1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 204, 223, 224

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-48780-1 — The Syrian War Edited by Hilly Moodrick-Even Khen , Nir T. Boms , Sareta Ashraph Index More Information

INDEX

1951 Convention Relating to the Status Al Mayadeen, 174 of Refugees, 204, 223, 224 Al-Akhbar, 166, 175, 176 1963 Ba’athist coup, 254 Al-Aqsa Mosque, 172 1967 war, 169, 190 Alawites, 47, 59, 77, 288, 294, 296 1974 disengagement line, 187 Al-Azhar University, 172 1990 Dublin Convention to Syrian Al-Bab, 37 refugees, 221 al-Badia, 72 Aleppo, 1, 45, 56, 62, 64, 67, 68, 70, 74, Abdallah Arslan al-Hariri, 115, 116 75, 87, 89, 90, 92, 95, 114, 145, 173, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, 213 177, 237, 281 abduction, 151 al-Ghouta al-Sharqiyya, 66, 67, 72, 74 Abdullah Ocalan, 273, 274, 275, Al-Hader, 174 279, 285 Al-Jazeera, 171 Abu Abbas, 173 al-Jieza, 180 Abu Ayyub al-Masri, 49 al-Marjeh, 90 Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, 49 Al-Mayadeen, 174 Abu Omar al-Baghdadi, 49 al-Nusra Front, 1, 4, 49, 52, 63, 85, 86, Abu-Musab al-Zarqawi, 49 92, 107, 169, 170, 177, 179, 187, abusive institutions, 246 189, 190, 196, 210, 226, 278, 290 accountability exercise, 257 Al-Omari mosque, 81 accountability mechanisms, 255 Alon, Yigal, 190 accountability process, 264 al-Qaeda, 4, 31, 43, 49, 52, 85, 189 Action Emploi Réfugiés, 236 Al-Qaseer, 83 acts of retribution, 266 Al-Qusayr, 87, 90, 173 adaptive functioning, 260 Al-Rahman Division, 174 Additional Protocol I, 32, 34, 35, 37, al-Ruqban camp, 205 40, 43 al-Tamanah, 98 Additional Protocol II, 30, 32, 36, 37, 43 al-Yarmouk camp, 166, 168, 169, Additional Protocol III, 91 170, 177 administrative law, 257 al-Zabadani, 66 Adra, 95 Amman, 206 Afghanistan Amnesty International, 108, 115, 116, al-Qaeda, 31, 43 118, 119, 120, 123, 124, 219, 261 gender equlity in refugee centres, 234 amnesty law, 247 Shi’a militias, 56 amnesty strategy, 266 Afrin, 38, 39, 202, 277, 279, 284 Angehort, 236 Ahmad Jibril, 169, 177 Ankara, 275, 283, 284 Ahrar al-Sham, 1, 52, 92 Ankommen App, 236 Ajaneb, 280 Ansbach, 226 299

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-48780-1 — The Syrian War Edited by Hilly Moodrick-Even Khen , Nir T. Boms , Sareta Ashraph Index More Information

300 index

António Guterres, 218 Bashar al-Assad, 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17, Aoun, Michel, 208, 215 39, 44, 47, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, Arab Belt, 281 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 75, 77, Arab Centre for Research and Policy 78, 85, 86, 105, 117, 166, 171, 174, Studies, 175 175, 176, 190, 191, 192, 200, 202, Arab League, 85 205, 206, 210, 219, 229, 230, 238, Arab nationalists, 279, 284 244, 245, 246, 265, 266, 267, 273, Arab Spring, 1, 47, 58, 81, 150, 203, 294 276, 281, 282, 286, 288, 289, 290, Arab world, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171, 291, 293, 297 178 Basil Al-Sayed, 83 Arafat, Yasser, 171 Bataclan attack, 225 area bombardment, 91 Beirut, 167, 175, 271 armed groups, 2, 3, 6, 11, 30, 31, 33, 40, Belgium 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 54, 83, 85, 86, 87, Islamist actors, 232 90, 92, 103, 107, 145, 146, 153, 160, redistribution policies, 230 171, 189, 191 Belgium Federal Agency for the Ashraﬁah Sahnaya, 96 Reception of Asylum Seekers, 234 Asma’ al-Akhras, 65 belligerent state, 32 Association for the Defence of the Beqaa region, 173 Victims of the Syrian Beqaa valley, 173 Revolution, 256 Berkeley Human Rights Centre, 257 Astana, 71, 191, 192, 297 Berlin, 225, 236 Astana Initiative, 191 besieged areas, 260 asylum procedure, 232, 236 bespoke alternative models, 255 Asylum Procedure Directive, 226 Bet Jann pocket, 195 Atarib, 92 Betts, Alexander, 206, 207 authoritarian state system, 214 Bilad al-Sha’m, 59 authoritarianism, 243, 247, 250 Bishara, Azmi, 166, 175 Azadi, 275 Bitari, Nabil, 166, 177 Azmi Bishara, 175, 176, 177, 179 Bitari, Nidal, 168, 169, 170 blanket amnesties, 249 Ba’ath party, 8, 142, 280, 281, 287, 288 blanket impunity, 255 Ba’ath government, 59 Bookchin, Murray, 277, 279 Ba’ath party, 59, 254 Bosnia, 130, 149 Ba’ath revolution, 59 British Joint Intelligence Committee, 96 Baaj, 133 Bron, Itai, 67 Bab Amr, 84 brothers-in-arms, 179 Baghdad, 212, 283, 285 Brussels, 217, 225, 235 Bahhariyeh, 96, 98 bureaucratic expertise, 255 Bahrain Busra al-Sham, 180 2010 uprising, 167 Iranian-supported rebels, 178 Cairo, 297 rebelling people, 167 Calais refugee camps, 223 revolution, 167 calculated adventure, 175 Balfour declaration, 166 caliphate, 49, 86, 269 bar associations, 257 Canada Bargaining theory, 22 refuge, 180 barrel bombs, 89, 90, 93, 99, 100 Syria Transition Roadmap, 256

index 301

captured combatants, 252 Collier, Paul, 206, 207 Caritas International Belgium and combat helicopters, 69 Convivial, 235 commission of inquiry, 262 Cassese, Antonio, 127 commission of international crimes, Caucasus, 131 251, 252 Center for Political and Strategic commission of international or Studies, 255, 256 domestic crimes, 247 Central America Committee for the Buying and Selling transition to democracy, 247 of Slaves, 133 Central Intelligence Agency, 165 Common Article 3, 30, 31, 32, 45, 46, chain of command, 25, 252, 256 53 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Common European Asylum European Union, Article 18, System, 226 225 communal grievances, 247 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the communications platforms, 259 European Union, Article 19, community-based approach, 260 225 co-morbidity, 258 Charter of the International Military conditional amnesties, 256 Tribunal at Nuremberg, 110 conflict-related crimes, 257 Chechnya model, 69 conquered status, 152 checkpoints, 82, 89, 115, 134, 145, 146, conscription, 145, 153, 160 147, 148, 150, 151, 153, 157, 160, consolidated state, 298 169, 205, 287 consolidated transition, 261 chemical attack, 46, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, constellation of military forces, 36 74, 98, 99, 103, 181, 200 Convention for the Protection of chemical weapons, 2, 6, 14, 18, 34, 35, Human Rights and Fundamental 36, 43, 61, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, Freedoms, 224 80, 88, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, Convention Relating to the Status of 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 179, Refugees, Article 33, 224 184, 289 cost-benefit analysis, 22 Chemical Weapons Convention, 99 Council of the Free Syrian Judges, China 257 veto, 46, 69, 85 Council of Youth Movements, 185 chlorine, 67, 68, 98, 99, 100, 102, crime of aggression, 33 103 crimes against humanity, 3, 6, 82, 84, Christianity, 131 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, Christians, 76, 77, 188, 208, 215, 115, 118, 123, 125, 126, 138, 237 176, 258 civil code, 257 criminal accountability, 245, 248, 251, civil society organisations, 184, 217, 255, 256, 263, 264 232, 233, 234, 236, 250, 254, 257 criminal justice system, 248 civilian life, 266, 288 criminal procedure, 257 civilian populations, 25, 28 criteria for eligibility, 266 civilian safe havens, 259 cross-border conflict, 32 Cold War, 247 crowd-source information, 262 collective restitution, 255 cultural genocide, 125, 126, 129, 130 collective self-defence, 13, 18 customary international law, 14, 37 collective vigilantism, 265 customary law, 30, 35, 40, 43, 93, 125

302 index

Daleel, Mohammad, 226 digital forensics, 254 Damascus, 5, 8, 58, 59, 60, 62, 66, 72, 73, diplomatic engagement, 261 83, 84, 89, 90, 92, 96, 104, 114, 118, Disaster and Emergency Management 119, 124, 151, 168, 169, 170, 172, Agency, 203 174, 181, 189, 237, 271, 272, 273, distribution of immigrants, 230 275, 279, 284, 286, 287, 288 documentation of abuses, 245, 246 Damascus declaration initiative, 59 domestic conﬂicts, 15, 21, 27 Damascus Spring, 5, 8, 59, 288 domestic courts, 250 Danish Institute for International domestic criminal law, 264 Studies, 226 domestic trials, 264 Daraa, 1, 60, 72, 74, 81, 90, 114, 115, donor states, 244, 248, 250, 254, 255 150, 151, 172, 173, 178, 180, 192, Douma, 34, 72, 103, 104, 181 239, 289 Druze, 40, 48, 59, 63, 77, 174, 187, Darayya, 66 188, 190 data management, 254 Dublin Regulation, 226, 227 Day of Rage, 150, 151 duyuf, 199 Dayr az-Zawr, 86 deadweight losses, 22 East Bank, 208 De-Ba’athiﬁcation of Iraq, 255 Eastern Europe Decree 161, 254 transparency initiatives, 247 de-escalation, 72, 73, 180, 191 Eastern Mediterranean, 72 Deir ez-Zur, 173, 229, 289 economic instability, 259 de-militarised zone, 41 economic powerhouse, 292 demobilisation, 259 economic refugees, 292 democratic principles, 247 effective government, 18 Democratic Society Movement (TEV- effective levers, 266 DEM), 278 Egypt democratic transition, 244 Arab Spring, 58 Democratic Union Party (PYD), 202, demonstrations, 289 203, 274, 277, 278, 279, 283, Iranian-supported rebels, 178 284, 285 rebelling people, 167 democratic values, 249 revolution, 167 Denmark Syrian refugees, 201, 213 Syrian engineers, 237 use of force, 14 Venligboerne, 236 electrocution, 123, 154, 155, 158, 160 deontological value, 249 Elements of Crimes, 109, 112, 113, 117, Dersimi, Nuri, 271 122, 127 detainees, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 123, Emergency Law, 254 124, 146, 148, 149, 154, 155, 156, Emergency Relocation System, 227 157, 158, 160, 266 emergent governmental structures, 266 detention, 6, 79, 82, 108, 114, 115, 116, emerging endgame, 295 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, Enlightenment, 238 138, 140, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, Erbil, 277, 278, 283, 286 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, ethnic cleansing, 16, 66, 78, 125, 126, 227, 252 129, 130, 131 detention centres, 79, 114, 117, 118, ethnically homogeneous, 130 119, 227, 252 EU Agency on Asylum, 228 diaspora populations, 259 Euphrates River, 62, 281

index 303

Eurodac Regulation, 226 France Europe Additional Protocol I, 36 Syrian refugees, 217 Armenians declaration, 110 European Asylum Support Office, 226 influx of refugees, 223 European Convention for the international obligations, 36 Protection of Human Rights and military strikes, 104 Fundamental Freedoms redistribution policies, 230 (ECHR), 228 Syrian government, 103 European Court of Human Rights Syrian targets, 36 (ECtHR), 224 Free Syrian Army (FSA), 1, 4, 39, 40, 45, European Court of Human Rights, 47, 48, 52, 53, 83, 84, 85, 147, 169, Article 3, 224 170, 173, 174, 177, 179, 189, 202, European Foundation for Democracy, 266, 289 7, 217, 228, 229, 231, 233, 234, 238 Free Syrian Lawyers Aggregation, 257 European Union, 67, 71, 202, 203, 204, Free Syrian Lawyers Association, 257 207, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, freedom of movement, 148, 153 225, 226, 227, 228, 231, 234, 238, French Mandate, 59 239, 289, 290, 293, 294 French mandate period, 215 evidentiary rules, 257 Friends of the Syrian People, 263 extermination, 6, 65, 108, 109, 115, 117, frontline countries, 260 118, 121, 124, 126, 138 full-stop law, 247 external forces, 17, 18, 21, 22 fully-functioning tribunal, 264 external governments, 26 external intervention, 17, 24, 87 Gaddafi, Muammar, 166, 167 external states, 21 Galilee, 181, 190 externally displaced, 260 Gamal Abdel Nasser, 166 extraterritorial jurisdiction, 245, 264 Gamla Nature Reserve, 194 extraterritorially, 263 gang rapes, 135, 150, 157 Gaza, 165 F-16 jet, 181 Gemayel, Sami, 215 Fact-Finding Mission, 99, 100, 101, gender roles, 140, 141, 145, 147, 104 151, 159 fact-gathering exercises, 253 General Union of Syrian Women, 142 Fahd Jassem al-Freij, 65 Geneva Convention IV, 40 failed states, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, Geneva Conventions, 30, 32, 33, 34, 28, 291 35, 43 falaqa, 123 genital mutilation, 149, 156 Fanaticism, 288 genocide, 3, 6, 107, 108, 109, 118, 125, Fatah, 86, 174, 187 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, Federal Office for Migration and 133, 138 Refugees, 236 Genocide Convention, 125, 128, 129, Ferzat Jarban, 83 130, 132, 133 financial crimes, 257 German Institute for International and First Chechen War, 69 Security Affairs, 256 forcible transfer, 132 Germany foreign intervention, 18, 23 Ansbach, 226 formal government, 19, 27 asylum application, 220 fragile states, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28 asylum seekers, 201

304 index

Germany (cont.) house searches, 115, 146, 147, 148, 149, Islamist actors, 232 150, 151, 152, 153 KRG, 283 human rights, 8, 21, 59, 80, 83, 84, 87, refuge, 180 118, 223, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, refugee resettlement, 220 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, US trading partner, 292 261, 291 Ghassemi, Bahram, 182 human rights advocacy, 261 ghettoisation, 238 Human Rights Data Analysis Ghouta, 36, 43, 66, 67, 72, 74, 96, 97, 98, Group, 119 101, 103 Human rights documentation, 251 global epistemic community, 250 Human Rights Watch, 91, 108, 115, Global Gender Gap Report, 142 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, Golan Heights, 27, 34, 40, 41, 168, 169, 124, 261 173, 174, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, Human Welfare Association NGO, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 234 194, 195, 196 humanitarian aid, 38, 72, 195 Good Neighbours, 180, 188, 196 humanitarian assistance, 186, 191, Grandi, Filippo, 218 194, 261 Great Arab Revolt, 190 humanitarian crisis, 2, 15, 107, 136, Greater Kurdistan, 272, 273 138, 290 Greek coast humanitarian diplomacy, 182, 186 Syrian refugees, 185 humanitarian distress, 16 Gulf States, 206 humanitarian intervention, 5, 12, 14, Gulf War, 288 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 28 humanitarian needs, 260 Hafez al-Assad, 8, 59 humanitarian operations, 7 Haley, Nikki, 104 humanitarian standards, 37 Hama, 8, 72, 83, 89, 90, 114, 237, 287 Humanity House, 235 Hama massacre, 8, 61 Hussein, Saddam, 166, 171 Hamas, 7, 165, 166, 170, 171, 172, 177, hybrid tribunal, 264 178, 179 Hamid Haji Darwish, 272, 273 Ibrahim al-Amin, 166, 176, 177 Hamza Al-Khateeb, 82 Ibrahim Khalil, 283 Harkat al-mahrumin, 167 Idlib, 2, 39, 63, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72, 83, 89, Hasaka, 279, 280, 281 90, 99, 100, 102, 180 Hassan Nasrallah, 166, 167, 173, International Law Commission (ILC) 176, 178 Draft Code of Crimes against Hebrew, 194, 195 Peace and Security of Hej Främling!, 236 Mankind, 111 Hezbollah, 1, 7, 11, 17, 27, 34, 42, 56, 57, illegitimate claims, 24 69, 87, 165, 166, 167, 168, 172, 173, Imad Khamis, 65 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 184, 187, Imam Husayn, 167 188, 193, 195, 196, 201, 208, 210, Imam Musa al-Sadr, 167 215, 289, 293, 296 impeachment challenges, 252 Homs, 43, 45, 65, 72, 83, 84, 85, 89, 90, implementing partners, 254 92, 94, 104, 114, 151, 173, 178, improvised explosive devices, 90, 237, 289 92 hors de combat, 80, 88 inclusive association, 262

index 305

Independent Impartial Commission of 52, 55, 79, 80, 84, 87, 88, 91, 93, 94, Inquiry on the Syrian Arab 105, 112, 256, 266 Republic (Col Syria), 44, 45, 47, international intervention, 15, 16, 17, 107, 108, 115, 116, 117, 118, 24, 27, 290 123, 124, 132, 133, 137, 145, International Investigative Team, 253 146, 149 international involvement, 28, 244, 249, indigenous leaders, 260 251, 264 individual restitution, 255 international law, 2, 3, 6, 12, 13, 15, 16, infertility, 159 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 31, infidels, 132 32, 35, 55, 57, 71, 79, 80, 82, 85, 87, insurgents, 18, 74, 147 100, 106, 107, 109, 110, 123, 249, intensity, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 52, 83, 85, 264, 293 90, 177 international manipulation, 28 interested states, 21, 264 International Monetary Fund, 77 intergenerational effects, 259 international offenses, 252 internal armed conflict, 20, 45 International Organisation for internally displaced persons (IDPs), 5, Migration, 221 192, 200, 211, 296 international tribunal, 264 international agreement, 264 International Visitors Program, 289 international armed conflicts (IAC), 29, International, Impartial, and 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 42, 55 Independent Mechanism to International Committee of the Red Investigate Serious Crimes in Cross (ICRC), 44, 84 Syria, 245, 253, 264 international community, 6, 7, 12, 16, internationalisation, 7, 249 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 45, 57, 68, 73, internationalised armed conflict, 32 77, 80, 86, 105, 109, 111, 138, 190, internationalising the conflict, 27 191, 192, 199, 239, 243, 245, 246, interrogation, 124, 148, 149, 154, 248, 251, 254, 256, 259, 260, 261, 155, 160 263, 264, 265, 266, 276, 282, 296, intra-Kurdish violence, 278 297, 298 intra-state, 5, 13, 15 International Court of Justice, xix, 14, Iran 26, 93, 130 axis of resistance, 179 international crimes, 6, 107, 108, 128, de-facto control, 297 138, 244, 266, 296, 298 drone, 181 International Criminal Court (ICC), Greater Kurdistan, 273 46, 87, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, Hezbollah, 42, 167 122, 125, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133, influence in Syria, 27 138, 245, 251, 264 international coalition, 34 international criminal law, 109, 110, intervention, 17, 22 141, 249, 264 land connection, 22 International Criminal Tribunal for land continuity, 72 Rwanda (ICTR), 111, 117 land link, 27 International Criminal Tribunal for the military intervention, 56 former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 29, 31, PKK, 274 111, 112, 114, 117, 122, 130, 131 presence in Syria, 182 international development, 249 Shi’a militias, 87 international humanitarian law (IHL), Syria’s freedoms, 293 6, 19, 30, 32, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 51, Syrian regime, 291

306 index

Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, 187 Safed, 186 Iranian Foreign Ministry, 182 security zone, 191 Iranian Revolutionary Guards, 69, 165 Syrian plane, 187 Iraq Israel Nature and Parks Authority, 194 al-Qaeda, 49 Israel’s Military Court, 93 Greater Kurdistan, 273 Israeli Defence Forces (IDF), 40, 42, 67, ISIS, 86 169, 180, 183, 186, 187, 188, Kurdish movement for 196 independence, 7 Istanbul, 202 Kurdistan Democratic Party Izra, 81 (KDP), 271 land continuity, 72 Jabal al-Druze, 190 PKK, 274 Jabal Samak area, 63 refugees in Kurdistan, 212 Jabhat Fatah al-Sham, 86 religious hostility, 59 Japan religious minorities, 223 US trading partner, 292 sectarian war, 49 Jarablus, 37 Shi’a militias, 56 Jaramana, 92 Yazidis, 131, 134 Jazira, 279, 280, 281, 284 Iraqi Kurdish independence, 284 Jeish al Islam, 1 Iraqi Kurdistan, 211, 274, 277, 283, 285 Jews, 194 Islam, 4, 60, 63, 131, 134, 137, 178, Jihad, 1, 2, 4, 57, 60, 62, 63, 85, 165, 174, 292, 293 183, 189, 193, 210, 225 Islamic Caliphate, 4, 211 Jish al Sham, 174 Islamic Front, 52 Jisr al-Shughur, 75, 82 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 1, Jobar, 95, 96, 98 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 33, joint criminal enterprise, 252 35, 36, 37, 40, 43, 49, 50, 51, 54, 57, Joint Investigative Mechanism, 99, 68, 72, 73, 76, 77, 86, 93, 99, 100, 100, 102 102, 107, 108, 125, 126, 132, 133, Joint Special Envoys, 87 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 179, Jordan 189, 192, 193, 196, 198, 200, 201, Hamas ofﬁcials, 171 202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 220, 225, Palestinians, 214 226, 229, 232, 237, 244, 245, 253, refugee camps, 185 266, 268, 269, 278, 279, 282, 283, refugees in factories, 207 286, 290, 291, 293 security zone, 191 Islamist, 1, 4, 5, 49, 52, 171, 174, 175, Special Economic Zones, 206 178, 203, 231, 232, 284, 285, 290, state stability, 201 293, 296 Syrian refugees, 219 Ismail Haniyeh, 166, 172 Jordan Compact, 207, 208 Israel Jordanian monarchy, 201, 204 al-Nusra Front, 189 Journal of Palestine Studies, 168 Galilee, 190 Judaism, 131 Golan Heights, 34 judicial redress, 267 Hezbollah, 195 judicial review, 250 innovation, 292 jurisdiction over perpetrators, 264 international coalition, 34 jus ad bellum, 5, 12, 13, 18, 19, 23, 27, Iranian drone interception, 181 28, 41

index 307

jus in bello,5 Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), 52, jus soli, 213 53, 203, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 283, 285, 286 Kafr Zeta, 98, 99 Kurds, 48, 77, 179, 202, 204, 212, 268, Karm Al-Zeitoun, 84 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, Katanga case, 112, 114 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, Kazakhstan, 192, 297 283, 284, 285, 286, 296 Astana peace talks, 71 Kuwait, 171, 288 memorandum of understanding, 72 Khaldiyah, 84, 85, 94 laji’in, 199 Khalid ibn-Walid Army, 189 Latakia, 98, 151 Khan al-Assal, 66, 67, 95, 96, 98 Latin America Khan Sheikhoun, 71, 72, 95, 101, transition to democracy, 247 102 Le Drian, Jean-Yves, 103 Khoyboun, 270, 271 League of Arab States, 87 kimlik, 203 Lebanese diaspora, 214 King Faisal bin Hussein, 269 Lebanon Kingdom of Syria, 268 arms transfer, 184 knowledge of the attack, 113 Hezbollah, 201 Kobani, 51, 86, 278, 279, 282, 284 land connection, 22 Kocho, 134 land continuity, 72 Komsomolskaya Pravda,64 medium-range missiles, 193 kuffar, 132 refugees, 75, 201 Kurdish, 1, 2, 7, 11, 26, 37, 52, 76, 86, 95, refugees per capita, 205 131, 132, 165, 201, 202, 203, 204, security zone, 191 212, 214, 221, 268, 269, 270, 271, state stability, 201 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, Syrian refugees, 219 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, legal accountability, 247 286, 296 legality of intervention, 18 Kurdish Democratic Unity Party, 51 legislative reform, 257 Kurdish Future Movement, 275 legitimacy deﬁcits, 251 Kurdish heartland, 279 legitimate amnesty law, 255 Kurdish National Council (KNC), 276, Lemkin, Rafael, 129 277, 278, 279, 284 Lesbos, 185 Kurdish nationalism, 270, 279, 282 LGBT people, 230 Kurdish Progressive Democratic Party liberal democratic values, 231, 233, in Syria (PDKS), 273, 276, 285 239 Kurdish Regional Government, 201, liberal-democratic societies, 239 212, 272, 277, 278, 283, 284, liberated areas, 257, 264 285 Libya Kurdistan, 52, 211, 212, 271, 272, 273, Arab Spring, 58 274, 275, 277, 283, 284, 285 demonstrations, 289 Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), rebelling people, 167 271, 272, 273, 275, 276, 277, revolution, 167 285 Lieblich, Eliav, 27, 28 Kurdistan Region of Iraq, 211 linkage evidence, 252 Kurdistan Regional Government of logistical support, 18 Iraq (KRG), 277, 278 London, 193, 207, 225

308 index

looted assets, 255 Mosques, 293 lustration programmes, 247 Mosul, 131, 133, 135, 211 Mount Sinjar, 51, 133, 134, 136 Macedonia movement of arms, 252 refugee route, 186 Muadamiyat al-Sham, 66 Madaya, 66 Mubarak, Hosni, 167 maimed, 2, 79, 260 mujtama’ wamoqawama, 173 Majdal Shams, 187 mukhabarrat, 215 Maktoumeen, 280 Mulet, Edmond, 102 Manchester, 225 Mullah Mustafa Barzani, 271, 272, 273, Marea, 100 276, 284, 285 Marital rape, 143 multilateral consensus, 244, 264 market failure, 22 multilateral conversations, 261 Marxism, 277 multilateral coordination, 251 masculinity, 149, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160 multilateral documentation efforts, 263 Mashal, Khaled, 171 multilateral front, 245 mass communication, 262 multilateral resolutions, 254 medical rehabilitation, 262 Muqawama, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, Mediterranean countries, 227 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179 Mediterranean Sea, 22, 27, 201 Muslim Brotherhood, 171, 172, 205, memorandum of understanding, 55, 72 208, 213, 287, 290 memorialisation of suffering and Muslim world, 171 survival, 246 memorialisations, 255 Nabi-Shayth, 173 mental health illnesses, 258 Naqba Day, 168 mental illness, 261 Naqsa Day, 169 Merkel, Angela, 237 national aspirations, 212 metastasis of the battleﬁeld, 244 National Commission for Transitional Middle East, ix, 1, 58, 60, 166, 167, 171, Justice, 256 172, 178, 193, 198, 200, 203, 214, National Defense Forces, 85, 89 218, 221, 268, 269, 271, 283, 291, National Democratic Assembly, 287 292, 298 National Preparatory Committee for militarisation, 157, 201 Transitional Justice, 256 Military Field Court, 117, 124 nationwide control, 265 Military Intelligence Directorate of the natural resources, 292 Israel Defence Forces, 67 Nazareth, 175 Military Operations Centre, 206 Nazim al-Qudsi, 280 Military Police, 115, 116, 117, 118 negotiating table, 255 Military Police corps, 116, 117 Netanyahu, Benjamin, 95, 193 Military Police Department, 115 new Arab spring, 168 Ministry of Defence, 116, 118 New York Times, 181, 198 Ministry of Health, 260 Nineveh province, 211 Mohammad Ali Allahdadi, 187 non-governmental organisations Mohammad, Qazi, 271 (NGOs), 3, 158, 204, 235, 249, 253 Mohammed Talab Hilal, 279, 280 non-international armed conﬂicts moral injury, 259 (NIAC), 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, Morsi, Mohamed, 172, 211, 212, 213 37, 43, 44, 46, 49, 53, 54, 55 Moscow Declaration, 70 non-repetition, 262

index 309

non-state actors, ix, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, People’s Protection Unit (YPG), 37, 40, 19, 20, 25, 26, 28, 138, 183, 250 43, 48, 50, 51, 53, 86, 165, 202, 274, norm entrepreneurs, 245, 249 277, 278, 279, 282, 283, 284, 286 normative framework, 249 peremptory norm, 122 North Atlantic Treaty Permanent Members, 85, 106 Organization, 282 Phalange Party, 215 North Korea Pictet Commentary, 30 chemical weapons, 103 Political Division, 279 notional decree laws, 257 political prisoners, 47, 81, 266 Nubl, 92 political transition, 243 Popular Front for the Liberation of Obama, Barack, 14, 67, 68, 73, 94, 95, Palestine – General Command, 97, 178, 198 169, 170, 177 occupation, 32, 35, 38, 39, 166, 169, 288 positive complementarity, 265 Omar al-Bashir, 127 post-conﬂict period, 243, 278 Operation Euphrates Shield, 37, 38, post-traumatic stress disorder, 258, 40 259, 261 Operation Olive Branch, 37, 40, 202 post-war environment, 266 operational efforts, 265 poverty line, 77, 209, 211 opportunistic trials, 264 pregnancies, 158 order of battle, 252 pre-transition transitional justice, Organisation for the Prohibition of 244, 246 Chemical Weapons – United principle of distinction, 88, 93 Nations Joint Mission (OPCW- principle of non-refoulement, 224, 225 UN), 46, 68, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, principle of prohibition of return, 225 104, 105 prison cells, 156 Oslo Accords, 171 private vengeance, 265 Our House Project, 235 privatised investigations, 253 procedural law, 254 Pact of Umar, 170 prohibition on intervention, 18 Pakistan proportionality, 19 Shi’a militias, 56 proprietaires solidaires, 235 Palestinians, 7, 48, 166, 168, 169, 170, prosecutorial culture, 255 171, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, prosecutorial powers, 264 205, 207, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215 prosecutorial threat, 265 Palmyra, 181, 220 protected areas, 70 Paris, 33, 225 protection of civilians, 37 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council proto-accountability exercises, 245 of Europe, 224 Protocol Relating to the Status of patriarchal family system, 159 Refugees, 224 Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), protraction, 31, 145 272, 273, 276, 285 psychiatric treatment, 260 peace negotiations, 245, 261 psychological damage, 259 Pearlman, Wendy, 200, 215 psychological distress, 260 Peer Youth, 234 psychological harm, 136, 259 penal initiatives, 245 psychological impact, 259 penal law framework, 257 psychological interventions, 260 Pentagon, 289 psychological treatment, 260

310 index

psycho-social rehabilitation, 262, Regional Refugee and Resilience 266 Plan, 210 Putin, Vladimir, 192, 193, 297 rehabilitation of victims, 246, 248 Qamishli, 275, 276 reintegration programmes, 259 Qandil, 274, 286 reparations, 246, 250, 251, 252, 257, Qandil Mountains, 274 261, 262, 267 Qani, 134 repressive states, 250 Qassem, Naim, 167, 173 Republic of Mahabad, 271 Qatar Republican Guard, 116 Al-Jazeera, 171 resettlement framework, 227 Bishara, Azmi, 175 resistance ideology, 179 Hamas, 170, 172 responsibility to protect, 5, 12, 14, 84, Islamic character, 60 239, 295 Israel relations, 183 re-traumatisation, 252 rebel groups, 39 retributive response, 248 Qualiﬁcation Directive, 227 revisionist histories, 262 Qualiﬁed Industrial Zones, 207 Rif, 83, 151 Qudssaya, 66 right to truth, 250, 262 QuickBed, 235 Rijal al-Karama, 191 Quneitra, 40, 72, 174, 180, 181, 187, Riyak, 210 192, 193 rule-of-law principles, 265 Quntar, Samir, 174, 187 rump security sector, 266 quota system, 215, 230 Russia Quran, 293 aerial attacks, 91 Quranic schools, 231 air campaign, 69 air force, 2 radicalisation, 60, 62, 63, 145, airstrike, 43 232 al-Assad survival, 56 rape, 136, 147, 148, 149, 152, 154, 155, Armenians declaration, 110 157, 159, 160 chemical weapons, 14, 97 Raqqa, 2, 50, 51, 62, 90, 135, 281, contractors, 54 283 de-facto control, 297 Ras al-Ayn, 278, 285 draft resolution, 70 Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, 201, 202, false narratives, 101 203, 283 intervention, 17, 22, 27 Receptions Conditions Directive, 227 naval facility, 22 recognised governments, 13, 15, 17, 26, OPCW, 104 27, 57 patron of Assad, 68 reconciliation, 69, 161, 180, 192, 245, Pravda, 64 246, 247, 249, 255, 258, 262, 263, radar, 182 276, 296 regional interests, 22 reconciliation agreements, 69, 180, 192 reliable protector, 22 refugee camps, 75, 177, 185, 194, 204, Security Council resolutions, 223, 244, 259, 260, 292 104 refugee routes, 186 Shi’a militias, 87 Refugees Got Talent, 235 support for Palestinians, 179 regional patronage, 273, 286 Syria’s freedoms, 293

index 311

Syrian regime, 291 Sexual crimes, 141 veto, 12, 16, 28, 46, 69, 85, 244, sexual humiliation, 149, 154 245 sexual violence, 6, 51, 88, 109, 124, 132, Russian Defence Ministry, 103 135, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, Sa‘ad al-Hariri, 201, 208 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, sabaya, 135 229, 261 Sabri, Osman, 271 shabiha, 34, 60, 81, 84, 85, 89 Safed, 186 shadow indictments, 257 Salaﬁ, 57, 63, 189, 191, 193, 230, Shaeikh Na’im Kasem, 166 231 Sheikh Maqsoud, 95, 96, 98 Samaha, Joseph, 175 Sheikh Mashuq Khaznawi, 275 sanctions, 69, 122, 144, 251 Sheikh Saeed Piran, 270 Saraqib, 95, 96, 98, 102 Shi’a, 2, 56, 57, 77, 87, 93, 165, 167, 173, Sarin, 68, 71, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 178, 191, 211, 291 103 Shu’ayrat air base, 72 Sarmin, 68, 100 SINGA organisation, 236 Saudi Arabia Sinjar, 131, 132, 133, Islamic character, 60 134 Jordanian monarchy, 205 Sivakumaran, Sandesh, 32 supporter of armed groups, 11 skeletal legal framework, 264 threatened, 27 Slovakia Sayda, 82, 92 refugee route, 186 Saydnaya Military Prison, 116, 117, Sochi, 54, 297 118, 119, 120, 124 social cohesion, 144, 244, 246 Sayyid al-Shuhada centre, 167 social death, 128 Schengen Borders Code, Article 25, social ostracism, 159 221 social rehabilitation, 251 Schengen countries, 221 Solagh Technical Institute, 134 sectarian repression, 246 South Africa sectarian vigilantism, 265 truth and reconciliation sectarian violence, 250 commission, 262 sectarianism, 288, 294 South America sector-wide approaches, 249 transition to democracy, 247 secure storage, 254 Southern Front, 189, 206 security and justice institutions, 247 spatial entrapment, 144 Security Council Resolution 2118, 97 special chambers, 264 Security Council Resolution 2139, 93 Special Criminal Court, 256 Security Council Resolution 2209, 68 Special Economic Zones, 206, 207 Security Council Resolution 2235, 99 specialised chambers, 245, 264 Security Council Resolution 2249, 14 specially-affected states, 264 Security Council Resolution 2336, 71 speciﬁc intent, 118, 126, 127, 131, 133 Security Council Resolution 780, 130 sporadic hostilities, 246 self-defence, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 25, Srebrenica, 131 26, 28 St. Petersburg Declaration, 88 Sellström team, 96, 97 stable states, 23 Sellström, Åke, 95 stand-alone tribunal, 264 Sequential traumatisation, 258 Start Vienna programme, 236

312 index

Statute of the International Criminal Syrian detention centers, 118, 119, 123, Court, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 124, 138 122, 125, 127, 130, 132, 133, 138 Syrian effort, 185 Stichting Nidos, 237 Syrian Expert House, 255 Stockholm, 225 Syrian government, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 14, 35, substantive law, 254, 264 36, 39, 40, 43, 45, 47, 53, 54, 56, 57, Sudan 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, speciﬁc intent, 127 75, 76, 77, 82, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, suffocation, 96, 122, 123 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, sulphur mustard, 68, 100, 101, 102 103, 104, 107, 108, 113, 114, 116, summarily executed, 134 118, 125, 138, 140, 150, 165, 168, Sunni, 48, 58, 59, 63, 65, 69, 76, 165, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 176, 177, 167, 178, 183, 196, 206, 208, 210, 178, 179, 180, 183, 184, 190, 192, 211, 212, 215, 283, 291, 294, 193, 194, 195, 264, 273, 274, 275, 296 276, 277, 284, 290, 295, 297, 298 supranational courts, 250 Syrian identity, 294 Supreme Military Council, 48 Syrian independence, 59 Supreme State Security Court, 288 Syrian Islamic Liberation Front, 52 Sweden Syrian Jewish community, 194 asylum application, 220 Syrian judicial system, 245, 257, 264 asylum seekers, 201 Syrian judiciary, 256, 257 redistribution policies, 230 Syrian Justice and Accountability Syria Commission, 44, 45, 71, 82, 83, 84, Centre, 253, 258 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, 100, 102, 107, Syrian Kurds, 8, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 110, 129, 145, 199, 253, 278 274, 276, 277, 284, 285, 286 Syria Mechanism, 87 Syrian legal community, 265 Syria Transition Roadmap, 256, 263 Syrian legal framework, 254 Syria’s latest victim, 80 Syrian military intelligence service, 215 Syria’s lost generation, 79 Syrian National Council, 290 Syria’s rebirth, 293 Syrian Network for Human Rights, 119 Syrian Air Force, 72, 177 Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, Syrian American Medical Society, 94 73, 220 Syrian Arab Kingdom, 269 Syrian police, 114 Syrian Arab Republic, 1, 4, 44, 107, 173 Syrian pre-transition, 251 Syrian army, 1, 2, 4, 11, 34, 35, 42, 45, Syrian Red Crescent, 166, 168 47, 54, 64, 72, 73, 89, 98, 114, 116, Syrian sovereignty, 256 152, 165, 169, 170, 183, 187, 190, Syrian Spring, 289 192, 195, 197, 277, 287, 289 Syrian uprising, 140, 151, 168, 181, 197, Syrian asylum applications, 219 198, 268, 276 Syrian Center for Media and Freedom Syrian urban society, 239 of Expression, 83 systematic justice processes, 266 Syrian Centre for Policy Research, 73 systematic war, 58, 77 Syrian Christians, 76 systemic inequity, 266 Syrian civil society, 266 Syrian Commission on Transitional Tal Abyad, 278 Justice, 255 Talabani, Jalal, 272, 273, 285 Syrian Democratic Forces (SDP), 50, Talkalakh, 75, 219 51, 86, 283 Talmanes, 68, 98, 99, 100

index 313

Tammo, Michel, 275, 276 truth commissions, 246, 247, 262, 263 tariff-free access, 207 truth-telling efforts, 262 Tartous, 151 Tunis, 167 technical assistance, 244, 266 protestors, 176 Tel Afar, 133, 135 rebelling people, 167 Tel Aviv, 182 Tunisia Thamir Al Sharee, 82 Arab Spring, 58 Day After Project, 256, 258, demonstrations, 289 263 Iranian-supported rebels, 178 Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria Turkey (KDP-S), 271, 272, 273, 275, armed forces, 165 276, 277 de-facto control, 297 last campaign of the South, Free Syrian Army, 85 180 Greater Kurdistan, 273 third state, 26, 204 international coalition, 34 Tishreen, 121 international dimension, 1 Tomahawk missiles, 72 intervention, 26 torture, 6, 82, 84, 88, 108, 109, 115, 121, Israel relations, 183 122, 123, 124, 134, 136, 138, 140, Kurdish cause, 270 146, 149, 151, 154, 155, 157, 160, Kurdish communities, 271 200, 218, 266, 287, 288 Kurdish movement for transitional governmental actors, 248 independence, 7 transitional justice, 3, 7, 139, 243, 244, Kurdish revolt, 270 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 254, military base, 48 255, 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 264, peace process, 52 265, 267, 296 PKK, 274 transitional justice options, 258, 266 refugee camps, 219 Transitional justice practitioners, Syrian refugees, 75, 202, 246 219 transitional justice priorities, 249 terrorism, 64 transitional justice programmes, 247 Turkey’s coastline, 221 transitional nongovernmental Turkish armed forces, 39 actors, 248 Turkish army, 284 transitional states, 251, 257, 262 Turkish government, 204, 274 transnational, 5, 13, 198, 214, 273, 285 Umayyad Caliphate, 167 transparency initiatives, 247 Umm-Hawsh, 101, 102 trauma ﬁrst aid, 260 UN charter, 13 Treaty Establishing the European UN Charter, Article 51, 13, 14 Community, 225 UN Commission of Inquiry, 71, 82, Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty 107, 145, 253 on European Union, 225 UN Convention on Conventional Treaty on the Functioning of the Weapons, 91 EU, 225 UN Economic and Social Council, Treaty on the Functioning of the EU 129 (TFEU), Article 78(1), 225 UN Fact-Finding Mission, 95, 96 Tremseh, 89 UN General Assembly, 87, 245, Trump, Donald, 72, 73, 192 253, 264

314 index

UN High Commissioner for Refugees military strikes, 104 (UNHCR), 2, 75, 76, 199, 202, 204, missiles, 14, 101 205, 207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 219, Russian agreement, 68 220, 237 Security Council resolution, 104 UN Human Rights Council, 33, 46, Somalian community, 214 82, 245 support for Israel, 178 UN International, Impartial and Syrian targets, 36 Independent Mechanism, 298 Trump administration, 24 UN Office of the High Commissioner use of force, 15 for Human Rights, 74, 118 YPG support, 52 United Nations Security Council Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNSC), 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, (UDHR), 223, 224 27, 28, 45, 53, 68, 70, 71, 85, 87, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 104, (UDHR), Article 14, 224 105, 106, 129, 244, 245, 251, universal evidentiary 264, 289 clearinghouse, 254 unequal allocation of resources, 247 Urum al-Kubra, 91 unified opposition, 265 US Congress, 97, 289 United Kingdom US Consul General in Istanbul, 94 Additional Protocol I, 36 US Holocaust Memorial Museum Armenians declaration, 110 (USHMM), , xvi, 108, 115 Free Syrian Army, 85 US House of Representatives, 263 international obligations, 36 US Institute of Peace, 256 Jordan Compact, 207 US Marshall Plan for Europe, 292 military strikes, 104 US Sixth Fleet, 72 prohibition of the use of force, 16, 17 US State Department, 253, 256 refuge, 180 US-Middle East Partnership Syrian targets, 36 Initiative, 256 United Nations USS Porter, 72 documentation of abuses, 245 USS Ross, 72 Syria stakeholder, 297 tribunal, 263 Venligboerne, 236 United Nations Disengagement vertical hierarchy, 31 Observer Force, 187 Vienna United Nations Relief and Works social coexistence, 234 Agency for Palestine Refugees, Violations Documentation Centre, 200, 211 84, 119 United States vulnerable communities, 215, 251 airstrike, 49 chemical weapons, 97 Wael Nader al-Halqi, 65 Free Syrian Army, 85 Wall Advisory Opinion, 14 Friends of the Syrian People, 263 war crimes, 3, 6, 33, 57, 107, 110, ground troops, 13 126, 140 international armed conflicts, 36 weanswer.ue, 236 international coalition, 16 Western civilisation, 291 international dimension, 1 White Helmets, 180 intervention, 15 White House, 94, 97, 289 ISIS, 54 World Bank, 207

index 315

World Health Organization, 95, 259 demonstrations, 289 World War I, 269 rebelling people, 167 World War II, 206, 217 revolution, 167 Yugoslavia Ya’alon, Moshe, 184 civil war, 129 Yarmouk River, 190 Yassin al-Haj Saleh, 215 Zahra, 92, 93 Yazidis, 3, 6, 51, 107, 108, 125, 126, 128, Zana, Nureddine, 271, 272 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, Zebra, 234 137, 138 Zeinab, 92 Yekiti, 275 Ziadeh, Radwan, 255 Yemen Zionist, 166, 182 Arab Spring, 58 Zoroastrianism, 131