAINA. University of California, Davis. Flores, Nelson, Student, Climate and Botany, Lastarria, Susana, Researcher, Sociologist, AGROSIG. UW - Madison. Gallardo, Norberto, Lawyer, CER-DET. Melgar-Quiñonez, Hugo, Researcher, Juardo, Monica, Student, AGROSIG. Nutrition and Public Health, University of Lizárraga, Pilar, Researcher, Sociology, California, Davis. JAINA. Mercado-Silva, Norman, Graduate Student, Lozano, Angelo, Agronomy, CER-DET. UW - Madison. Mealla, Grover, Agronomy, CER-DET. Milofsky, Tessa, Graduate Student, UW - Milton, Borda, Student, Agronomy, CER- Madison. DET. Moermond, Timothy, Professor, Zoology and Molina, Jesus, Agronomy, JAINA. CBSD, UW - Madison. Montaño, Blanca, Sociology, CER-DET. Nordheim, Erik, Professor, Statistics and Mujica, Roberto, Agronomy, Ecology, Forestry, UW - Madison. AGROSIG. Rosemeyer, Martha, Professor, Agroecology, Paita, Ricardo, Agronomy, Ecology, CER- Evergreen State College. DET. Sansom, April, Graduate Student, UW - Ruiz, Jorge, Director, GIS and Agronomy, Madison. AGROSIG. Wattiaux, Michel, Researcher, Animal Tapia, Carlos, Student, Business, CER-DET.

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Vacaflores, Carlos, Agronomy, JAINA. Esparza, Juan Pablo, Student, IMECBIO. Villena, Aldo, Student, JAINA. Figueroa, Pedro, Professor, Community Development, IMECBIO. Ecuador Flores, Marbella, Student, Natural Resources, Calispa, Fabian, Researcher, Agronomy, TE. IMECBIO. Castellanos, Armando, Researcher, Biology, Gallardo, Eduardo, Student, Agricultural Alianza Jatun-Sacha/CDC. Economics, IMECBIO. Hernández, Kattya, Researcher, Anthropology, Gerritsen, Peter, Professor, Sociology, HPI. IMECBIO. Larrea, Fernando, Director, Anthropology, Guzmán de Jesús, Felipe, Student, Agricultural HPI. Economics, IMECBIO. Leguísamo, Alex, Researcher, Agronomy, Guzmán, Luis, Professor, Botany, IMECBIO. FUNAN. Iñiguez, Luis Ignacio, Professor, Zoology, Molina, Estalin, Extension Worker, Farmer, IMECBIO. FUNAN. Llanes, José Bernardino, Student, Agricultural Mosquera, Gustavo, Researcher, Biology, Economics, IMECBIO. FUNAN. Martínez, Luis Manuel, Professor, Limnology Muñoz, Juan Pablo, Anthropologist, TE. and Watersheds, IMECBIO. Murillo, Isabel, Researcher, Sociology, Moreno, Arturo, Professor, Economics, FUNAN. IMECBIO. Peñafiel, Marcia, Researcher, Biology, Alianza Olguín, José Luis, Student, Agronomy, Jatun-Sacha/CDC. IMECBIO. Pinos, Gonzalo, Cartographer, Alianza Jatun- Palomera, Carlos, Professor, Conservation, Sacha/CDC. IMECBIO. Ruiz, Armando, Ecologist, FUNAN. Pérez, Rafael, Student, Natural Resources, Torres, Alandi, Assistant Researcher, Farmer, IMECBIO. FUNAN. Pineda, Maria del Rosario, Professor, Botany and Ecology, University of Vera Cruz. Mexico Ramírez, Manuel, GIS Engineer, IMECBIO. Aguirre, Angel, Professor, Ecology and Ramírez, Rosa Elena, Community Outreach, Natural Resources, IMECBIO. Community of Cuzalapa. Beltrán, Laura, Student, Agroforestry, Rosales, Jesús Juan, Professor, Agroforestry, IMECBIO. IMECBIO. Carranza, Eloy, Student, Agroforestry, Sánchez, Lázaro, Professor, Botany and IMECBIO. Ecology, University of Vera Cruz. Cárdenas, Oscar, Professor, Land Resources, Sandoval, Jose de Jesús, Professor, Limnology IMECBIO/UW - Madison. and Watersheds, IMECBIO. Castellanos, Blanca, Student, Zoology, Vélez, Alejandra, Student, Agricultural IMECBIO. Economics, IMECBIO. Contreras, Sarahy, Professor, Ornithology, Zamora, Julián, Student, Natural Resources, IMECBIO. IMECBIO. Cuevas, Ramón, Professor, Botany, Zavala, Félix, Student, Natural Resources, IMECBIO. IMECBIO.

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COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS CIEC (Centro Interdisciplinario para Estudios Comunitarios) United States of America Calle Fernando Guachalla Pasaje Fernando de Vargas No. 751 CIAD (Center for International Agriculture La Paz, Bolivia and Development) Phone: 591-2-24-16597/16585 University of California - Davis Fax: 591-2-24-16585 One Shields Avenue Davis, CA 95616 JAINA (Comunidad de Estudios JAINA) Phone: 530-756-8183 Casilla 88, Calle Sucre 1380 Fax: 530-752-8966 Tarija, Bolivia Phone: 591-4-66-46879 University of Wisconsin - Madison International Agricultural Programs Ecuador 1450 Linden Drive Madison, WI 53706-1562 Alianza Jatun-Sacha/CDC (Centro de Datos Phone: 608-262-8633 para la Conservación) Fax: 608-262-8852 Pasaje Eugenio de Santillán N34-248 y Maurián Iowa State University Cdla. Rumipamba North Central Regional Center for Rural Quito, Ecuador Development Phone: 593-2-24-32240/32246 107 Curtiss Hall Fax: 593-2-24-53583 Ames, IA 50011-1050 Phone: 515-294-8321 TE (Terra Nuova) Fax: 515-294-3180 Mallorca 440 y la Coruna Quito, Ecuador Bolivia Phone: 593-2-25-07865 Fax: 593-2-22-26291 AGROSIG (Servicios Agroinformaticos de Apoyo a la Planificación para la Uso y Manejo HPI (Heifer Project International-Ecuador) de los Recursos Naturales) Calle Tamayo #1313 y Colon Casilla Postal 502 Quito, Ecuador Tarija, Bolivia Phone: 593-2-25-56241/29-08985 Phone: 591-4-66-44644 Phone and fax: 593-2-25-01427 Fax: 591-4-66-12302 FUNAN (Fundación Antisana) CER-DET (Centro de Estudios Regionales y Gonzalo Serrano E 10-27 y Seis de Deciembre Desarrollo de Tarija) Quito, Ecuador Virginio Lema 173 Phone: 593-2-24-30861 Tarija, Bolivia Fax: 593-2-24-42302 Phone: 591-4-66-35471 Fax: 591-4-66-33454

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Mexico Itika Guasu. Educación, Territorialidad, y Ciudadanía Indígena. pp. 25-62 in: R. Leon, UdG, CUCSUR (Universidad de Guadalajara, P. Lizarraga and C. R. Rea (Eds.), El Centro Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur) de Estudios de la Realidad Económica y Social IMECBIO (Instituto Manantlán de Ecologia (CERES), Cochabamba, Bolivia. y Conservación de la Biodiversidad) and Lizarraga, P. 2003. “Una comunidad de Departamento de Producción Agricola aprendizaje para empoder a actores locales – Apartado Postal 64 Proyecto PLAN – Jaina.” Participa, Febrero, Autlán, Jalisco 2003, No. 3:12-13 (Official publication of the C.P. 48900, Mexico “Grupo Nacional de Trabajo para la (Avenida Independencia Nacional 151) Participación” of Bolivia). Phone: 52-3-17-381-1165/0353 Martínez R., L.M., Arturo Carranza M., Fax: 52-3-17-381-1425 Ángel Aguirre G., José J. Sandoval L., José L. Olguín L. y Eva Judith Hueso G. 2002. PUBLICATIONS Manejo y conservación de la cuenca del Río Ayuquila. 2002. Revista Reportes del IPICYT. Articles and Books Vol 1(1):118-125. Cardenas G., Oscar. 2003. “El otro efecto Martínez R., L.M., A. Moreno, R. Cuevas, tequila.” Periódico El Regional. Marzo 26. Jesús J. Rosales Adame. 2003. Manejo Page 12. Sustentable de sistemas naturales y Cárdenas H., O. G., S. Contreras-Martínez agropastoriales del Ejido Zenzontla, Reserva y R. Esparza-Salas. 2002. “Efectos de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlán. potenciales de la deforestación y el cambio en Vinculación y Ciencia. Año 4 No.12: 14 – 26. la cobertura vegetal sobre las especies de aves Sánchez-Velásquez, L. R., G. Hernández, endémicas y parásitas de nidos del ejido M. Carranza, Ma. del R. Pineda López, R Zenzontla, Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Cuevas y Fernando Aragón. 2002. Estructura Manantlán, México. Memoria en extenso. En: arbórea del bosque tropical caducifolio usado Memorias del V Congreso Nacional de Áreas para la ganadería extensiva en el norte de la Naturales Protegidas de México. UdeG- Sierra de Manantlán, México: Antagonismo CUCSUR, Autlán, Jalisco, Mexico, 17-20 de de usos. Polibotánica 13: 25-46. Octubre del 2002. Vacaflores R., C., R. del Carpio B., R. Carranza, M. M. A., L. R. Sánchez- Calla G., and J. Molina A. 2003. Entre Velásquez, Ma. del R. Pineda-López y R. Cuevas Territorios Poblados y Desplobados: G. 2003. Calidad y potencial forrajero de Transhumancia Ganadera en Tarija. especies del bosque tropical caducifolio de la Investigaciones Regionales, Programa de Sierra de Manantlán. Agrociencia 37:203-210. Investigación Estatógica en Bolivia (PIEB), Gerritson, P. R. W., M. Montero C., y P. La Paz, Bolivia. 172 pp. Figueroa B. 2003. “El mundo en el espejo: Percepciones campesinas de los cambios Theses ambientales en el occidente de México, ” Adautt F., Samuel. 2002. Evaluación de Economia Territorio y Sociedad. Tierra con Fines Ganaderos en la Subcuenca Lizarraga, P. 2002. Un camino a la del Río La Sal. Licenciatura, Ingeneria participación: Caso del Pueblo Guaraní del Agronomica, Universidad Autonoma “Juan

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Misael Saracho,” Tarija, Bolivia (Advisor: Universidad Veracruzana (Advisor: Lazaro Jorge Ruiz). Sánchez). Baltazar C., Arturo. 2003. Evaluación De Olguín-López, José Luis. 2003. Zonas De Uso Agropecuario Como Hábitat Descripción Física e Hidrográfica de la Cuenca Para La Rodentofauna, En La Comunidad De del Río Ayuquila Jalisco, México. Ingeniero, Ventanas, Zenzontla. Ingeniero, Recursos Agrónomo Fitotecnista. Universidad De Naturales y Agropecuarios, Universidad De Guadalajara, CUCSUR (Advisor: Luis Manuel Guadalajara, CUCSUR (Advisor: Arturo Martínez). Moreno). Sansom, April. 2003. Action Research in Gallardo V., Eduardo. 2003. Evaluación Bolivia: Women, Community Dynamics, and De La Economía Sustentable De La Ganadería Natural Resource Management in La Cueva, Extensiva En La Región Costa Sur: Estudio Tarija. M.S., Conservation Biology and De Caso Del Ejido Barranca De La Naranjera. Sustainable Development, University of Ingeniero, Recursos Naturales y Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI (Advisor: Agropecuarios, Universidad De Guadalajara, Timothy Moermond). CUCSUR (Advisor: Arturo Moreno). Zamora D., José Julián, and Elisa Marbella Guzmán de J., Felipe. 2003. Evaluación Flores P. 2003. Análisis Preliminar de la De La Economía Sustentable De La Ganadería Expansión Del Cultivo De Agave Azul (Agave Extensiva En La Región Costa Sur: Estudio Tequilana Weber) En Los Municipios De De Caso Del Ejido Zenzontla. Ingeniero, Autlán De Navarro Y Tuxcacuesco, Jalisco. Recursos Naturales y Agropecuarios, Ingeniero, Recursos Naturales y Universidad De Guadalajara, CUCSUR Agropecuarios, Universidad De Guadalajara, (Advisor: Arturo Moreno). CUCSUR (Advisor: Oscar Cardenas- Jurado, Monica. 2003. Incidencia de Las Hernandez). Aves en El Cultivo del Maiz. Licenciatura, Ingerieria Agronomica, Universidad ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS Autonoma “Juan Misael Saracho,” Tarija, Bolivia (Advisor: Jorge Ruiz). Cardenas H., O. G., S. Contreras Martínez Martínez R., Luis Manuel. 2002. y R. Esparza Salas. “Potential effects of Watershed management for pollution control deforestation change in vegetation cover and in the Ayuquila Watershed. Ph.D., Watershed nest parasites on endemic bird species in the Science. Utah State University (Advisor: community of Zenzontla, Sierra de Manantlán James Dobrowolski). Biosphere.” V Congreso Nacional de Áreas Milofsky, Tessa. 2003. Corn-lotus living Naturales Protegidas de México. Guadalajara, mulch system to improve crop and forage Jalisco, October 17th-20th, 2002. production in Las Palmas, Ecuador. M.S., Eakright (Murphy), Alexis. “Livelihood Agronomy, University of Wisconsin - strategies in the Zenzontla Ejido, Mexico: Madison, Madison, WI (Advisor: Ken Cattle-based strategies, barriers to entry, and Albrecht.). next-best alternatives.” GL-CRSP Program Montero S., Flor María. 2003. El Impacto Conference, Washington, D. C., USA, October De La Ganadería Sobre La Regeneración Del 8-12, 2002. Bosque Tropical Caducifolio En La Sierra De Esparza C., Juan Pablo, Luis I. Iñiguez, Manantlán, Jalisco. Licenciatura, Biología. Timothy Moermond, and Lucina Hernández.

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“Cattle foraging in tropical deciduous dry management.” ALO-Partnership – USAID. forest, Sierra de Manantlán, México.” GL- Washington, D.C., August 7th-9th, 2003. CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D. Melgar-Quiñonez, H. and Ana Claudia C., USA, October 8-12, 2002. Zubieta. 2002. “Food insecurity in Latin- Iñiguez D., Luis Ignacio, and Juan Pablo American rural villages: A qualitative Esparza. “Evaluation of the incidence of assessment.” GL-CRSP Program Conference, vampire bat attacks on cattle in the Sierra de Washington, D.C., USA, October 8th- 12th, 2002. Manantlán, México.” VI Congreso Nacional Melgar-Quiñonez, H.R., A.C. Zubieta, de Mastozoología. CIIDIR-Oaxaca (IPN) y and T.C. Moermond. “Seguridad Asociación Mexicana de Mastozoología, A. C. alimentaria en comunidades rurales de Oaxaca, Oaxaca, October 21th-25th, 2002. América Latina: diagnóstico cualitativo.” Iñiguez, Luis I., and Juan Pablo Esparza XIII Conference of the Sociedad C. “Evaluation of the incidence of vampire Latinoamericana de Nutrición. Acapulco, bat attacks on cattle in the Sierra de Manantlán, Mexico, November 2003. México.” GL-CRSP Program Conference, Melgar-Quiñonez H.R., A.C. Zubieta, L. Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, 2002. L. Kaiser, E. Valdez, and T.C. Moermond, Kaiser, Lucia L., H.R. Melgar-Quiñonez, “Seguridad alimentaria y disponibilidad de and Ana C. Zubieta. “Food insecurity in Latin alimentos en hogares del área rural.” XIII American rural communities and in Latinos Conference of the Sociedad Latinoamericana of California: Focus group observations.” In: de Nutrición. Acapulco, Mexico, November Symposium on Food Security from a Focus 2003. Group Perspective at the 9th International Moermond, Timothy, Luis I. Iñiguez, and Conference of Qualitative Health Research, Carlos Vacaflores. 2002. “Community Guadalajara, Mexico, February 2003. planning for sustainable livestock-based Kaiser, Lucia L., E. Valdez Curiel, H. forested ecosystems in Latin America.” GL- Melgar-Quiñonez, and A.C. Zubieta. CRSP Program Conference, Washington, “Development of a tool to monitor food D.C., USA, Oc tober 8-12, 2002. insecurity in the Sierra de Manantlán, Moermond, Timothy, Carlos Vacaflores, Mexico.” American Public Health Association Luis Manuel Martínez, Gustavo Mosquera, 131st Annual Meeting. San Francisco, Fabian Calispa, Freddy Caranza, Estalin California, November 2003. Molina, Ricardo Paita, Michelle Young, and Lizárraga, P., Katty Hernandez, Carlos Alexis (Eakright) Murphy. 2002. Vacaflores, and Fernando Dick. 2002. “Extensive livestock production in Latin “Pathways to participation: looking for America: A syndrome of consequences and development through research.” GL-CRSP options.” GL-CRSP Program Conference, Program Conference, Washington, D.C., USA, Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, October 8-12, 2002. 2002. Martínez R., Luis Manuel. “Management Peñafiel, M.C. and Toasa G. 2002. “The of water in the Rio Ayuquila watershed.” results of multitemporal analysis of changes Semana Nacional de la Conservación. in vegetation cover in the Rio Cosanga November 25th-29th, 2002. watershed.” VIII Congreso Latinoamericano Martínez R., L.M., Paul Zedler y Eduardo de Botánica, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Santana. 2003. “Local initiatives for watershed October 12-18, 2002.

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Rosales Adame, Jésus Juan, Laura Elena Flores Beltrán y Eloy Fernando Carranza Montaño. 2002. “Cultivo en callejones con ‘guaje’: Alternativa agroecológica en el manejo de ganado en la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlán.” Congreso Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Octuber 17th - 20th 2002. Sansom, A. 2002. “Empowering farm women for decision-making in natural resource management, La Cueva, Bolivia.” GL-CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, 2002. Vacaflores, Carlos, Timothy Moermond, Luis I. Iñiguez, and Kattya Hernández. 2002. “Role of rural development NGOs: Fostering research skills, enhancing capabilities.” GL- CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, 2002. Whitelaw, B.L. 2002. “Relationship of wild plant use and food security within the Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve.” GL- CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, 2002. Young, M. 2002. “Heterogeneous land endowments: Implications for land use and income-generating strategies in the Mexican Ejido of Ahuacapán.” GL-CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., USA, October 8-12, 2002.

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Lead Principal Investigator. Timothy Moermond, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Environmental Studies/Zoology, 430 Lincoln Drive, 451 Birge Hall, Madison, WI 53706. Tel: 608-262-5868; Fax: 608- 265-6320; Email: tcmoermo@facstaff. wisc.edu.

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LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT AND RANGELAND CONSERVATION TOOLS FOR CENTRAL ASIA

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Central Asia represents a large region in We take an integrated multi-disciplinary the center of the Eurasian continent that approach to improve the welfare of herders, encompasses the territories of Turkmenistan, involving not only on-farm solutions for Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and technical aspects, but also the assessment of Kyrgyzstan. Rangelands occupy nearly 80% alternatives and policy instruments to support of the territory and provide the main source of them. Alternatives are evaluated from the forage for livestock. The sustainability of point of view of sustainability, impacts on the extensive production and human nutritional global carbon budget, and economic profits. welfare was negatively impacted by socio- Models incorporating ecological and policy economic changes immediately following scenarios are used to explore the regional independence. Division of state and collective impacts of various technical alternatives. herds into smaller private units caused erosion The activities proposed for 2002-2003 of animal stocks that started in the early 1990s were directly linked to the original problem and is in contrast with the long-term increase of model with minor modifications. Geographic livestock population in the region. The decline information systems (GIS) and continuous in livestock numbers can be attributed to the monitoring of carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes are deterioration of the terms of trade for producers. the core components, supplemented by animal Lack of winter forages, collapse of marketing production and socio-economic modules. networks, and poor maintenance of livestock Accomplishments for this year were water wells have resulted in hand-harvesting significant because they brought us very close of range plants for feed and fuel, and to the original goal of integration across concentration of livestock around populated modules. Carbon flux measurements were areas and active wells. In spite of declining integrated with the United States Department livestock numbers, rangeland degradation is of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service accelerating near surface water and populated (USDA-ARS) AgriFlux network, yielding areas. The rangelands of Central Asia may better models and more precise predictions for constitute a significant part of the “missing both United States and Central Asian sink” that attenuates the increase in rangelands. We produced maps of estimated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Additionally, carbon flux over extensive areas of Central restoration of degraded lands may constitute Asia, and provided policymakers with a clear a source of carbon credits for the region. This roadmap to position the region in the carbon project addresses the immediate need to credit market. Rangeland forages were improve the welfare of small landowners, to characterized nutritionally and the information prevent further deterioration of rangelands, was disseminated in publications. A and to document their role as carbon sinks. biologically detailed model of sheep

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production was integrated with an economic models, validate these models against ground model, yielding support to the hypothesis that truth and Moderate Resolution Imaging livestock production in Kazakhstan is severely Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data, and to use limited by availability of credit to these models to test alternative scenarios and smallholders. Small investments on predict the outcome of management actions. supplementation and forages for the winter Existing models will be extrapolated to Central should result in sizable returns. This trend of Asian grasslands and then integrated in the GIS practical results is accelerating and is expected over the spatial extent of the region to produce to have full impact one or two years after the landscape-level estimates of total carbon flux. end of the project, as the information finally Progress. Ecoregional estimates of carbon reaches dissemination outlets. (C) balance in rangelands were established for

A summary of accomplishments for the the growing seasons using CO2 flux and 2002-2003 year follows by research activity. remote sensing data from three study sites. The planned activities were accomplished with The goal of mapping 1998–2001 carbon fluxes slight departures from the original plans. in Central Asia has been delayed as USDA- Some activities had to be cancelled due to ARS AgriFlux data sets are utilized to reduced funding. strengthen Central Asian predictions and

partition net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) RESEARCH into gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (Re) components. GPP Activity One: GIS and Basic Resources algorithms have been developed and Re and Module NEE algorithms will be developed using northern Great Plains flux towers. Problem Statement and Approach. The Quantification and mapping of seasonal GIS and Basic Resources Module is designed dynamics of NEE, GPP, and Re have been to serve as the basis for regional application published for the year 2000 growing season and modeling of research results. The main in the Journal of Environmental Management. activities of this component are the creation Satellite imagery, meteorological data, and of a GIS for Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Bowen ratio-energy balance (BREB) data at Turkmenistan. Information is used for direct CO2 flux sites in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan dissemination and as a basis for the other have been collected, along with a long-term modules and components. During the sixth study from the western United States. year of the project we have augmented the Together with the CO2 component, grassland regional GIS in Uzbekistan, created and models were parameterized based on these distributed a spatial tool for Central Asia (ACT data. Quantification and mapping of Kazak A-Where), and established regional estimates steppe seasonal fluctuations of CO2 have been of carbon balance in rangelands by integrating published in the Journal of Environmental the GIS and CO2 flux modules. Management. Augmentation and refinement of the Generation of GPP and Re from databases emphasize the integration of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan was given low meteorological and remote sensing data. priority due to low CO2 fluxes and poor Integration of project components was done sunlight-CO2 flux response curves at these to build, synthesize, and calibrate spatial sites. However, 2001 Uzbekistan fluxes were

180 Annual Report 2003 processed into GPP and Re components and with an eddy covariance system, which had agreed fairly well with normalized difference been recently discovered to have a timing error vegetation index (NDVI) early in the spring, in the measurements of densities of CO2 and but later season fluxes may indicate abiotic water vapor. This error was confirmed to

(e.g., inorganic soil physico-chemical) underestimate CO2 fluxes with the eddy processes that may absorb atmospheric CO2 covariance system. This is apparently during the hot, dry summer. significant for winter fluxes when magnitudes

Additionally, satellite data (NDVI) and of CO2 fluxes are small. Until these issues are meteorological data (precipitation, resolved, scaling of winter fluxes would not temperature) at non-BREB sites were collected be warranted. from Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan along with Based on data of aboveground biomass AmeriFlux sites in the western United States. collected throughout the 2002 growing season, Analysis of Kazakh biomass data indicates the potential carbon assimilation of the location and/or footprint problems and thus different agroecosystem types was analyzed. was not used. The data was collected in all four ecosystem Spatial data sets (NDVI, elevation, types (wheat, abandoned land, virgin land, and ecoregion) have been prepared in a manner crested wheatgrass) from the four blocks used consistent with the U.S. data sets. This for the CO2 flux experiment. For this analysis, includes the temporally smoothed NDVI data the three samples taken at every field each time sets 1998–2001 and NDVI metrics. were averaged and the highest value of the Exceptions are the photosynthetically active season was taken as the potential biomass radiation (PAR) data sets, which are only production for each ecosystem (N=4 for wheat produced for North America (http:// and abandoned land; N=3 for virgin land and www.atmos.umd.edu/~srb/gcip/), and the U.S. crested wheatgrass). Wheat and abandoned STATSGO soils data sets. Regression tree land are the ecosystem types that assimilate analysis indicated minor use of the soil the highest amount of biomass in one year moisture anomaly maps for the Re algorithm (both 4.6 t ha-1), compared to crested in the northern Great Plains. We are procuring wheatgrass (3.0 t ha-1) and virgin land (2.2 t full field soil moisture data sets for further ha-1). The variability of these estimates, testing. measured through the coefficient of variation Algorithm development for the mapping (CV), shows that wheat and virgin land have of winter fluxes that would allow closure of very stable productions throughout the annual carbon budgets has been problematic. landscape (CV= 15%), whereas the abandoned The winter fluxes from Shortandy, Kazakhstan lands are much more variable (CV=55%). were pooled with winter flux values from Crested wheatgrass was found to be at an Mandan, North Dakota and Miles City, intermediate level of variability (CV=34%). Montana. The regression tree algorithm Further calculations are needed to estimate the accounted for 72% of the variation observed real carbon assimilation because two of these in winter fluxes. However, the model used ecosystems (wheat and crested wheatgrass) the site variable to group Miles City and export a big percentage of their biomass Mandan fluxes separately from the Shortandy production as grain and forage, respectively, winter fluxes. One possible explanation for and part of the biomass from the previous year this is that the Shortandy fluxes were measured is lost via decomposition and/or respiration.

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From these data it seems that the abandoned map was completed along with a soils map lands have the highest potential to capture CO2 (scale 1:2500000) using CartaLinks software. from the atmosphere in northern Kazakhstan. Maps were created in the Gaus-Kruger The Country Almanac (Almanac projection. The Uzbek GIS team organized a Characterization Tool or ACT) was completed GIS seminar for faculty and students of the for Kazakhstan. The ACT is an integrated Biology and Ecology Departments at spatial information system designed for Samarkand State University. Presentations agriculture and natural resource management. included: 1) general directions of GIS; 2) The ACT’s analytical and visualization tools methods of using GIS and its potential; 3) enable the rapid characterization of areas methods of processing and analyzing data within the target geographic regions. using GIS tools; and 4) using A WHERE-ACT The ACT software for Turkmenistan and software for studies of desert ecosystems and Uzbekistan (completed Summer 2002) was rangelands. Twenty-nine faculty and students complemented by the construction of a attended. In addition, lessons and seminars foundation database for Kazakhstan in the fall on GIS methods were taught at the Academy of 2002 by the Central Asian Regional of Sciences for postgraduate students and Environmental Center (CAREC) and currently students in the bachelors and masters programs includes climate, meteorological, infra- of the Department of Ecology of Desert structural, demographic, topographic, and Pastures. political data. CAREC has developed an Ecological GIS for all of Central Asia based Activity Two: Range Forage and Carbon on the ACT Software. CAREC plans to Flux Module include existing information in the ACT software for Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan as well. Problem Statement and Approach. The The software was distributed to main objectives of the Range Forage and government and non-governmental agencies Carbon Flux module are to: 1) quantify annual in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan net primary production (ANPP) on through a workshop held together with representative Central Asian rangelands; and CAREC. Participants received a copy of the 2) assess the role of Central Asian rangelands software, licenses for the software, and the in the global carbon budget. Accurate ACT manual (Russian translation) upon estimates of ANPP from these rangelands will completion of the workshop. Since the provide important information on carrying workshop, CAREC has continued to distribute capacity to sustain livestock production in the the software. CAREC reported that many region and are important for evaluating agencies expressed interest in the software but whether Central Asian rangelands are net preferred to receive additional training in sources or sinks for atmospheric CO2. Our addition to just the software. Questions to studies in Central Asia will provide data CAREC on use of the software continue and necessary to quantitatively assess the role of the English-only platform has presented Central Asian rangelands in the global carbon problems to the users. budget. The Uzbekistan GIS data set has continued The Central Asian region is dominated by to grow with extensive work on the creation vast rangelands, and we hypothesize that these of vegetation and soil maps. The vegetation extensive rangelands may constitute a

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significant portion of the “missing sink” that 58o24’E, 90 m a.s.l.). The site is part of the attenuates the increase in global atmospheric Karrykul Research Station of the National

CO2. The capacity of rangelands to sequester Institute of Deserts, Flora and Fauna of the

atmospheric CO2 could be increased with Ministry of Nature of Turkmenistan. better rangeland management practices, Progress. Fluxes of energy, water vapor,

thereby improving the welfare of small and CO2 may differ within rangeland landowners and, if acceptable treaties and ecosystems and among types of land. To protocols can be developed, providing assess the spatial variability of fluxes across a opportunities to trade “carbon credits.” Daily landscape, two state-of-the-art eddy and seasonal carbon balances of rangeland covariance (EC) systems were deployed for ecosystems are measured with a Bowen ratio- continuous measurements of fluxes in two energy balance (BREB) technique that rangeland ecosystems: abandoned cropland

calculates net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) and crested wheatgrass hayland. This is a between a terrestrial surface (including soil follow-up data collection in conjunction and vegetation) and the atmosphere. The NEE with the roving EC measurements that were was monitored continuously during the 2003 done during the 2001-02 growing seasons. growing season in the following study sites in The study sites were located within the Central Asia (described in the GL-CRSP research experiment station of the Barayev annual report for 2001). Kazakh Research Institute for Grain Farming Shortandy site. This represents the near the town of Shortandy in northern “typical steppe,” which consists of the vast Kazakhstan. Data processing and analyses are area of the true steppe spreading from the ongoing for the roving EC measurements lowlands of the northern Black Sea through obtained during the 2001-02 growing the southern parts of the Russian plains to the seasons. steppes of northern Kazakhstan. This site is A timing error was recently discovered located in the field experimental station of the in the flux measurements from the open path Barayev Kazakh Research Institute of Grain infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) (model LI- Farming, near the town of Shortandy, about 7500, Li-Cor Inc.) being used with the EC 60 km NNE of Astana, Kazakhstan (51o40’ N, systems. The main effect of this timing error 71o00’E, 367 m a.s.l.). is an underestimation of water vapor and

Karnap site. This represents the CO2 fluxes. Fluxes from EC measurements “sagebrush-ephemeroidal” arid rangelands of obtained in 2001-02 are being recalculated the foothills of Central Asia. This site is using time series (10 Hz) data. A program located in the territory of the agricultural has been written to maximize the eddy enterprise “Razzok Jahangirov,” 150 km covariances using the 10 Hz data sets. NWW from Samarkand, Uzbekistan (40oN, Additionally, recent developments for 65o30’E, 310 m a.s.l.). correcting EC fluxes (e.g., coordinate rotation, Karrykul site. This represents the “shrub frequency response, and Webb, Pearman, sandy desert,” which includes the majority of Leuning equation corrections) are incorporated the rangelands of Turkmenistan (26 million to the quality assurance protocols for EC data. ha.). This site is located in the southern part Pre-existing flux processing programs have of the Central Karakum Desert, 80 km to the been re-coded for computer programs PC-SAS north of Ashkhabad, Turkmenistan (38o36’N, and MATLAB.

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The BREB measurements were continued was developed from North American flux for the 2003 growing season at two rangeland tower sites in Texas to southern Canada. This sites: sagebrush-ephemeroid semidesert at algorithm was tested using the flux tower data Karnap, Uzbekistan, and shrub sandy desert from Shortandy, KZ (1998-2000) and found at Karrykul, Turkmenistan. Data at 20-minute to have good agreement (R2 = 0.63) between intervals have been received at Utah State observed versus predicted GPP. This indicated University where data processing and quality that carbon fluxes at the Shortandy site were assurance will be performed. similar to the rangeland sites in the United A mathematical model has been developed States, thus flux tower data will be pooled to

for predicting energy, water vapor, and CO2 develop a more robust algorithm. fluxes. This model is based on basic principles A web page has been created to showcase of thermodynamics and biophysics of carbon the scaling up project through South Dakota fixation and respiration. The model was State University (SDSU) and the United States developed from an extensive literature survey Geological Survey Earth Resources and discussions with experts in carbon flux Observation Systems (USGS EROS) Data research. A novel method of extracting Center (http://edc.usgs.gov/carbon_ cycle/). ecosystem-specific parameters has been This web page supplements the original web incorporated into the model. This model has page (http://edcintl.cr. usgs.gov/carboninfo been parameterized with data collected from sheetca.html). It provides a chronological a pristine grassland that represents the Kazakh presentation of SDSU and EROS research steppe ecoregion. We will use this model as a including publications, an interactive tool for estimating and interpreting the presentation of GPP and Re maps of the

dynamics and magnitudes of CO2 fluxes in the Kazakh Steppe, and links to the USDA-ARS Kazakh steppe. AgriFlux and GL-CRSP project on scaling up

The CO2 scaling up project has integrated of carbon fluxes. the flux tower measurements from the USDA- A brochure entitled “The potential of ARS AgriFlux network and this project Carbon Credits,” specific to Kazakhstan, was (LDRCT) in Central Asia. Temporal and published and distributed to U.S. and Kazak spatial scaling up of flux tower measurements agencies. The brochure is based on data from to ecoregion levels is achieved through the use the LDRCT project and other studies in the of modeling, remote sensing, and GIS U.S. and Central Asia that have shown that techniques. NEE was partitioned into fluxes the rangelands of Central Asia are sequestering associated with gross primary productivity carbon at a significant rate. Based on this data, (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (Re) as carbon credits and policies to promote demonstrated in the Kazakh steppe ecoregion. sustainable use of rangelands are valid options GPP and Re were mapped from May to for the Kazak government. The brochure October 2000. Maps of regional fluxes were contains tangible examples and a basic road developed for a whole growing season and map for leaders to make carbon credits a reality included the 10-day temporal dynamics that for Central Asia. It is likely that the market of were generated from normalized difference carbon credits will reach a point of exponential vegetation index (NDVI). A predictive growth, and early positioning will have algorithm to estimate GPP from NDVI and substantial payoffs. other spatial/temporal GIS data sets (R2 = 0.92)

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Activity Three: Animal Production Module season of fieldwork was conducted. On three field expeditions, six sites for monitoring of Problem Statement and Approach. The range condition were set up, and extensive animal production module pursues two major vegetation surveys were conducted. These sites objectives: (1) determine the production are: Karnap, Bukhara (two sites), Kultshuktau potential of the semi-arid and arid regions of (Kyzelkum desert), Tamditau (Kyzelkum), and Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan for sheep Nurata Mountain Sheep Reserve. All sites are production, thereby facilitating the design of visited three times per year. On all sites, the appropriate development programs for the vegetation is surveyed for cover, density, species livestock sector; and (2) create modern composition, biomass, and brush utilization. planning capabilities in the host countries by Samples of range plants are collected for establishing laboratories, providing training to laboratory analysis of nutritional properties. The host country scientists, and developing last survey in the project was conducted in computer-based maps of production and October of 2003; therefore, there are now two development potential. years of range monitoring data available. These Activities are comprised of research on the data are currently in analysis for publication in diet composition of sheep, determination of scientific journals. the nutritional quality of the range and its Data from previous studies conducted in dynamics throughout the forage year, Soviet times in Uzbekistan were development of GIS map layers for soil types, computerized. A database containing four range type, range primary production years of range inventory (condition data) from (availability and quality) and range secondary the Karnap site was computerized and the productivity (potential animal performance results of the analyses reported at the levels for specified management systems), and International Rangeland Congress. the application of a bio-economic simulation The determination of the diets of sheep and model of small ruminant production systems. goats on the Uzbek range made important Our project will produce data essential for an progress this year. Trials to determine the diet improved match between animal genotype and composition of sheep and goats on rangelands, environmental resources in Central Asia. This using the alkane marker method with is the basis for long-term sustainable controlled-release devices, began on one site. production. The methods developed in our Comprehensive sets of species from the Kazakh project are highly relevant for extensive sheep steppe were characterized for ruminant nutrition. production systems in the United States. The Results were published in the proceedings of the host countries will benefit by acquiring International Rangeland Congress. appropriate planning and analysis tools that Only three animal experiments were will help them address the grave conducted, however, because import environmental problems of livestock restrictions for animal samples increased the production on Central Asian rangelands. cost of these experiments beyond the limit of Progress. The animal production module the project budget. The samples collected for made important progress during the 2002-03 determination of intake and digestibility are year. Monitoring of range condition and trends currently assayed in a collaborating laboratory on all major range sites in Uzbekistan was in Israel (Newe Ya’ar Research Center, ARO, completed this year. In June of 2001 the first Israel).

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All forage samples for the determination in 1999 and 2001, we seek to explain why the of nutritional quality of Uzbek range plants livestock sector followed the observed have been prepared for analysis and transition path, which was characterized by a catalogued. They are currently in Samarkand. sharp decline in the livestock population and An attempt to import whole plant specimens output and a change in the dominant farm types was unsuccessful, as the Animal and Plant (from collective entities to subsistence units). Health Inspection Service (APHIS) detected The second part of our analysis derives spores of a listed fungus on some samples. policy implications from a livestock Destruction of two years’ worth of fieldwork production model. From the results of the first was narrowly avoided. A Wiley mill for on- part of the analysis, we chose to model site sample preparation was purchased and extensive livestock production by family shipped to Uzbekistan. Because of a clerical farms, which we hypothesize have the error, it took almost six months to release the potential to significantly increase output. A mill from customs and begin processing in stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) Samarkand. Samples are scheduled to arrive model was developed for a sheep producer in in the Davis lab in November. southeastern region of Kazakhstan. The model All GIS layers except those for primary is used to analyze optimal management, given and secondary range productivity are model parameters, and to evaluate policy completed and ready for release. The missing alternatives. layers depend on the pending completion of Progress. We completed the first part of Activities Three and Four. the analysis and explained how Kazakhstan’s The planned work in Turkmenistan had to livestock population and production declined be cancelled, however, due to the reduction in dramatically since 1991 with the transition available funding. Part of the planned from a centrally planned to a market economy. investments into laboratory facilities in As a result of market liberalization, input Uzbekistan will also not be possible. prices rose and output prices fell, sharply reducing the profitability of livestock Activity Four: Socio-Economic Module production. The price effect was exacerbated by a government decision to tax the livestock Problem Statement and Approach. The sector implicitly by requiring producers to sell goal of the socio-economic (SE) module is to meat to state purchasing agencies at lower than provide a set of policy recommendations for market prices. A poorly designed and the future development of livestock production implemented farm privatization program, in Kazakhstan that are consistent with the new combined with the collapse of the Kazakhstan market system and resource endowment. To capital market, caused massive liquidation of achieve this goal, our analyses focused on the livestock capital. Large farms sold nearly all following two aspects. First, we analyzed the their livestock. Rural households received behavior of the Kazakhstan livestock sector many of these animals, but could not profitably during the last decade of transition (from a maintain most of them. Although nearly all central planning to a market economy) to livestock are now on small farms, government understand the current situation for livestock livestock planning and policies often still seem producers. Using published statistics and focused for large farms with a capital-intensive reports and information from field interviews structure. Commonly observed rangeland

186 Annual Report 2003 institutions also encourage livestock holding increase the capital value of the flock by up to by subsistence rural households that probably $700. The estimated cost of producing such cannot become viable commercial producers. hay is much less. Although this form of livestock holding had The optimal feeding strategies suggested an important role during transition, policies by the model do not resemble the current for future development of the sector should practices observed on family farms in promote the emergence of commercial Kazakhstan. Typically, feeding in our study producers and efficient rangeland area consists of grass hay during the winter at management. a low level and no supplementation during the We successfully completed parameterizing grazing season, whereas the model suggests the bio-economic SDP model. The model that feed supplementation should be profitable. involves a maximization of expected net We hypothesize that family farms face present value of profit stream from a sheep difficulty in financing a higher level of feeding. enterprise given forage, sheep biology, and A capital constraint limits the scope and the economic parameters. Since producers do not level of feeding during the winter and regular know the future levels of forage production at grazing seasons. When the model is altered the time that decisions are made, the decision to include a capital constraint, the model problem has a stochastic nature. The produces a feeding regime much similar to that specifications of forage production and sheep currently observed. According to our biology were derived from a sheep simulation preliminary estimates, if the capital to finance model developed by E.A. Laca. Economic feeding of a flock of 1,368 sheep is limited to parameters (output prices and costs of $1,000, relaxing the capital constraint by $1 production) were obtained from published would increase the capital value of the flock by statistics, farm surveys, and monitoring $6 to $17, depending on forage production levels. activity conducted during this project. Our preliminary results suggest that the Preliminary results of the model exercises currently observed practices of sheep suggest the following. First, in a series of production by family farms are consistently model runs with different constraints on feed explained by a lack of working capital to availability, we found that feed finance winter and supplementary feed, supplementation during the grazing season has including haymaking and conservation. The the potential to significantly increase producer state’s livestock policies currently seem to welfare. Without supplementation, the focus on the introduction of purebred simulated flock size fluctuates significantly in animals. Unless the new breeds introduced response to fluctuations in forage production are suitable for use under severe feeding and, when a more nutritious alternative (barley conditions, the animals will likely face a in our model) to grass hay is not available feed limitation. The appropriate direction during the winter feeding period, the sheep of intervention may be to assist in the production system is not sustainable. development of lending institutions for Supplementation, by mitigating the shocks of small farms. Haymaking and conservation poor forage production on animal productivity, for its use as a supplement during the grazing allows maintenance of production at a high season should be encouraged. Assistance in level. We estimate that making one ton of hay the development of efficient feed markets may available during the grazing season would also be appropriate.

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Dissemination of results. Host country 21, 2003) in Beijing China, “Current Livestock scientists were briefed and consulted on the And Environment Interactions In The progress and plans of the project. Host country Commonwealth Of Independent States And scientists also presented results of the LDRCT Mongolia,” held in the Kyrgyz Republic (May project at national meetings in their respective 4-7, 2003), and the Sub-Global Scenarios countries. Workshop of the Millennium Ecosystem Several scientific articles were produced Assessment in Penang, Malaysia (March 4,

detailing results on CO2 sequestration and 2003). animal production and rangelands in Central The project’s brochure entitled “The Asia. Research Briefs were produced as well Potential of Carbon Credits” was distributed in this reporting period, and project to U.S. and Kazak agencies and advertised participants attended several conferences through leading electronic bulletins in Central where they presented posters. These Asia. This brochure is designed for publications are available through regular policymakers and government officials library services and through the Internet. involved in carbon issues, as well as for those The ACT A-Where software was in industry who have an interest in preserving distributed to several governmental and non- the rangelands of Central Asia while governmental agencies in Central Asia, including promoting their sustainable use. We hope that the ministries of ecology from the five Central this brochure will stimulate discussion and Asian states, the Geography Departments at development of instruments that assist Central Kazak National University and Almaty State Asia to move towards policies that support University, the Institute of Space Research in economic growth and sustainable use of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, United Nations natural resources. Development Program (UNDP) Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, the Organization for GENDER Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) office in Kazakhstan, Committees on Land Data from this project will provide Resources of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, information that will benefit both the male and Hydrology and Meteorology Departments of female portions of the general population in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, Global the region. Results from the project will Mechanism of the International Fund for hopefully encourage women in host countries Agricultural Development, German to become involved in further research that will Development Agency (GTZ), and the Kazak enhance rangeland primary productivity, develop State Institute of Science and Technology. the livestock sector, and affect regional policies. The software has also been presented at This project has continued to support women international meetings by the Central Asian at all levels: as direct beneficiaries of the research Regional Environmental Center (CAREC), results, as employees to support regional including the Committee on the Challenges of activities (Sidelnikova, Mamedova, the Modern Society (CCMS) Working Group Kernshakaya), as collaborating scientists Meeting (Nov. 19-21, 2002), the Asia Pacific (Karibayeva, Shabanova, Soyunova, Lebed, Environmental Innovation Strategy (APEIS) Gaziantz, Young), as graduate students Workshop on Integrated Environmental (Kobayashi, Toderich, Shakirova, Dubovic), Monitoring of Asia-Pacific Region (Sept. 20- and as technical assistants (Zemcova).

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POLICY Numerous young scientists and doctoral candidates associated with the Baraev Institute Important linkages developed in the past of Grain Farming, the Sheep Breeding Institute and reported last year continued to operate. One of Kazakhstan, the Karakul Sheep Institute of of the aspects of our research that has attracted Uzbekistan, the Uzbek Academy of Sciences the most interest from policymakers has been in Samarkand, and the Institute of Desert Flora the study of Central Asian rangelands as potential and Fauna of Turkmenistan were supported carbon sinks. We envision that the database and given research opportunities through the collected from the CO2 flux monitoring sites in project. Central Asia will serve as the foundation for the The animal production module established development of a technological package to a future collaboration with an international identify, evaluate, and monitor carbon credits. NGO operating in Uzbekistan to continue its Regional scientists, international collaborators, activities. In addition, new collaboration and policymakers are just beginning to seriously agreements were established with government consider agricultural ecosystems as potential sites agencies. for mitigation of climate change. We informed regional scientists and policymakers about these DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT possibilities with the publication of a brochure, “Potential of Carbon Credits,” and have obtained The GIS tool and information distributed significant leveraged funding to create a regional will support and facilitate decision-making and network for carbon flux measurement and development policies. The integrated modeling. activities in the carbon-flux module will

The CO2 flux module has had an impact contribute significantly to the assessment of on the USDA-ARS National Program for rangelands as globally important carbon Global Change, and we have been reservoirs and active sequestration agents. collaborating with the National Program Once this takes place, there will be a strong Leader. Further details can be found on the motivation for all projects that link website http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/ development and positive global impacts to projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=405809. focus in more arid areas instead of northern and tropical forests. OUTREACH The brochure on carbon credits further promotes the sustainable use of rangelands as Outreach was directed at producers, a valid option for the Kazak government. It is regional students, and research institutions of designed for policymakers and government the region. In continuation of the program officials involved in carbon issues, as well as partially funded by the International Fund for for those in industry who have an interest in Agricultural Development-International Centre preserving the rangelands of Central Asia for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas while promoting their sustainable use. We (IFAD-ICARDA) and the GL-CRSP, ten of the hope that this brochure will stimulate students from the Kazak Agrarian University discussion and development of instruments supported under this project completed their that will assist Central Asia to move towards undergraduate degrees and two doctoral policies that support economic growth and candidates completed their graduate degrees. sustainable use of natural resources.

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The animal production module will components of NEE. Central Asia and USDA contribute to the long-term sustainable ARS AgriFlux data sets were used to assess production of livestock in Central Asia. The the reliability of mapped precipitation, project is producing data essential for an temperature, and PAR products obtained from improved match between animal genotype and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric environmental resources in Central Asia. The Administration (NOAA) Climate Prediction planning and analysis tools that will be Center and GREWEX SRB. With this developed will assist policy makers in Central information, models were developed for the Asia to address the grave environmental northern Great Plains grasslands and tested problems of livestock production on Central using flux data from Kazakhstan. The pooling Asian rangelands. of the datasets will allow a more robust The socio-economic model provided a good mapping of the northern grasslands GPP flux starting point for modification of policies. in both regions and potentially similar eco- Specifically, Kazak agricultural policies regions in the northern hemisphere. Additional should promote financing for forage and feeds sharing of Landsat TM imagery is enabling accessible to smallholders while promoting the localized efforts to scale up fluxes. rise of larger commercial units. A NASA interdisciplinary proposal was prepared by USGS EROS that included ARS LINKAGES AND NETWORKING AgriFlux and Central Asia flux participants, as well as university involvement. Funding With strong leadership from the for this proposal was unfortunately not Management Entity of the GL-CRSP, LDRCT awarded and funding is still being sought. organized a key linkage between the U.S. The LDRCT project participated in initial rangeland carbon flux network and the Central discussions of the Livestock Environment and Asian network. The GL-CRSP provided Development Initiative (LEAD). LDRCT additional funds that were matched by USDA members from each participating country were to establish a highly synergistic integration. proposed as members and have become active The U.S. network is benefiting from this in the online discussions and meetings. The integration by receiving the techniques to work of the initiative targets the protection and produce maps of predicted annual carbon enhancement of natural resources as affected sequestration developed by LDRCT. LDRCT by livestock production while alleviating benefits by the access to a much larger and poverty (http://www.lead.virtualcentre.org/en/ general database to develop more robust frame.htm). coefficients to produce spatial extrapolations in Central Asia. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS For example, flux data (17 site-years or more) from the ARS AgriFlux network has The LDRCT project supports free markets been shared with LDRCT researchers at SDSU and broad-based economic growth primarily and USGS EROS. Utah State University has through the socio-economic module and filled in missing meteorological data using indirectly through the CO2 work. The SE relationships to other tower data. These module has determined important hindrances parameters are needed for gap-filling of flux to the development of a thriving livestock data and estimation of respiration and GPP sector for Kazakhstan. The CO2 module

190 Annual Report 2003 produced a brochure detailing how Kazakhstan reduce erosion, and capture atmospheric could participate in global carbon credit carbon (Activities One and Two). markets. These markets may provide an • facilitating the direct involvement of important source of government and private producers in conducting research and by investment. disseminating the information both to Mission objectives that this project decision-makers and policymakers and complies with include: (1) the assessment and producers. dissemination of improved livestock and rangeland management technologies to LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS conserve natural resources, mitigate global warming, and improve welfare of smallholders We estimate that we obtained $150K in in Central Asia; and (2) the evaluation of matching (mostly in-kind) and $300K of alternative policy scenarios to promote leveraged funds in cash. These funds include dissemination and adoption of the cash match from USGS-EROS Data Center environmentally friendly, low-cost livestock and the cash from the USDA-ARS for the production technologies. integration of the United States and Central The activities of the 2002-03 year will Asian carbon flux networks. contribute towards these long-term targets by: Funding from IFAD ($205K) continued to • widely distributing the Country Almanac support the farm monitoring, alternative forage (which includes an electronic database of activities, and animal production modeling soil, vegetation, and weather layers) to be activities of the project. used directly by decision-makers and policymakers, also used as the basis for TRAINING the modeling phase of this project (Activity One). Degree Training • developing the human capacity and Karen Olmstead, M.S., 2003, Biology and institutional frameworks necessary for this Agricultural Engineering, A Simple project to have long-term impacts beyond Model of Rangeland Productivity in its active period (all activities). Southern Idaho Using Landsat Images, • creating data-based models of C flux, University of California, Davis. forage production, and weather for the Mimako Kobayashi, Ph.D., 2003, Agricultural simulation of ecological scenarios and an Resource Economics, Livestock assessment of the role of rangelands in the Production in a Transition Economy: The global C cycle (Activity Two). Case of Kazakhstan, University of • modeling smallholder animal production California, Davis. systems and enterprises and identifying Jorge Perez, Ph.D., 2004, Agricultural limiting factors (Activities Three and Ecology, Carbon and Water Vapor Flux Four). Patterns in Four Agroecosystems of • identifying the role of different agricultural Northern Kazakhstan, University of practices on the loss of soil C in northern California, Davis. Kazakhstan, and proposing integrated crop- livestock systems that incorporate rotation with forages that improve soil condition,

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Short-term Training Utah State University. ACT A-Where workshop for representatives Larry Tieszen, Director - International from agricultural government, research, and Programs Office, EROS Data Center, non-governmental agencies was held in late South Dakota. October 2002 in Almaty, Kazakhstan Bruce Wylie, Principal Scientist, EROS Data together with CAREC. 33 participants from Center, South Dakota. Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan Bradley Reed, Principal Scientist, EROS Data with representation from the ministries of Center, South Dakota. energy/oil, natural resources, and economics Tagir Gilmanov, Assistant Professor, Biology attended the trainings. and Microbiology Dept., South Dakota Dr. B. Mardonov was trained at UC Davis in State University. the application of the alkane marker Sinisha Ivans, Graduate Student, Biological method for diet composition and Irrigation Engineering Dept., Utah measurements. He was also trained in State University, Logan, UT. basic methods of ruminant nutrition field Mary Dalsin, Project Coordinator, University research (total collection, digestibility of California, Davis. measurements, and basic laboratory work). Mimako Kobayashi, Graduate Student, A seminar on the basics of GIS was organized University of California, Davis. at Samarkand State University with the Adam Wolf, Post Graduate Researcher, biological faculty for both teachers and University of California, Davis. students. Jorge Perez, Graduate Student, University of Classes and training on GIS Methods and their California, Davis. use in research were held for postgraduate Karen Olmstead, Graduate Student, University students, bachelors, and masters of the of California, Davis. Department of Ecology of Desert Pastures. Girma Getachew, Graduate Student, University of California, Davis.

COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Kazakhstan Kanat Akshalov, Deputy Director, Barayev United States of America Institute of Grain Farming. Emilio A. Laca, Associate Professor, Iliya Alimaiev, Deputy Director, Research University of California, Davis. Institute of Feed Production and Pastures. Richard Howitt, Professor, University of Kasim A. Asanov, Director, Research Institute California, Davis. of Feed Production and Pastures. Lovell S. Jarvis, Professor, University of Nurlan Malmakov, Researcher, Institute of California, Davis. Sheep Breeding. Douglas A. Johnson, Plant Physiologist, Alexandr Nikolaenko, Information Manager, USDA-ARS, Logan, Utah. Central Asian Regional Environmental Wolfgang Pittroff, Asst. Professor, University Center. of California, Davis. Gaziz Sarbasov, Researcher, Institute of Sheep Richard Plant, Professor, University of Breeding. California, Davis. Azimkhan A. Satybaldin, Professor, Ministry Nicanor Z. Saliendra, Research Associate, of Science-Academy of Science RK.

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Zhapar Zhambakin, Director General, Olga Dubovik, Graduate Student, Samarkand National Federation of Private Farmers of Division of the Academy of Sciences. Kazakhstan. International Turkmenistan Arieh Brosh, Researcher, New Ya’ar Research Habibulla Atamuradov, Director, National Center, ARO, Israel. Institute of Deserts, Flora, and Fauna. Gustave Gintzburger, Researcher, CIRAD Muhamet Durikov, Researcher, National Montpellier. Institute of Deserts, Flora, and Fauna. Valerii Nikolaev, Researcher, National COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Institute of Deserts, Flora, and Fauna. Ogultach Soyunova, Researcher, Institute of United States of America Economics, Turkmenistan. EROS Data Center – USGS Uzbekistan 47914 252nd Street Rasulmat Khusanov, Director, Uzbek Sioux Falls, SD 57198 Research Institute of Market Reforms Phone: 605-594-6078 Ministry of Agriculture. Fax: 605-594-6589 Bakhtiyor Mardonov, Range Scientist, E-mail: [email protected] Samarkand Division of the Academy of Sciences. South Dakota State University Tolib Mukimov, Researcher, Institute of Department of Biology/Microbiology Karakul Sheep Breeding and Desert Box 2207B, Ag. Hall 304 Ecology. Brookings, SD 57007-0595 Kristina Toderich, Researcher, Samarkand Phone: 605-688-4925 Division of the Academy of Sciences. Fax: 605-688-6677 Alfia Shakirova, Graduate Student, E-mail: [email protected] Samarkand Division of the Academy of Sciences. University of California, Davis Muhabat Shakirova, Graduate Student, Department of Agronomy & Range Science Samarkand Division of the Academy of Davis, CA 95616 Sciences. Phone: 530-754-4083 Toshpulot Radjabov, Graduate Student, Fax: 530-752-4361 Samarkand Division of the Academy of E-mail:[email protected], mcarpenter Sciences. @ucdavis.edu Farhod Babadjanov, Graduate Student, Samarkand Division of the Academy of USDA-ARS Forage and Range Research Sciences. Laboratory Oksana Zemcova, Graduate Student, Utah State University Samarkand Division of the Academy of Logan, UT 84322-6300. Sciences. Phone: 435-797-3067; 435-797-3385 Denis Rahimov, Graduate Student, Samarkand Fax: 435-797-3075 Division of the Academy of Sciences. E-mail:[email protected]

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Utah State University Uzbek Livestock Research Institute Dept. of Forest, Range and Wildlife Sciences Poselok Krasniy Vodopad Logan, UT 84322-6300, U.S.A. Tashkent Region, Kibray Phone: 435-797-3385 Contact: M. Ashirov, A. Abdusattarov Fax: 435-797-3075 Phone: 998-71-26433-07 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 998-71-1394993 (USPCA) E-mail: [email protected] Turkmenistan Uzbek Sericulture Research Institute Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan Ipakchi St. #1 15 Gogol Street Shaihantaur Region Ashkhabad, 744000 Turkmenistan Tashkent, 700055 Uzbekistan Phone: 993-13-55464 or 351439 Contact: Yuldashev Fax: 993-12-357342 or 351439 Phone: 998-71-2400456

National Institute of Deserts, Flora, and Fauna Uzbek Research Institute of Market Reforms 15 Bitarap Turkmenistan Street Ministry of Agriculture Ashkhabad, 744000 Turkmenistan 28 Druzba Narodov St. Phone: 993-12-357298 or 395427 Tashkent, 700097 Uzbekistan Fax: 993-12-353716 Phone: 998-71-2768600 E-mail: [email protected] Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Barayev Research Institute of Grain Farming Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan – Akmolinskaya Oblast Samarkand Branch Barayev Street # 6 Samarkand, Uzbekistan Shortandy-1, 474070 Kazakhstan Phone: 998-66-33-58-11 Phone: 731-63-121950 Fax: 998-662-31-00-39 Fax: 731-63-121270 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Central Asia Regional Office - ICARDA Central Asian Regional Environmental Center 6 Murtazaeva St. / P.O. Box 4564 Orbita 1 # 40 Tashkent, 700000 Uzbekistan Almaty, 480043 Kazakhstan Phone: 998-71-1375259 Phone/Fax: 732-72-292619 Fax: 998-71-1207125 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Ministry of Science-Academy of Science RK Karakul Sheep Research Institute 79 Ablai Khan Ave. 47 Mirso Ulugbek St. Almaty, 480091 Kazakhstan Samarkand, Uzbekistan Phone: 732-72-625217, 623365 Phone: 998-66-2333279 Fax: 732-72-623831 Fax: 998-66-2394993 E-mail: [email protected]

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National Federation of Private Farmers of New Ya’ar Research Center Kazakhstan Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) 15 Republic Square Israel Almaty, 480013 Kazakhstan Phone: 972-49-539500 Phone: 732-72-631390 Fax: 972-49-836936 Fax: 732-72-630900 E-mail: [email protected]

Research Institute of Feed Production and PUBLICATIONS Pastures 51 Jandosova St. Gilmanov, T.G., D.A. Johnson, N.Z. Almaty, 480035 Kazakhstan Saliendra, K. Akshalov, B. Wylie. 2003. Gross Phone: 732-72-214586 primary productivity of the True Steppe in Fax: 732-72-621757 Central Asia in relation to NDVI: An

E-mail: [email protected] opportunity for scaling up CO2 flux measurements. Environ. Manage. Accepted. Research Technological Institute of Sheep Gilmanov, T.G., S.B. Verma, P.L. Simms, Breeding T.P. Meyers, J.A. Bradford, G.L. Burda, A.E. Mynbaevo Village Suyker. 2003. Gross primary production and Almaty Oblast light response parameters of four southern Kazakhstan 483174 plains ecosystems estimated using long-term

Phone: 732-72-702202 CO2-flux tower measurements. Global Fax: 732-72-623831 Biogeochem Cycles, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1071. E-mail: [email protected] Kobayashi, M., R.E. Howitt, L.S. Jarvis. Submitted 2003. Kazakhstan’s Livestock International Transition. Livestock Development and Rangeland Conservation Tools (LDRCT) CIRAD Montpellier Project. Research Brief 03-03-LDRCT, 2 Place Pierre Viala submitted September 2003. 34060 Montpellier, France Laca, E.A., L.A. Wolf. Carbon credits: a Phone: 330-49-9612200 potential source of farm income. Brochure Fax: 330-49-9612940 published by the GL-CRSP LDRCT project. 4 pages. International Centre for Agricultural Research Laca, E.A., V. Yurchenko, E. Parsaev, W.P. in Dry Areas (ICARDA) Pittroff. 2003. Secondary succession in PO Box 5466 former wheat fields of Kazakhstan’s steppe. Aleppo, Syria Proceedings of the VII International Phone: 963-21-213477 Rangeland Congress, Durban, SA. Fax: 963-21-213490 Pittroff, W.P., B. Mardonov, G. Gintzburger, E.A. Laca. 2003. Cover, density and biomass in a Central Asian Artemisia semi-desert community. Proceedings of the VII International Rangeland Congress, Durban, SA.

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Pittroff, W.P., B.Mardonov. 2003. Desert Conference, 9-12 October 2002, Washington, Livestock Production - Challenges and D.C., U.S.A. Opportunities. Proceedings of the NATO Wylie, B.K., D.A. Johnson, E. Laca, N.Z. Advanced Research Workshop Saliendra, T.G. Gilmanov, B.C. Reed, L.L. “Desertification Problems in Central Asia and Tieszen, B.B. Worstell. 2003. Calibration of Its Regional Strategic Development,” June remotely sensed, coarse resolution NDVI to

2003, Samarkand. CO2 fluxes in a sagebrush-steppe ecosystem. Pittroff, W.P., N. Narvaez, V. Yurchenko, Remote Sens. Environ. 85:243-255. E. Parsaev, E.A. Laca. 2003. Nutritional Wylie, B.K., T.G. Gilmanov, D.A. properties of plants in secondary succession Johnson, N.Z. Saliendra, A. Nikolaenko, K. on former grain fields of Kazakhstan steppe. Akshalov, E.A. Laca. Submitted 2003. Proceedings of the VII International Integration of Flux Tower, Remote Sensing, Rangeland Congress, Durban, SA. and GIS Methods to Predict Carbon Fluxes Saliendra, N.Z., D.A. Johnson, M. on Rangelands of Central Asia. Livestock Nasyrov, K. Akshalov, M. Durikov, B. Development and Rangeland Conservation Mardonov, T. Mukimov, T.G. Gilmanov, E.A. Tools (LDRCT) Project. Research Brief 02- Laca. 2002. Daily and growing season fluxes 03-LDRCT, submitted March 2003. of carbon dioxide in rangelands of Central Wylie, B.K., T.G. Gilmanov, D.A. Asia. Symposium-Agricultural Development Johnson, N.Z. Saliendra, K. Aksahalov, L.L. in Central Asia, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Tieszen, B.C. Reed, E. Laca. 2003. Remote Meetings, 10-14 November 2002, sensing and geographic information system in Indianapolis, IN, U.S.A. rangelands of northern Kazakhstan:

Saliendra, N.Z., D.A. Johnson, M. Quantification and mapping of seasonal CO2 Nasyrov, K. Akshalov, M. Durikov, B. fluxes from Bowen ratio-energy balance Mardonov, T. Mukimov, T.G. Gilmanov, E.A. measurements. J. Environ. Mgmt. Accepted. Laca. 2002. Measurement of carbon dioxide fluxes in Central Asia. Global Livestock ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS CRSP Program Conference, 9-12 October 2002, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. FLUXNET Scaling-Up Workshop, Lake Saliendra, N.Z., K. Akshalov, D.A. Tahoe, NV. “Matching Up Scaled Tower- Johnson, T.G. Gilmanov, L.A. Wolf, E.A. Based Carbon Fluxes and Processes with Laca. Submitted 2003. Central Asian MODIS-Based Remote Sensing Products and Rangelands as a Part of the Missing Sink for Downscaled Inversion Information,” Lake

Atmospheric CO2: a Four-Year Study in the Tahoe, CA, August 12-14, 2003. True Steppe of Northern Kazakhstan. Gilmanov, T.G, B.K. Wylie, L.L. Tieszen.

Livestock Development and Rangeland 2003. Scaling-up tower CO2 fluxes in semi- Conservation Tools (LDRCT) Project. arid grasslands of the Great Plains using Research Brief 01-03-LDRCT, submitted spectral vegetation indices and March 2003. phenomenological modeling. Poster, North Wolf, A., K. Akshalov, N.Z. Saliendra, American Carbon Program Joint PI Meeting D.A. Johnson, E.A. Laca. 2002. Effects of (NACP ’03), Arlington, VA, May 13-14. land use type on carbon sequestration in north Gilmanov, T.G., L.L. Tieszen, B.K. Wylie, Kazakhstan. Global Livestock CRSP Program L. Flanagan, A. Frank, M. Haferkamp, T.

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Meyers, J. Morgan. 2004. Towards Scaling- PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

up tower CO2 flux measurements in grasslands of the Northern Great Plains: Phenomenological Lead Principal Investigator. Emilio A. modeling using flux partitioning, vegetation Laca, Agronomy and Range Science, indices, and Geographic Information Systems University of California, Davis, One Shields (GIS). Soc. Range Manage. 57th Annual Avenue, Davis, CA 95616. Phone: 530-754- Meeting, abstract accepted. 4083; Fax: 530-752-4361; Email: ealaca@ Wylie, B., T. Gilmanov, R. Doyle, D. ucdavis.edu. Johnson. 2003. Scaling ecosystem exchange

of CO2, GPP, R, and NEE in Semi-Arid Lands. Investing in Drylands: Lesson, Incentives, and Cost of Inaction, Rome, Italy, June. Wylie, B.K, T.G.Gilmanov, D.A. Johnson, N.Z. Saliendra, E.A. Laca, L.L. Tieszen. 2004.

Scaling up of CO2 fluxes to assess carbon sequestration in rangelands of Central Asia. Soc. Range Manage. 57th Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, January. Saliendra, N.Z., D.A. Johnson, M. Nasyrov, K. Akshalov, M. Durikov, B. Mardonov, T. Mukimov, T.G. Gilmanov, E.A. Laca. 2002. Measurement of carbon dioxide fluxes in Central Asia. Global Livestock CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., October 9-12. Wolf, L.A., K. Akshalov, N.Z. Saliendra, D.A. Johnson, E.A. Laca. 2002. Effects of land use type on carbon sequestration in north Kazakhstan. Global Livestock CRSP Program Conference, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., October 9-12. Saliendra, N.Z., D.A. Johnson. 2003.

Growing Season Fluxes of CO2 in Southeastern Idaho and Central Asian Rangelands. USDA-AR AgriFlux Meeting, Woodward, Oklahoma, January 22-23. Kobayashi, Mimako, R.E. Howitt, L.S. Jarvis, E.A. Laca. 2003. Modeling Extensive Livestock Production Systems: An Application to Sheep Production in Kazakhstan. Paper prepared for presentation at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Montreal, Canada, July 27-30.

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LINKING SHEEP PRODUCERS AND MARKETS: THE ROLE OF THE KYRGYZ SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION IN EVALUATING AND PROMOTING PROFITABLE SHEEP MARKETING STRATEGIES

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Interviews with sixty-one sheep and wool questions about new opportunities in domestic producers in Talas Oblast demonstrate the markets and exports to Kazakhstan, Russia, and economic advantages of a meat breed the region. production strategy, based on traditional The introduction of Regulation #360, “On Kyrgyz fat-tailed sheep. Although less the Procedure of Lease and Use of Pastures,” in remunerative per head than the meat strategy, June 2002 raised questions of pasture fine wool and mixed production strategies also management that are directly relevant to both demonstrate profitability at 2003 prices. The the ecology and sustainability of the pastures, as findings confirm the hypothesis that there are well as to the production costs for the different potential areas for increasing the production groups of producers (meat, wool, and mixed). value and returns for a “dual-purpose” strategy. Results of the project’s analysis are helping At the sectoral level, household flocks of Kyrgyz the Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders Association fat-tailed breeds for domestic meat markets are (KSBA) to target its service provision and currently the most widespread segment of policy advocacy activities. An extension brief production, providing a major protein source in describing this research is being distributed household consumption. Strong urban demand through KSBA’s local groups and the Rural is reflected both in markets and in the Advisory Service. proliferation of new restaurants in Bishkek and tourist destination Cholpon-Ata. RESEARCH Wool producers represent a smaller, more commercially oriented segment of production. Activity One: Economic Comparison of Their cost structure demonstrates a different Wool, Meat, and Mixed Flocks relationship to pasture access and veterinary costs compared to meat producers, who spend less on Problem Statement and Approach. pasture rental and other costs with their highly Under the current conditions of changing adapted Kyrgyz fat-tailed and Gisarski breeds. world market prices for wool, the relative Feed costs are also slightly higher for the wool profitability of producing mainly fine wool, meat, producers on average than for meat producers. or both is not entirely clear to either producers For wool producers, the survey results or marketers in Kyrgystan. The project underscore the desirability of increasing meat hypothesized that the meat strategy is still the sales, and the importance of achieving quality most common and profitable, but that dual premiums for wool to maximize sale prices, purpose strategies, combining both wool and which are below world market levels. The meat sales, would have the greatest potential upturn in wool price suggests better prospects to maximize income levels if they could be next year. For meat producers, the results raise adapted to Kyrgyz conditions.

198 Annual Report 2003

Progress. The Table 1 - Sheep Production Budget 2002. project collected
&    <  quantitative data from 61 )   88* sheep producers in Talas !!!!!  $-2  A*)2% Oblast. Production !< !< !< budgets were calculated L  7$ for each operation and a :   69A7 93A7 7AG comparison of '$ .7 % ?+ (      profitability made for '$ .
$$ J,     each of the three groups: '$ .B"J,     meat, fine wool, and '$ . $    mixed. The survey '$ .7$     results were used to begin    06A9 2/A0 3A3 modeling alternative '% "   farm budget scenarios 3  5' 82     with changing ).2$#   parameters for world 6 $    prices for wool and meat. 6    Results on the price-  +    2    quality sales data indicate '$ 
.7$   
$"  that Kyrgyz producers '"  are obtaining prices well
$   below world levels; /1    however, under the  0/AG 22A2 8A2 assumption that the fine Source: 2002 survey in Talas Oblast. wool group in the sample can differentiate lots of 23-micron wool, current 20,400 som/100 head/year for the wool group, Australian prices for 23-micron wool (USD USD $1.00 = 45 som). While the Kyrgyz fat- $7.00 per kilogram clean) suggest that wool tail meat breed strategy generates the highest producers with this quality of fiber could double return on a per head basis, the wool producers their profitability if they market volume contracts have the highest average net income per certified in narrow fiber diameter ranges. operation (61,062 som with flocks averaging These findings do not confirm the project 226 heads), versus a net income of 51,998 som hypothesis that the highest profitability in (with an average size of 91 heads) in the meat production comes from a dual purpose strategy group. The profitability of the mixed flock of combining animal sales with the sale of fine strategy (39,213 som with an average flock size wool, using an objective measurement of fiber of 96 heads of Kyrgyz semi-coarse wool breed) and quality management. The findings show is the lowest of the three groups. Intensive that all three strategies are profitable, with the management of animal selection and breeding meat strategy comprising the highest return is not practiced by the operators in the Talas approach of the three on a per head basis sample, suggesting there is potential for (44,400 som/100 head/year versus 31,900 maximizing dual purpose income if such som/100 head/year for the mixed group, and techniques are followed.

199 Global Livestock CRSP

The findings also do not confirm the narrowing gap in price between very fine fiber hypothesis that Kyrgyz wool can command diameters and wools in the 21-25 micron international prices for its producers if it is range. These improving price conditions will marketed according to international standards. likely increase the relative profitability of the The results of 2002 wool sales to KSBA and wool sector and perhaps exceeding the outlook local buyers show that a subset of producers report’s expectation. The report gives Kyrgyz are receiving somewhat higher ranges of producers a positive outlook for both wool and global prices for higher quality wool (the meat in the short-term but does not provide highest price in the sample is $1.36/kg of specific price forecasts for 2004. grease wool in June 2003), but only a little In an additional outreach activity, wool was measured objectively during the Mogilevsky and Childress participated in a spring 2002 clip recorded in the sample. Most conference on the relationship between wool producers are receiving intermediate Kyrgyzstan and the World Trade Organization prices within the low market range. (WTO), in which the issue of temporary export The spring of 2003 was the first year restrictions for raw wool in Kyrgyzstan was during which KSBA used an OFDA2000 brought to the attention of officials in the machine to take objective measurements of Ministry of Industry and Trade as an example fiber diameter. This was the first year in which of a counter-productive policy for farmers. KSBA groups began sorting wool according to objective measurements. The project GENDER completed a market outlook (see Activity Two below), based on research done by KSBA with The project does not have any explicit the University of Wisconsin-Madison (UW) gender focus. All of the sampled producers team. This market outlook predicts rising are headed by males. The project has not world demand for the 21-25 micron diameter investigated the intra-family dimensions of wool, which is what most operations in the sheep production activities, income sample are producing, suggesting that the wool distribution, or the differences in women’s producers’ relative profitability may improve work in the three types of households. as the world price strengthens. POLICY Activity Two: Market Outlook Report The Kyrgyz researchers are engaged with Problem Statement and Approach. The local leaders and national policymakers in a market outlook activity focused on dialogue about agricultural policy and the understanding changes in Australian markets future of the sheep industry from marketing based on stocks and drought conditions, the and ecological perspectives. They are engaged relocation of U.S. and other western textile in supporting KSBA’s policy positions on industries to China, German textile demand, temporary restrictions on raw wool exports, and other factors. value added tax (VAT) policy, and export Progress. The world price conditions for standards for wool. Additionally, Childress wool continued to improve during 2003. The presented findings about pasture management outreach material produced by the project and Rakaev was a panelist at the November 5 described this trend, emphasizing the National Conference on Land Reform.

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OUTREACH ecologists from the U.S. are currently working with local KSBA groups on wolf management. The project is targeting local sheep Contributions to Host Country. For producers to read the brochure produced about Kyrgyzstan, these results fill a research gap, the research by KSBA. The purpose of the important during a period of renewed attention outreach activity is to provide producers with to the role of the sheep sector in the Kyrgyz a baseline of quantitative knowledge about economy. The results also support KSBA’s their position in the local industry as planning and involvement with farmers. background for future marketing and Through systematic data collection, the production decisions. The outreach activity research has enhanced KSBA’s ability to embodies KSBA’s commitment to act as an understand the economics facing producers in objective source of information for producers, its region, to plan strategically as an as well as a buyer of wool. organization, and strengthen its policy advocacy activities. KSBA is continuing to DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT update information in the producer database to establish a longer-term monitoring of sales. The project’s developmental impact is The results suggest that focusing market small by itself, and is intended to be a development efforts exclusively on wool contributing element to a larger set of KSBA would be a mistake, ignoring the most activities that are strengthening the linkages profitable and dynamic parts of the sheep between producers and markets. The findings sector. about the economic advantages of traditional Linkages and Networking. The project Kyrgyz breeds underline the sustainable established collaboration with a number of characteristics of these breeds, and suggest that projects, agencies, and actors active in rural it may be valuable for KSBA to seek ways to development in Kyrgyzstan. These include the increase service provision for this group. The BASIS CRSP, the Checchi Commercial Law project’s contribution to understanding pasture Project, the Chemonics Land Reform Project, management questions (for example, the Winrock International Farmer-to-Farmer fragmentation in rental payment for pasture Project, Giprozem, Gosregister, Ministry of between commercial and household Agriculture, Water Resources and Agro- production) is also contributing directly to Industry, the Rural Advisory Service, Swiss policymaking for sustainable pasture Development Cooperation, the German management. Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. Cashmere Pilot Project, World Bank Village Contributions to U.S. agriculture in the form Investment Project, Agriculture Services of testing services and consulting opportunities Support Project, and the Land Registration are likely to flow out of the project’s Project. Presentations based in part on the contribution to establishing marketing project research were made by Childress on expertise in KSBA. KSBA is known to U.S. October 4 at Harvard University to the Central agriculture through the Farmer-to-Farmer Eurasian Studies Society Annual Meeting and Program of Winrock International, which has by Childress and Rakaev to the National provided KSBA with three volunteers from Conference on Land and Agrarian Reform, U.S. agriculture since 1997. Wildlife sponsored by USAID. Held on November 5

201 Global Livestock CRSP in Bishkek, the conference was attended by Marketing in Central Asia,” beginning in local leaders, representatives of the Jorgoku 2003-2004. The project contributed to a set Kenesh, officials from Gosregister, Giprozem, of linked projects carried out by Childress: and the Rural Advisory Service, as well as staff USAID Rapid Appraisal of Land Legislation of USAID/Bishkek and USAID/Almaty. ($42,000); BASIS Institutional Innovations for Investment in Kyrgyz Agriculture ($150,000/ OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS year); and the DFID/Institute of Development Studies Group Farming in Kyrgyzstan and The project supports the USAID/Bishkek Romania ($50,000). objective of the development of free markets and broad-based economic growth (i.e., TRAINING agribusiness and private enterprise). The project contributes to this objective by assisting in the Per plan, the small grant program was not development of one of Kyrgyzstan’s few farmer involved in providing any organized training associations, which helps develop the activities. It provided on-the-job training for institutional mechanisms for linking producers KSBA in data collection, analysis, and and markets through credit provision, marketing, preparation of extension briefs. Roman village development, and policy advocacy. The Mogilevsky of Cemter fpr Economic and project displayed a concern for individuals, Social Research (CASE)-Kyrgyzstan and providing incentives for regional managers of Childress provided this training. KSBA to take an active role in the research, deepening KSBA’s contact with its farmers/ COLLABORATING PERSONNEL members and providing on-the-job training for key researchers like Akulbek Rakaev. The Malcolm Childress, University of Wisconsin- transparency and openness of data-sharing Land Tenure Center. demonstrated in the direct dissemination of Akulbek Rakaev, KSBA. results to producers contributes to the U.S. Temirkuliev Temirku, KSBA. State Department’s objective of public Alumbek Erdolatov, Center for Economic and information freedom in Kyrgyzstan and Social Research-Kyrgyzstan. inclusive national dialogue about development Roman Mogilevsky, Center for Economic and priorities and policy issues. Social Research-Kyrgyzstan.

LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS

The project did not leverage any funds University of Wisconsin-Madison directly, although it provided a platform for Land Tenure Center establishing linkages with two other GL-CRSP 1357 University Avenue small grant projects (University of Wisconsin/ Madison, Wisconsin 53715 Dave Thomas and Liba Brent, and Colorado Phone: 608-262-3657 State University/Kathy Galvin and Carol Fax: 608-262-2141 Kervan) for the preparation of a three-year follow-on GL-CRSP project, “Developing Institutions and Capacity for Sheep and Fiber

202 Annual Report 2003

Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders Association Ul. Profsoyuznaya 43 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Phone/Fax: 996-312-210761

Center for Economic and Social Research- Kyrgyzstan (CASE-Kyrgyzstan) Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Phone/Fax: 996-312-217947

PUBLICATIONS

The project plans to submit a manuscript to a U.S. journal later this year. The Russian language extension brief, “Sravnitelnoe analiz dohodnosti chastniye obsetvostbov khozyaistva, vzrashibaiyushii ovyets razlichnii napravleniye productivnosti” (Comparative analysis of profitability of private sheep farms from differing productive approaches), was published by KSBA and a thousand copies are being distributed to farmers and policymakers.

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Lead Principal Investigator. Malcolm Childress, Land Tenure Center University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53715. Phone: 608-262-3657; Fax: 608-262-2141; Email: [email protected].

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FEASIBILITY OF MARKET DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT SERVICES FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS IN KAZAKHSTAN AND KYRGYZSTAN

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in common • Policy, research, and activities to improve with the other Central Asian republics, had incomes of livestock farmers must be highly developed livestock industries which targeted towards the comparative produced wool, other animal fibers and pelts, economic advantages of different types of as well as meat. Following the disintegration livestock in particular ecological regions. of the Soviet Union, these industries, and the • Smaller-scale livestock owners need USSR market on which they were based, largely additional income sources from their collapsed. The wool and fiber industries are animals. Their rates of live animal sales now experiencing a revival. The region has a to markets are not sustainable as high sales comparative advantage in producing livestock levels eventually deplete small flocks, on an extensive basis. Rangelands cover more leading to loss of livelihoods. than 60% of the agricultural area, managed by Producers with smaller flocks will gain by herders with traditional skills. There is a genetic selling high value animal fibers, as these can fund of indigenous and crossbred animals of bring an additional, recurrent, and often economic value, and a depth of national research significant income per head of animal skills inherited from the Soviet period. owned. These products can also be Regionally, wool production has remained transported more cheaply than live animals steady since the year 2000 yet the prices to markets. The development of cashmere remain low. Most wool and fibers go to the marketing will especially benefit poorer other Newly Independent States though China farmers in Kazakhstan’s vast desert regions has become increasingly important to the and Kyrgyzstan’s mountain zones, where trade. Household data from previous studies indigenous goats thrive and there are very and our study findings show that wool, few income opportunities apart from cashmere and camel hair are sold without the livestock. benefit of separation into coarse and fine wool and that of other fibers. RESEARCH This project examined how livestock resources can be better exploited to meet new Problem Statement and Approach. This commercial demand as well as increase project addressed the problem of how to develop economic returns to producers. Focusing on markets for fine wool and cashmere that can: a few high value products – fine wool and goat • Increase profitability for producers and the cashmere–the study investigated the national commercial sectors. information and technology transfers needed • Meet industrial quality standards. to improve marketability. The project reached • Capture niche markets for high-value the following development conclusions: products on the world market.

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• Develop the comparative advantages of in the Kazakhstan sample. In Kyrgyzstan, unique animal genetic resources and the sampled households in the poorer southern natural rangeland resource. region sold 46% of their sheep. The region has a comparative advantage The potential for meat export is severely in producing livestock on an extensive basis. impeded by the breakdown in national Rangelands cover more than 60% of the veterinary controls (Vidon 1999). Few agricultural area, managed by herders with countries will allow meat imports without traditional skills. There is a genetic fund of assured veterinary certification, although indigenous and crossbred animals of economic Russia is now reported to be buying meat from value, and a depth of national research skills Kazakhstan. There was an opportunity to inherited from the Soviet period. Recent investigate this assumption of the problem assessments of the market for livestock model during a field trip to Kazakhstan’s products in these two countries had identified northern border with Russia, in Kostanai the greatest potential in fine sheep wool and Oblast. In a meeting with senior provincial goat cashmere, with camel hair and pelts to a agricultural officials, the officials noted that lesser degree (Kerven et al. 2002; SLLPC/ the province produced 50% more meat than DFID 2001). was required. The question was raised about Expansion of meat markets currently has whether meat was exported to Russia. The much less potential, for several reasons. answer was equivocal. The officials, who Firstly, in the transition to a market economy, included state veterinary officers, commented livestock producers and traders spontaneously that veterinary inspection certification was responded to demand for meat from the new required for exports. They argued that this private urban markets. Sales income from would need more financial support for the live animals quickly overtook sales of wools, veterinary service, as there was brucellosis fibers, etc. in importance to farmers’ income. present among the livestock. Finally, the But the majority of rural families now own officials concluded that meat was not exported insufficient animals to continue depending on to Russia but to western Kazakhstan, where animal sales for subsistence. This follows meat prices were higher. from the decollectivisation of state farms, In the last couple of years, demand for fine/ where in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, up to semi-fine wool -- the most commercially 70% of small stock were lost. valuable kind -- has increased in both This assumption of the problem model, countries, for two reasons. Firstly, Russia has that live animal sales were the major source begun importing fine wool again, after using of farmers’ income, was modified as project up stockpiles from the early 1990s following survey results show that for farmers with fine the collapse of their processing industry. wool sheep, cash income from wool can be Secondly, foreign investment has revived some quite significant (18% in one sampled region of the domestic processing facilities, at of Kazakhstan) while sales of cashmere can Tokmok in Kyrgyzstan and Taraz in be very significant (47% of income) for goat- Kazakhstan, as well as a number of smaller owners in the sample villages of southern facilities. Rising demand for fine wool has Kyrgyzstan. Nevertheless, smaller-scale flock meant a doubling (and more) of producer owners with up to 30 head have to sell an prices within both countries for fine and semi- unsustainable proportion of 60% of their sheep fine wool since 1998.

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There are few purebred fine wool sheep domestic supplies of fine and semi-fine wool. left, as during the economic crisis of the early Within Kyrgyzstan, for example, the largest reform period, newly privatized farmers factory at Tokmok had to import wool from crossed any remaining Merinos with the Australia and South Africa. All these factories indigenous fat-rumped meat breeds. At that demand much higher production of Merino time, the market value of meat type breeds for semi-fine wool to justify their capacity and slaughter was much higher compared to wool recent financial investment. breeds. However, with recent demand and Wool factories also require raw wool rising prices for fine wool, some farmers have supplies to be graded according to industry considerable interest in regaining good wool standards. In the Soviet period, trained breeds. This assumption of the problem model specialists at state collection centers carried was tested by comparing prices for the out wool sorting, but newly privatized farmers different breeds at the livestock market in do not have these skills. Processing factories Taraz, a major provincial city in Jambul Oblast are prepared to pay higher prices to producers of southern Kazakhstan, a center of fine wool for cleaned and sorted wool. But most farmers Merino sheep production in the Soviet period. are not aware of the price differential for In spring 2002, the price of a young ewe of different grades, so in addition to lacking skills, Kazakh meat-type breed was almost double they have no incentive to clean and sort wool, ($60) that of a Merino-type young ewe ($33). which would bring them higher prices. However, the price of a three year-old ram of Therefore, there is potential to improve wool each breed was the same at $86. Larger-scale marketing by disseminating price information farmers buying at this market were interested to producers, and training them in sorting in obtaining a good-looking Merino-type ram wool. to upgrade their fine wool production. When starting the project, the problem There are also a number of coarse-wooled model was altered to put greater emphasis on sheep breeds such as the Gissar breeds, the investigating the potential for developing Kyrgyz Alai, and the Karakul, in the desert cashmere markets, with less focus on problems regions of Kazakhstan. All local meat-type and solutions to wool marketing. Discussions breeds are coarse-wooled in both countries. were held with the University of Wisconsin While coarse wool always had a lower value teams carrying out the other GL-CRSP small compared to fine wool, the price has become grant projects, “Linking Sheep Producers and very low indeed -- a few cents a kg. -- due to Markets” (Childress-Stobart team) and lack of demand. There are thus limited “Improving Market Infrastructure Through prospects for developing coarse wool. Wool Pools in Kazakhstan” (Thomas-Brent In the Soviet period, Kazakhstan and team). One of the outcomes was that the Kyrgyzstan each had several large factories for Colorado State University (CSU) team would wool washing, spinning, and weaving. These focus on cashmere production and marketing fell into disuse post-1991, but in the past three in both Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Through to four years foreign investment and technical further exchanges between the teams, it was advice has rehabilitated some of these agreed that the CSU team would seek to factories. But the quantity and quality of wool compare returns to producers in different supplies remain a problem. The largest regions from wool, cashmere, and live sales factories are not able to obtain sufficient of sheep and goats. It was also agreed that in

206 Annual Report 2003 order to increase coverage and avoid Kazakh and Kyrgyz livestock research duplication, the CSU team would only collect institutes, which started in 2001 with British basic data on wool production and marketing in Embassy funding. Native cashmere goats one region of Kazakhstan (Jambul Oblast) that from four regions of Kazakhstan are being was not being covered by the Thomas-Brent team evaluated for selection and breeding. also working in Kazakhstan. Since about 1998, commercial interest in Goat down (cashmere). The indigenous Central Asian goat down (cashmere and goats of Central Asia produce fine down, which mohair) accelerated, initially with Chinese can be marketed as cashmere, a high-value purchasing. Meanwhile, newly privatized commodity on the world market (Kerven et. al. herders are now restocking with goats, having 2002; Millar 1986). Cashmere production was “turned the corner” from the massive small not developed in the Soviet era, but breeding stock losses of the mid 1990s. On a pattern work developed angora mohair goats for state well documented in semi-arid Africa, goats are farm production in Kazakhstan and preferred for restocking after large-scale stock Kyrgyzstan (Dmitriev and Ernst 1989; Millar losses, due to their higher reproductive rate 1986). Researchers crossbred the native fine- compared to sheep and cattle (Kerven et. al. downed goat with several Russian and Asian 2003). As cashmere can be harvested each year, breeds, in order to increase the down yield per it provides farmers with a renewable income, animal (Dauletbaev and Aryngaziev 1978; compared to final live animal sales for slaughter. Almeev 1973). The down of the resulting The initial project problem model stated that crossbred goats had, however, a higher fiber there were “no large-scale cashmere processing diameter and other characteristics that make facilities in either Kazakhstan or Kyrgyzstan.” this fiber (known as cashgora) much lower Research under this project has found that there value in the world market. Most private are local firms doing first or second stage farmers now no longer have a pure strain of processing of raw cashmere prior to export. native goats. The down produced from these Starting a couple of years ago, several companies mixed breeds has accordingly less market in Turkestan city, South Kazakhstan Oblast value, compared to cashmere. Moreover, the have been sorting raw cashmere into colors crossbred goats are less hardy in the extreme and separating out finer from coarser qualities, winter conditions, thus costing private farmers with technical assistance and financing from more in fodder, and have a lower reproductive some European companies to which the sorted performance than the native goat (Aryngaziev raw product is exported. In Almaty, 1998). Kazakhstan, the company Asutor has been Fieldwork under this project identified buying and exporting cashmere but without some high quality native cashmere-producing washing or dehairing, as far as is known. In goats in a district of Kyzl Orda Oblast, Kyrgyzstan, a company in Osh has been Kazakhstan. This strain has not been crossed washing and dehairing cashmere with with the Soviet mixed angora breed goat, and equipment and know-how supplied by Italy, is therefore a valuable genetic resource for to which two tons of dehaired cashmere was breeding high value cashmere stud goats for exported at a price of $30 per kg in 2002. sale to farmers. At present, Kazakhstan has a An unknown quantity of goat fiber is small cashmere goat breeding project with exported raw, mainly to China, at a relatively senior national researchers from both the low price, thus losing potential value for the

207 Global Livestock CRSP producer countries. There remain investment center, and Aksai village, nearby. opportunities for processing cashmere Ten families were sampled in each village. domestically; however, these require technology The sample was based on the proportional transfer and improved quality of supplies. distribution of sheep and goat ownership of Progress. A questionnaire survey for 40 villages within a household survey in households in two contrasting regions of Kazakhstan, to be compared to the Kyrgyz Kyrgyzstan was conducted by Abdrasulov survey (DARCA 2002): 1-30 small stock = 4 Abdugani (Senior goat and sheep specialist, families (40%); from 30 to 70 animals = 3 Kyrgyz Livestock Research Institute) in families (30%); from 70 to 150 = 2 families autumn 2002. We decided to increase the (20%); and more than 150 = 1 family (10%). number of household surveys in Kyrgyzstan Informal interviews were carried out with (from 30 to 40) to be more comparable to the key officials responsible for developing the Kazakh data. Dr. Abdugani is a colleague of livestock sector, including market development. Dr. Almeev, a co-PI on this project. Though These were gathered by the in-country national Dr. Abdugani was not initially part of the collaborators (Dr. Serik Aryngaziev, project, his knowledge and expertise allow for Kazakhstan, and Professor Almeev, excellent data collection. Krygyzstan) and overseen by co-PI Dr. Nurlan The first region was chosen to represent Malmakov. Data was collected on wool an area within the more densely populated and production at the regional level, export of urbanized northern region close to main wool, cashmere sales of goat and camel hair, markets, in which fine wool sheep were mainly trading, and processors. kept in the Soviet period. This is Keminsky In Kyrgyzstan, Dr. Almeev interviewed district in the northern province of Chui Oblast, seven traders and three national processors of where the two villages of Shabdan and Kaindy wool and goat down, using a checklist of were chosen. Merino and Kyrgyz crossbred questions developed from the proposal. He wool sheep are kept in this area and there is a carried out these interviews in Naryn town demand for fine wool from the country’s (Naryn Oblast), Bishkek, Akshiski Rayon largest wool processing factory, Kasiet, in (Jalal Abad Oblast), and Tokmok town (Chui Tokmok town, one hour from the sampled Oblast). He obtained national statistics on the villages (Figure 1a, 1b, and 1c). export of wools and goat down from 1990 to The second region was selected to 2002 and a list of all officially registered represent a sparsely populated rural area close traders and traders in wools and fibers to the Fergana valley and the border with operating with the country. He noted that Uzbekistan, in which goats were important to many traders are not officially registered, so household economies. This was Batken as to avoid paying tax, but the largest traders district of Batken Oblast, in the extreme and processors are likely to be registered. southwest of the country, at a distance of 1,000 Dr. Almeev’s report was translated into km. from the capital of Bishkek. This oblast English by a Kyrgyz translator, Gulbara contains about 200,000 goats, 40% of all goats Tagaeva, who has previously worked on the topic in the country, and farmers have been selling of goat down and who assisted the team during goat down for several years to traders from C. Kerven’s visit to Kyrgyzstan in August 2002. Uzbekistan and China. Two villages were Data Analysis. Data analysis began in selected: Aktatyr, 60 km. from the provincial February 2003 when Kazakh scientists, Dr.

208 Annual Report 2003

Nurlan Malmakov and Mr. Aidos Smailov, survey of 40 livestock-producing households traveled to Fort Collins for two weeks of data in Kazakhstan (DARCA 2001) and from the analysis training with Dr. Michael Lacy, new survey of 40 such households in Department of Sociology, Colorado State Kyrgyzstan. University. Data on the current producer Results. In Kyrgyzstan, the situation in marketing patterns of live animals, fibers, and the southern goat-keeping region contrasts skins was analyzed from an existing sample sharply with the north. In the south, farmers

Figure 1a, 1b, and 1c - A view of the project’s study region.

209 Global Livestock CRSP gained 87% of the income they would have In Kazakhstan, there are similar contrasts gained from selling both sheep and goats, the between ecological regions. Among the total of which amounted to 47% of all income sampled households, income from selling from small stock sales in 2001 (Figure 2). In wool was a significant contribution only for the south, the contribution of income from farmers in the mountain foothill region near cashmere sales is crucial, as it was in 2001, Almaty, where fine wool breeds of sheep are when cashmere prices were double those of retained from the state farm period; here 2002. On the other hand, sales of sheep wool farmers gained on average 18% of their cash are negligible from the southern region. It income from wool sales in 2001 (Figure 4). appears from the high sales rate of sheep in Income from selling goat fiber was not an the southern region sample that farmers had important source of income in any region, to sell many more sheep compared to northern in contrast to the Kyrgyzstan southern region region farmers in order to gain income (Figure sample. This is because private trading in 3). Farmers in the more developed northern cashmere has been more developed in central region probably have additional income and southern Kyrgyzstan since 1997. In sources from employment and crop farming. contrast, in southeastern Kazakhstan, In the northern region, where fine wool sheep Chinese-sponsored buyers only began remain from the former state farms and there is purchasing in 2000 and did not penetrate a demand for this wool from the large Tokmok rural areas as thoroughly as in Kyrgyzstan processing factory, farmers can gain some during 2001. Furthermore, Kazakh farmers income from wool sales. But this is a small did not comb the cashmere from their goats, amount on average, equal to only 8% of cash as in southern Kyrgyzstan, and would have income from livestock in 2001 and no income received less income from selling whole goat in 2002 when farmers did not sell their wool. fleeces.

Figure 2 - Sales rate of sheep and goats by region.







'% 1         




 < + ?
 #!+
  +?
 #!+


210 Annual Report 2003

Table 1 - All privately-owned sheep and goats in sampled villages (40 households).

"
   " " !  28# . 08# . 8# 4 /8#          , & , & , & , &   " %5  %5  %5  %5        4 4 4  4 4

It is important to note that the results of over $5,000. This area has the advantage reported here did not include other sources of of relatively good pastures and is within a household income. These would include sales couple of hours of the main profitable market of cows, horses, milk products, and of Almaty. agricultural crops, as well as employment, self- Survey results from Kyrgyzstan. Over employment, state pensions, and remittances the whole sample, the mean number of sheep from family members. This analysis had a and goats privately owned is 70, with a range limited aim of comparing income sources from from ten to 330 (Table 1). Three households wool, live animal sales, and cashmere sales owned more than 200 sheep and goats. The from sheep and goats. distribution of ownership in Table 1 indicates Total cash incomes from selling live that we were successful in obtaining a sample animals, wool, cashmere, and skins were very that reasonably matched our target distribution different between owners of different flock described above. As can be seen, 40% owned sizes, ecological regions, and between less than 30 smallstock, 30% owned between countries. Thus for example, the largest scale 30 and 60, 20% owned from 75-160, while owners, owning more than 200 sheep and 10% owned from 170 to 330 small stock. goats in the Kazakh sample, obtained $12,400 As expected, the pattern of ownership is in 2001, mostly from selling sheep. quite different in the two sample areas of Households in the Chui Oblast sample in Keminsky and Batken (Table 2). Households Kyrgyzstan obtained on average less than in the northern sample of Keminsky had far $390, the least income from these sources. more sheep than goats and were more likely Highest regional incomes were in the semi- to have sheep than goats, while Batken sample desert area of Kazakhstan, with mean incomes households were the reverse, with many more

Table 2 - Household ownership of sheep and goats, by villages.

BH  "        "       
&
  ' A ( 
  ' A )?,&* )?,&* )D?D  9: ! 9: 4  

)D5?D  9: 4  9: 4

* 5?* D5 9: 4  9: 4 

'% ?* D5  9: 4   9 : 4

211 Global Livestock CRSP

< + 
 & " + ' '$ " '$ D .  '$ D  '$ ,$   '$ % 1   '$  "  '$ " .  

'$  '$ " % 1  '$ ,$   $ 
1' '$ "  + &  .  '$ D   '$ " '$ ,$ .   '$ D  '$ ,$  '$ "  

'$ " 

'$  % 1 

$ ! &

'$ " .   '$ D '$ ,$   '$ % 1   '$  " 

Figure 3 (above) - Sales for Batken Southern and Keminsky Northern. '$  Figure 4 (right) - Sales for Moinkum Desert, Almaty % 1 Semi-Desert, and Almaty Foothills. 

212 Annual Report 2003

Table 3 - Percentage of households owning capital assets used for livestock, by region.

#5  + % &    < ; @  B& ,  < +   

 +      

 )#*       goats than sheep and half the Batken sample Keminsky sample, 18 out of 20 households having no sheep at all. sheared their goats and none combed. Breeds and management. The majority Ownership of capital assets for livestock (85%) of sheep numbers across the whole management. The sampled households in the sample were reported as local breed. This is north (Keminsky region, Chui Oblast) more probably a mixture of the fat-rumped frequently had capital assets used for livestock indigenous meat types having dark coarse compared to the southern villagers in Batken wool crossed with fine white wool breeds Oblast (Table 3). Trucks and tractors are used introduced in the Soviet period. Four farmers to haul livestock feed (hay) and livestock to in the Keminsky sample reported they had market and family goods to seasonal grazing Kyrgyz fine wool sheep (15% of all sheep). areas. Barns, winter homes, and yurts Goat breed, when reported, was Kyrgyz (traditional Central Asian nomadic tents) are downy (cashmere-producing). All households used at seasonal grazing areas. in the Batken sample combed the cashmere Only one of the 40 households received from their goats, and some also sheared. credit (USD $300) from a private company, Combing is preferable, as the cashmere will which was used for buying livestock. receive a higher price when sold. In the Ownership of capital agricultural assets is positively associated with larger Table 4 - Mean number private sheep by household asset ownership. flocks of sheep, but not with the $ $  $ $ size of goat flocks (Table 4). This %5  %5  %5   is because the owners of larger %5  flocks of sheep are in the Keminsky " ? " ? " ? " ? $
&
& (  (  sample and have more capital assets than the goat flock owners in the /2     Batken sample. Field research in Kazakhstan indicates that tractors /2D     are the single most useful asset for     livestock owners, as they can be used for multiple transport 7 &     purposes to maintain livestock B     (Mathijs et. al. 2003).

213 Global Livestock CRSP

Use of non-family hired labor for $18, ranging from USD $3-128 per household. livestock management. Northern households In Batken, six of the 20 households sold in Keminsky region were more reliant than goatskins at an average price of USD $0.50 Batken households on hired labor for livestock per skin, and two households sold sheep skins tasks (Table 5). at USD $2 per skin. Households that hired full time herding labor Costs of marketing wool and cashmere. had on average 48 sheep (standard deviation Households in Keminsky sold their wool to 40.6) in the case of hiring one full time herder, traders coming to their farms (19 out of 20), and 130 sheep (standard deviation 139.7) in the and none reported any costs of transporting case of two full time herders. Households that wool to markets. did not hire herders had on average 14 sheep In Batken, only five of 20 households sold (standard deviation 27.6). No relationships cashmere to a trader, the rest selling directly could be discerned between the number of at Samarkandek market, one hour traveling goats owned and hiring of full time herders. time from the survey villages. Ten households When comparing the use of hired labor (half the Batken sample) used rented transport, with capital assets (Table 3), it may be paying on average USD $2. Five households concluded that the Keminsky households spent a mean of USD $14 (ranging from USD generally have more capital and labor assets $2-35) using their own vehicles to transport to use on their livestock. their cashmere to market. However, in these Sales of wool and cashmere. No cases, it is likely that trips to market included households reported wool income in 2002 other purposes in addition to selling cashmere, when the price of wool was reported as from which is lightweight. 10-25 Kyrgyz som (USD $0.20 to $0.50 kg). Sales of live animals. Thirty-eight of the Keminsky farmers reported that in 2001, the 40 households sold live animals. In Keminsky, price was 25 som (USD $0.50/kg.) for white four farmers sold to traders coming to their wool from crossbred fine wool sheep, and 5 villages from Tokmok town, and the remaining som (USD $0.10) for coarse wool from local 16 farmers took their animals to Tokmok for sheep. Between 10-800 kg. were sold by sale. No goats were sold. households, with a mean of 121 kg. sold in In the Batken area, all animals were sold 2001. No wool sales were reported for 2002. at Samarkandek market and none to traders Batken households sold on average 27 kg. coming to the villages. Prices for sheep are (ranging from two to 100 kg.) of cashmere in 2001 Table 5 - Percentage of households that hired labor for livestock tasts, by and also in 2002. region. Sales of sheepskins #& 
&     , !  and goat skins. All ,     ,   sampled households in  Keminsky sold sheepskins < +     to traders coming to the villages, at an average price  +     of 80 som (USD $1.60) per skin. The mean income  )#*     from sheepskins was USD

214 Annual Report 2003

USD $4-10 per head, up to 30% higher in the Comparison of income from live sales northern region, reflecting greater proximity to and wool/ fiber of sheep and goats. As would urban populations and their demand for meat be expected from samples taken in two distinct (Table 5). Goat prices are half or one third regions, household incomes from sales of live those of sheep, where sold. sheep, goats, wool, and goat cashmere varied Sales rates of sheep and goats differed between regions (Figure 3). Overall, the widely between the northern Keminsky highest income was from the sale of live region and the southern Batken region animals, but as noted in Figure 5, this was (Figure 2). Rates were calculated as the at the due to unsustainably high animal sales number of each type of animal sold through rates in the case of Batken households. the previous 12 month period as a If we compare sales income from live percentage of the number owned at the time sheep and wool within Keminsky district, of the interview (late 2002). Households in only 8% of their small stock income came Batken had sold on average 46% of their sheep from wool sales and that was only in 2001. In (mean 12.3 sold) and 28% of their goats (mean 2001, no wool was sold by the time of this 17 sold), compared to Keminsky households survey (in late autumn 2002 after the spring that sold 16% of their sheep (mean 8.9 sold) shearing which is usually followed by wool and none of their goats. sales).

Table 6 - Mean sheep and goat sale prices (USD) by village.

BH 
&    (    
  ' A 
  ' A )D?D  $ 4  4   )D5?D   4    4   * 5?* D5  4   $ 4 '% ?* D5   4  $ 4 " $ 06 8122006A26 /6 //12/3A37

Table 7 - Mean household income from sales of live sheep, goats, wool, and cashmere per year by region, 2001 and 2002 (USD).


@
(
  
& (  88// &  & 
  88/ 88 :  88/

< +        +        " $B  9 :  9: 9: 9: 9: 4 )?, &* 
    "!!" ""!!#   A.$ "%: "!!"#   *'0$ &%  C      '    

215 Global Livestock CRSP

Comparing income sources for Batken head) had almost five times as many sheep as sample households, when cashmere prices were goats. particularly high in 2001, this brought in 47% of The fine wool sheep breed was the main income; when prices were lower in 2002, breed kept in the semi-desert (73%) and cashmere sales still brought in 31% of income. foothills (70%), whereas the Karakul coarse- Survey results from Kazakhstan. Over wooled and lighter-weight sheep were the the whole sample, the mean number of sheep main breeds kept in the desert (71%). In the and goats privately owned was 123 (±235) foothill and semi-desert zones, descendents of ranging from five to 1,600. The maximum Soviet Merino-type breeds are still widely kept number owned in the Kyrgyz sample was 360 by farmers and yield much better income from head. The number of larger flock owners was wool than the Karakul breed of sheep kept in greater in the Kazakh sample households, with the desert which produces coarse black wool six households owning more than 200 sheep with very low commercial value (Table 9). and goats. These are analyzed separately in Household strategies with regards to sales the following tables. of sheep and goats varied considerably The proportion of goats in small to between flock size categories. Households medium-sized flocks increased with with the smallest flock size (1-30) had high decreasing annual precipitation, with 49%, rates of sheep sales (60%) but very low rates 33%, and 19% of these flocks being goats in of goat sales (5%). The sales rate for goats the desert, semi-desert, and foothills zones however, was inversely related to flock size, respectively (Table 8). Farmers with small and increasing up to 85% for those in with 71-200 medium-sized flocks (from one to 70 head of head, though decreasing to 67% among the combined sheep and goats) had approximately largest flock owners (Table 10). equal numbers of goats and sheep, whereas Prices received by farmers for wool, goat the owners of the largest flocks (more than 71 fiber, and live animals varied considerably by

Table 8 - Mean numbers and percentages of sheep and goats in flocks by ecological zone and annual precipitation. '
1' ! &
AA' $     )*    4
&      (            4

Table 9 - Sales prices (USD) of sheep and goats and their products, by ecological zone.

'
1' ! &
AA' $     )*    4
&      (            4

216 Annual Report 2003

Table 10 - Annual percentage of sheep and goat sales rates and increase by flock size.
& /108 0/178 7/188 I8/
AA' B  ! '$        >

 2 '$ +    

 2 )$     #2  (  /108 0/178 7/188 I8/
AA'A B  ! '$        >

 2 '$ +    

 2 )$     #2 
 2  # +   #     + +7     #  #     + #   +  #    +  +    #   ecological zone. This is partly due to the lower market price than these other breeds that distance to the more profitable markets and is dominate in the semi-desert and foothills also a reflection of the different breeds of sheep zones. kept in each zones (Table 12). The semi-desert The cash income derived from the sale of and foothill zones are nearer to the main urban animals and their products by different flock markets of Almaty and its peripheral towns. size categories and in the three ecological Karakul sheep are lighter in weight on average zones is shown in Table 11, and the proportions by 4-6 kg. compared to fine wool and fat- in Figure 4. Income in-kind in the form of rumped sheep, and are kept in the desert zone, consumed animals and home use of wool and which is furthest from profitable urban goat fiber was not valued for this analysis. markets. Karakul sheep, therefore, realized a Total cash income from sheep and sheep products was far greater than income from Table 11 - Mean total annual cash income (USD) from sheep and goats by flock size and ecological goats, for all flock size categories. However, region, 2001-2002. for the medium-sized flock group with between 31 to 70 sheep and goats, income from !+
 goats represented 36% of total income. For larger /108 0/178 7/188 I8/ flock owners, goats provide between 16-19% of their cash income, while for the very smallest   ? ?  flock owners, goats provide insignificant cash C  income. '
1 ! & In 2001, the surveyed households received between USD $1.50 to 3.50 per kg. for selling ? ?   goat fleeces to cashmere traders, depending on the production area. This price was much

217 Global Livestock CRSP

better than that received in Table 12 - Breed and weights of sheep breeds kept by ecological zone. previous years, and was due
1 to high demand by Chinese  ' ' ! & cashmere buyers in 2001. +! @)!@*) J/6*  2 "    REFERENCES (8 7 "%*" 4    +!  )! *) J3G* ADB (Asian Development  2 "     Bank). 1997. Wool marketing (8 7 "%*" 4   and production: From Set-back !@.! ) J26*  to new growth. (by R. Diddi  2 "     and M. Menegay). ADB (8 7 "%*"     Almaty, Kazakstan and Abt  + ) J/33*  Associates, Washington D.C.  2 "    ACDI/VOCA. 2001. (8 7 "%*"  4 4 Cashmere Breed Improvement  + .! ) JG*  Programme, Bayanhongor  2 "    Aimag, Mongolia. USAID (8 7 "%*"  4 4 Farmer-to-Farmer Programme,         Ulaan Bataar. Almeev, I.A. 1973. Variation of some coat Dmitriev, N.G. and Ernst, L.K. (eds.) 1989. traits in cashmere producing Kyrgyz goats. Animal Genetic Resources of the USSR. Food Sbornik Trudov Aspirantov I Molodykh. and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Animal Kirgizskii Nauchno-Issledovatel’skii Institut Production and Health Paper No. 65. Rome, Italy. Zhivotnovodsta i Veterinararii, No. 5, pp. 36-38 Goletti, F. and Chabot, P. 2000. Food policy (in Russian). research for improving the reform of Aryngaziev, S. 1998. Downy goats in agricultural input and output markets in Kazakhstan. European Fine Fiber Network, No. Central Asia. Food Policy 25: 661-679. 3, Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Goodson, Jeff. 2002. Improving cashmere Aberdeen. goat stocks in rural Mongolia. USAID Asia/ DARCA. 2002. Desertification and Near East Perspectives from the Field. Regeneration: Modeling the impacts of www.usaid.gov. market reform on Central Asian rangelands. Kerven, C., Aryngaziev, S., Davidson, G., European Union Copernicus Research Franchois, L., Malmakov, N., Mathijs, E., and Program, Macaulay Land Use Research Wright, I.A. Goats and sheep in private flocks Institute. Aberdeen, UK. www.macaulay of post-Soviet Kazakhstan. Small Ruminant .ac.uk/DARCA. Research. In review October 2003. Dauletbaev, B.S. and Aryngaziev, S. 1978. Kerven, C., Russel, A., and Laker, J. 2002. Increasing the production of local coarse-wooled The potential for increasing producers’ income goats in Kazakhstan. Sbornik Nauchnykh from wool, fiber and pelts in Kazakhstan and Trudov Kazakhskogo Nauchno- Turkmenistan. Working Paper No. 45. ILRI Issledovatel’skogo Instituta Ovtsevodstva, pp (International Livestock Research Institute - 104-110 (in Russian). Nairobi) and Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.

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Kerven, C. 2000. Privatisation of multidisciplinary analysis. Agricultural livestock marketing and emerging socio- Systems (32:1) 55-81. economic differentiation in Kazakhstan. SLLPC/DFID Sustainable livelihoods Report for the GL-CRSP project “Integrated for livestock producing communities Tools for Livestock Development and project. 2001. Report on livestock income Rangeland Conservation in Central Asia,” generation, services and input supply. Dept. University of California, Davis. for International Development (DFID). Kerven, C. (ed.). 2003. Prospects for Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. Pastoralism in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan: ULG. 1997. Development of a Pilot Kyrgyz From State Farms to Private Flocks. Agricultural Market Information System. Final Routledge Curzon Press, London. Progress Report. Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan/U.K. Mathijs, E., Abdul, J., Franchois, L., World Bank Sheep Development Project. Kerven, C., Smailov, A., and Soyunova, S. 1998. Business plan for the Kyrgyz Sheep- Emerging differentiation among pastoralists in Breeders Association: Sheep and wool post-Soviet Central Asia. Journal of marketing. Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan/Washington, Agricultural Economics. In review 2003. D.C. McCorkle, C., Nolan, F., Jamtgaard, K., World Bank 2003. Impact of and Gilles, J. 1987. Highlights from institutional and trade policy reforms: sociological (CRSP) research on small Analysis of Mongolia’s cashmere sector. ruminants. Pastoral Development Network http://Inweb18.worldbank.org/E. Paper 24d. Overseas Development Institute, U.S. Department of State. 2001. Country London, U.K. Commercial Guide: Mongolia. McCauley, M. 1994. Agriculture in U.S. Embassy - Ulaanbaatar and Bureau Central Asia and Kazakhstan in the 1980s. In of Economic and Business; U.S.& Foreign S. Akiner, (ed). Political and Economic Trends Commercial Service and the U.S. Department in Central Asia. British Academic Press, of State, Washington D.C. London, U.K. Vidon, H. 1999. Influence de la Matley, I.M. 1989. Agricultural privatisation de l’élevage sur la sante animale development. In E. Allworth, (ed.). Central au Kazakstan: Le cas de l’élevage ovin. Asia: 120 Years of Russian Rule. Duke Diplome d’etude supereures specialisées University Press. productions animales en regions chaudes. Millar, P. 1986. The performance of Ecole Nationale Véterinaires d’Alfort. cashmere goats. Animal Breeding Abstracts Maison-Alfort, France. vol. 54 no. 3: 181-199. Neumaier, M.C. 1986. Peasant production GENDER in northeast Brazil: The case of goat production in Cariris Velhos, Paraiba. This project incorporates women Technical Report No. 73, Small Ruminant researchers and women informants. K. Collaborative Research Program and Dept. of Galvin is the P.I. on the project and C. Kerven Rural Sociology, University of Missouri, is the project consultant. Several women were Columbia. interviewed by the PIs during their trip in Perevolotsky, A. 1990. Goat August 2002 and many more were represented productionsystems in Piura, Peru: A in the household interviews from 2002-2003.

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Women should be prime targets for training DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT on wool and fiber development. Kazakh and Kyrgyz women, in common Environmental Impact and Relevance. with women in other parts of Central Asia, Though the project objectives do not directly have traditionally processed livestock fiber address this question, it has become clear that products from sheep, goats, and camels into market development needs to reflect regional homemade articles such as carpets and ecological variations in the region. Both clothing. Sometimes these articles are sold countries span major climatic and topographic by women and provide a much-needed source regions with resulting agro-ecological zones. of cash income. In handling wools and fibers, During and before the Soviet period, different women comb, clean, sort, card, spin, weave, breeds of livestock species were adapted to the and knit, as well as make felt and knotted particular physical conditions of each zone. Thus carpets. When male household heads were in the extensive deserts of southern Kazakhstan, interviewed about production and sales of the Karakul sheep and local breed of goat thrived wool and other fibers, they frequently referred in the past and continue to be the mainstay of to their wives for accurate information, which livelihoods. In the better-watered mountain rarely occurs in the case of other household foothills and valleys of Kyrgyzstan and southern livestock management questions. Central Kazakhstan, cross-bred Merino fine wool sheep Asian women are more knowledgeable about were introduced to the Soviet state farms. Some and interested in wool and animal fibers, and of these are still retained though many are now should therefore be a focus of development crossed with local meat-type sheep breeds. efforts to improve marketability of these Agricultural Sustainability. This project commodities. examines how livestock resources can be better exploited to meet new commercial demand as POLICY well as increase economic returns to producers. The results of this study will be of interest to This project has had the full support of the two livestock development projects in Kazakh Research Institute of Sheep Breeding Kyrgyzstan: the World Bank sheep development in Kazakhstan and the support of the Kyrgyz project and the new UK Department for Livestock Research Institute in Kyrgyzstan. International Development project “Support National scientists received technical to livelihoods in livestock producing assistance on household and trader survey and communities.” Kazakhstan does not have any informal interview techniques. livestock development projects, despite the importance of rangelands as a national OUTREACH resource, the tradition of extensive livestock rearing, and the contribution of livestock to Recommendations will be made for rural household economies. This project governments and the private sector on the proposes measures for assisting producers, priorities for allocating resources to develop researchers and the commercial sector to livestock marketing support services. realize greater value from wools and fibers through the market. These measures could be implemented through government and donor-assisted projects in the future.

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Contributions to U.S. Agriculture. this project goes a long way towards addressing Information from this project could be used to how these objectives might be met. determine to what extent the U.S. small stock, Concern for Individuals. Throughout this wool, and cashmere industries could become project, we have been concerned about interested in Central Asian livestock products and individuals and a household’s ability to increase contribute to the Central Asian breeding stock. its economic base. Contributions to Host Country. The Support for Democracy. The fact that the case of Mongolia demonstrates the possible peoples of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan have to benefits to the host countries of developing a engage in the open market will enhance their successful wool and fiber market. Selling interaction with market economies, stimulating raw cashmere has become the major source their movement toward democracy. of income for privatized herders in Mongolia and raw cashmere production has risen by LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS 70%, propelled by a strong demand from China, the U.S., and Europe. The Mongolian Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, U.K., government has encouraged direct foreign 2001 - Desertification and Regeneration in investment and new technology. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan: Modeling the Linkages and Networking. This project impacts of market reforms on Central Asian is linked closely with the two other GL-CRSP rangelands. (DARCA) EU. projects for Central Asia. We have developed a plan for sharing and synthesis of data among TRAINING projects. CSU hosted a two-week training session in February 2003 for host country scientists Nurlan OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Malmakov and Aidos Smailov, and the project consultant, Carol Kerven. In addition, numerous Support for Free Markets and Broad- people have been trained, both in Kazakhstan Based Economic Growth. For the past and Kyrgyzstan, on survey techniques and decade in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, informal interviewing techniques. pastoralists have been disengaging from the state collective farms and establishing COLLABORATING PERSONNEL contact with new domestic markets for livestock. One of the most pressing United States of America questions for the future of the livestock Dr. Michael Lacy, Professor, Sociology industry in both countries is whether small Department, Colorado State University. flock owners will have the resources to continue as livestock keepers. Ecological Kazakhstan location and market access are also crucial Dr. Serik Aryngaziev, Head, Department of to the success of livestock enterprises in both Goat Selection and Breeding, Kazakh countries. Technological Research Institute of Sheep Contributions to and Compliance with Breeding. Mission Objectives. By increasing the Dr. Koishybek Karymsadov, Head, Laboratory livelihood strategies of Central Asian households, of Wool Quality Analysis, Kazakh

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Technological Research Institute of Sheep Kerven, C. (Ed.) 2003. Prospects for Breeding. Pastoralism in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan: Dr. Bolatkhan Makhatov, Director, Kazakh From State Farms to Private Flocks. Technological Research Institute of Sheep Routledge Curzon Press, London. Breeding. Kerven, C., Russel, A., and Laker, J. Professor Terentiev, Researcher, Wool 2002. The potential for increasing Standardization Lab, Kazakh Technological producers’ income from wool, fiber and pelts Research Institute of Sheep Breeding. in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Working Paper No. 45. ILRI (International Livestock Kyrgyzstan Research Institute - Nairobi) and Macaulay Dr. Irik Almeev, Head, Goat Breeding Institute, Aberdeen. Department, Kyrgyz Research Institute of Sheep Breeding. Dr. Abdugani, Goat Breeding Department, ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS Kyrgyz Research Institute of Sheep Breeding. Galvin, K.A. 2002. Feasibility of market development for livestock products United Kingdom in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Paper Dr. Carol Kerven, Independent Researcher, presented at the Global Livestock CRSP Macaulay Institute. Program Conference, Washington, D.C. October 9-12. COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS Galvin, K.A., C. Kerven, Nurlan Malmakov, and J. Sunderland. 2002. Kazakh Technological Research Institute of Livestock product marketing in Kazakhstan. Sheep Breeding Poster presented at the Global Livestock Mynbaeva Village CRSP Program Conference, Washington, Dhambul Rayon D.C. October 9-12. Almaty Oblast, 483174 Kerven, C. 2002. Cashmere production Kazakhstan in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Paper presented at the Global Livestock CRSP Kyrgyz Livestock Research Institute Program Conference, Washington, D.C. Frunze Village October 9-12. Sokuluksky Rayon Chu Oblast, 722125 Kyrgyz Republic PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS

PUBLICATIONS Lead Principal Investigator. Kathleen Galvin, Senior Research Scientist, Natural Kerven, C., Aryngaziev, S., Davidson, G., Resource Ecology Laboratory; Professor Franchois, L., Malmakov, N., Mathijs, E., and Chair, Department of Anthropology, Wright, I.A. Goats and sheep in private flocks Colorado State University. Phone: 970- of post-Soviet Kazakhstan. Small Ruminant 491-1642; Fax: 970-491-1965; Email: Research. In review October 2003. Kathy@nrel. colostate.edu.

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Co-Principal Investigator. Nurlan Malmakov, Head of Reproductive Laboratory, Kazakh Research Institute of Sheep Breeding, Almaty Oblast, Kazakhstan. Co-Principal Investigator. Irik Abdullavevich Almeev, Head of Goat Breeding Department Kyrgyz, Livestock Research Institute, Chu Oblast, Kyrgyzstan.

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IMPROVING WOOL MARKETING THROUGH WOOL POOLS IN KAZAKHSTAN AND KYRGYSTAN

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

After the breakdown of collective farms Wool marketing is further compromised and the privatization of livestock, household by the lack of a full-service fiber lab in sheep production became a significant source Kazakhstan. None of the existing laboratories of livelihood for the Kazakh and Kyrgyz rural in Kazakhstan have reliable, modern population. Sheep production helps Kazakh equipment that would allow for testing and Kyrgyz families to subsist in rural areas according to international standards. As a with few alternative employment result, nowhere during the marketing process opportunities. The rural population raises is the wool objectively tested and none of the sheep for food and as a source of cash to market participants have objective information purchase clothing and household items. about the fiber products they produce or trade While the production and sale of sheep in. Each wool bale contains a variety of products represent an important source of different wool grades and wool prices are income for the rural population, the current relatively undifferentiated, reflecting the lack wool-marketing infrastructure is inefficient of product information and sorting. This and underdeveloped, which contributes to penalizes especially those farmers who producers receiving prices below world market produce fine wools and are paid the same price levels. Constraints in the Kazakh wool market as farmers who produce medium wools. The exist at several levels. The sheep farmers are Kazakh end wool buyers who sell wool to not trained in handling and sorting their wool. China and Russia also lack objective This lowers the quality and price of their information about the wool they buy and sell. product. The farmers also lack objective This weakens their bargaining position vis-à- information about the grade of wool they vis foreign buyers and prevents them from produce and have a limited knowledge about differentiating payments to producers. wool markets, marketing options, and the The objective of this project was to needs of wool buyers. The wool market is research the existing situation in wool dominated by middlemen who are also production and marketing in Kazakhstan and untrained in wool sorting and handling. The Kyrgyzstan and propose improvements in middlemen often buy unsorted and ungraded marketing infrastructure for different types of wool from farmers and resell it for profit to producers and buyers. The project team larger buyers. These buyers resell the wool to identified the following potential end buyers who scour it and export it to China improvements in the wool marketing process: or Russia. Producers sacrifice value to the 1) collecting information on producers and layers of intermediaries that separate them wools harvested in the pilot region, including from the final buyers, and lack information wool samples, and creating a database on wool about the wool they sell. and cashmere production in the pilot region

224 Annual Report 2003 that could develop into a country-level sorting and packaging facilities, wool database; 2) training large sheep farmers and warehouses, pools, and processing facilities. wool buyers in wool sorting and handling at The team will assess the level of skill to sort the farm; 3) setting up alternative marketing and grade wool on the part of the producers organizations, such as wool pools for small and traders, and the availability of information farmers; 4) working with wool buyers to set about prices and markets for different grades up as fiber lab in Kazakhstan; and 5) working of wool. with the Kyrgyz Sheep Producers Association The team will collect wool samples from to organize testing of Kazakh wool at their farmers and households, test them in a U.S. fiber lab. This report examines these activities laboratory, and generate estimates regarding and progress made. the amounts of wool of specific grades produced by farmers and population in the RESEARCH pilot region. The project will explore markets and marketing options, both foreign and Activity One: Research on Wool domestic, for the different grades and Production and Marketing in Kazakhstan quantities of wool produced in the pilot and Kyrgyzstan regions. This information will allow us to develop Problem Statement. The researchers will a model of the current wool production and conduct a survey of households and sheep marketing processes. The team will use the farms and interview producers, traders, buyers, data to document the movement of wool from and processors. The research will examine the the producers to the buyers and processors, commodity (types of wool produced), the main identifying specific problems at different actors involved in production and marketing levels of this process. It will be used to create (wool producers, traders, buyers and a data-bank about the local sheep and wool processors), institutions and facilities producers, their marketing practices, and the (producer associations, wool warehouses, quantities and qualities of wool produced. shearing, grading, packing and processing Progress. Liba Brent and Koyshibek facilities, fiber-testing laboratories), Karymsakov completed 40 surveys of sheep production and marketing processes (wool farmers, ten surveys of wool buyers, and five production, collection, handling, sales and surveys of local administrators and veterinary processing), and markets for Kazakh wool. inspectors between June 6 - September 30, The team will focus on describing the 2003. The survey data covers the key aspects relationships between the wool market of wool production and marketing in the pilot participants and evaluate the different regions (Almaty and Taldy Korgan oblasts). bargaining capacities, needs and problems of The data helps to identify problems in the the producers, traders, and buyers. It will also marketing process and outline possible focus on identifying the problems of small solutions. wool producers. In the course of the fieldwork, the team The team will evaluate the facilities for established contacts with wool producers in wool sorting, grading, measuring, and the Almaty and Taldy Korgan oblasts, and with packaging available in the area. This would major Kazakh wool buyers based in Almaty. include measuring and fiber testing equipment, Interviews with producers and buyers helped

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us to identify their specific needs and concerns. 3) Poor organization of wool collection These contacts will allow us to collaborate on and delivery to markets. Wool is collected improving the wool-marketing process in the by local middlemen who resell it to larger course of the three-year project that begins in buyers. The larger buyers located in regional October 2003, “Developing Institutions and centers resell it again until the wool is sold to Capacity for Wool Marketing in Central Asia,” Chinese or Russian processors. The producers in collaboration with University of Wyoming are hurt by supporting several middlemen and and Colorado State University. receiving a considerably lower price than if Based on interviews with the market they sold wool directly to larger buyers. The participants, the team uncovered the following producers are unfamiliar with alternative weaknesses in wool marketing: marketing options such as wool pools that are 1) Poor handling and preparation of widely used by producers in the United States. wool, lack of sorting and grading by Wool pools and marketing cooperatives allow farmers and buyers. Kazakh sheep farmers, small farmers to create economies of scale in many of whom are new to wool marketing, wool marketing, increase their control over the have little or no training in the handling and marketing process, and obtain higher prices. preparation of wool. They do not separate tags 4) Lack of wool sampling and objective and bellies from the fleece and have little measurement of wool quality. Nowhere experience in wool grading and pricing. The during the process of wool collection and middlemen who purchase wool from farmers marketing is the wool correctly sorted, graded, are seasonal workers, often equally and tested. Consequently, none of the involved inexperienced in assessing fiber quality and parties has objective information about the in sorting wool. They bale together various quality of the wool they produce or trade in. grades of dirty and clean wool which lowers This makes it impossible to price the wool the price of all wools in the bale. As a result based on current world market prices. The of these deficiencies, high-quality fine Kazakh producers and buyers are at a wools are sold for less than world market disadvantage vis-à-vis their foreign value. competitors who sell graded and 2) Lack of information and market professionally tested wool for a market price. incentives for farmers to improve wool 5) Outdated fiber laboratories. Kazakh quality. Because of the lack of objective wool is not sampled and objectively tested due fiber testing, farmers cannot obtain in part to the lack of fiber laboratories in information about the grade and quality of Kazakhstan. The existing laboratories have their wool. They do not know world market outdated equipment and lack trained prices and are uninformed about the needs of personnel. wool processors in wools with specific Based on these findings, the team initiated parameters. This lack of information prevents the following solutions: them from making informed breeding 1) Training in wool handling, sorting, decisions and places them in a weak bargaining and marketing will be organized together position vis-à-vis wool-buyers. Given that fine with major Kazakh wool buyers. During wool is often not separated and priced higher her fieldwork in the summer of 2003, Liba than medium wool, farmers lack the incentive Brent and the directors of major Kazakh wool to improve wool quality and breed for wool. buying companies discussed the possibility of

226 Annual Report 2003 training farmers in handling and sorting wool. farms in the two pilot regions. Farms that have Directors of three major Kazakh wool buying over 300 sheep are being located and marked companies (Asutor, Archar Vul, and ATA) on a large-scale map of each region (scale expressed interest in collaborating with our 1:200,000). The information collected team to organize training in standard wool includes the name of the farmer and the sorting and handling for producers in the numbers and breeds of sheep produced. This Almaty and Taldy Korgan regions during the information will be entered into a database and 2004 wool season. Liba Brent will travel to distributed to wool buyers, with the goal of Kazakhstan in December 2003 to further assembling larger lots of similar wool. The discuss and coordinate the training program. database will be updated and expanded in the 2) Helping to differentiate payments for course of the three-year project. It will include different grades of wool to give incentives data on wool produced at the farms after the to farmers to produce quality wool. The collection of samples and their testing using team discussed the need for improved wool OFDA 2000 (Optical-Based Fiber Diameter handling and sorting with sheep farmers in the Analyzer). pilot areas. Several large sheep producers 5) Improving testing of Kazakh wool. agreed to participate in the training program Producers and buyers need to become better on wool handling and grading during the next informed about the product they produce and wool season in the spring of 2004. Improvement sell. This can be accomplished through the in wool handling and sorting will allow farmers collection of wool samples from farmers and to demand a higher price for sorted, clean wool. buyers and objective testing of these samples Higher prices should give farmers the incentive using reliable equipment. In order to promote to produce higher quality fiber and select for wool fiber testing and learn about wool produced during sheep breeding. in the pilot regions, the team collected wool 3) Improving producers’ position vis-à- samples from farmers and wool buyers in the vis intermediary wool buyers. Producers can summer of 2003. These samples were potentially benefit through improving the analyzed in Kyrgyzstan using OFDA 2000, organizational structure of wool marketing. owned by the Kyrgyz Sheep Producers The team discussed the possibilities of joint Association. The results of these tests, wool marketing with household producers and discussed under Activity Four, will be small and medium farmers in the pilot regions. distributed to wool producers and buyers in We also discussed with larger farmers the December 2003. Producers and buyers will possibility to sell sorted and graded wool be informed about the results of these tests and directly to final buyers by improving encouraged to continue collecting wool advertising and establishing direct contacts samples, testing their wool, and actively using with buyers. Some farmers agreed to take the acquired data to make production and steps towards collecting wool together with marketing decisions. The team will work with their neighbors during the next season and wool producers and buyers to collect samples trying to market a larger lot of sorted wool of wool during the next season and analyze directly to larger buyers. these samples using the services of Kyrgyz 4) Collecting data on sheep producers Sheep Breeders Association (KSBA) in in pilot regions. The team began to collect Kyrgyzstan. Liba Brent worked with the information on wool production and sheep engineering team of the wool processing plant

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Kargaly near Almaty to produce wool- Marketing wool through wool pools has sampling tools that will be distributed to advantages for both buyers and sellers. farmers and wool buyers during the spring Pooling wool permits producers to increase the wool season. amount of various kinds of wool and sort and 6) Examining the potential of setting up combine the wool into lots based on fiber a fiber lab in Kazakhstan. The fiber diameter, white-face, black-face, length, etc. laboratories in Kazakhstan lack equipment and By combining wool into larger lots, grading trained personnel. The team discussed the it, and marketing it through the wool pool, possibility of forming an independent fiber lab sellers increase their bargaining power and with the Kazakh wool buyers. chances to find a buyer. The wool pools also The most sophisticated fiber lab in the allow for the producers to share the cost of region was set up by the KSBA with the baling and transporting wool to a buyer be it a assistance of the World Bank. The World mill or a middleman. Without sharing such Bank-funded Sheep Development Project costs and using services of the wool pool, it purchased two OFDA 2000s for KSBA. Liba would be difficult for the American producers Brent introduced the Kazakh wool buyers to to realize a profit from wool, especially during the leadership of the Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders the worldwide decline in wool prices of the Association (KSBA) and arranged for their late 1990s. visit of the KSBA’s fiber lab. Kazakh wool Information on sorting and grading buyers are now using the testing services of practices and institutions, such as the wool KSBA until they can establish their own pools used by American sheep producers, will laboratory in Kazakhstan. A successful be assembled in a format that can be presented collaboration between the Asutor wool buying as educational material to Kazakh sheep company and KSBA has been established. farmers. The Thomas-Brent team will collect Asutor and other wool buyers are currently data and information on American wool pools testing wool samples in Kyrgyzstan. and grading systems. Brent plans to visit wool pools, collect information about pooling, Activity Two: The Collection of sorting, grading and marketing practices, and Information on U.S. Wool Production and videotape the wool pool. The edited video and Marketing with a Focus on Market other educational materials will be used to Institutions (Wool Pools, Wool Warehouses, inform the Kazakh wool farmers about Sorting and Grading Processes) Used by production, sorting, grading, pooling, and U.S. Wool Farmers marketing practices of U.S. wool farmers, and the effects of these technologies and practices Problem Statement. Compared to on the marketability of U.S. wool. Kazakh or Kyrgyz producers, American small Progress. Liba Brent visited two wool sheep producers benefit from developed pools in the summer and fall of 2002, one in market infrastructure such as wool pools and Maryland and one in Montana. She a grading system. American wool producers videotaped the pools, interviewed the solve the problems of small-scale wool organizers and the sheep farmers, and collected production by pooling wool into wool pools information about wool handling, sorting, or warehouses to achieve economies of scale baling, and marketing. She also visited the and to obtain higher prices for wool. Yocom McColl fiber laboratory in Denver,

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Colorado and a wool processing lab at the They also lack cooperative marketing University of Wyoming at Laramie. She institutions that can generate economies of videotaped the Yocom McColl laboratory and scale in sorting, grading, baling, and marketing the processing facilities at Laramie and collected and increase wool prices for small producers. information on standard wool testing methods The project plans to organize a seminar to in the United States. inform and educate sheep producers about Brent produced an hour-long educational grading and marketing practices used by U.S. video on American wool pools and the fiber- sheep farmers to improve the marketability of testing laboratory in Denver in 2003. The video their wool, and explore the capacities and was narrated in Russian and shown to farmers constraints for introducing similar practices in and wool buyers in Almaty and Taldy Korgan Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. regions in the summer of 2003. It showed the The seminar will cover the following sheep farmers new methods of joint wool topics: 1) a general overview of the world wool marketing and introduced them to a better market, recent market changes, and their organized marketing and grading system. It also impact on farmers in the U.S. and Kazakhstan; stressed the importance of wool sample 2) information on domestic and foreign collection and standard testing. markets for different grades of wool produced The video was effective as an educational in the pilot area, prices and terms offered by material and inspired the discussion of improving the potential buyers; 3) information on wool marketing in Kazakhstan among producers different wool marketing strategies used by and buyers. The Kazakh sheep farmers were U.S. sheep farmers and their advantages and very interested in seeing how American farmers disadvantages, including the video of the wool market their wool and were more open to share pools; 4) training in grading and sorting of information about sheep production after wool; and 5) discussion of strategies for watching the video. They felt the project is improvement of wool production and reciprocal by not simply gathering data about marketing in the pilot regions, including the wool marketing in Kazakhstan, but also offering potential development of wool pools. The a view of the American system. Kazakh wool team will document the process of organizing buyers benefited from seeing the video on the the seminar and evaluate its effectiveness. Yocom McColl fiber-testing laboratory in Progress. Liba Brent and Koishibek Denver. They are interested in setting up an Karymsakov met with sheep farmers in June independent fiber lab in Almaty and need to and July of 2003 and organized small meetings know how such laboratories operate and maintain of farmers in both regions. These meetings international testing standards. The video will helped to familiarize the farmers with the be shown to farmers and wool buyers during agenda of the project and discuss collaboration training seminars and meetings that are on the on sorting and grading wool during the spring agenda of the upcoming three-year project. of 2004. However, the larger meeting planned in the Almaty region did not take place as a Activity Three: Educational Seminar result of the interference of local administration that could not decide the date Problem Statement. The Central Asian and the location. The team decided to farmers lack information about wool markets postpone the meeting until December of 2003. and the needs of wool buyers and processors. The project received a no-cost extension.

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During this time period Liba Brent will travel lab of the Kyrgyz Sheep Producers Association to Kazakhstan and organize a meeting for in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The survey analysis sheep farmers and wool buyers in the Almaty offers the following insights: region in December 2004. 1. Sheep Breeding is profitable and essential for subsistence and commerce of Activity Four: Analysis of Survey Data on the rural population. 39 out of 40 sheep Wool Production in Kazakhstan, Proposal farmers and households interviewed claimed of New Models that Would Enhance the sheep production was profitable. Although Production and Marketing Capacity of most farmers do not do budget accounting, Small Producers, and Evaluation of the several farmers estimated their profit from one Possibility to Introduce Organizational/ sheep to be anywhere from 400 to 800 tenge Institutional Technologies and Structures (USD $2.80 to $5.60). However, regardless Used by U.S. Wool Farmers in Kazakhstan of the level of profitability, sheep breeding is important for all households and farmers as a Problem Statement. The team will source of food and income. Based on the analyze the data collected in Kazakhstan and survey data, a four-person family needs to propose specific improvements at the different maintain at the minimum 50 sheep and 2-3 levels of the wool production and marketing cows to maintain subsistence. Families that process. It will focus on identifying means of have fewer animals live in poverty. An average improving the wool production and marketing 4-person family consumes as least one sheep capacity of Kazakh sheep farmers and per month and sells 1-2 sheep throughout the households. The possibility of creating wool year to generate cash and purchase clothes and pools and a grading system based on the U.S. household items. Most households and model will be examined. The researchers will farmers expressed an interest in increasing explore markets and marketing options, both their flock and none considered selling the foreign and domestic, for the different grades sheep and the farm. The number of sheep and quantities of wool produced in the pilot increased at most farms since last year. These region. They will identify improvements in trends point towards sheep breeding as an production and marketing that are needed to important means of livelihood for the rural increase the exportability of Kazakh wool. population. Improvements in production and The proposals will be presented to wool marketing of sheep products are essential for producers and other market participants and the commercial development of sheep the regional and federal governments. breeding. Such improvements can help sheep Progress. Data on 40 sheep producers breeding families to move beyond mere including households (16-50 sheep), small subsistence. producers (100-270 sheep), medium producers 2. Sheep Breeding in the village and on (300-600 sheep), and large farms (700-2,000 the farm. In Kazakhstan, two distinct sheep sheep) was collected during fieldwork in the breeding contexts can be identified. One summer of 2003 in the Almaty and Taldy includes village households, most of which Korgan region. In addition, 320 wool samples have anywhere from five to 50 sheep. The were collected from farmers and buyers in the households take turns grazing their sheep on Taldy Korgan and Almaty region. The samples common pastures surrounding the village and were analyzed using OFDA 2000 at the fiber stall them in their yards overnight. Most

230 Annual Report 2003 households do not own pastures or large sheep characteristics. According to the survey data, pens and are unable to increase their flock and the majority of farmers are producing mixed develop sheep breeding as a commercial breeds of sheep but many are interested in enterprise. Rather, they produce food and developing a specific breed after they generate income through a variety of other accumulate resources to buy purebred animals activities besides sheep breeding such as the and introduce artificial insemination. In the sale of milk and other agricultural products. context of the project, is important to work They use their sheep primarily for food and especially with those farmers who are occasionally sell one or two for money. The interested in wool production and wool or sheep produced by households are usually of dual-purpose breeds of sheep. The project mixed breed (Kazakh Fat Rump and Kazakh plans to collaborate with several large farmers Fine Wool mix), producing medium or coarse (500+ sheep) during the spring 2004 season wool. It is difficult for household producers to collect and test wool samples, improve wool to maintain a pure breed because their sheep sorting and handling, and develop direct graze together with others and not all of them connections with wool buyers. castrate their rams. In terms of improving 3. Decline in purebred sheep and in marketing infrastructure for wool as well as Kazakh Fine Wool Sheep. About 90% of cashmere and angora fibers, the village farms and households surveyed have mixed households could benefit from joint marketing breeds of sheep. While during the Soviet through organizations such as wool pools that period there was a focus on wool and wool would allow them to generate economies of breeds to satisfy the need for wool on the scale and adopt standard wool handling and Russian market, most village households and sorting practices. The research team discussed farmers currently produce mixed breeds. The the possibility of organizing a wool pool in most common is the hybrid of Kazakh Fine the Akterek village during the next wool Wool (KF) and Kazakh Fat Rump Sheep season. (KFR) that produces medium wool. Farmers The second context of sheep production and households often prefer mixed breeds or is the sheep farm. Sheep farms are located KFR to purebred KF. They argue that KFR outside of the village. The farmers raise lambs and lambs of mixed breeds are stronger several hundred sheep and about half of them and healthier than KF lambs and require less migrate between summer and winter pastures. care during lambing. The ewes do not need to Out of 24 farmers who answered the question be stalled and the KFR lambs are mobile and on migration, 12 migrate between pastures, six able to graze on their own several days earlier would like to migrate but do not have the than the KF lambs. KFR lambs are born with opportunity because of the lack of pastures or a wool coat which protects them against cold. resources, and six are not interested in KF lambs are born without a coat and need to migrating because their pastures are be kept in warm pens. However, some farmers satisfactory year-round. The sheep farms are claim that the KF ewes give more twins than located further from the villages and markets, KFR ewes. but many have favorable conditions for the The choice of a breed does not depend development of commercial sheep production. strictly on costs and benefits calculations, but The farmers are able to perform selection and on the local sheep breeding history. In some choose specific breeds based on preferred areas people prefer KF because it was the

231 Global Livestock CRSP breed produced in the local sovkhoz during Kazakhstan and cumulatively produce the Soviet period. Farmers and households more sheep than specialized sheep farmers, obtained this sheep breed during privatization graze sheep together and produce mixed and prefer it because they have been breeds. Household producers who accustomed to working with it in the past. produce only a few sheep mostly for Knowledge of a particular breed is valuable family consumption are not interested in for making the appropriate production maintaining a specific breed. decisions. However, in most cases the farmers 6. Most households and small farmers have crossed the local purebred sheep with other been focused on producing for subsistence breeds, primarily the KFR sheep. Based on because the price of sheep and sheep the survey results, farmers in the Almaty area products has been depressed until recently. produce primarily KF and KFR breeds and The farmers are only beginning to make crosses. Farmers in the Taldy Korgan region commercial and business decisions related produce Hemshire, Finish Landais and KFR to sheep production, including breeding breeds and crosses. The increase of mixed and selection. Only recently have they breeds is an outcome of several factors: been able to accumulate enough surplus 1. The farmers try to produce sheep that to sustain or increase their flock. require a minimal investment in winter 4. Prices of Meat in 2003. The price of feed, sheep pens, and medicine and that one-year old lamb was around 10,000 tenge can graze all year with minimum extra (USD $70) in the summer of 2003. The price feeding. Most farmers and households of a five- to six-month old lamb was around feed sheep only for a brief period during 6,000 tenge (USD $42). The price increased lambing or in winter, during a heavy by about 1,000 tenge, or USD $7, since last snowfall. The native KFR sheep are better year. Producers have been able to produce adapted to these conditions than KF sheep surplus as a result of the price increases (i.e., and thus are less costly to maintain. they need to sell fewer sheep to purchase goods 2. The KFR sheep and mixed breeds are often and maintain their families) and are slightly larger and heavier than the KF recognizing sheep production as a viable sheep and give more meat. means of livelihood. As a result, sheep 3. The global wool prices have been low with production in Kazakhstan began to grow. Most the exception of the last two years. In sheep farmers take their animals to the market addition, the Kazakh wool market for sale only when they need money and do not discriminates against fine wool as a result work with slaughterhouses and meat processors of poor handling, sorting, and testing. on the basis of contracts. They try to sell only Consequently, the sales of fine wool old ewes and five-month or one-year-old rams produced by KF sheep did not pay off. to maintain or increase their flock. 4. There has been a decline in breeding 5. Prices of Wool in 2003. The price of services and purebred animals. Farmers wool varied considerably and did not always who want to develop fine wool sheep and accurately reflect the wool grade. The average other breeds have difficulties finding the price of fine wool paid to surveyed households appropriate breeding stock. and farmers was 160 tenge/kg (USD $1.1) while 5. Village households, which are the most last year’s price was 100 tenge/kg (USD $0.70). numerous sheep production units in This means that the price of fine wool increased

232 Annual Report 2003 by 37.5% since last year. The price of medium to wool-buyers who offer better prices. The wool was 107 tenge/kg (USD $0.74), project will work on creating a database on compared to 80 tenge/kg (USD $0.56) a year wool grades produced by different farms to ago—an increase of 25%. The price of coarse increase product information and facilitate wool was 25 tenge/kg (USD $0.17), while last wool trade in the pilot region. year coarse wool was virtually unsellable. 6. Results of Wool Sampling Tests. The Based on these prices, a single ewe team collected 320 samples of “fine” wool produces an annual revenue of $70 (the sale from wool buyers in the Taldy Korgan and price of one-year-old lamb) or $42 (sale price Almaty regions. The samples were analyzed of a 5-6 month old lamb) and $3.30 in wool (3 at the laboratory of the Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders kg. of wool at USD $1.1) for fine wool sheep. Association using OFDA 2000. A flock of 100 sheep can generate about USD The 80 samples of “fine” wool collected $2,500 in revenue from meat (100 lambs, 50 from buyers in Taldy Korgan showed an ewes used to replace old ewes, 15 rams average fiber diameter of 23.29 micron. The consumed, 35 rams sold @ USD $70 each), fiber diameter ranged from 20.6 micron to 26.3 and about $300 in wool. Thus, wool brings microns, with standard deviation of 4.9. about 11% of revenue from sheep production. The 120 samples collected in the Almaty Based on sampling fine wool bales at oblast showed an average fiber diameter of several locations in Kazakhstan, the average 23.6 micron, standard deviation of 4.9. The fiber diameter of this wool was 23 micron. finest samples were 21.5 micron and the However, Kazakh farmers received a coarsest samples were 26.3 micron. considerably lower price for this wool than Another 90 samples analyzed were offered at Australian auctions where 23 micron collected by the Semteks company. The clean wool sold for USD $7.1 in auctions in average fiber diameter was 23 micron, with August 2003. At 50% yield and USD $0.40 20.7 as the finest fiber and 25.7 as the coarsest, cent/kg. cleaning cost, 1 kg. of 23 micron dirty and standard deviation of 4.9. wool sold for about USD $3.15. Under the 30 samples collected by the ATA wool assumption that the sorting and baling of wool buying company showed average micron of costs USD $1 per kg. in Kazakhstan, and the 23.2, with the smallest value of 21.5 and cost of transporting wool to China is relatively maximum value of 24.7, standard deviation low, under improved marketing conditions the of 4.4. farmers could target to obtain around USD $2 The average fiber diameter of all samples per kg of dirty wool, or twice as much as they collected was 23.27 micron. were offered. However, given the lack of The average standard deviation was 4.8, proper sorting, grading and testing, Kazakh and the fiber diameter ranged from 20.6 sheep farmers do not know what grade of wool micron to 26.3 micron. The large variability they produce and are uninformed about world of fibers in the sampled bales represents the market prices. International wool buyers are potential for price improvements from sorting in turn uninformed about the Kazakh wool and grading of wool. More precise market and wool grades produced. The project information about each lot would help to offer proposes to work on improving wool sorting specific grades of wool for specific market and handling with several sheep farmers, test prices. The team incorporated training in the their wool and help them make connections sorting and grading of wool and sample

233 Global Livestock CRSP collection and testing in the program of the and activities of the project and invited to three-year project “Developing Institutions participate in the seminar for sheep producers. and Capacity for Sheep and Fiber Marketing The possibilities of improving marketing in Central Asia.” In addition, ongoing sample institutions were discussed with the local collection and testing is important to increase policymakers. information about the grades of wool currently produced in specific regions and on specific OUTREACH farms in Kazakhstan. The team developed close contacts with GENDER sheep producers, buyers, and local administrators. Liba Brent spent two months The project seeks to show Central Asian in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan in the summer producers that sheep breeding and wool of 2003 visiting producers and wool buyers marketing is done by women as well as men and promoting communication and in the United States. The video on U.S. wool collaboration among all parties involved in the pools showed that American women take an wool production and marketing process. active part in sheep production—the video has These contacts will be essential for ensuring a shown that the majority of wool producers who successful accomplishment of the project delivered wool to the pool were women. The objectives. case of American women sheep breeders provided an example for Central Asian women DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT to expand beyond their traditional roles in livestock production and in the household The objective of the project is to promote economy. Women in the households of sheep the sustainability of small-scale sheep production producers were invited to participate in the by sharing information and testing methods to seminars and discussions on wool marketing. increase income from wool. With an increased Although the team made an attempt to include income from their product, producers will be women in the survey of sheep producers, it better able to sustain their livelihoods through became clear that women were often much family and community-based sheep production. more poorly informed about sheep production U.S. agricultural expertise was featured by than men. For this reason the team had to rely the project. The demonstrational video of U.S. primarily on male informants. wool pools highlighted U.S. producers and The team plans to train women as wool promoted farmer-to-farmer contact which offers sorters and graders during the 2004 wool opportunities for American participation in season and continue to explore opportunities providing testing equipment, genetic resources, to expand the role of women in wool handling and commercial services. American sheep and marketing. producers also learned about sheep production in Central Asia. During 2002 Liba Brent POLICY produced a documentary video on sheep production in Kazakhstan. A copy of the video Policymakers at the Rural Administration was given to the Northern Montana Wool Pool Centers of the Almaty and Taldy Korgan and shown at a conference of Montana sheep regions were informed about the objectives producers.

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The host country benefited by learning about institutions. It was concerned with broad- new methods of wool grading and marketing. based economic growth by focusing on market Wool producers learned about new methods constraints for small producers and households of wool handling and about marketing that constitute the majority of rural population organizations such as wool pools. Producers in Central Asia. and buyers become better informed about the In compliance with the USAID Mission advantages of improving wool sorting, objectives, the project supported the grading, and testing standards that can increase development of markets and private enterprise their access to world markets and prices. and promoted grass-root development of civil The project created a linkage between U.S. society institutions. and Central Asian sheep producers through the The project supported a pro-democratic exchange of video data and other information, process and development of civil society by and investigated the possibility of institutional facilitating the development of grass-roots transfer (i.e., transfer of wool pools and organizations of producers, such as wool grading system from the U.S. to Central Asia). pools. Local wool marketing institutions such The project also contributed to strengthening as wool pools could empower small sheep the linkage between Central Asian wool producers to collaborate on improving sheep producers and domestic and foreign wool production and market access and facilitating markets. the development of communities of sheep The project was also linked with two other producers that can become an active voice of small grant projects, led by Kathy Galvin of civil society in the rural areas. Colorado State University and Malcolm Childress of the University of Wisconsin, that LEVERAGED FUNDS AND LINKED PROJECTS focus on different aspects of fiber production and marketing. The projects collaborated by The project is linked with GL-CRSP small sharing data and information and by preparing grant projects led by Kathy Galvin and Malcolm to conduct future research on a broader scale. Childress. The small grant project has not The project coordinated with the attempted to leverage funds. The project is also International Centre for Agricultural Research intended to serve as a first phase in a larger in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which is program proposed for the 2003-2006 by a currently conducting related survey research consortium of CRSP researchers titled on sheep and wool in Kazakhstan and “Developing Institutions and Capacity for Sheep Kyrgyzstan and is concerned with improving and Wool Marketing in Central Asia.” markets for livestock products in the region. Dave Thomas and Liba Brent met with COLLABORATING PERSONNEL ICARDA representatives in Madison, Wisconsin in November 2002 and discussed United States of America possible avenues of collaboration. David Thomas, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Department of Animal Science. OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Liba Brent, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Sociology. The project directly focused on the Malcolm Childress, University of Wisconsin- development of markets and market Madison, Land Tenure Center.

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Kathy Galvin, Colorado State University, PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS Human Ecology Laboratory and Department of Anthropology. Lead Principal Investigator. David Carol Kerven, Macaulay Institute. Thomas, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Robert Stobart, University of Wyoming, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Madison, WI Department of Animal Science. 53706. Phone: 608-263-4306; Fax: 608-263- 5157; Email: [email protected]. Kazakhstan U.S. Co-Investigator. Liba Brent, Nurlan Malmakov, Kazakh Research University of Wisconsin-Madison. Technological Institute of Sheep Breeding. Host Country Co-Investigators. Nurlan Koyshybek Karymsakov, Kazakh Research Malmakov, Kazakh Technological Research Technological Institute of Sheep Breeding. Institute of Sheep Breeding; Koyshybek Murat Otynshiev, Asutor, Wool buying Karymsakov, Kazakh Technological Research company. Institute of Sheep Breeding.

Kyrgyzstan Akylbek Rakaev, Kyrgyz Sheep Producers Association.

COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS

University of Wisconsin-Madison 438 Animal Science Building 1675 Observatory Drive Madison, WI 53706-1284

Kazakh Technological Research Institute of Sheep Breeding (KTRISB) Mynbaevo Village, Djambulsky Raion Almaty Oblast, 483174 Kazakhstan Phone: 73-2770-64120

ABSTRACTS AND PRESENTATIONS

Brent, Liba. 2003. Wool Marketing in Montana and Maryland. Video presented to farmers and wool buyers in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

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CO-BENEFITS OF GRASSLAND REGENERATION OF ABANDONED WHEAT AREAS FOR CARBON SEQUESTRATION, LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY, BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

NARRATIVE SUMMARY

Carbon sequestration of grasslands and The state farms had 48,000 heads of cattle and abandoned farmlands in Kazakhstan has the more than 175,000 heads of sheep. During potential to offset the global increase in the past ten years, agricultural land use and production have declined dramatically. The atmospheric CO2 levels caused by fossil fuel emissions. The analysis of different land use amount of arable land estimated in 2000 was less management options suitable for this region than half of what was estimated in 1991, with of the world will provide a set of management approximately 120,000 ha. of cultivated lands. options for improving the natural resources The number of cattle in 2000 was approximately and economic conditions on which people rely. 15,000 and the sheep decreased to approximately This project evaluated how recovery of 11,000 head. The majority of animals (over 90%) abandoned croplands and changes in the are now private property. seasonal grazing mobility of livestock in the Since the collapse of state farms and the Kostanai steppe region of northwest economic crisis of the early-mid 1990s, the Kazakhstan affect carbon sequestration, number of sheep has declined greatly. Goat vegetation composition, and rangeland numbers are increasing due to their more rapid productivity. Field studies and surveys suggest reproductive rates and the cessation of state that investment in agricultural management farm prohibitions on keeping private goats in needs to be developed to promote re-adoption former sheep farms. Selling cattle to meat of seasonally mobile grazing systems. This re- markets has become the main source of farmers’ adoption is likely to lead to increased carbon income from livestock. The cattle population storage, sustainable rangeland use, reduction has been more stable than the sheep population, of household poverty, and conservation of a great deal of which was bartered away at very biodiversity. low exchange rates during the height of the Kostanai Oblast is situated to the east of economic crisis some eight years ago. the Ural Mountains and extends 800 km. from Senior government agricultural officials north to south and 400 km. from west to east. both at the provincial and districts levels have Most of Kostanai Oblast is in the zone of few plans or concepts of how to increase the unstable climatic conditions and droughts, stock of sheep in the study areas. One district with a short growing season and sandy to stony official responsible for livestock commented soils, which contribute to the variable cropland that he had “nothing but a pen to help livestock yield and rangeland productivity. Much of the farmers.” New national and provincial rich cool-season steppe ecosystems on richer agricultural programs are aimed at improving soils have been ploughed and only a few veterinary services, creating pedigree horse remnants remain. In 1991, the cultivated area stud farms, and rehabilitating meat and skin of the oblast was approximately 278,000 ha. processing factories in the urban areas.

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There are no externally-funded seasonally mobile grazing systems have development projects aimed at assisting the beneficial effects on rangeland condition local population in the study areas. There are and the recovery of abandoned farmlands. several international projects aimed at wildlife This re-adoption is likely to lead to increased and ecosystem conservation. Local carbon storage, sustainable rangeland use, government officials at the district and village reduction of household poverty, and levels were very interested in discussing how conservation of biodiversity. The following the rural economy could be revitalized, and analysis indicates that investment guidelines had many worthwhile suggestions. The should encourage nomadic grazing systems to perception of the local population is that their meet these aims within this type of steppe region is relatively neglected due to its ecosystem. remoteness from the more populated, grain Regional Context. The land use systems growing areas of northern Kostanai. of Kazakhstan and the surrounding Central Asian countries are diverse for temperate RESEARCH ecosystems, due to the fertile soils, mountain- fed rivers, and range of climate. The Introduction and Rationale. Conversion simultaneous occurrence of agricultural of grasslands into croplands and improper abandonment with the intensification of management of these croplands has caused a croplands and sedentarization of livestock and large amount of environmental damage (with soil pasture exploitation presents a complex matrix carbon loss) in this part of the world. The amount of land cover dynamics radically different of arable land has increased dramatically since from what was historically a nomadic pastoral the late 1950s, reaching 43 million hectares in land use system. Central Asia (8.67 million hectares of which are Land distribution in the arid and semiarid irrigated). The current estimate of cropland regions of Central Asia is predominantly abandonment in the year 2000 is approximately rangelands, with approximately 246 x 106 ha. 12.8 million hectares. in range and only about 43 x 106 ha. in The 30-year study of carbon balance of the croplands (UNDP 2002). More than 60% of chernozem soils in northern Kazakhstan land in the five Central Asian countries conducted at the Barayev Institute of Grain (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Farming (Shortandy, Kazakhstan) indicated a Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan) is rangeland, 25-30% reduction of humus reserves due to amounting to some 246 million hectares (Kharin cultivation (GL-CRSP 2000). et. al. 1999). Half of this land receives less than In 1991, the cultivated area was 300 mm. precipitation per year. Arable lands approximately 278,000 ha. This project are rather small in comparison, accounting for evaluated how the recovery of abandoned approximately 43 x 106 hectares. croplands and changes in the seasonal The modifications of the socio-economic grazing mobility of livestock in the Kostanai situation in the region have been a primary steppe region of northwest Kazakhstan agent in the change of land use systems during affect vegetation composition, rangeland the past century. During the early 1900s, productivity, carbon sequestration, and collectivization of croplands and livestock economic stability. Field studies and systems was instigated throughout the region. surveys indicate that re-adoption of These land use policies led to major changes

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in land management throughout the region and transition of the political-economic state altered the trans-human patterns of livestock following the dissolution of the USSR) have and rangeland management. Large-scale led to changes in land use decision-making in intensification efforts took place during the the region. These decisions have resulted in Soviet era, with large tracts of land converted cropland abandonment, degradation of soils to cropland. Livestock production was made due to salinization and desertification, and more sedentary and collectives for agricultural damage to wetlands due to modifications of production were organized throughout the water regime and industrial development. region. During the past decade, most of the Destocking of rangelands in the Central Asian land use management in these countries have region has been marked, especially in had to adjust to new situations and have become Kazakhstan in contrast to other pastoral countries transitional economies. These countries are across the world. Despite these changes, the among the most vulnerable in terms of their productivity of agricultural, grassland, and non- economic, political, and environmental systems. forest ecosystems are still considered as Interactions between and among policies, human potentially important food-producing regions. responses, and earth system functions cannot be These changes have resulted in the decoupled. Transition economies are reduction of the numerous basic social characterized by a combination of volatile services. Rural infrastructure supporting markets, policy reforms, and unclear and health care, education, drought reduction uncertain land tenure systems. It is not any single mechanisms, and water resource maintenance one of the factors, but rather the combination of have all been reduced in much of the region. all three, that makes these systems and peoples The resulting impacts have been increased vulnerable in a number of different capacities. hardship and poverty for the rural population, Patterns of politically induced changes in and abandonment of agriculture in many of demography are found in the Asian region of these rural areas where the effects have been the former USSR. For example, as Russian the most detrimental. dominance in this region increased during the 18th century, the Kazakh society was Activity One: Site Description and transformed from a nomadic to a more Characterization of Subzones agrarian and industrial society. Currently, the population of Kazakhstan is Kostanai Oblast is situated to the east of approximately 17 million people, with 40% the Ural Mountains and extends 800 km. from being Kazakh, 40% Russian, and the north to south and to 400 km. from west to remaining 20% divided among some 100 east. The northern part of Kostanai Oblast different ethnic groups. Total population of occupies the southwestern part of the West- the Central Asian countries has increased from Siberian Lowland, which transforms into 23 million in 1959 to almost 54 million in 1996 Turgai plateau in the south. Most parts of the (Kharin et. al. 1999). By rough estimation, Kostanai Oblast are in arid zones where from 4 to 5 million people (mainly Russians) agriculture is risky due to unstable climatic have emigrated from these countries since conditions, droughts, short growing seasons, 1991 (Kharin et. al. 1999). and sandy and stony soils. Recent changes in the physical climate and Significant extension of the oblast from socio-economic factors in Kazakhstan (i.e., north to south causes change in the three

239 Global Livestock CRSP natural zones: forest steppe (“kolki steppes” result of cropland conversion, the extent of are small insular groves of aspen and/or birch rangelands has been reduced, leading to surrounded by steppe), steppe, and northern degradation. In the latter parts of the 1990s, desert (semi-desert). The steppe zone is divided croplands have been abandoned due to into several sub-zones: moderately droughty economic decline and the associated costs forbs-feather grass steppe on ordinary chernozem of fuel and other necessary goods. soils, droughty forbs-feather grass steppe on According to Dyusenbekov (1998), areas of southern chernozem soils, moderately dry arable lands in 1990 occupied approximately festuca–feather grass steppe on dark chestnut 6,730 million hectares and had decreased by soils, dry xerophytic forbs-feather grass steppe 15% in 1997. In 1999, according to on chestnut soils, sagebrush-feather grass desert Department of Agriculture of the Oblast steppe on light chestnut soils. The territory of Land Committee, the area of arable land in the Kostanai Oblast is of particular interest as it the Kostanai Oblast was 5,585 million presents all the main types of Kazakhstan’s hectares. Abandoned fields are now left to steppes and even small areas of northern desert revegetate on their own and most of them have and southern forest steppe. We assigned zonal been transformed into weed fields. types of steppes to the vegetation communities Influence of land ploughing on of watershed plains, which reflect climatic vegetation. Cropland conversion of the steppe conditions of certain steppe sub-zones. Diversity ecosystems in the region has resulted in a loss within zonal types of steppes is caused by soil of the main steppe communities. Vegetation conditions (edaphic variants) and regional of each zone in the Kostanai Oblast has been peculiarities of community composition transformed by ploughing as follows: (geographic variants). • Forest steppe zone: 50% of territory was This region has vast areas of fertile lands. ploughed up. Natural vegetation remained Use of land for arable cropping in Kostanai only at the edge of the forest steppe. Oblast started in the middle of the 19th century • Moderately droughty forbs-feather grass and significantly intensified during the period steppe on ordinary chernozem soils and of immigration of Russian peasants (1909- droughty forbs-feather grass steppe on 1918). During this period, steppes with southern chernozem soil steppes were chernozem soils and forest steppe were almost totally developed for agriculture. ploughed up. Large scale ploughing of the • Stipa rubens and Stipa Lessingiana steppe steppes in Kazakhstan (1954-1960) was had been totally destroyed by ploughing. implemented according to the famous Soviet These subzones have been converted to program for the development of virgin lands. croplands. Unfortunately in this period, many poor lands Some areas remained inaccessible for in the southern part of Kostanai Oblast were agriculture on the steep slopes of the Tobol involved in development, namely dark chestnut and Ayat river valleys, but they have been sandy soils, chestnut carbonate soils, part of strongly transformed by overgrazing. Even complexes of zonal soils, and solonetz soils. complex steppes on solonetz soils had been At present, the northern part of the ploughed up in these subzones (i.e., complex Kostanai Oblast has a higher proportion of vegetation – heterogeneous vegetation cover agricultural development where the arable comprised of plant communities which lands occupy 50–75% of the total land. As a regularly alternate according to microrelief and

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soil varieties). Only solonetz lands in the bottom climatic conditions for this subzone are as of the Turgai depression and around the lakes follows: the mean annual precipitation is 190 remained untouched. mm. The sum of temperatures over 10oC is 2,900 Subzone: moderately dry sheep’s fescue- to 3,100oC. The mean July temperature is 23oC, feather grass steppe on dark chestnut soils. while the mean January temperature is -17oC. The climatic conditions for this subzone are as The hydrothermal coefficient is from 0.4-0.5. follows: the mean annual precipitation is 265 In this zone, all types of steppe have mm., ranging from 100-400 mm. over a 60-year remained. It should be noted that sagebrush- period. Storage of water in the snow cover is feather grass (Stipa sareptana) steppes on light 60-70 mm. The frost-free period is 115-130 days. chestnut soils occupy huge areas here, and this The sum of temperatures over 10oC is 2,470 to is the only place in Eurasia in which they exist. 2,600oC. The mean July temperature is 21oC, At present these steppes are subject to local while the mean January temperature is -18oC, overgrazing and fires. with an absolute maximum of +39oC and Subzone: semidesert zone on brown minimum of –44oC. The hydrothermal soils. The climatic conditions for this subzone coefficient is 0.7. are as follows: the mean annual precipitation In this subzone, the sheep’s fescue–feather is 160 mm. The sum of temperatures over 10oC grass steppe had been destroyed by grain is 3,000 to 3,200oC. The mean July farming. Some areas of this steppe remained on temperature is 24oC, while the mean January the slopes of Torgai plateau and the river valleys. temperature is -13oC. The hydrothermal Stipa capillata steppes on sandy loam soils have coefficient is from 0.3. been partly ploughed up. Stipa pennata steppes In the extreme south of the study area in on sandy soils remained untouched. In this the semidesert, natural vegetation has subzone, complex steppes were ploughed up remained, though affected by heavy livestock to a lesser extent than the same steppes in grazing in the past. Vegetation is mostly the north, but some areas were still ploughed up represented by feather grass (Stipa sareptana)- by as much as 20%. sagebrush communities on brown soils and Subzone: dry xerophytic forbs-feather saltwort (Atriplex cana, Anabasis salsa)-black grass steppe on chestnut soils. The climatic sagebrush (Artemisia pauciflora) communities conditions for this subzone are as follows: the and their complexes on saline soils. mean annual precipitation is 220 mm. The sum of temperatures over 10oC is 2,500 to 2,650oC. Activity Two: Characterization of The mean July temperature is 22oC, while the Vegetation Dynamics mean January temperature is -14oC. The hydrothermal coefficient is from 0.6. Increased trends in plant productivity are In this subzone, massive agricultural indicated from our remote sensing analysis of development was mainly on the plains with northern Kazakhstan. The net primary xerophytic forbs-feather grass steppe on chestnut productivity (NPP) trends from the normalized carbonate soils. The slopes of the plateau, river difference vegetation index (NDVI) time valleys, and ravines remain untouched. Complex series suggest a 30 to 50 kg. C/ha. increase steppes were ploughed up by 15-30%. from 1982 to 1999. Climate and vegetation Subzone: sagebrush-feather grass dynamics for the region indicate high desert steppe on light chestnut soils. The correspondence of the vegetation with the

241 Global Livestock CRSP

Table 1 - Population, land, crops, and livestock in the study area. : &      $  K  &1$?   
11 ) ?%      ?&  ?  4 
1) O ?&    &5$ ?&   4
$ ?     '% 1 ?     & ?    K'% 10O     2F   4 "!!" rainfall pattern, both seasonally and between interview former professional farm employees, years. The remote sensing data for the region village leaders, and livestock owners. confirms this relationship for the years 1981 to Traveling the transect involved visual 2001. These trends seem to be more prevalent familiarization with landscapes and ecozones, in the southern region of the Kostanai Oblast, checking main vegetation types against the where a greater area of land abandonment took one:one million scale vegetation map of Kostanai place. Oblast, and taking GPS points of currently- The study area was defined as three districts grazed pastures along the study route. Interviews (rayons) in the southern part of Kostanai region were carried out with shepherds regarding types (oblast), which form a north-south ecological and locations of pastures grazed in each season, transect from the semi-steppe district of Naurzum and shepherds’ observations on their past and to the semi-desert southern districts of current condition. Amangeldy and Jangeldy. These districts are Interviews were carried out with officials at mainly pastoral due to the low precipitation, with three levels: oblast, rayon, and village. The team the exception of Naurzum, where wheat remains outlined the objectives of the GL-CRSP project. an important crop even though cultivation is Private livestock owners and former sovkhoz risky. Most of this area had formerly been shepherds were also interviewed within each included in Torgai Oblast, which was merged former sovkhoz. In some cases these individuals with Kostanai Oblast in the 1950s. were selected by village officials and in other General data on land use, population, cases, met along the route. Questions included: cropping, and livestock was obtained for each • Previous and current livestock grazing district, for the past and present (Table 1). This patterns in each season. included published statistics and cartography • Numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses as well as unpublished data on state farm kept in the sovkhoz, including breeds of (sovkhoz) production records. Within the sheep kept. districts, two former state farms were selected • Marketing of animals and their products, in consultation with district officials. More and prices currently obtained. detailed data on geobotany, livestock, and land • Land areas used for cropping and hay use was collected on each of these six farms. cutting, and registration of private land Visits were made to their village centers to parcels since the breakup of the sovkhoz.

242 Annual Report 2003

Figure 1 - Change in area of ploughed lands and sheep/goal 1990s. In the Kostanai study regions, populations, 1991-2003. between 91-93% of the smallstock held

!"#$$$%"##!&% in 1991 has gone, as well as 67-78% of cattle and 50-64% of horses (Figur 1). Q=< Q=< Q<< Q<< @=< @=< Animals, particularly sheep, were @<< @<< ?=< ?=< bartered for foodstuffs at very ?<< ?<< "#$ '***" >=< >=< disadvantageous exchange rates, and used ><< ><< !"#$$

=< =< "##!&%'*** < < to pay off state farm debts. By 2003, one >[[> >[[? >[[@ >[[Q >[[= >[[\ >[[] >[[^ >[[[ ?<<< ?<<> ?<<@ can detect a positive trend in the recovery #% of livestock within the two more southern ) )9 and pastoral districts of the study area. !#$!"#$$$%"##!&% In Jangeldy district, the population of

Q=< Q=< sheep and goats rose by 25% between Q<< Q<< 2000-2003. @=< @=<

'***" @<< @<< The area of ploughed land, cropped ?=< ?=< $ ?<< ?<< mainly to wheat, has also declined since >=< >=< ><< ><< the early 1990s, as state farm inputs

!"#$ =< =< "##!&%'***"#$ were cut off following economic < < >[[>>[[?>[[@>[[Q>[[=>[[\>[[]>[[^>[[[?<<<?<<>?<

#% study areas, the area of ploughed land has been reduced to a third of the former ) )9 levels (Figure 1). The three study areas +!#$!"#$$$%"##!&% have a low precipitation of 175 –300 Q=< Q=< mm. per year, with a gradient Q<< Q<< @=< @=< decreasing from north to south. @<< @<< However, there is a high degree of ?=< ?=< ?<< ?<< variability in annual precipitation, >=< >=< ><< ><< which has resulted in highly variable !"#$$'***" =< =< "##!&%'***"#$ < < annual wheat yields. The mean wheat >[[> [? [@ [Q [= [\ [] [^ [[ ?< ?<<> ?<<@ yield in the study area over 35 years #% from 1965 to 2000 was 680 kg./ha., ) )9 ranging from a low of less than 120 kg./ ha. in 1984 to a high of 1,600 kg./ha. in • Availability of credit or other development 1990. The quality of wheat grown in the study programs for livestock owners. area is considered very good, due to a high • Proposed means and investments to re- percentage of gluten in the wheat. In the era develop the livestock sector. of the USSR, wheat from this area was Since Kazakhstan’s independence in 1991, transported directly to Moscow for the elites. the most significant event in the rural economy The district of Naurzum straddles the of the study area has been the great loss of former limit of cultivation marked by the livestock following implementation of Russian administration in 1913. Much of the national policies on state farm privatization higher ground of this district was converted and economic reform in the early and mid from pasture to wheat land during the Virgin

243 Global Livestock CRSP

Figure 2 - Long-term precipitation and wheat yields in Naurzum Rayon, 1937-2000.

=<< >\<< >Q<< Q<< >?<< @<< ><<< ^<< ?<< \<< ><< Q<<

?<< "#&.#$%7!" #-..&&.. < <

@] Q< Q@ Q\ Q[ =? == =^ \> \Q \] ]< ]@ ]\ ][ ^? ^= ^^ [> [Q [] ?< #%

() $

Source: Unpublished precipitation records, Naurzum Meteorological Station (courtesy of Tatiana Bragina) and Rayon statistics from Naurzum Akimat.

Land campaign of the 1950s. This district now difficult to obtain, as these are subject to retains more of its wheat land than the two negotiation with buyers and exporters and are more southern and drier districts of Amangeldy considered a business secret. Most villagers and Jangeldy, as shown in Figure 1, which also were not aware of the government’s new village shows that the area of ploughed land is increasing and rural development (“Aul”) program, or if in Naurzum since its lowest point in 1999. Table aware, did not believe they would benefit from 1 shows that there is a far higher ratio of cropped credit, which requires immovable collateral such land per person in this district compared to the as a flat in a city or a commercial property. two southern districts. Further analysis of wheat Villagers point out that neither land nor livestock yields over time in each district will be provided are accepted as collateral. in the project’s final report. Agricultural credit has not been available for ordinary farmers. One former director of a Activity Three: Land Use Survey and livestock state farm in the dry and remote Analysis southern area made the following remarks about credit: “To help villagers it is better to Farmers interviewed during the fieldwork provide livestock, not cash. Cash just comes indicated that wheat growing was profitable and goes. In Soviet times everything was in Naurzum district, due to current good prices provided and people wasted their livestock, they received of around USD $65 per metric not trying to save them. Now people see how ton. However, further south in the drier silly they were and would be ready to move districts of Amangeldy and Jangeldy, private their animals away to winter pastures and really farmers found wheat growing much too risky try to take care of their animals as they appreciate and were focusing more on increasing their livestock now. Now we think the state should livestock. Wholesale prices of wheat are very support us; we don’t ask the state to give us

244 Annual Report 2003

something for free but to lend us something. We informants, collective farms, termed kolkhoi, are not businessmen so we don’t need money as were organized in the study areas beginning we do not have investments to make, but we want in 1924, under the policy of Lenin. Prior to livestock to be loaned over three years, and then this, clan groups of nomads and semi-nomads return some to the state after that period.” had wintering grounds (kystau) based around Some local officials and farmers believe the reed beds of rivers (kopar) to provide that agricultural credit should be made shelter from the cold winter. Each clan group available only to successful private companies was in a unit (aul) of between 50-60 that have managed to establish commercial households, under a wealthy clan leader, called farming in the region. They argue that such a bai. Bais could own up to 13,000 head of companies have proved their ability to make livestock, but as one informant explained, a profit, whereas many villagers have lost the “rich people does not mean one person,” will to work hard following the collapse of state meanng that different auls would be richer or productive organizations. poorer in livestock, with one person in charge. In the more remote villages furthest from The groups would move to summer large urban centers, people have to sell their pastures around the lakes that had been flooded animals to traders at lower prices due to the in spring and therefore provided good forage. cost of transport. However, farmers are In the spring, summer, and autumn they would beginning to group together to share the costs live in yurts (kigiz uyi) moved by camels with of hiring transport in order to market their carts. In autumn, the richer bais would have animals in towns and cities many hundreds of many workers prepare hay for the winter, kilometers distant. when the aul groups would return to their Changes in livestock grazing systems from winter quarters along the rivers and stay in the pre-Soviet period to the present day. The houses made of mud bricks with turf roofs. three districts comprising the study area were The extent of movement depended on the formerly the summer grazing grounds for livestock wealth of the aul group. The richest thousands of nomadic Kazakhs from other leaders and their auls would move up to 200 regions of the country, prior to the October km. in one season. Revolution and formation of collective farms In the late 1920s, these clan groups were in the 1920s. The area was intensively organized into permanent settlements in the researched in the early 1950s in preparation wintering areas, with support from the state. for the Virgin Land campaign, the goal of which In 1928, under Stalin, livestock began to be was large-scale conversion of steppe land to confiscated and placed into kalkhozi. These state wheat farms. We were able to locate continued, with many organizational changes, rare typewritten scientific reports from this until the mid 1960s in the study areas, when period in district offices. The project is grateful the kalkhozi were combined into sovkhozi, to Tatiana Bragina for making data and whose members became directly employed by manuscripts from the 1930s available to us. the state. In the kalkhozi, animals were taken Before the revolution, the study area was on longer seasonal migrations than under the incorporated into the Russian administrative sovkhoz, with 20 to 30 families grouping unit of Torgai uezd (district), as part of together to “chase good pastures” so that their Kostanai Oblast (Ministry of Agriculture, livestock would put on fat easily during 1954). According to several elderly summer and autumn.

245 Global Livestock CRSP

Sovkhoz workers were permitted to keep Distant pastures that were seasonally private animals, which were usually the grazed in the Soviet period now appear to be Edilbai Kazakh meat breed of sheep, cattle for in very good condition, due to the great drop household milk provision, and Kazakh goats in stocking levels. Very few livestock now whose down was used to make warm clothing graze away from the village perimeters. for the family. These private animals were Shepherds in the southern and driest part of the either grazed around the villages under transect recognize that moving animals to graze communal rotational arrangements (kyzk), or on winter sand dune pastures provides them with if a family was related to a sovkhoz shepherd, better nutrition and at less cost than stall-feeding their private animals could accompany the over winter. The former state farms practiced this sovkhoz flocks to distant pastures. system, which was based on traditional seasonal Livestock grazing systems. Rural movements by Kazakh nomads prior to the populations declined in these southern districts formation of the Soviet Union. after the end of the Soviet Union, as younger Only a few villagers are returning to the people migrated to cities in search of traditional methods of moving animals away employment when the state farms dissolved. to graze at different seasonal pastures. Small However, the population levels are now groups of neighbors are getting together to hire stabilizing, as those that remain in villages are shepherds within their villages to take cattle either pensioners receiving state assistance, or away to seasonal grazing areas, but this is not farmers committed to making a livelihood being done for sheep and goats due to the cost from livestock and cropping. of hiring shepherds. Rural people are relocating, moving out Potential for increasing economic from some small and remote settlements that returns of livestock to households through no longer receive government services, to investment in marketing facilities and villages with better access to grazing, water, livestock technical inputs. Villagers need or services. One senior district administrator credit to build up their flocks after the noted that house prices are rising in the district decimation of state farm stock following the center as villagers move in; he commented, economic crisis of the early to mid-1990s. “Now people know they should stay in one Restocking schemes have operated place, as there is no help so they have to work successfully in other parts of the world, for themselves and not move elsewhere.” following devastating losses of livestock Around some villages, within a radius of among pastoralists (Oxby 1994). Most one to three kilometers, experienced shepherds recently, schemes for restocking pastoralists note that pastures have become more degraded and providing group credit for livestock since the early 1990s, as animals are no longer infrastructure have been implemented in moved away to seasonal pastures. At Mongolia with the assistance of FAO present, some villages have an almost (Hoffman et. al. 2003). There are several denuded belt of sand around them. models that could be tried, which would However, other shepherds state that the peri- require the support of district and provincial village denudation was worse in the state administrations. Restocking schemes could farm Soviet era, as many thousands of assist low-resource farmers to build up their animals would be brought back regularly flocks of the local meat-type sheep breed. around the villages for shearing. Although fine wool Merino sheep were

246 Annual Report 2003

formerly kept on some state farms, it is land and 42,000 ha. of pastures. As noted, not unlikely that these will be profitable in the near all these private farms belong to Ulendi future for private farmers in the study area. villagers. Land has to be privately registered Enabling all villagers to once again move in order to be cultivated. There is also an area to seasonal pastures will require credit with of 11,200 ha. of pasture land around the which they can purchase mechanical villages which is allocated communally for equipment. Research among pastoralists in grazing. southeast Kazakhstan has indicated that the Two private registered farmers were key items of equipment required for seasonal interviewed. One has an area of 725 ha. of pasture movement are trucks, tractors, and water 19 kilometers from the village center, and another pumps (Kerven et. al. 2003). Some villagers 158 ha. of cropland in another location within say they are prepared to form groups to share the former sovkhoz lands. He does not use his capital resources and repay credit on a group grazing land at all, as he does not have enough basis. Such schemes have worked well livestock to justify the cost of moving animals elsewhere in Central Asia. For example, the Aga there; instead he lets his animals graze around Khan Foundation has helped establish village the village area where he lives. On his cropland, organizations in rural Tajikistan that receive he has an artesian well and grows melons. agricultural equipment on credit for one to five The other farmer lives in an abandoned years. The village organizations are supported village that was one of the three sovkhoz through the Mountain Societies Development departments. This village used to have 60 Support program, funded in part by USAID. families but now has only 3; the farmer, his two married sons, and a married daughter who Activity Four: Land Tenure and Cropping work their land and livestock together. The for Four Areas in Kostanai Oblast village department became a limited company in 1998 after the sovkhoz dissolved, but that Naurzum district: Sosnovka sovkhoz was a drought year and the company became (Ulendi village area). The sovkhoz land bankrupt. The family has 180 ha. of ploughed included 25,000 hectares of ploughed area in land and has been growing wheat for six years 1990, of which 19,000 hectares was planted on the land without rotation, fallowing 40 ha. to wheat. Average wheat yields from 1981- each year. In 2002, a wheat disease appeared 1990 were 990 kg./ha., ranging from a low of and he applied chemical treatment for the first 120 kg./ha. in 1984 to 1,630 kg./ha. in 1990. time. No fertilizers have been used. They The ploughed land has now been divided into planted 160 ha. of wheat in 2002. They were private leased parcels. Upon the dissolution paid USD $62 per ton. The main farming costs of the sovkhoz in 1997, sovkhoz workers were spare parts for the old Soviet-era tractors received land shares of 22.6 ha. per person; and a combine (USD $660), diesel (bartered some people sold their shares of cropland to for wheat at a cost of USD $230), and people in the district center town of treatment of wheat seed (USD $200). Seed is Dokuchaevka. Two limited companies now usually saved from the previous harvest. The own 7,000 ha. of ploughed land and 35,700 total harvest in 2002 was not given, but mean ha. of pasture, which is nearly half the total wheat yields for Sousnovki sovkhoz were 990 area of pasture. A further 53 private registered kg./ha. from 1980-1990. This would give a “peasant” farms have 13,300 ha. of ploughed harvest of 158 tons on 160 ha. After

247 Global Livestock CRSP

subtraction of major costs, the return would the district center 15 km. distant. There is one be about USD $8,700 divided between four limited company that was organized between families, or USD $2,200 per family per year. 30 villagers to cut and sell hay. Only two The head of this farming family expected members of this company remain, a former that in future, livestock farming would be more sovkhoz director and his accountant. Their profitable than wheat farming. He explained that holdings of hayland amount to some 2,000 ha. their cropland was small and the area is risky, and is the major part of the former sovkhoz with droughts in one of every four years. hayland. Between them, the families have 30 cattle, 100 Conservation of biodiversity. The large- sheep and goats, and ten horses. Five tons of the scale changes in land use and livestock grain crop was used as winter feed and 60 tons populations in the past decade have had of hay was also collected. obvious impacts on the flora and fauna of the Koktal sovkhoz (Dokuchaevka village study area. Some impacts are noted by the area, now called Karamendy). Koktal senior Forestry Department official sovkhoz had 29,000 ha. of ploughed land in responsible for wildlife management in 1990, of which 18,000 has planted to wheat. Amangeldy district. He observes that the Average wheat yield between 1981-1990 was number of wolves has declined recently. This 620 kg./ha., ranging from a low of 20 kg./ha. in is due to the great decrease in livestock that 1984 to a high of 960 kg./ha. in 1986. The present was a winter food source for wolves, and to area of ploughed land is 4,800 ha. the farmers’ new practice of burning reeds Amangeldy District (Imanovski sovkhoz, around water points to create better haylands, now Urpek village area). The sovkhoz formerly which has removed hiding areas for wolves. As had 3,000 ha. ploughed to wheat, and fodder livestock have become scarce, people are crops (1,500 ha. of Agropyron and 500 ha. of illegally hunting more wild boars to provide Sudan grass). The average wheat yield was about meat. Several people mentioned an observed 450 kg./ha. and the maximum in one out of four increase in the number of small mammals (e.g., years was 1,200 kg./ha. gophers and marmots) due to the decrease in There are 30 registered private peasant farms livestock that formerly disturbed their burrows. on the haylands near the Karatorgai River to Uncontrolled burning of grass and reeds the east of the village center. These farms are and cutting trees for firewood has also had used for hay cutting and the livestock grazes negative impacts on the bird populations, elsewhere. Some farms are now also used for whose nesting areas are disturbed. In the growing potatoes. One informant, a former Soviet period, accidental fires were put out by shepherd who is a registered peasant farmer, worker brigades from the villages. The planted 10 ha. of grain on his land in 2002, question of fires was raised by a number of using irrigation. The crop grew well, but he people. Some noted that with the great could not obtain any harvesting equipment so reduction in livestock, there was increased fire the plot was not harvested. risk from dried grass stands which were left Sovkhoz (now Baighabul village area). ungrazed each year. Others commented that fires The sovkhoz has hayland, mostly south of the were deliberately set by hunters to flush out river. Most of the hayland area has been wildlife, by livestock owners to promote early divided into private plots among 30 registered green growth, and by farmers to remove crop peasant farmers, of whom 15 are residents of residues. One senior district official remarked

248 Annual Report 2003 that the large scale of these steppe fires was Kirkman, G.I.H. Kerley, C.R. Hurt, and C.J. adding CO2 to the atmosphere. Brown. Durban, South Africa. Kerven, C., Alimaev, I., Behnke, R., REFERENCES Davidson, G., Franchois, L., Malmakov, N., Mathijs, E., Smailov, A., Temirbekov, S., and Academy of Science. 1960. Natural Zoning Wright, I. 2003. Retraction and expansion of of Northern Kazakhstan. Council of Research flock mobility in Central Asia: Costs and on Production Forces, Institute of Geography, consequences. In: Proceedings of the VIIth Komarov Botanical Institute, Dokuchaev Soil International Rangelands Congress, (eds.) N. Science Institute, Soil Science Institute of Allsopp, A.R. Palmer, S.J. Milton, K.P. Kirkman, Academy of Science Kazakh SSR. USSR G.I.H. Kerley, C.R. Hurt, and C.J. Brown. Academy of Science, Moscow. Durban, South Africa. Afanasyev, A.V. 1960. Zoogeography of Kharin, N.G., Tateishi, R., and Harahsheh, Kazakhstan. Almaty, Kazakhstan: 260pp. (in H. 1999. Degradation of the drylands of Asia. Russian). Chiba University, Japan: pp. 81. Asanov, K.A., Shax, B.P., Alimaev, I.I., and Krupinikov, E.A. 1938. Soil and soil- Pryanishnikov, S.N. 1992. Pasture Sector of forming conditions of Naurzum Reserve. Kazakhstan. Ghylm, Almaty (in Russian). Doctoral dissertation, Soil Department, Department of Analysis and Statistical Moscow University. Moscow, USSR. Information. 2002. Social and economic Ministry of Agriculture of Kazakhstan. development in the districts of Kostanai Oblast. 1954. Central Complex Expedition: Report (by G.K. Sultanbekova) Kostanai, Kazakhstan. on complex of hydrotechnical, soils, Department of Geography, Moscow geobotany and land use studies in State University and the Academy of Amangeldy Rayon. Economic Science, Kazakhstan. 1963. Atlas of Characteristics of Land Use Massifs vol. IV. Kostanai Oblast. Main Council of Geodesy Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan. and Cartography of State Geological Naurzum State Reserve. 1967. History of Committee of USSR, Moscow. Nature. Committee of Forestry and Forest Dyusenbekov, Z.D. 1998. Land Protection, Soviet Ministry of Kazakhstan, resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan, its Vol. I (1934-67). Naurzum, Kostanai Oblast, efficient use and conservation in conditions Kazakhstan. of market economy. In: State and efficient Oxby, C. 1994. Restocking: A Guide. use of soils in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Herd reconstitution for African livestock- Almaty, Kazakhstan. keepers as part of a strategy for disaster Global Livestock CRSP. 2000. Annual rehabilitation. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Report 2000. Livestock Development and Medicine. Roslin, United Kingdom. Rangeland Conservation Tools. University of Statistical Department of Kostanai Oblast. California, Davis: pp. 1-22. 2002. Kostanai in Figures 1997-2001. Hoffman, I., Mack, S., and Baas, S. 2003. Kostanai, Kazakhstan. Coping with uncertainty–a pastoral livelihoods UNDP 2002. Rural Development in approach. In: Proceedings of the VIIth Kazakhstan: Challenges and Prospects. International Rangelands Congress, (eds.) N. Human Development Report. UNDP Almaty, Allsopp, A.R. Palmer, S.J. Milton, K.P. Kazakhstan.

249 Global Livestock CRSP

GENDER POLICY

Key research activities were led by women Senior government agricultural officials, scientists from Kazakhstan and England. both at the provincial and district levels, have These women were integral team members of few plans or concepts of how to increase the the project. These included: stock of sheep in the study areas. One district • Dr. Carol Kerven, Ph.D. (Co-PI, and co- official responsible for livestock commented leader of the project), Independent that he had “nothing but a pen to help livestock Consultant. Dr. Kerven served as the co- farmers.” New national and provincial leader of the project and developed the agricultural programs are aimed at improving social history of changes in the Kostanai veterinary services, creating pedigree horse region and the social economic evaluation stud farms, and rehabilitating meat and skin for the project. processing factories in the urban areas. • Dr. Ekaterina Rachkovskaya (Co-PI of the Local government officials at the district project), Laboratory of Geobotany of the and village levels were very interested in Institute of Botany and Phytointroduction, discussing how the rural economy could be Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and revitalized, and had many worthwhile Science. Professor Ekaterina suggestions. The perception of the local Rachkovskaya was the main advisor on the population is that their region is relatively selection of field sites and supplied neglected due to its remoteness from the more invaluable information and maps on the populated grain growing areas of northern vegetation and land use of the Kostanai Kostanai. Oblast. Agricultural officials do not consider that • Dr. Oxana Marynich (Ph.D.), Senior the fine wool sheep industry can or should be Researcher, Laboratory of Geobotany of revived in the province, as it cannot compete the Institute of Botany and with Australian wool due to the cost of winter Phytointroduction, Kazakhstan Ministry of fodder for sheep in Kostanai. Their assessment Education and Science. Dr. Oxana is undoubtedly correct. Marynich provided excellent field survey Farmers are now concentrating on raising information for the geobotanical status of the heavier local meat sheep breeds, as these vegetation during the summer field survey bring higher prices than the smaller Merino and also provided analysis of the types. These heavier sheep are also easier to vegetation data. raise without access to high quality winter • Dr. Tatyana Bragina (Administrator for feed. Water and Forestry Resource Department, Some local officials and farmers believe Kostanai Oblast). Professor Tatyana that agricultural credit should be made Bragina developed contacts with available only to successful private companies administrators in the various rayons during that have managed to establish commercial the field study in 2003. She also provided farming in the region. They argue that such important information on the ongoing companies have proved their ability to make conservation efforts in the region. a profit, whereas many villagers have lost the will to work hard following the collapse of state productive organization.

250 Annual Report 2003

OUTREACH Oxana Marynich, Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Geobotany of the Institute The project trained a Kazakh scientist in of Botany and Phytointroduction. ecosystem modeling and integration of spatial Ravil Sadvokassov, Junior Scientific analysis. Policy discussions were held with Researcher, Laboratory of Geobotany of local decision makers at the oblast, rayon, and the Institute of Botany and household levels regarding land use Phytointroduction. management options. COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT Colorado State University The results of the project will provide land Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory use management options for various croplands Fort Collins, CO 80523 and rangeland regions of Kazakhstan and surrounding countries. The land use Laboratory of Geobotany of the Institute of management options are designed to lead to a Botany and Phytointroduction sustainable soil carbon level and economic Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and Science sustainability for the different ecosystems Phone: 732-72-915097 being studied. Fax: 732-72-917938 Email: [email protected] OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS

The project assessed the study area’s land PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS use management strategy to improve long- term economic markets for conservation and Lead Principal Investigator. Dennis sustainable land use for the region relative to Ojima, Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, cropping and livestock systems, as well as Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO conservation of soils, water, and vegetation. 80523. Phone: 970-491-1976; Fax: 970- We also assessed the alternative coping 1965; Email: [email protected]. strategies of land use management to maintain Co-Principal Investigators. Sayat land productivity and livelihood, and the Temirbekov, Laboratory of Geobotany of the conservation trade-offs considered in the Institute of Botany and Phytointroduction, Kostanai Oblast where wetlands are an Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and important natural resource. Science; Ekaterina Rachkovskaya, Laboratory of Geobotany of the Institute of Botany and COLLABORATING PERSONNEL Phytointroduction, Kazakhstan Ministry of Education and Science; and Carol Kerven, Yevgeny Bragin, Senior Researcher of the Independent Consultant. Naurzum State Reserve. Tatyana Bragina, Officer of the Kostanai Oblast Administration of Water and Forestry. Carol Kerven, Independent Consultant.

251 Global Livestock CRSP

252 Annual Report 2003

PROJECT EXPENDITURES

Approved Program Budgets 254

Expenditures by Program 255

Summary of Host Country Contributions and Other External Support 256

Matching Contributions from U.S. Institutions 257

253 Global Livestock CRSP

$54,399.00 $54,000.00

$49,970.00 $54,343.00

Total

$550,000.00

$1,759,340.00 $2,448,000.00

$1,881,879.00

$1,487,499.00 $1,389,949.00

$0.00 $0.00

$0.00 $0.00 $0.00

$91,861.00 $91,861.00

$79,780.00 $79,780.00

$173,280.00 $173,280.00 $102,074.00 $102,074.00

$130,000.00 $885,954.00

$0.00 $0.00

$0.00

$54,399.00 $54,000.00

$49,970.00 $54,343.00

$375,000.00 $439,340.00 $550,000.00 $600,000.00

$368,000.00 $445,879.00

$350,000.00 $349,999.00 $350,000.00 $439,949.00

Global Livestock CRSP

Approved Program Budgets

$0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00$0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

$0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

USAID Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00

Year 20 Year 21 Year 22 Year 23 Year 24

$275,000.00 $300,000.00 $370,000.00 $308,000.00 $400,000.00 $590,000.00 $300,000.00 $200,000.00 $25,000.00 $25,000.00

$300,000.00 $300,000.00 $468,000.00

$300,000.00 $300,000.00 $155,954.00 $350,000.00 $300,000.00 $137,500.00 $100,000.00 $150,000.00 $350,000.00

$1,933,000.00 $1,950,000.00 $2,096,454.00 $2,230,712.00 $2,852,162.00 $11,062,328.00

Principal

Investigator

Stuth Miller McPeak Graumlich Galvin Total Allen Thomas/Brent

Swift Ojima Moremond Childress

LA Neumann

Wisc.

Institutions

Texas A&M Univ. Utah State Univ. Coppock Univ. of Wyoming Univ. of Wisc. Shapiro Syracuse Univ. Montana State U.

Univ. of Calif., Davis Laca Colorado State Univ. of Calif., Davis Univ. of Wisc. Univ. of Calif., Colorado State Colorado State Univ. of Univ. of Wisc.

254 Annual Report 2003

54,343.00

46,507.27

59,283.82

35,937.70

49,027.04

54,393.86 49,970.00

549,504.70

206,870.00

911,355.54

Total

1,294,685.21

2,440,073.45

1,894,391.97 1,869,641.51

1,428,192.03

$

$

$

$

$

$

$ $

$

$ $

$

$

$ $

$

9,380.35

52,659.85

44,162.63

59,283.82

35,937.70

49,027.04

50,879.24

378,522.07

206,870.00

600,000.00

430,120.24 499,337.34

387,236.96

130,000.00

2,933,417.24

10,944,177.10

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

1,683.15

2,344.64

3,514.62

25,000.00

40,589.65

309,913.14

541,779.35

454,029.14 376,904.17

255,921.71

-

2,011,679.57

$

$

$

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

25,000.00

350,000.00

561,876.20

152,185.54

468,000.00 370,000.00

136,199.98

-

-

-

-

2,063,261.72

$

$

$

$ -

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

156,250.00

200,000.00

428,417.89

329,170.00

286,008.00 348,400.00

300,000.00

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2,048,245.89

$

Global Livestock CRSP

$

$

$

$

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

Expenditures by Program

98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

100,000.00

299,504.70

308,000.01

300,000.00

256,234.59 275,000.00

348,833.38

Year 20 Year 21 Year 22 Year 23 Year 24

USAID Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1,887,572.68

$

$

$

$

$

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

Principal

Investigator

Childress -

Thomas/Brent -

Miller -

McPeak -

Shapiro Graumlich -

TOTAL

Ojima -

Neumann

Laca Galvin - Stuth

Swift

Institutions

Univ. of Wisc.

Univ. of Wisc.

Univ. of Wisc. Moermond

Univ. of Wyoming

Syracuse Univ.

Univ. of Wisc. Montana State U.

Univ. of Calif., Davis Allen - Utah State Univ. Coppock

Colorado State

Univ. of Calif., LA

Univ. of Calif., Davis Colorado State Texas A&M Univ.

Colorado State

255 Global Livestock CRSP

Total

$4,152,166.37

$5,000.00 $18,125.00

$17,159.00 $108,317.67

$27,783.00 $2,422,494.33

$19,207.00 $105,906.33

$399,333.00

$1,829,333.00 $6,440,426.78

$0.00

$0.00

$23,000.00 $6,000.00 $30,490.00

$1,263,304.87 $2,228,666.00 $10,592,593.15

$0.00 $0.00

$7,945.00 $7,000.00

$380,077.50 $328,304.87

$573,972.78 $935,000.00

$954,050.28

Global Livestock CRSP

$2,656,346.00

$2,214,717.00

$490.00 $500.00 $500.00

$3,500.00 $5,000.00 $4,625.00

98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

$23,158.67 $68,000.00 $18,500.00 $28,000.00 $15,000.00 $10,700.00 $14,700.00 $86,900.00

$50,632.00 $49,000.00 $108,100.00 $105,000.00 $98,840.00$29,502.00 $411,572.00 $49,600.00 $115,754.00 $21,000.00 $42,220.00 $258,076.00 $27,240.00 $34,400.00 $105,700.00 $62,500.00 $139,311.00$32,758.33 $369,151.00 $51,800.00 $2,141.00 $44,716.67 $21,500.00 $3,500.00 $42,479.87 $6,000.00 $118,196.54 $71,674.00 $54,713.00 $16,812.50 $56,625.00 $23,113.00 $222,937.50

$85,933.33 $2,293,833.00

Year 20 Year 21 Year 22 Year 23 Year 24

USAID Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00

$388,105.00

$887,404.00

$1,275,509.00 $4,871,063.00

Summary of Host Country Contributions and Other External Support

Host Country

Uganda Uzbekistan

Total HC Contrib. Bolivia Mexico Ecuador Tanzania Ethiopia Turkmenistan Kazakhstan Kyrgystan Kenya

Leveraged Funds*

TOTAL External Support

*Support from sources other than GL-CRSP, e.g., NGOs, other funding agencies, etc. that further GL-CRSP research

256 Annual Report 2003

9,899.82

Total

590,120.00

676,401.63

314,037.94

712,063.40

3,189,818.00

$

$

$

$ $

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

9,899.82

12,200.00

33,800.00

12,600.00

15,764.89

15,602.83

41,676.00

22,941.03

17,238.71

12,200.00

195,221.00

313,423.16

240,627.59

12,600.00

15,764.89

15,602.83

41,676.00

22,941.03

17,238.71

113,727.00

133,148.69

254,589.45

780,645.69

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

-

44,509.94

52,947.33

158,552.00

134,194.00

118,258.17

517,022.16

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

47,200.58

7,309.00

53,237.52

45,471.47

221,948.85

162,774.26

664,450.73

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

147,795.00

50,344.04

34,388.00

133,657.34

640,994.76

$

$ -

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

Global Livestock CRSP

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

83,836.00

75,297.00

87,504.13

74,279.34

70,213.17

69,704.00

31.08% 31.29% 32.20% 25.70% 26.61% 29.15%

Year 20 Year 21 Year 22 Year 23 Year 24

86,210.00

86,124.00

77,827.53

33,541.45

116,896.92

106,737.52

125,871.02

586,704.66

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

$

USAID Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00

Matching Contributions from U.S. Institutions

Principal

Investigator

Allen -

Laca

Neuman

Shapiro Swift

Ojima -

Childress -

Galvin -

Thomas/Brent - Stuth

Miller -

McPeak -

Graumlich -

Percentage

TOTAL

Davis

Wisc.

Institutions

Univ. of Calif.,

Univ. of Calif., Davis

Univ. of Calif., LA

Univ. of

Colorado State Univ. of Wisc. Moermond

Colorado State

Utah State Univ. Coppock

Univ. of Wisc.

Colorado State

Univ. of Wisc. Texas A&M Univ.

Univ. of Wyoming

Syracuse Univ.

Montana State U.

257 Global Livestock CRSP

258 Annual Report 2003

GLOSSARY

A-AARNET ASARECA Animal Agriculture Research Network ACT Almanac Characterization Tool ADB Asian Development Bank ADDS African Data Dissemination Service AFD Action for Development AGIDS Amsterdam Institute for Global Issues and Development Studies AGROSIG Servicios Agro-Informaticos de Apolyo a la Planificacion para el Uso y Manejo de los Recursos Naturales AID Agency for International Development, Washington D.C., USA ALIN Arid Lands Information Network ALRMP Arid Lands Resource Management Project ANPP Annual Net Primary Productivity APEIS Asia-Pacific Environmental Innovation Strategy Project APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inpection Service ARC Agriculture Research Council ARD Association for Rural Development ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa ASF Animal Source Foods AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer BASIS CRSP Broadening Access and Strengthening Market Input Systems Collaborative Research Support Program BIFAD Board for International Food and Agriculture Development BLPDP Borana Lowlands Pastoral Development Project BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

259 Global Livestock CRSP

BREB Bowen Ratio EnergyBalance CAP Community Action Plan CARE Cooperative for American Remittance to Europe, Inc. CAREC Central Asian Regional Environmental Center CCMS Committee on the Challenges of the Modern Society CDC Centro de Datos para la Conservacion CER-DET Centro de Estudios Regionales para el Desarrollo de Tarija CERES Centro de Estudios de la Realidad Económica y Social CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CHARM Collaborative Historical African Rainfall Model CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIAD Center for International Agriculture and Development CIEC Centro Interdisciplinario de Estudios Comunitarios (Interdisciplinary Center for Community Studies) CIFA Community Initiatives Facilitation and Assistance CMO Crisis Mitigation Office COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CP Crude protein CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program CSU Colorado State University CUCSUR Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DARCA Desertification and Regeneration for Central Asian Rangelands DMC Drought Monitoring Center DO Dissolved Oxygen DOM Digestible Organic Matter DPPC Drought Preparedness and Prevention Commission

260 Annual Report 2003

EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization EDC Education Development Center EEP External Evaluation Panel ELEA Ethiopian Livestock Exporters Association ELFORA Agro-Industrial subsidiary of MIDROC Corp. ELS Extensive Livestock Production Systems EPIC Environmental Policy Integrated Climate Model EQIP Environmental Quality Improvement Program ESA Ecologically Sound Agriculture EU Edgerton University EW & FISU Early Warning and Food Information System Unit EWD Early Warning Department EWS Early Warning System FAO Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations FAO FSAU FAO Food Security Assessment Unit FESNARE Faculty of Environmental Studies and Natural Resources FEWS NET Famine Early Warning System Network FISU Food Information System Unit FOSS First in Food Analysis FRAMS Forage Risk Asessment Managememt System FUNAN Fundacion Antisana GANLAB Grazingland Animal Nutrition Laboratory GEF Global Environmental Facility (World Bank) GHA Greater Horn of Africa GIS Geographic Information System GLA Grazingland Applications GL-CRSP Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program

261 Global Livestock CRSP

GME Greater Meru Ecosystem GO Government Organization GOK Government of Kenya GPS Global Positioning Systems GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for Technical Cooperation) ha Hectare HPI Heifer Project International IA Integrated Assessment IARC International Agricultural Research Center ICARDA International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICRAF International Centre for Research on Agroforestry IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGADD International Governmental Authority on Drought and Development ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMAS Integrated Modeling and Assessment System IMECBIO Instituto Manantlan de Ecologia y Conservation de la Biodeversidad IRGA Infrared Gas Analyzer JAINA Comunidad de Estudios KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KDA Kenya Rural enterprise Program Development Agency KFR Kazakh Fat Rumped Sheep KFW Kazakh Fine Wool kg kilogram KTRISB Kazakh Technological Research Institute of Sheep Breeding KSBA Kyrgyz Sheep Breeders Association

262 Annual Report 2003

Ksh Kenya Shilling KWS Kenya Wildlife Service KZ Kazakstan LDRCT Livestock Development and Rangeland Conservation Tools (GL-CRSP Project) LEWS Livestock Early Warning System LiTEK Livestock Marketing in Kenya and Ethiopia (GL-CRSP Project) LINKS Livestock Information Network & Knowledge System LMA Livestock Marketing Authority LMSD Livestock Marketing Services Division LPAP Livestock Policy Analysis Program LPRI Livestock Production Research Institute LUCID Land Use Change Impacts & Dynamics ME Management Entity MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MRC Mpala Research Center NAARI Namulaonge Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NALRC National Arid Land Research Center NARO National Agricultural Research Organization NARS National Agricultural Research System NCA Ngorongoro Conservation Area NDPPC National Disaster Prevention Preparedness Committee NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Indices NFE Non-formal Education NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIRS Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy

263 Global Livestock CRSP

NOAA RFE National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Rainfall Estimate NPP Net Primary Productivity NREL Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory NRRC National Range Research Center NSF National Science Foundation NUFFIC Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education NUTBAL Nutritional Balance Analyzer OADB Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau OARI Oromia Agricultural Research Institute OAU-IBAR Organization of African Unity -- Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources OCPB Oromia Cooperative Promotion Bureau OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance OPDC Oromia Pastoral DevelopmentCommission ORP Outreach Review Panel OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe PAC Program Administrative Council PAR Photosynthetic Active Radiation PARIMA Pastoral Risk Management Project (GL-CRSP) PCDP Pastoral Community Development Project PDA Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP PHEWS Plant Health Early Warning System PHYGROW Plant Growth/Hydrology/Yield Simulation Models PI Principal Investigator PISP Pastoralist Integrated Support Program PLAN Community Planning for Sustainable Livestock-Based Forested Ecosystems in Latin America (GL-CRSP Project)

264 Annual Report 2003

POLEYC Integrated Assessment of Pastoral-Wildlife Interactions in East Africa (GL- CRSP Project) PRA Participatory Rural Appraisals RCMRD Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development REDSO East African Region USAID RMA Risk Management Agency SANREM Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Research Management CRSP SARDEP Sustainable Animal and Range Development Program SCT Spatial Characterization Tool SDP Stochastic Dynamic Programming SE Socio-Economic SEMARNAP Servicio Nacional del Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca SEYE Managing National Parks in the Context of Changing Human Populations and Economics (GL-CRSP Project) SLLPC Sustainable Livelihoods for Livestock Producing Communities SM Sierra de Manantlán SMBR Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve SMS Short Message Service SNV Netherlands Development Organization SORDU Southern Rangeland Development Unit SPAN Strengthening Partnerships with National Agricultural Systems SPARE Strategic Partnership for Agricultural Research & Education SUMAWA Sustainable Management of Watersheds: The River Njoro, Kenya (GL- CRSP Project) T Temperature TANAPA Tanzania National Parks TAMU Texas A&M University

265 Global Livestock CRSP

TCP Technical Cooperative Program (FAO’s assistance Program) TDS Total Dissolved Solids TE Terraneuva TK Turkmenistan TLU Total Livestock Unit TM Thematic Mapper TME Tarangire/Manyara Ecosystem Tot-N Total Nitrogen Tot-P Total Phosphorous TSS Total Suspended Solids UCD University of California, Davis UdG Universidad de Guadalajara UNDP United Nations Development Program UNEP United Nations Environmental Program USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA ARS United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service USGS United States Geological Survey USU Utah State University UT Utah UW University of Wisconsin VOCA Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance VSF Vétérinaires Sans Frontières WB World Bank WEAP Water Evaluation & Planning System WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization WINISI Win Inservice Inspection Software

266 Annual Report 2003

WMO World Meterological Organization WPL Webb, Pearman, Leuning Equations WTO World Trade Organization WXGEN Weather Generator for EPIC YNP Yellowstone National Park

267 Global Livestock CRSP

268