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IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2

Academy of Sciences and Letters. The very idea of sending an expedition to Yemen saw the light of day in a speech at the Göttingen Academy delivered by Jo­ hann David Michaelis on the 10th of November 1753.2 Indeed in many ways the expedition was a Northern European project of the eighteenth-century enlighten­ ment with its principal intellectual influences coming from Göttingen, Copenhagen and Uppsala, its spon­ sorship from Frederik V, the King of Denmark-Nor- way 1746-1766, and its leadership and administration from his ministers of state, J.H.E. v. Bernstorff and A.G. v. Moltke. However, the conceptual birth of the idea of the expedition passed unnoticed in 2003. Nonetheless, in Denmark the year 2003 was sig­ nificant for the memory of Carsten Niebuhr and the Arabian Journey because it was during this year that the first complete Danish translation of Niebuhr’s famous account of the expedition, his three volume Reisebe­ schreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern came out as the first volume of a series of books in what is called Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket [the Carsten

Fig. i. Carsten Niebuhr. Painted 1773 in Copenhagen by Niebuhr Library], which by now comprises at least 23 unknown artist on the occasion of Nebuhr’s marriage in volumes concerning the Middle East and the Muslim September 1773 with Christiane Sophie Blumenberg. The world, including the first publication, in Danish, of portrait is private property and it is here reproduced with the diary of another member of the expedition, the permission from the owner. It was photographed for philologist F.C. von Haven.3 *Of course, even before Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket, Vol. 1 (Niebuhr 2003); the publishing house Vandkunsten has provided the image and mediated the permission to publish. 2. On that date Göttingen’s Akademie der Wissenschaften, which had been founded in 1751, celebrated its anniversary. Michaelis was the Academy’s first secretary; his post also involved al Studies, University of Copenhagen; Ph.D. Philippe editing and partly writing Academy publications, including Provencal, Natural History Museum Aarhus; Lead­ GöttingischeAnzeigen von gelehrten Sachen (Michaelis 1793, pp. 43- ing librarian and Head of the Oriental Department 44). In the issue of that journal from 17th November, 1753,139. Stig T. Rasmussen, the Royal Library, National Li­ Stück, pp. 1241-1244, Michaelis gave a summary of his speech and outlined what should be required of expeditions to the brary of Denmark and Copenhagen University Li­ Palestine and Arabia and what such expeditions could brary; Professor, Dr. phil. Jørgen Bæk Simonsen, and achieve. The proposal that such an expedition should be Professor, Dr. phil. Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen, both organised and financed from Denmark came only later. See at the Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional more about the background for the Arabian Journey in Lawrence Studies , University of Copenhagen. J. Baack’s paper in this volume and in Ulrich Hübner, If the Danish expedition had been as well known “Johann David Michaelis und die Arabien-Expedition”, in Wiesehöfer and Conermann (2002), pp. 363-402. A portrait of in Germany as it is in Denmark, the celebrations might J.D. Michaelis from 1761 is reproduced with the article by have been held a couple of years before the “cartoon Daniel Carey. crisis”, namely in the year 2003, and at the Academy of 3. The three major volumes by Niebuhr now translated into Sciences in Göttingen, rather than the Royal Danish Danish and available in the Carsten Niebuhr Library are:

8 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION

2003, Carsten Niebuhr and the Arabian Journey had been the subject of a range of publications, meetings and exhibitions. The first and very successful beginning of the re­ newed general interest in the Danish expedition to Arabia was marked by the publication in 1962 of Thorkild Hansen’s novel Det Lykkelige Arabien: En Dansk Ekspedition, 1761-67, almost exactly 200 years after the departure of the ship Groenland from Copenhagen.4 The novel, translated into a range of languages, in­ cluding Arabic, is a kind of written documentary fic­ tion and the book is, at least in Denmark and partly also in the English-speaking world, probably to a lesser degree in other language-areas, largely respon­ sible for the fact that a surprising number of people have heard about Carsten Niebuhr and the tragic death of the other members of the expedition. But Thorkild Hansen’s novel is also the source of much misinformation and the reason for the widely held misconception that the expedition was a complete and tragic failure - all its scientific collections lost, its Fig 2. Peter Forsskål. Portrait painted in 1760 by P. other scientific results forgotten and the many sacri­ Dahlman shortly before Forsskål left Sweden for Copen­ fices of its members made in vain. According to hagen and the Arabian Journey. The portrait is private Thorkild Hansen nothing was left to remind us about property and preserved at Salnecke Manor, Uppland, the Danish expedition to Arabia Felix, except for the Sweden. It was photographed for reproduction in Tankar troubling storyline of his book. om borgerligafnhelen - Thoughts on Civil Liberty (Forsskål 2009). Courtesy of the photographer, Julia Gyllenadler; the Fortunately Thorkild Hansen’s assessment, poetic image has been communicated by David Goldberg, license taken into consideration, has been recognized co-editor of Forsskål (2009). as not being accurate, and eventually his popularized presentation has been corrected. For example, Han­ sen probably got his first knowledge about the Royal the expedition, Peter Forsskål,5 about whom special­ Danish expedition by reading about the already pre­ ised publications, mainly about Forsskål’s botanical viously acknowledged scientific importance of the research, had been written in the first quarter of the still existing herbarium and work of the naturalist of twentieth century.6 And soon after Thorkild Hansen’s novel appeared Danish scholars from natural history,

Niebuhr (2003), Niebuhr (2004) and Niebuhr (2009). For the but also from the humanities, began objecting to published diary of F.C. von Haven, see Haven (2005). Hansen’s negative view of the expedition’s results 4. An English translation of Thorkild Hansen novel appeared and pointed out that although much had been lost, in 1964, entitled Arabia Felix: The Danish Expedition of1761-1767. there were still important collections from the expedi­ Many other translations followed: a German translation in tion in the main museums in Copenhagen, including 1965, an Arab translation in 1983, a French translation in 1988, the important natural history collections by Forsskål and a Dutch translation in 2005. For the titles of all these translations see Hansen (1962,1964,1965,1983,1988, 2005). Most translations seem to have appeared in several editions, 5- Fig- 2. and more translations in other languages may exist. 6. Christensen (1918; 1922); Schück (1923).

9 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 in Statens Naturhistoriske Museum [Natural History Mu­ plines of Egyptology, Assyriology and Near Eastern seum of Denmark],7 collections of archaeological and Archaeology. Then in 1992, the focus of the Institute ethnological objects made by Niebuhr in National­ was broadened to include linguistic scholars in Ara­ museet [National Museum of Denmark], books and bic, Persian, Turkish and Hebrew, and the name was manuscripts collected by von Haven in Det Kongelige changed to simply Carsten Niebuhr Instituttetfor Nærorien­ Bibliotek [Royal Library / Danish National Library],8 talske Studier [The Carsten Niebuhr Institute for Near documents in Rigsarkivet [the Danish State Archives]9 Eastern Studies].11 Then pioneering exhibitions were and in the Library of the Christian-Albrechts-Universitätzu held in Kiel and Copenhagen in 1986 and 1987, initi­ Kiel,10 as well as a wealth of valuable information and ated by Stig T. Rasmussen, Leading Librarian and unique perspectives in Niebuhr’s and Forsskål’s pub­ Head of the Oriental Department of Det Kongelige Bibli­ lications. otek, together with Dieter Lohmeier, then Director of Progressively the recognition of the expedition the Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek [State Library and appreciation of its cultural and scientific signifi­ of Schleswig-Holstein]. The exhibitions were accom­ cance grew. This was marked in a number of ways. For panied by a very useful exhibition catalogue,12 which example, Niebuhr’s singular contribution to learning was soon followed in 1990 by the publication of a was acknowledged in 1982 when the University of Co­ magnificent volume on the expedition in Danish, ed­ penhagen opened Carsten Niebuhr Instituttetfor Nærorien­ ited by StigT. Rasmussen - Den Arabiske Rejse 1761-1767. talske Oldtidskulturer [The Carsten Niebuhr Institute for En dansk ekspedition set i videnskabshistorisk perspektiv.13 Re­ Ancient Near Eastern Studies], combining the disci- printed in 1997, this book focussed on presenting the most important scholarly results of the expedition for 7. Mainly the Herbarium Forsskålii, which can be searched on a Danish-reading audience and was accompanied by http://plants.jstor.org/ with ‘CollectoriForsskål’. Duplicate beautifully reproduced illustrations from the expedi­ specimens of some of Forsskål’s plant collections are located tion. in the Botanical Museum of the University of Lund, the Herbarium of the Natural History Museum, London, and the In 1994, the English botanist F. Nigel Hepper of Herbarium of the Christian-Albrechts Universität zu Kiel the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, (Herbarium Universitatis Kiliensisj. Forsskål’s ‘fish herbarium’ is and his Danish colleague Ib Friis, published a book accessible on http://www.zmuc.dk/verweb/peter_forsskaal/ analysing the botanical results which Forsskål had peter_forsskaal.html. A number of other preparations of collected on the Arabian Journey, with an Introductory animals from the expedition are also preserved with the Essay. The book was published in English under the zoological collections of the Museum; unfortunately all bird­ skins from the expedition were lost before reaching Denmark. title The Plants of Pehr Forsskåls Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica.14 8. Examples of works that corrected Hansen’s presentation Subsequently Carsten Niebuhr, in a very broad con­ with regard to the results of Forsskål’s zoological studies on trie. Arabian Journey are e.g. Spärck (1963), Klausewitz and Nielsen (1965) and Wolff (1967). 11. The development has since gone further. In 2004 Carsten g. The main parts of documents from the Arabian Journey are Niebuhr Instituttet and all other institutes or departments at the found in Tyske Kancelli, Udenrigske Afdeling, Realia, Den Arabiske Rejse University of Copenhagen dealing with language, culture, I-III, 1736-70 (pakke3-003, 004 ogoof), Reviderede regnskaber, religion and society in the world outside the majority-cultures Videnskabelige Institutionerm.m., Kaptajn C. Niebuhrs rejse 1760-67 and of Western Europe and the Unites States of America merged Håndskriftsamlingen, XV. Speciel personalhistorie, Niebuhr-slagten (pakke to form InstitutforFvarkulturelle ogRegionale Studier (TbRS) [the 108). For other archival sources, see for example in Lawrence Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies], with the J. Baack’s paper in this volume. staff of the former Carsten Niebuhr Institute forming a section. 10. See digitized documents in Nachlass Carsten Niebuhr, 314.3. Zur 12. Rasmussen (1986). Reisebeschreibung gehörende Dokumente und Manuskriptfragmente sowie 13. Rasmussen (1990). The English translation of this title is Vorarbeiten zur Veröffentlichung derAifzeichnungen Forsskåls - http:// The ArabianJourney 1761-1767. A Danish expedition seen in perspective of dibiki.ub.uni-kiel.de/viewer/resolver?urn=urn:nbn:de:g the history of science, but a translation has never been published. bv:8:2-i6oo225 14. Hepper and Friis (1994).

10 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION text, was the subject of an interdisciplinary confer­ by the Scottish author and journalist Robert Heron, ence held in Eutin, Schleswig-Holstein in October published in 1792 in Edinburgh. This book, issued in 1999. The papers presented at the conference resulted two volumes, has often been reprinted and is now in a substantial volume of proceedings, published in freely available on the internet.18 2002 under the editorship of Josef Wiesehöfer and Heron’s corrupted translation and adaptation was Stephan Conermann as Carsten Niebuhr (1733-1815) und not a good beginning for the reputation of Niebuhr seine Zeit.15 Also Dieter Lohmeier published a series of and the Arabianjourney in the English-speaking world: significant, archivally based articles and essays on Heron almost certainly made his translation from one various aspects of the expedition in journals and of the shortened French translations that appeared in books published in Denmark and Germany.16 Finally, 1779 or 1780, not from the original German edition, symbolic of the heightened awareness of the impor­ and took great liberties in his rendering of Niebuhr’s tance of the expedition, 2009 saw the naming of a texts. The translation did not include all of Niebuhr’s newly established street in Copenhagen as the Carsten publications, only extracts from the first volume of Niebuhr Gade. It joins appropriately the much older the Reisebeschreibung, extracts from Beschreibung von Ara­ Bernstorffsgade, named for J.H.E. Bernstorff, the Dan­ bien, and the first pages of the second volume of the ish Minster of Foreign Affairs who together with Reisebeschreibung, ending the account with Niebuhr in Moltke, the Lord Chamberlain to Frederik V, played Bombay in 1764, three years before the end of the ex­ such a central role in the sponsorship and leadership pedition, and claiming, in Heron’s Preface, that Nie­ of the expedition. buhr only “remained in the East as soon ... till he However, nearly all of these activities have been could find a fit opportunity of returning safe into Eu­ meetings, exhibitions or publications using the Dan­ rope, with the collection of curiosities which was left ish or German languages. Comparatively little has in his hands.” Heron’s edition systematically elimi­ been written in English about Carsten Niebuhr and nated those passages which frequently distinguished the Arabian Journey in general, if we exclude the Eng­ Niebuhr and the Arabian Journey from other contempo­ lish translation of Thorkild Hansen’s novel and a few rary expeditions and travellers. To cite just one of specialist publications about the various academic many examples, Heron edited a passage from Nie­ fields covered by the expedition. For the English buhr’s text describing an experience in the Nile delta speaking world, the only readily accessible resources as follows. It reads: in that language remained two very old works. One is Near a village of the Delta, an honest peasant paid the biography, or rather really lengthy obituary, of great attention to my operations, as I was taking differ­ Carsten Niebuhr by his, for quite different reasons ent angles. To shew him something curious, I made very famous, son, the historian Barthold Georg Nie­ him look through the same glass. He was greatly buhr. It appeared in English translation in 1835 in a alarmed to see the village, to which he belonged, stand­ series of biographies of prominent people, but it at­ ing upside down. My servant told him, that Govern­ tracted little notice and seems to have served mainly ment were offended with that village, and had sent me as morally edifying reading for young people.17 More to destroy it. He instantly intreated me to wait but a importantly, an English translation of selected texts few moments, that he might have time to save his wife and his cow. He then ran in great haste towards his and with some redrawn illustrations from Niebuhr’s house; and I went again on board my boat.19 publications about the Arabian Journey was produced

15. Wiesehefer and Conermann (2002). 18. Niebuhr (1792). Digital facisimile edition by Google 16. Lohmeier (2008, 2010a, 2010b, 2011); Lohmeier and available on http://books.google.dk/ Rasmussen (2011). books?id=5P8vAAAAYAAJ 17. Niebuhr (1835). 19. Niebuhr (1792), p. 39.

II IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2

Here the translation stops, whereas Niebuhr contin­ tion to Arabia Felix are deficient and raise a variety of ues with the following contextual observation: issues. This symposium is an appropriate opportunity to One therefore should not be surprised that the Mus­ enhance understanding of the significance of Carsten lims get suspicious about such observations, since one also not too long ago has found enough Europeans Niebuhr and the Arabianjourney in the English speak­ who took everything, which they could not understand ing world. Real change in Anglophones’ view of immediately, for sorcery.20 Carsten Niebuhr and the Arabianjourney will surely come about with the appearance of Lawrence J. According to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Baack’s forthcoming book-sized study of the plan­ Heron was busy indeed when working on this abbre­ ning and carrying out of the Danish expedition and viated translation of Niebuhr.21 “Borne down by drink of its results and scientific importance. We are all and debt, he was thrown into prison by his creditors”, looking forward to this book to be entitled Undying but despite these difficulties, 1792 was, the Dictionary Curiosity: Carsten Niebuhr and the Royal Danish Expedition to continues, the best of his years with regard to his out­ Arabia, 1761-1767. Meanwhile, we hope that the present put of printed matter, since in addition to reformulat­ volume will provide a useful complement to Lawrence ing and translating Niebuhr’s publications, he also J. Baack’s book and throw a light on the expedition managed to publish a translation of Jacques Cazotte’s which is decidedly different from that of Heron’s pres­ Mille etunefadaises, Contes a dormir debout as simply Arabian entation of both Niebuhr and the Arabian Journey. The Tales. Then in addition he wrote a book called Elegant symposium has also been an opportunity to look at Extracts ofNatural History, a whole volume entitled Obser­ scientific expeditions in the second half of the 18th and vations Made in a journey through the Western Counties ofScot ­ first half of nineteenth century in general and place land in 1792 (still an account of interest according to the Arabian Journey in that wider context.22 the Dictionary), and at the same time worked on a The Arabianjourney had in fact a precursor: a Dan­ major study, namely his History of Scotland, which soon ish expedition to Egypt and Nubia, undertaken by came out in six volumes from 1794-1799. After making the Danish naval officer Frederik Ludvig Norden in progress on some of these projects he was freed from I737‘I73 8 - Although the results of this expedition were prison on the condition that two-thirds of his remu­ published in French, English and German in the neration for the books would go to his creditors. In eighteenth century, and, in 2010, in a magnificently short, there was not much time for great attention to produced Danish translation, this expedition is prob­ crafting a reliable, accurate translation of Niebuhr’s works. Moreover, in Heron’s English translation Nie­ 22. Also neglected aspects of the work of Peter Forsskål, his buhr’s illustrations did not fare any better than the publications on politics and civil liberty, are now subject to text, as we learn in this volume from Anne Haslund new awareness in the English speaking world and elsewhere. Hansen’s analysis of the illustrations in Niebuhr’s Be­ Already during his studies with Michaelis in Göttingen Forsskål was exceptionally outspoken in matters relating to schreibung von Arabien, the three volumes of the Reisebe­ politics and liberty (Michaelis 1793, pp. 64-66). Forsskål’s schreibung and Heron’s version. Thus both the quantity publication on civil liberty and the freedom of speech and quality of the sources in English on the expedi­ (Forsskål 1759) was banned in Sweden immediately after its publication; this ban was undoubtedly an important reason why Forsskål decided to accept the post as member of the 20. Niebuhr (1774), p. 50: ‘Man darf sich eben nicht sehr Arabianjourney. Forsskål’s original Swedish text was verwundern, dass die Mohammedaner über dergleichen republished in 2009, together with an English translation Beobachtungen argwöhnisch werden, da man nicht vor langer (Forsskål 2009) and translations into French, German, Zeit auch noch Europäer genug gefunden hat, die alles für Spanish, Italian, Greek, Turkish, Russian, Hebrew, Arabic and Zauberey hielten, was sie nicht gleich begreifen konnten.1 Chinese have been made available on the World Wide Web 21. Henderson (2004). (http://www.peterforsskal.com/thetext-ma.html).

12 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION ably even less known in the English-speaking world at Karnak, Luxor and Thebes, including the Memnon than the Arabian Journey.23 Norden’s expedition is not Colossi and the Ramesseum, as well as the temples at given a full treatment in any paper in this symposium, Philae. After changing boat at Aswan and the First and its achievements and relation to the Arabian Jour­ Cataract, the party continued up the Nile for about ney are therefore briefly summarised here. Initially 200 km, as far as the Nubian village of al-Dirr near the Norden’s voyage was not a scientific expedition. The Second Cataract. Hostility of the people along the Danish King Christian VI sent Norden to Egypt to­ river made further progress impossible, and the plan gether with a French count, Pierre Josef le Roux of reaching Abyssinia along the Blue Nile had to be d’Esneval and a small party. D’Esneval had convinced abandoned. In Nubia Norden was the first to make the King that commercial links between Denmark scholarly observations and to draw the ancient ruins. and Ethiopia (Abyssinia) would be profitable and Returned to Denmark, Norden was asked by Chris­ that such links could best be established by sending a tian VI to prepare his manuscripts and drawings from Danish mission along the Nile and the Blue Nile to the journey for publication. Norden began drafting the Abyssinian Emperor. Norden, who was a compe­ the text in French and found an artist to etch the tent draughtsman and had acquired a profound plates, but died in Paris in 1742 with the work unfin­ knowledge of art, architecture and ancient history ished. In 1746 Christian VI died and was succeeded by during travels in the Netherlands, France and Italy, Frederik V. The new King entrusted the Royal Danish was the official representative of the King on the ex­ Academy of Sciences and Letters, founded by Chris­ pedition. tian VI in 1742, to publish Norden’s work. This result­ The party landed at Alexandria, where Norden, ed in 1755 in two volumes in folio, Voyage d’Egypte et de like Niebuhr did later, drew and measured the Col­ Nubie, with 159 plates of Egyptian monuments, con­ umn of Pompey and the obelisk of Cleopatra. Near temporary topography and technology. Cairo, he also, like Niebuhr did later, studied and Norden’s meticulously executed drawings of drew the great pyramid complexes at Giza: the pyra­ Egyptian monuments won almost immediately ap­ mids of Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus, the Great proval, and the success of Norden’s voyage was un­ Sphinx and one of the smaller pyramids. The party doubtedly of importance for the Arabian Journey. The continued up the Nile by boat. In spite of difficulties liberality with which Christian VI had sponsored with getting ashore, Norden drew the old pyramids at Norden’s expedition to Egypt and how, afterwards, Meidum and Dashur, drew and mapped monuments Frederik V and the Royal Danish Academy of Scienc­ es and Letters had supported the publication of Nor­ 23. The first edition of Norden’s Voyage (Norden 1755) was in den’s work inspired Michaelis when he asked the large folio with 159 copper plates based on Norden’s own Danish government to support further studies in the drawings. A complete and commented translation into Orient. In a letter dated 20th of May, 1756,24 nearly a English with the original copper plates (Norden 1757) was year after the publication of Norden’s Voyage, Michae­ published shortly after. About 20 years later the English lis applied to the Danish minister, J.H.E. Bernstorff, edition was translated into German (Norden 1779), and about 40 years later an enlarged and commented French edition asking for support for two of his students, a certain (Norden 1795-1798) was published in quarto. Abbreviated Strøm from Norway and F.C. von Haven from Den­ versions with few or no plates have also been published (see mark, to allow them to study Arabic in preparation Lomholt i960, pp. 95-100). Several works analyze Norden’s for further travels to the Arab world. Michaelis ar­ voyage and travel account and drawings in considerable gued that knowledge of Arabic was essential for schol­ detail: Lomholt (i960,1961), Kjølsen (1965), Buhl, Dal & arly travellers in the East, and even Norden’s Voyage Hoick Colding (1986) and an introduction to a new Danish translation of Norden’s work (Norden 2010). Norden’s contained errors caused by Norden’s lack of proficien- original drawings from the journey were published and commented by Buhl (1993). 24. The letter is here cited from Christensen (1918), p. 2.

13 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 cy in that language. More letters were quickly ex­ That Norden’s Voyage was in some ways considered changed between Michaelis and Bernstorff, and by a model for the Arabian Journey is also notable in the the 3rd of August Michaelis had drafted preliminary writings by Niebuhr and von Haven about Egypt. instructions for a scholar to be sent to Arabia Felix.25 §5 Niebuhr mentions Norden’s observations rather fre­ of this preliminary instruction discussed Oriental quently in the parts of the Reisebeschreibung that dealt place names, which should be recorded with Arab with Egypt, and sometimes Niebuhr used Norden’s characters, as in Norden’s work. In §14 and 15 in the work as a standard for his own. Although Norden had same draft Michaelis pointed out how cheaply one provided a good drawing of the Column of Pompey could travel in the Orient and flattered the King: in Alexandria there were still doubts about its exact “How much did Norden’s voyage cost? What an ex­ height, and Niebuhr therefore made precise observa­ cellent present to science from the nation of Denmark. tions of this. Niebuhr pointed out that he made de­ I have read the reviews ... But I expect new and useful tailed maps of the Nile Delta because such a map was result from a voyage to Arabia Felix, and I expect these lacking in Norden’s work, but also stressed: “I do not results will undoubtedly exceed the result of that believe that any of the many visitors to Egypt has pro­ beautiful travel account [Norden’s Voyage]." The final duced as reliable maps of the country as P. Sicard28 Royal Instruction does not mention Norden, but it is and Captain Norden, and neither of these had the op­ highly likely that §10 - about how the travellers portunity to test their maps with astronomical obser­ should behave when dealing with the local popula­ vations.” Both Niebuhr and von Haven commented tion - is inspired by Norden’s experiences,26 for exam­ positively on the reliability of Norden’s drawings and ple that travellers should follow local tradition with maps of ancient monuments and contemporary Egyp­ regard to clothing, avoid all quarrels with Arab and tian topography.29 Turkish men and any amorous approaches to Arab Norden’s main achievements are his insightful ob­ women.27 In §29 of the final Royal Instruction Nie­ servations and drawings of ancient Egyptian monu­ buhr is, as in Michaelis’s first draft, requested to re­ ments and contemporary towns and his carefully cord Oriental place names with Arab characters. done sketch maps of the Nile from Cairo to al-Dirr, represented on 29 partial maps with indication of all 25. The letter is reprinted in Michaelis (1794-1796), no. 82. villages and ancient ruins he saw, as well as two over­ 26. See Paul John Frandsen’s introduction to Norden (2010), view maps. Niebuhr did not specifically mention Nor­ p. XLIV. Norden’s advice to future travelers can be found in den’s drawings of water-lifting implements, boats, Norden (1755), pp. 39-44. 27. The idea that European travellers should avoid offence by sophisticated incubators for eggs and other agricul­ wearing local style clothes and behave in agreement with the tural machinery, but also Niebuhr’s Reisebeschreibung local norms became well established the 19th century. Like contains detailed studies of such technologies, most Niebuhr, who sometimes travelled under the names of likely inspired by Norden. Unlike the archaeological Kawådja Abdallah or Abdallah Aqa, the Swiss Orientalist and topographic observations, Norden’s observations Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (1784-1817) adopted the identity of on natural history were restricted and not in any way Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah and travelled 1809-1817 in Syria, Egypt, Nubia and Arabia (Hallett 1965, pp. 366-378). The comparable with Forsskål’s research during the Arabi­ British explorer Richard Burton (1821-1890) in 1853, familiar an Journey. Norden identified the ibis of classical au­ with the customs and behaviour of Muslims and dressed like a thors with the bird he called “Pharaoh’s Chicken.”30 Muslim pilgrim, made the first hajj to Mecca known to have been completed by a European (Burton 1855-1856). But in the 18th century the considerate and careful approach of Niebuhr 28. Pére Claude Siccard (1677-1726), a French Jesuit who lived and Forsskål in their encounters with local people was new or and travelled in Egypt from 1712 to his death. at least not common, and Niebuhr and Forsskål’s methods in 29. See for example Niebuhr (1774), pp. 48, 60, 70, 99,115 and acquiring local knowledge seem to mark a new departure for 124; Haven (2005), pp. 236-237, 258, 282,306,310 and 311. the study of foreign cultures and their interaction with nature. 30. On Plate 33and in the text it is also called ‘Poulle de

14 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 3. Frontispiece for F.L. Norden’s Voyage d ’Egypte et de Nubie, published 1755 by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. The frontispiece was designed and etched after Norden’s death by Marcus Tuscher under the auspices of members of the Academy. Repro­ duced from a copy in the possession of the Academy.

T5 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2

Fig. 4. Title vignette of Carsten Niebuhr’s Beschreibung vonArabien (Niebuhr 1772), reused for the two volumes of his Resebeschreibung (Niebuhr 1774-1778) that appeared during his lifetime. The signatures (not reproduced here) include the initials of the designer, ‘T.W. inv.”, which must stand for the sculptor Johannes Wiedewelt, while “I. F. Clemens Sculp.” shows that the etching was done by the engraver Johan Frederik Clemens. From the title page of the first volume of Resebeschreibung, as rendered in Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket, Vol. 1 (Niebuhr 2003).

He drew a praying mantis (Miomantis sp.) and an uni­ age?1 with the title vignette of Niebuhr’s publications.* 32 dentifiable mosquito (both in Plate 32), a number of The frontispiece in Norden’s Voyage is a grand em­ cultivated plants (a banana and a cypress in Plate 33, blematic representation of Egyptian antiquities with the ornamental tree Cassafistula from India in Plate 54, references to antique mythology and classical authors: the sycamore-fig (Ficus sycomorus) in Plate 38) and a na­ Danish scholarship is personified by the central fig­ tive plant from Nubia, called oschar (Calotropisprocera) ure, Pallas Athene, carrying a staff with the Greek let­ in Plate 59. Forsskål’s publications from the Arabian ters XP (for Christ) instead of her spear. Standing Journey do not mention Norden’s observations of under the winged goddess Fama, wearing a regal er­ Egyptian fauna and flora. mine-lined cloak and with a male lion holding the Differences between Norden’s Voyage and Nie­ Danish coat of arms, she points towards Egyptian an- buhr’s and Forsskål’s publications can be illustrated by a comparison of the frontispiece of Norden’s Voy­ 31- Fig- 3- 32. Fig. 4.

16 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION tiquities and a woman, who is a personification of an­ Niebuhr’s smaller title vignette35 is also emblem­ cient Egypt. Some of the antiquities are derived from atic, but quite unpretentious in comparison with the Norden’s drawings, such as the Canopic jar from frontispiece for Norden’s Voyage. The two women in Plate 55 and, in the remote background, the Memnon Niebuhr’s vignette impersonate scholarly activities, Colossi from Norden’s Plate no. In the foreground but do not agree with any of the classical nine Muses. rests a man, personification of the Nile, with an oar or The woman to the left does not hold a celestial globe, a rudder. The representations of animals refer to clas­ the usual attribute of Urania, Muse for Astronomy, sical legends about Egypt. The bird eating a snake in but a ruler and a compass used for measuring a dis­ the foreground is an ibis; according Herodotus’ Histo­ tance on a globe representing the Earth. On the globe ries (Book 2, Chapter 75) the ibis is a useful bird that one can see the Arabian Peninsula and the word Tim. eats snakes, particularly winged snakes that come fly­ The woman to the right holds what seems to be a tel­ ing to Egypt from Arabia. The biological fact is that escope and has a crown of stars; apparently she repre­ all species of ibis have long, down-curved bills used sents astronomical observations. The title vignette is a for feeding on crustaceans and insect larvae in mud simple, decorative element in the book; it has classical or shallow water. The bird in front of the crocodile in allusions, but refers only to scientific observations on the foreground represents a “trochilus”, a legendary the Arabian Journey. There are only 17 years between the Egyptian bird, which, according to Herodotus {Histo­ publication of Norden’s Voyage and Niebuhr’s first ries, Book 2, Chapter 68), is supposed to fly into the book about the Arabian Journey. Although the Danish mouth of a crocodile and feed on scraps of food and Academy and Niebuhr had unequal financial capaci­ leeches. This legend has later been associated with the ty, yet the difference between the publications result­ Egyptian plover (Pluvianus aegyptius), a bird sometimes ing from the two important Danish expeditions to the seen near crocodiles on river banks, but the story Orient seems also to demonstrate a striking change in about birds cleaning the mouth of crocodiles is now attitudes to scholarship over short time. considered legendary. The representations of Egyp­ As intended, the proceedings in this volume cover tian plants are more realistic, apart from the date a wide array of topics, ranging geographically from palms to the left in the frontispiece, the fruits of which Siberia via the Middle East and the Red Sea to Ha­ look more like coconuts than dates. Behind the obe­ waii, and chronologically from the longue durée of apo- lisk one sees the leaves of a banana, and the plant in demics (i.e. instructions about or manuals in the art front of the ibis is the oschar (Calotropisprocera) of Plate and science of travelling) and the scientific instruc­ 59.33 It is as if the designer of the frontispiece has tions from the late sixteenth century onwards to some wanted to make up for the scanty observations on of the last polyhistors travelling in Arabia and Abyssin­ natural history by adding references to anecdotes ia, keenly interested in natural history, archaeology from Herodotus. Norden’s text does not contain and old manuscripts. Neither the symposium, nor these legendary references; the frontispiece was de­ these proceedings contain comprehensive treatments signed and etched by the German artist Marcus of all parts of he Arabian Journey, let alone touch upon Tuscher under instruction of members of the Danish a majority of early scientific expeditions between 1750 Academy.34 * and 1850. Some readers may miss treatments of Carsten Niebuhr’s studies in India, his observations 33. This wild plant was already observed by Prospero Alpini, on his long journey home through the countries that who saw it near Alexandria and illustrated it as Beidelsar (Alpini 1592, Plate 86). 34. Lomholt (i960), pp. 75-97,100, describes how production during the years 1747-1757- See also Lomholt (i960), pp. 85-87 of copper plates, printing and publication of Norden’s Voyage, and Paul Johan Frandsen’s introduction to Norden (2010), pp. and subsequently sale of the copper plates to English XLIV-XLVI. publishers, was discussed in plenary meetings of the Academy 35- Fig- 4-

T7 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 are now Oman, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Cyprus, Palestine, tion focussed on the northern Pacific where, in Janu­ Turkey and Eastern Europe or a discussion of his care­ ary 1778, the expedition came to the Hawaiian Islands, ful studies of the cuneiform writing in the ruins of hitherto not marked on European maps,39 and made Persepolis. However, systematic evaluations of Nie­ the first contacts with the Hawaiians. From Hawaii buhr’s observations in all parts of the Arabian Journey the expedition continued as far north as 70° 30’ N in have been published previously in the proceedings by present-day Alaska and thereby crossed the route fol­ Wiesehöfer and Conermann from the Eutin symposi­ lowed in 1841 by Bering.40 During a second visit to um in 1999.36 Hawaii in February 1779 violent conflicts broke out Also missing in these proceedings are treatments between members of the expedition and local inhabit­ of many other important expeditions in the period ant and Cook was killed in a confrontation at 1750-1850. The great British and French naval expedi­ Kealakekua Bay on the west coast of Hawaii.41 Other tions to the Pacific are only marginally touched upon important naval expeditions went to the western coast here: the French global circumnavigation in 1766- of North America and the Arctic during this period, 1769, led by Louis Antoine de Bougainville, and the including the expedition lead by Gorge Vancouver in three circumnavigations lead by James Cook, in 1768- the years 1791-1795. It was again a global circumnavi­ 1771, in 1772-1775 and in 1776-1779. These expeditions gation, but the main task was to continue Cook’s ex­ combined mapping of uncharted land and islands in ploration of western coast of North America. British the Pacific with a variety of other observations and sci­ expeditions in 1818 and 1829-1833, lead by William entific studies, and they involved encounters with Edward Parry and John Ross, went to Baffin Bay, be­ people that had never met Europeans before. Cook’s tween Greenland and Canada, and continued along first expedition observed a passage of Venus from Ta­ the northern coast of North America, hoping to find a hiti and explored the coasts of New Zealand and the connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific eastern coast of Australia.37 Cook’s second expedition Oceans. In 1818 John Ross made the first contact with explored the southern part of the Pacific via visits to Tahiti and New Zealand, continuing southwards until interactions between expedition members and local popu­ the expedition nearly touched Antarctica at 70° 10’ S, lation are not found in the illustrations from the Arabianjoumey, followed by landing on hitherto unknown islands in where members of the expedition are observers, as shown in the western Pacific, including the New Hebrides (now the illustration Kriegsübungen der Araberin Temen (Fig. 2 in Anne Haslund Hansen’s article). A drawing in pen and watercolours Vanuatu) and New Caledonia.38 *Cook’s third expedi­ by John Webber, artist on Cook’s third expedition, is entitled A Human Sacrifice at Otaheiti [Tahiti] and shows the ceremony at 36. In Wiesehöfer and Conermann (2002): Egypt (Lucian Attahouroo [Utuaimahurau] on the i!t of September, 1777, after Reinfandt, pp. 105-120), Sinai (Detlev Kraack, pp. 121-154), the sacrificed man has been killed. (British Library Add.Ms Yemen (Friedheim Hartwig, pp. 155-202), Indian antiquities I55I3f-I6)- Cook and one of his officers are witnesses, as are the (Martin Brandtner, 203-266), contemporary Iran (Birgit three members of the Danish expedition in Kriegsübungen. Hoffmann, 287-300), Constantinople and the Ottoman 39. Fig. 5 shows a map of the world that was widely circulating Empire (Gottfried Hagen, pp. 301-324). at that time (Prinald 1766). The map reflects the knowledge of 37. The literature on the 18th century Pacific voyages is the world by the middle of the 18th century, including the parts enormous and includes much that does not represent of the Aleutian Islands (“Land discovered in 1741”) and the scholarly research. Recent overviews of Cook’s expeditions are part of Alaska (“Discovered in 1741”) that were discovered Rigby and Merwe (2002) and Thomas (2003). during Bering’s second expedition. The Hawaiian Islands are 38. An illustration from Cook’s second expedition by the artist not indicated; they were, as mentioned, discovered by Captain William Hodge, The Landingat Erramanga, one of the New Hebrides, Cook only in 1778. has been reproduced as Fig. 12 in Anne Haslund Hansen’s 40. See paper by Peter Ulf Møller in this volume. article in this volume. Members of Cook’s expedition escape 41. Liebersohn’s article in this volume illustrates the by boat from a party of local inhabitants on the shore of the development only 40-50 years after the first meeting between island of Erromango, now part of Vanuatu. Such dramatic the Hawaiian population and Cook’s expedition.

18 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 5. Prinald’s map of the world from 1766: A New Map ojthe World, on Mercators Projection. Engraved by the King’s authority for the New Geographical Dictionary (Prinald 1766). Hand coloured version; original size 18 x 27 cm. A digital image of this version of Prinald’s map was provided by the owner, the Special Collections of the University of Texas at Arlington Library, Arlington, Texas, and it is reproduced here with permission [00387, 126/10].

the extremely isolated Polar Eskimos, the Inughuit, at land, like the Arabian Journey, for example Meriwether Cape York on the north-west coast of Greenland. Lewis and William Clark’s expedition across the At the beginning of the period dealt with here the North American continent in 1804-1806, or Alexander main coastlines of the continents had become quite von Humboldt’s extensive travels and scientific ob­ well known, with the exception of the coasts and is­ servations in South America during the years 1799- lands of the Pacific and the Polar regions that were the 1804. Gradually the focus of exploration changed subject of Bougainville’s, Cook’s, Vancouver’s, Par­ from sea voyages aimed at discovering new routes of ry’s and Ross’ naval expeditions. Yet the academic navigation or trade, new islands, or indeed new conti­ knowledge remained limited about the natural histo­ nents, to travels into the interior of continents. Travel ry and the detailed geography of the interior of conti­ over land meant that the travellers had more frequent nents other than Europe, as well as the scholarly un­ and sustained encounters with local populations and derstanding of foreign cultures, both ancient and other travellers. contemporary. After the beginning of the nineteenth In the first planning stages the symposium had a century major expeditions went increasingly over slightly different working title, Local encounters and reli­

T9 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 gious reflections in Early Scientific Expeditions. The subse­ expeditions: the fact that the duration of the famous quent title of the symposium, World Views and Local En­ sea voyages in the North Pacific Ocean was much counters™ Early Scientific Expeditions 1750-1850, indicated a shorter than the time spent in transit through Siberia wish to bring together a number of scholars to look at and on preparations for the sailing. The sea voyages early scientific expeditions in a wider perspective, re­ could begin only when vessels had been built on the ligious and secular. However, as the planning of the eastern coast of Siberia. The paper gives special atten­ symposium and the proceedings progressed the Com­ tion to the relations between the expedition members, mittee realised that focussing more on Niebuhr and local Russians in Siberia, and the indigenous local the Arabian Journey would be necessary, and the title of population. the proceedings has therefore finally become: Early Lawrence J. Baack’s contribution analyses how the Scientific Expeditions and Local Encounters - New Perspectives on Arabianjourney was transformed from the initial strong Carsten Niebuhr andlhe Arabian Journey. A majority of the focus on biblical philology to an emphasis on the nat­ papers in this volume have focus on the Arabian Journey ural sciences, cartography, cultural geography, epig­ and other expeditions to the area around the Red Sea. raphy and archaeology: This shift took place in paral­ The sequence of the papers mainly reflects the chro­ lel with a change of the expedition from being an nology of the expeditions. essentially Euro-centric project to a project with inter­ Daniel Carey’s contribution sets the work of Nie­ est in the sciences and the Middle East in their own buhr and Forsskål in a longdurée of attempts, from the right. The personalities of the three principal investi­ late sixteenth to the eighteenth century, to organize gators had a major part in this change, and the paper scientific travel and expeditions in order to promote explores the roles played by the participants, the con­ and regulate observation, and to make travelling trasting character of their encounters with Middle more scientifically productive by formulating ques­ Eastern peoples and cultures, and the varied robust­ tions to be addressed during the travels. Over this ness of the disciplines they pursued in the field. Thus same period an extensive literature of instruction and the priorities and practices of the expedition changed advice also appeared, beginning in the sixteenth cen­ as the expedition proceeded through the countries of tury with the Humanist intervention to reform travel the Middle East, and more and more of its members in the 1570s, together with the instructions issued by died. trading companies for a variety of voyages. These ef­ Jonathan M. Hess summarizes in his contribution forts took on a new impetus under the auspices of the the previous research about Johann David Michaelis, Royal Society in the 1660s as it formulated inquiries who promoted the Arabianjourney to provide secular for different countries and supplied more general ad­ knowledge about the natural world and culture of the vice on what to observe for travellers and mariners. Near East to bear on understanding of the Scriptures. Viewed from this perspective, the extensive guidelines The paper reviews Michaelis’s vision of Oriental and questions devised by Johann David Michaelis scholarship, his interventions in the debates on Jew­ and his colleagues for the Arabianjourney represent the ish emancipation and the anti-Semitism that Michae­ culmination and synthesis of long standing attempts lis expressed in this context. The new results in the to make travel productive of new knowledge. paper involve analyses of the motivations beyond Peter Ulf Moller’s contribution makes the com­ Michaelis’s interventions in the debate over Jewish parison between Vitus Bering’s Russian Kamchatka emancipation and the specific role of the Niebuhr-ex- Expeditions (1725-30 and 1733-43) and the Arabian Jour­ pedition in this context. It is shown how the relation­ ney, attempting to identify some similarities, but also ship between Michaelis and Niebuhr can throw light to set off the uniqueness of the two Russian expedi­ on the relationship between Judaism, Christianity tions. The title of the paper, LongTransitto the Unknown, and a modern European political order. The goal of points to characteristic features of the two Russian this exercise is not to locate in Michaelis a kind of

20 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION nineteenth-century scientific racism, but to show that detailed instructions written by Michaelis. Thus free the relationship between Michaelis and Niebuhr ena­ to follow his own interests in Egypt, Niebuhr was able bles us to reconstruct how knowledge of the ancient to approach the country with an open mind and in so Near East could become political in an eighteenth doing made early contributions to Egyptology, century concept and how this is reflected in later peri­ mapped Cairo and the Nile Delta and left a detailed ods. account of many characteristic features of the coun­ Michael Harbsmeier’s contribution looks at Nie­ try. The paper points out that Egypt for many previ­ buhr’s method in doing field work from three differ­ ous scholarly visitors had been little more than the ent angels of comparison: the originality of Niebuhr’s great drama of Israel in Egypt, an important part of approach is established by comparison with some of the Old Testament. Niebuhr looked at Egypt with an his predecessors. Niebuhr’s own understanding of his open mind and saw an age-old civilization with a method is illustrated by his critical portrayal of other much longer and richer history than the Biblical story. travellers which he met in the field. Finally the paper Niebuhr’s interest in Egyptian antiquities, not least analyses how later scholars have praised and evaluat­ the hieroglyphs, made an outstanding contribution to ed Niebuhr’s contributions to scholarship. These the nascent discipline of Egyptology.42 analyses conclude with a discussion of how the role of Michel-Pierre Detalle and Renaud Detalle review fieldwork has been underestimated and even silenced Carsten Niebuhr’s relations with the French Académie in many histories of scholarship and science. des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres to which he in 1768 sent a Philippe Provencal’s contribution discusses the memorandum with his responses to questions submit­ gathering of local names and designations for plants ted to the Danish expedition to Arabia by the French and animals by Peter Forsskål, the appointed natural­ Academy. Due to subsequent theft of the document it ist of the Danish expedition. It concludes that For- was forgotten until the authors rediscovered it in the sskål’s notes represent a pioneer work of considerable French Bibliothéque nationale in 2001. Some of the con­ academic value. The philological difficulties, meth­ tents of the memorandum are described together with ods and implications of Forsskål’s material are dis­ cussed. During field work involving the gathering of 42. The editors fully agree with this very positive evaluation of local names, the researcher may encounter a number Niebuhr’s contribution to the early phases of Egyptology, not of difficulties. These include both doubts about the least Niebuhr understanding of the significance of the hieroglyphs before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by identity of the species in question and linguistic im­ Napoleon’s scholars in 1799 and the importance of precision. The researcher may be unable to differenti­ representing them correctly, as he later also did with the ate or recognise the different linguistic features of the cuneiform script in Persepolis. Yet, is seems relevant here to provided names or designations, or may not be able point out a few other pioneers of scientific Egyptology, to understand precisely what the informant means. notably Benoit de Maillet, who was French consul in Cairo Even when the spelling of the collected species name 1693-1720 and provided material for Description del’Egypte, a large volume touching upon many aspects of ancient and is controlled by the informant, spelling mistakes may contemporary Egypt, thoroughly, but poorly edited by the occur. These difficulties are illustrated through six ex­ abbot Jean Baptiste Le Maserier, whom Mallet used to edit his amples, gathered from Forsskål’s philological materi­ texts (Maillet 1735), the French Jesuit Claude Siccard, who al and Provencal’s own field research along the Red lived and travelled widely in Egypt 1712-1726 and produced the Sea. earliest known map of the country, the above mentioned Roger Guichard points out that the long stay of Frederik Louis Norden, Danish traveller and careful observer of ancient Egyptian monuments in Egypt and Nubia 1737-1738 the scholars of the Arabian Journey in Egypt was un­ (Norden 1755), and Richard Pococke, English prelate who planned and many academic tasks which the mem­ travelled widely in the Middle East 1737-1741 and wrote an bers of the expedition managed to carry out there account of his visit to Egypt, including a journey up the Nile were not mentioned in the otherwise painstakingly as far as Philae at the same time as Norden’s (Pococke 1743).

21 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 the circumstances associated with its reception, nearly Ib Friis’ contribution calls attention to the con­ coinciding with a visit by King Christian VII to the trast between the Muslim Yemen on the Arabian Pen­ French Academy. insula and the Christian highlands of Abyssinia in Anne Haslund Hansen’s contribution analyses the Africa on the other side of the Red Sea. He compares characteristics of the visual documentation from the three travellers in Abyssinia during the second half of Arabianfourney and the published illustrations in Nie­ the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth century. buhr’s own publications, the Beschreibung von Arabien The eccentric Scottish laird, James Bruce, made out and the Reisebeschreibung, with regard to motifs and dis­ of curiosity and to win a name observations of Abys­ tribution of the plates within the published works. sinian geography, culture and natural history on his She demonstrates that the total assembly of published travels in 1768-1772. The English artist Henry Salt, sec­ images does not correspond with the Royal instruc­ retary to a British peer of the realm, visited Abyssinia tions. The early death of the expedition’s draughts­ in 1805 and 1809-1810, making scholarly observations man meant that Niebuhr had to take over as the artist while on missions to establish diplomatic links be­ of the expedition, a task he was capable of doing, at tween Abyssinia and Britain. Eduard Rüppell, Ger­ least to some extent, but not trained for. However, man naturalist traveller, collected specimens of natu­ changes to the initial plans also occurred because new ral history and artefacts in the Abyssinian highlands opportunities presented themselves during the expe­ in 1832-1833 for the Senckenbergische Naturforschende Ge­ dition. She also analyses to what extent the illustra­ sellschaft in Frankfurt am Main. All three travellers tions agree with the presupposed ideas of the period interacted with local people from many strata in Ab­ about illustrations of travelogues in general and pre­ yssinian society, from the ruling classes to traders, sol­ supposed ideas of the Orient in particular. diers and peasants; they followed approximately Catharina Raudvere’s contribution analyses the identical routes and collected approximately the same works of the Swedish travelling scholar Jacob Jonas information and the same kinds of objects. They all Björnstähl (1731-1779) who started his more than wrote travelogues for the general reader, and the later twelve-year long journey as a tutor to two young aris­ travellers commented on their predecessors. Yet their tocrats on their Grand Tour. Björnstähl continued attitudes to country and people were notably differ­ alone to Constantinople and never returned. His let­ ent. Although all three had positive ideas about the ters from the long journey were published in Stock­ Abyssinian civilisation, only Salt and Rüppell had po­ holm continuously during the journey (and after­ litical visions for its future. wards in six volumes), skilfully presenting his Charles W. J. Withers examines the travel writings observations in a popular form that partly financed of the British Arabian traveller and hydrographer his travels. From Constantinople he reported on lin­ James Wellsted, notably his two volumes of Travels in guistic, ethnographic and topographic observations Arabia (1838). Wellsted’s Arabian land-travels were un­ and on the religious diversity. His comparative meth­ dertaken between 1829 and 1837 as part of coastal od is a result of his background in the Linnaean envi­ navigation work and provided important informa­ ronment at Uppsala University, but is also a strategy tion, especially about pre-Islamic epigraphy and ar­ to reach his audience of armchair travellers. The pa­ chaeology, and about the economy and cultures of the per examines Björnstähl’s texts as a continuation of Arabian peoples. Wellsted’s expertise was endorsed earlier Swedish interests in the Orient and pioneer by the presentation of his work to the Royal Geo­ work with a more systematic academic approach to graphical Society, but his reputation was mediated by the languages and culture of the Muslim world. Both his publisher, John Murray, who, for reasons of audi­ the Danish expedition to Arabia Felix and Björnstähl’s ence interest, published the findings of Wellsted’s stay in Constantinople provided material for future land travel as volume one of the Travels in Arabia and Scandinavian research in the Middle East. the scientific coastal work in volume two. By re-order-

22 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION ing Wellsted’s narrative, Murray materially altered the relation between religion and the Linnaean travel the chronology and purpose of Wellsted’s work. In project). Dieter Lohmeier, former Director of the assessing the “truth” of travel narratives, we need to Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek (Regional Library pay attention to the history of the books themselves of Schleswig-Holstein) in Kiel (on a newly found and the role of publishers in creating audience de­ Stammbuch, also known as an Album Amicorum, which mand for travel narratives. Niebuhr brought with him on his travels and in which Harry Liebersohn’s paper deals with a subject far he collected autographed greetings from people he from the Middle East, but certainly germane to analy­ met on the Arabian Journeyf3 and Neil Safier, Associate sis of encounters between European and local culture. Professor of history at the University of British Co­ Liebersohn describes and discusses the meeting in lumbia, Vancouver, Canada (on observing and col­ Hawaii in the i82oes between American Protestant lecting during a Luso-Brazilian Philosophical Voyage missionaries and the well developed indigenous Ha­ to Amazonia in 1783-1792). waiian culture which had integrated traditional social A conclusion drawn by several of the papers in this structure and religion with an elaborate tradition for symposium is that, in spite of careful preparations, singing and dancing, the hula. Lieberson points out elaborate apodemics and detailed instructions given to the contrast between traditional Hawaiian culture the travellers, many of the most surprising, innovat­ and the puritanism of the American missionaries, ing or lasting results of the expeditions were achieved illustrated by William Ellis’s Narrative of a Tour either due to casual events or in cases where the travel­ Through Hawaii, or, Owhyhee (1826). Ellis gave a gener­ lers, not least Niebuhr, did not strictly follow the re­ ally sympathetic description of Aw/a-performances, search plans outlined for them, but, stimulated by while other missionaries referred to it as an evil open-mindedness to other cultures, improvised and Hawaiian practice. Later, the hymns of the mis­ grasped unpredicted opportunities for research that sions blended perfectly with traditional Hawaiian offered themselves during the journey. Both careful music to form a unique and lively Hawaiian musi­ planning and extensive flexibility have been major cal tradition that has survived until today. reasons for the success of the Arabian Journey. A final paper by Ib Friis has analysed a subject We are now ready to turn to the sequence of print­ raised in discussions during and after the symposium: ed contributions, but before doing so it remains for how valid is Carsten Niebuhr’s published and unpub­ the Organising and Editorial Committees gratefully lished criticism of James Bruce’s Travels? After the to thank all that have helped with the symposium and publication of Bruce’s Travels in 1790, Carsten Nie­ bringing this volume together. We are most obliged to buhr was one of the first to discuss on a scientific basis Her Majesty Queen Margrethe II and Prince Henrik’s the objectivity of Bruce’s reports from his voyages in Foundation for a grant in support of the symposium. Egypt and on the Red Sea, a debate which later in­ We are much indebted to the Royal Danish Academy volved other travellers dealt with at the symposium, of Sciences and Letters for housing us in their splen­ including George Annesley, Henry Salt and James did rooms, supporting practicalities of the symposium Wellsted. Written in German, Niebuhr’s contribution with a grant from the Aksel Touborg-Jensen Founda­ to this debate has been overlooked in the literature in tion, and for publishing these proceedings in a fitting English on Bruce’s travels. way. We are also much indebted to the Department of Apart from the papers represented by contribu­ Cross Cultural and Regional Studies of the University tions to this volume, the participants in the symposi­ um also had the privilege of hearing presentations 43. See also Lohmeier and Rasmussen (2010). Carsten from: Sverker Sörlin, Professor of environmental his­ Niebuhr’s Stammbuch is now accessible in a digital facsimile on: tory at KTH - the Royal Institute of Technology - in http://www.kb.dk/da/nb/materialer/haandskrifter/HA/e-mss/ Stockholm, Sweden (about Lutheran cameralism and acc-2010_20.html

23 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 of Copenhagen and its then head, Ingolf Thuesen, for Forsskål, Peter. 1759. Fankaromborgerligarfriheten. Stockholm: help with organising and funding our symposium. We Lars Salvius. wish to thank Ph.D. Brian Arly Jacobsen, the Depart­ Forsskål, Peter. 2009. Fankar omborgerligarfriheten/Thoughts on Civil Liberty. [Edited and translated by David Gold­ ment of Cross Cultural and Regional Studies, for his berg, Gunilla Jonsson, Helena Jåderblom, Gunnar energetic and competent work with the organisation Persson and Thomas von Vegesack, assisted by David of the symposium, taking care of the grants and the Shaw.] Stockholm: Bokförlaget Atlantis. programme, having contact with the invited speakers Hallett, Robin. 1965. The Penetration orfAfrica. European and managing the early phases of the work with the Enterprises and Exploration Principally in Northern and Western proceedings. Lawrence J. Baack has kindly advised on Arfricaupto 1830. Vol. 1 - to 1815. London: Routledge a number of points and read and commented on sev­ and Kegan Paul. eral of the manuscripts. Two anonymous referees are Hansen, Thorkild. 1962. Det lykkelige Arabien - en dansk ekspedition 1761-1767. Copenhagen: Gyldendal. thanked for their willingness to read and comment Hansen, Thorkild. 1964. Arabia Felix. The Danish expedition positively and constructively on the manuscripts. And 1761-1767. Translated by Kathleen McFarlane. New last of all we wish to express our gratitude to all the York and Evanston: Harper and Row. participants in the symposium for having accepted Hansen, Thorkild. 1965. Reise nach Arabien: die Geschichte der our invitation to come to Copenhagen to take part in Königlich Dänischen Jemen-Expedition, 1761 -1767. Ham­ the presentations and discussions and for contributing burg: Hoffmann und Campe. their papers to this volume of proceedings. Hansen, Thorkild. 1983. MinKübinhadjin ‘ilaSan'ä’. Qissa al-Baatha al-Danmärkiyya al- Tlmiyya allati djäma’biha al- Allama al-ShahirNiebuhrma'a arba‘dt ulamä’ urübbiyyina References ttäbilädal-Famanbaynaämmay 1761-1767. Bayrüt: Där al-‘Awdah. [English translation: From Copenhagen to Alpini, Prospero. 1592. De plantis aegyptis liber. Venezia: Sana’. The story of the Danish scientific mission to Franciscus de Franciscis Senensem. Yemen in which the erudite and famous Niebuhr took Buhl, Marie-Louise. 1993. Les dessins archéologiques et part together with four European learned men in the lopographuiu.es de l’ Egypten anaennejaits par F.L. Norden years 1761-1767]. T737'T73^’ conserves a l’Academie Royale des Sciences et des Hansen, Thorkild. 1988. Lamort en Arabie - une expedition Lettres de Danemark. Copenhague: Det Kongelige Dansk danoise, 1761-1767. Traduit par Raymond Albeck. Arles: Videnskabernes Selskab / L’Academie Royale des Actes Sud; Lausanne: 1’Aire. Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark. Hansen, Thorkild. 2005. HetgelukkigeArabie: roman van een Buhl, Marie-Louise, Dal, Erik and Hoick Colding, Deense expeditie, 1761-1767. Vertaling van Diederik Grit Torben. 1986. The Danish Naval Officer Frederik Ludvig en Edith Koenders. Met een nawoord van Ronald E. Norden, his Fravel in Egypt 1737-38 and his Voyage..., 1-11, Kon. Breda: De Geus. Copenhagen, 1733, with plates by Marcus Fuschen Three Chapters. Haven, Frederik C. von. 2005. Min SundhedsForliis - Frederik Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences Christian von Havens Rejsejoumalrfra Den Arabiske Rejse and Letters. 1760-1763. Udgivet af Anne Haslund Hansen og Stig Burton, Richard F. 1855-1856. Personal Narrative oja Pilgimage T. Rasmussen. Copenhagen: Forlaget Vandkunsten. to El-Medinah andMeccah. Volume 1-3. London: Long­ Vol. 9 of Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket [the Carsten Niebuhr man, Brown, Green and Longman. Library]. Christensen, Carl. 1918. NaturforskerenPehrForsskål. Hans Henderson, Thomas Finlayson. 2004. Heron, Robert Rejse till å gypten og Arabien 1761-63 og hans (1764-1807). Article revised by H.C.G. Matthew. In: botaniske Arbejder og Samlinger. Med 40 hidtil Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford utrykte Breve og Dokumenter og et Portræt. Copen­ University Press, 2004; online edition, Oct 2009 hagen: H. Hagerup. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13o9o, Christensen, Carl. 1922. Index to Pehr Forsskål: Flora accessed 3 March 2013] Aegyptiaco-Arabica, with a revision of herbarium Hepper, F. Nigel and Friis, Ib. 1994. The plants orfPehr Forsskålii. Dansk BotaniskArkiv 4(3): 1-54. Forsskål’s“FloraAegyptiaco-Arabica". London: Royal

24 SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2 INTRODUCTION

Botanic Gardens, Kew; Copenhagen: Botanical sel. Hrsg. Von J.G. Buhle. Vol. 1-2. Leipzig: Wei- Museum. dmannschen Buchhandel. Kjølsen, Frits Hammer. 1965. Captain F.L. Norden ogHans Niebuhr, Barthold Georg. 1835. The Life of Carsten Nie­ Rejsetila gypten 1737-38. København: G.E.C. Gads buhr, the Oriental Traveller. By His Son, B.G. Niebuhr. Forlag. With an Appendix by J.D. Michaelis. Translated from Klausewitz, Wolfgang and Nielsen, Jørgen G. 1965. On the German by Prof. Robinson. Pp. 1-77 in: The Students’ ForsskåFs collection of fishes in the Zoological Cabinet Library ofUsefulTracts. Volume 3. Biographical Museum of Copenhagen. Spolia Zoologica Musei Haunien- Series, Volume 1. Edinburgh: Thomas Clarke. sis 22:1-29 and 38 plates. Niebuhr, Carsten. 1772. Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und Lohmeier, Dieter. 2008. Carsten Niebuhr, Tobias Meyer andern umliegenden Ländem.Nol. I. Copenhagen: Möller. und die Längengrade. Fund ogForskningi Det Kongelige Niebuhr, Carsten. 1774. Reisebeschreibungnach Arabien und Biblioteks Samlinger 4p. 73-114. andern umliegenden Ländern. Vol. I. Copenhagen: Møller. Lohmeier, Dieter. 2010a. Monddistanzen und Längden- Niebuhr, Carsten. 1792. Kravels through Arabia and other grade : der Briefwechsel zwischen Carsten Niebuhr Countries in the East. Performed by M. Niebuhr, now a und Tobias Mayer 1761: herausgegeben von Dieter captain of the Engineers in the Service of the King of Lohmeier. Fund ogforskning i Det kongelige Biblioteks Denmark. Translated into English by Robert Heron. samlinger 49: 135-165. With Notes by the Translator and Illustrated with Lohmeier, Dieter. 2010b. Die Teilnachlässe Carsten Engravings and Maps. In Two Volumes. Perth: P. Niebuhrs in Kiel und Berlin, Auskunft. Zeitschriftfur Morison and Son; Edinburgh: G. Mudie; London: T. Bibliothek, Archiv und Information in Norddeutschland 30 (3/4): Vernor. 399'444- Niebuhr, Carsten. 2003. Carsten Niebuhrs Rejsebeskrivelsefra Lohmeier, Dieter (ed.) 2011. Mit Carsten Niebuhr im Orient. Arabien og andre omliggende lande. Første bind. Med indled­ Zwanzig Briefe von derArabischen Reise 1760-1767. Heide: ning af Michael Harbsmeier. Oversat fra tysk af Hans Boyens. Christian Fink. Copenhagen: Forlaget Vandkunsten. Lohmeier, Dieter and Rasmussen, Stig T. 2010. Carsten Vol. i of Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket [the Carsten Niebuhr Niebuhrs stambog. Fund ogForskningi Det Kongelige Library]. Biblioteks Samlinger 49:103-133. Niebuhr, Carsten. 2004. Carsten Niebuhrs Rejsebeskrivelsefra Lomholt, Asger, i960. Kaptajn F.L. Nordens rejse til Arabien og andre omliggende lande. Andet og tredje bind. å gypten og Nubien. In: Asger Lomholdt: Det Kongelige Oversat fra tysk af Hans Christian Fink. Copenhagen: Danske Videnskabernes Selskab 1742-1942. Samlinger til Forlaget Vandkunsten. Vol 7 of Carsten Niebuhr Biblioteket Selskabets Historie. Vol. 3, pp. 71-100. [the Carsten Niebuhr Library]. Lomholt, Asger. 1961. Captain F. L. Norden’s Journey to Niebuhr, Carsten. 2009. Beskrivelse afArabien udfra egne Egypt and Nubia 1737-38. Some facts about the history iagttagelser og i landet selv samlede efterretninger affattet af of a remarkable work. Libri 11(4): 364-376. Carsten Niebuhr. Med indledning af Niels Peter Lemcke. Maillet, Benoit de. 1735. Description del’Egypte, contenant Oversat fra tysk af Hans Christian Fink. Copenhagen: plusieurs remarques curieuses sur la Ge'ographie ancienne et Forlaget Vandkunsten. Vol 19 of Carsten Niebuhr modern de ce Pais, Sur ses Monumens andens, sur les Moeurs, les Biblioteket [the Carsten Niebuhr Library]. Coütumes & la Religion des Habitants, sur le Gouvernement & le Norden, Frederik Ludvig. 1755. Voyage d’Egypte et de Nubie, par Commerce, surlesAnimauxlesAbres, les Plantes, &c. Composée Mr. Frederic Louis Norden, CaptainedesvaisseauxduRoi. sur les Me'moires de Monsieur de Maillet, Anden Consul de France Ouvrage enrichi de Cartes et des Figures dessinées sur au Caire, Par M. L’Abbe'le Maserier. Ouvrage enrichi de Carte et les lieux, par 1’Auteur méme. Copenhague: De de Figures. Paris: Louis Genneau et Jaques Rollin, fils. ITnprimerie de la Maison Royale des Orphelins. Michaelis, Johann David. 1793. Lebensbeschreibungvonihm Norden, Frederik Ludvig. 1757. Travels in Egypt and Nubia. By selbst abgefasst. Mit Anmerkungen von Hassencamp, Frederic Lewis Norden, F.R.S. Captain ofthe Danish Navy. nebst Bemerkungen über dessen literarischen Franslaledfrom the Original. Published by the Command ofHis Character von Eichhorn, Schulz, und dem Elogium Majesty the King ofDenmark. And enlarged with observations von Heyne. Rinteln: Expedition der theologischen from ancient and modem authors, that have written on the Annalen; Leipzig: Johann Ambrosium Barth. antiquities ofEgypt, by Dr. PeterTempleman. London: Michaelis, Johann David. 1794-1796. Literarischer Briefwech­ Lockyer Davis and Cherles Reymers.

25 IB FRIIS, MICHAEL HARBSMEIER AND JØRGEN BÆK SIMONSEN SCI.DAN.H. 4 • 2

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