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The Antimalarial Mefloquine Shows Activity Against Mycobacterium International Journal of Molecular Sciences Article The Antimalarial Mefloquine Shows Activity against Mycobacterium abscessus, Inhibiting Mycolic Acid Metabolism Giulia Degiacomi 1,†, Laurent Roberto Chiarelli 1,† , Deborah Recchia 1 , Elena Petricci 2 , Beatrice Gianibbi 2 , Ersilia Vita Fiscarelli 3 , Lanfranco Fattorini 4 , Fabrizio Manetti 2 and Maria Rosalia Pasca 1,* 1 Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; [email protected] (G.D.); [email protected] (L.R.C.); [email protected] (D.R.) 2 Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy; [email protected] (E.P.); [email protected] (B.G.); [email protected] (F.M.) 3 Cystic Fibrosis Diagnostics, Microbiology and Immunology Diagnostics, Bambino Gesù Children’s Hospital IRCCS, 00165 Rome, Italy; evita.fi[email protected] 4 Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0382-985576 † These authors contributed equally to this work. Abstract: Some nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are considered opportunistic pathogens. Nev- ertheless, NTM infections are increasing worldwide, becoming a major public health threat. Further- more, there is no current specific drugs to treat these infections, and the recommended regimens Citation: Degiacomi, G.; Chiarelli, generally lack efficacy, emphasizing the need for novel antibacterial compounds. In this paper, we L.R.; Recchia, D.; Petricci, E.; Gianibbi, focused on the essential mycolic acids transporter MmpL3, which is a well-characterized target of B.; Fiscarelli, E.V.; Fattorini, L.; several antimycobacterial agents, to identify new compounds active against Mycobacterium abscessus Manetti, F.; Pasca, M.R. The (Mab). From the crystal structure of MmpL3 in complex with known inhibitors, through an in silico Antimalarial Mefloquine Shows approach, we developed a pharmacophore that was used as a three-dimensional filter to identify Activity against Mycobacterium new putative MmpL3 ligands within databases of known drugs. Among the prioritized compounds, abscessus, Inhibiting Mycolic Acid mefloquine showed appreciable activity against Mab (MIC = 16 µg/mL). The compound was con- Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, firmed to interfere with mycolic acids biosynthesis, and proved to also be active against other NTMs, 8533. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms including drug-resistant clinical isolates. Importantly, mefloquine is a well-known antimalarial agent, 22168533 opening the possibility of repurposing an already approved drug, which is a useful strategy to reduce the time and cost of disclosing novel drug candidates. Academic Editor: Patricia Agudelo-Romero Keywords: Mycobacterium abscessus; MmpL3; pharmacophore model; mefloquine; drug repurposing Received: 13 July 2021 Accepted: 6 August 2021 Published: 8 August 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) pulmonary infections are an emergent global with regard to jurisdictional claims in health threat, particularly to individuals that have a predisposing medical condition such published maps and institutional affil- as cystic fibrosis (CF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and bronchiectasis. iations. Over the last two decades, the incidence of NTM infections among CF individuals has raised from 5% to 20%, increasing morbidity and mortality associated with these pathogens [1,2], whereas COPD patients treated with inhaled corticosteroid therapy are associated with a 29-fold increased risk of NTM infections [3]. NTM comprise more than 190 species and Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. subspecies with only a few causing serious and often opportunistic infections in humans. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Amongst them, the most commonly identified species in CF individuals are the slow This article is an open access article growing Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) and the rapidly growing Mycobacterium distributed under the terms and abscessus complex (MABSC), accounting for 95% of CF cases [4]. MAC mainly consists of conditions of the Creative Commons M. avium subsp. avium (Mav) and M. avium subsp. intracellulare, while MABSC includes the Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// following three subspecies: M. abscessus subsp. abscessus (Mab), M. abscessus subsp. bolletii, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and M. abscessus subsp. massiliense. 4.0/). Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 8533. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22168533 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 8533 2 of 16 A standard of care treatment for NTM is available for only a few pathogens, including MAC and Mab. Generally, the therapeutic options consist of multiple antimicrobial agents that are often associated with clinically significant adverse reactions and must be adminis- tered for prolonged periods [5]. A multidrug regimen based on a macrolide (clarithromycin or azithromycin) is the recommended treatment for MAC, which also includes rifampicin and ethambutol. Meanwhile, the management of pulmonary infections originated by Mab typically consists of an oral macrolide in conjunction with intravenous or inhaled amikacin, and one or more of the following drugs: intravenous cefoxitin, imipenem, or tigecycline, in addition to oral antibiotics (minocycline, clofazimine, moxifloxacin, and linezolid) [6]. The American Thoracic Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America stated that the optimal drug regimens and duration of anti-Mab treatment are not known. Moreover, treatment outcomes are poor, and reinfection with another strain or species is common [5]. The main causes of treatment failure are the intrinsic and acquired antibiotic resistance of NTM in general, and of Mab in particular, which is one of the most drug-resistant mycobacteria [7]. Furthermore, the insufficient effectiveness of drugs toward Mab is associated with a lack of bactericidal activity of most of the active compounds [3,8]. In this context, there is an urgent need of more active drugs to curb NTM infections. Nevertheless, de novo drug discovery is a highly costly and time-consuming pro- cess [3]. Therefore, the study of approved drugs for new therapeutical applications provides a rapid strategy to clinical implementation. The drug pipeline for NTM is nearly empty with lead compounds derived either from the repurposing of existing drugs or from the cross-testing of compounds active in tuberculosis [9], but also includes a few new chemical entities. Interestingly, some of the novel drug candidates target MmpL3 (mycobacterial membrane protein Large 3) [10–14]. MmpL3 is an essential inner membrane flippase present in all mycobacteria, which is involved in the last step of mycolic acid biosynthesis. In particular, MmpL3 transports by flipping trehalose monomycolates across the inner membrane into the periplasm, where they are required to form the outer membrane mycolic acids [15,16]. The MmpL3 therapeu- tic potential has already been unveiled in several studies as a vulnerable and promiscuous target in Mycobacterium tuberculosis [4]. In this study, we combined an in silico approach (developing a pharmacophore, from the crystal structure of MmpL3 in complex with the inhibitors AU1235, SQ109, ICA38, and rimonabant [17]) with the repurposing strategy. Our pharmacophore was exploited for the screening of the DrugBank and the National Cancer Institute database, in order to identify novel scaffolds targeting MmpL3 belonging to molecules currently in use, for a future implementation as anti-Mab compounds. Amongst them, the disclosure of mefloquine, an antimalarial, was of particular interest. 2. Results 2.1. Molecular Modeling: Construction of the Pharmacophore The X-ray crystallographic three-dimensional structures of the complexes between MmpL3 and AU1235, SQ109, ICA38, and rimonabant [17] (Figure1) were used to generate four different pharmacophoric models by means of the software Phase [18]. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 8533 3 of 16 Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16 FigureFigure 1. StructureStructure of of the the MmpL3 MmpL3 inhibitors inhibitors used used to tobuild build the the pharmacophoric pharmacophoric model. model. The Thetri- tri- fluorophenylfluorophenyl moiety of AU1235, AU1235, the the difluorophenyl difluorophenyl moiety moiety of of ICA38, ICA38, the the terminal terminal alkenyl alkenyl edge edge of ofSQ109, SQ109, and and the the5-chlorophenyl 5-chlorophenyl moiety moiety of rimonabant of rimonabant are represented are represented in red. in The red. adamanty The adamantyll moi- ety of both AU1235 and SQ109, the spiro-undecane moiety of ICA38, and the piperidine ring of moiety of both AU1235 and SQ109, the spiro-undecane moiety of ICA38, and the piperidine ring of rimonabant are represented in green. rimonabant are represented in green. Receptor–ligandReceptor–ligand interactions interactions were were coded coded into into automatically automatically generated generated pharmacophores pharmaco- thatphores also that comprised also comprised receptor-based receptor excluded-based excluded volumes. volumes. The four The pharmacophores four pharmacophores were thenwere mergedthen merged into a into common a common feature feature pharmacophoric pharmacophoric hypothesis hypothesis constituted constituted by the by sole the chemicalsole chemical features
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