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On the Obscuration of the Growing Supermassive Black Hole Population

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On the Obscuration of the Growing Supermassive Black Hole Population On the Obscuration of the Growing Supermassive Black Hole Population Johannes Buchner München 2015 On the Obscuration of the Growing Supermassive Black Hole Population Johannes Buchner Dissertation an der Fakultät für Physik der Ludwig–Maximilians–Universität München vorgelegt von Johannes Buchner aus Oberndorf bei Salzburg München, den 27.02.2015 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Kirpal Nandra Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Simon White Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 14.04.2015 1 Zusammenfassung Aktive Galaxienkerne (AGN) werden durch das Wachstum super-schwere schwarze Löcher, die im Zentrum jeder massiven Galaxie sitzen, betrieben. Da enge Korrelationen ihrer Massen zu Eigenschaften der elliptischen Galaxienkomponente beobachtet werden, und durch ihre extreme Leuchtkraft ist es naheliegend, dass AGN einen wichtigen Baustein von Galaxien bilden. Der erste Schritt, AGN zu verstehen ist es, ihre Häufigkeit zu ermitteln, sowie die Leuchtkraft der Population. Dieses Unterfangen wird dadurch erschwert, dass die meisten AGN von Gas und Staub umgeben sind. Selbst im energiereichen Röntgenbereich, der in dieser Arbeit verwendet wird, wird die intrinsische Strahlung durch Absorption um mehrere Größenordnung verringert. Die vorliegenden Doktorarbeit untersucht zuerst die Eigenschaften dieser Wolken, im speziellen ihre Geometrie, Säulendichteverteilung und ihr Verhältnis zur Leuchtkraft des AGN. Dazu werden ∼ 300 AGN von der längst-beobachteten Röntgenregion, der Chandra Deep Field South Kampagne verwendet. Eine neue Bayesische Methode zur Spektralanal- yse wurde entwickelt, um verschiedene physikalisch motivierte Modelle für den Aufbau der Wolken zu vergleichen. Das Röntgenspektrum reagiert, hauptsächlich dank Compton- Streuung, auf die Gesamtbedeckung der Quelle durch das Gas. Eine detaillierte Analyse zeigt, dass die Wolken mit einer Torus (“Donut”) Form konsistent sind, und sowohl voll- ständige Bedeckung als auch eine Scheiben-artige Konfiguration ausgeschlossen werden können. Außerdem ist eine weiteren Komponente höherer Dichte notwendig um zusätzlich beobachtete Compton-Reflektion zu erklären. Dies deutet auf eine strukturierte Formation hin, wie etwa ein Torus mit einem Dichtegradienten. Die Untersuchung der gesamten AGN-Population inklusive der AGN mit hohen Säulen- dichten, verlangt eine große Stichprobe mit einem genauen Verständnis für die Stichproben- verzerrung, sowie fortgeschrittene statistische Inferenzmethoden. Diese Arbeit baut auf eine ∼ 2000 AGN große Stichprobe die durch Röntgenemission detektiert wurde, bestehend aus mehrschichtigen Kampagnen aus den CDFS, AEGIS-XD, COSMOS and XMM-XXL Regionen. Die Röntgenspektren wurden im Detail mit einem physikalischen Spektralmod- ell analysiert, um die intrinsische Leuchtkraft, Rotverschiebung, sowie Säulendichte (NH ) für jedes Objekt zu erhalten, inklusive der Messunsicherheit. Außerdem wurden in dieser Arbeit neue statistische Methoden entwickelt um die richtige Assoziation zu optischen/in- fraroten Objekten zu finden, und um die Unsicherheiten durch Objekte ohne Pendant, der Rotverschiebungsmessung, sowie der Poissonfehler des Röntgenspektrums in alle Ergeb- nisse einzubinden. Einen weiteren wichtigen Beitrag bildet eine Bayesische, nicht-parametrische Methode um die unverzerrte Dichte von AGN in kosmologischen Volumen als Funktion von intrin- sischer Leuchtkraft, Rotverschiebung und Säulendichte (NH ) der verbergenden Wolken 1 CHAPTER 1. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG zu rekonstruieren. Obwohl in dieser Methode lediglich Glattheit verwendet wird, kann dieser Ansatz dieselben Formen der Leuchtkraftverteilung sowie ihre Entwicklung rekon- struieren, die sonst oft in emprischen Modellen verwendet werden, jedoch ohne diese a- priori anzunehmen. Im Großen und Ganzen kann die Leuchtkraftverteilung, in allen Rotverschiebungsschalen, als Potenzgesetz mit einem Umbruchspunkt beschrieben werden. Sowohl die Normalisation als auch der Leuchtkraftumbruchspunkt entwickeln sich über den Lauf des Universums, allerdings zeigen die Daten keine Belege für eine Veränderung der Form der Verteilung. Dies deutet darauf hin, im Gegensatz zu Aussagen vorherigen Stu- dien, dass der Rückkopplungsmechanismus zwischen AGN und beherbergender Galaxie immer gleich funktioniert, und sich nur die Anzahl und Größe der wachsenden Systeme verändert. Die nicht-parametrische Rekonstruktionsmethode verwendet keine Annahmen darüber wie sich z.B. die Häufigkeiten von Säulendichte des verdeckenden Gases mit Leuchtkraft oder Rotverschiebung verändert. Dies erlaubt sehr robuste Schlüsse über den Anteil der 22 −2 +4 verdeckten AGN (NH > 10 cm ), die 77−5% der Population ausmachen sowie den An- +8 teil der Compton-dicken AGN (38−7%), die sich hinter enormen Säulendichten (NH > 1024cm−2) verbergen. Insbesondere dass der letztere Anteil bestimmt werden konnte, lässt endlich Schlüsse darauf zu, wieviel AGN “verdeckt” wachsen. Außerdem suggeriert es, dass der Torus einen großen Teil des AGN verdeckt. Basierend auf der Leuchtkraft der gesamten AGN Population wurde die Masse, die über den Lauf der Zeit in schwarzen Löchern ges- perrt wurde, geschätzt, und die Massendichte der supermassereichen schwarzen Löcher im heutigen Universum vorhergesagt. Die Rekonstruktion bringt außerdem zu Tage, dass der Anteil der verdeckten AGN (ins- besondere der Compton-dünnen AGN) eine negative Leuchtkraftabhängigkeit aufweist, und dass sich diese Abhängigkeit über die Geschichte des Universums entwickelt hat. Dieses Resultat wird in dieser Arbeit im Zusammenhang mit bestehenden Modellen interpretiert und ist möglicherweise ein Nebeneffekt eines nicht-hierarchischen Wachstums von AGN. 2 2 Abstract Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) are powered by the growth of super-massive black holes (SMBHs), which can be found at the centre of every massive galaxy. Due to tight scaling relationships of their masses with properties of their host spheroidal components, as well as the massive energy output AGN release, they are thought to play an important role in the formation and evolution of galaxies. The first step to understanding AGN is to determine their prevalence in the Universe, as well as the luminosity output of their entire population. This enterprise is hampered by the fact that most AGN are obscured by thick layers of gas and dust, making them difficult to detect. Even in the energetic X-ray wavelengths employed in this work, the intrinsic radiation of obscured AGN is suppressed by multiple orders of magnitude. In this work I first study the properties of this obscurer, specifically its geometry, column density distribution and its relation to the AGN luminosity. For this, ∼ 300 AGN from the deepest X-ray field to date, the Chandra Deep Field South survey, are used. I apply a novel Bayesian spectral analysis methodology to distinguish between several physically motivated models for the obscurer. The X-ray spectrum is, mainly due to Compton scattering, sensitive to the covering fraction of the obscurer. A detailed spectral analysis shows that the obscurer is consistent with a torus (“donut”) shape, but complete covering as well as disk-like configurations can be excluded. Furthermore, a high-density component is necessary to explain additional observed Compton-reflection beyond that expected from the line-of-sight obscuration, indicating a structured obscurer such as a torus with a density gradient. The study of the population of AGN requires a large sample with detailed understanding of the selection effect and sophisticated inference techniques. A X-ray selected sample of ∼ 2000 AGN from a multi-tiered survey including the CDFS, AEGIS-XD, COSMOS and XMM-XXL fields is analysed in detail. Through Bayesian spectral analysis with a physical model, the intrinsic luminosity, redshift and column density (NH ) is obtained for each source, including their uncertainties. This thesis also develops advanced statistical methodology for choosing the correct counterpart, and propagates the uncertainty from missing counterparts, redshift estimation as well as the Poisson noise from X-ray spectra into all final results. Another important new contribution is a Bayesian non-parametric technique to recon- struct the unbiased number density of AGN in cosmological volumes as a function of in- trinsic luminosity, redshift and column density (NH ). Despite only assuming smoothness, this approach is capable of reproducing the shapes commonly assumed for the luminosity function and its evolution, without assuming them a priori. Overall, the luminosity func- tion appears to be consistent with a double powerlaw at all redshifts studied. Both the 3 CHAPTER 2. ABSTRACT normalisation and break luminosity evolve over time, while there is no evidence that the shape changes. This indicates that contrary to previous claims, the feedback mechanism works the same across the history of the Universe, but only the number and luminosity scale of the accreting systems changes. The non-parametric reconstruction allows the study of the fraction of obscured AGN up to the Compton-thick regime in a very robust way, i.e. without assuming a luminosity +4 or redshift-dependent behaviour a priori. About 77−5% of AGN are obscured (NH > 22 −2 +8 10 cm ), while 38−7% belong to the heavily obscured, elusive Compton-thick class (NH > 1024cm−2). The latter fraction in particular finally constrains the importance of obscured growth phases in the life of accreting SMBHs. Based on the total luminosity output of the AGN population, the mass locked into black holes over cosmic time is estimated, and the mass density of relic SMBHs in the local Universe
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