Savages or Citizens? Children, Education, and the British Empire, 1899-1950 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Rachel Ann Neiwert IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Anna Clark August 2009 © Rachel Ann Neiwert, August 2009 i Acknowledgments I first encountered Charlotte Mason when I was teaching at Intown Community School in Atlanta, Georgia. I am thankful that Intown was a school that valued books and learning and demonstrated those values by giving each teacher a complete set of Charlotte Mason’s books on education. I had no idea that those garishly pink books that sat on my bookshelf would turn out to be the genesis of this dissertation. Special thanks go to Lisa Cadora who nurtured my interest in Mason during my years of teaching there. I have been incredibly fortunate to have wonderful teachers, who encouraged me along the way, including Caitlin Corning and Kerry Irish at George Fox University and Denise Davidson and Ian Christopher Fletcher at Georgia State University. For pointing me in the direction of the University of Minnesota and Anna Clark, Ian Fletcher deserves particular thanks. When he told me he thought I would get along well with Anna, he was certainly right! I have not lacked for wonderful teachers here at the University of Minnesota. Seminars with Andy Elfenbein, Patricia Lorcin, MJ Maynes, and Gloria Raheja gave me space to try out ideas that became the chapters in this dissertation. Hopefully the work here is better for their interest and comments. As an advisor, Anna Clark has been supportive, encouraging, and always understanding. Her unspoken faith that I would finish in spite of the small child pulling me away from books gave me the confidence to believe it too. Research grants from the Department of History and College of Liberal Arts at the University of Minnesota made possible my research trips to England. As luck would have it, Ambleside was a lovely place to have to go and work. It is no wonder that Mason opened her school there, as the atmosphere and environment were truly a balm to ii the soul after a long day’s work in the archives. Tanya Flowers at the Armitt Library was always a lovely host, who patiently answered all of my questions about the Charlotte Mason papers. Two years work for the Journal of British Studies provided not only time to spend researching and writing but also an introduction into the academic community. A Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship at the University of Minnesota afforded me a year to finish writing. When I arrived at the University of Minnesota, I hoped I would leave with a degree, I had no idea I would leave with such wonderful friends. My work is certainly all the better for the generous comments from Kelly Donahue, Johnny Trutor, and Aaron Windel that I received each month over coffee at Mapps. Over the last three years, Tovah Bender, Polly Myers, Kira Robison, Emily Rook-Koepsel, Aeleah Soine, and Liz Swedo have read more drafts of this dissertation than anyone. Though their comments have certainly made this a much better dissertation than it might have been, their friendship, more importantly, has made the last five years so much more enjoyable (not to mention the fabulous dinners and desserts they brought each week!). My family made all of this possible in myriad ways—not least of which were countless trips to care for Liam, so I could have extra time to write. My in-laws, Paula and Allen, painstakingly copy-edited, on very short notice, this entire dissertation. My parents, Ralf and Thelma, filled my head and heart with a love of stories, which always pulled me towards history. I hope that I can do half as good a job teaching Liam the same! My brother Aaron and his wife Liz checked in regularly to give me a break and make sure life was not all Charlotte Mason, all the time. In the last weeks of writing, my husband, Wade, was left with a very messy house, lots of childcare, piles of books and iii papers to negotiate around, and even more late nights keeping me company while I was working. Through it all, he never complained and brought a sense of humor to the whole project. On the days when I was sure a few missing commas were going to ruin the whole thing, I am thankful he was around to convince me otherwise. Finally, I had no idea when I started to write that Liam would be joining our family in a manner of weeks. It was definitely more challenging to work with a toddler under foot, but he helped me to keep perspective and he continues to be the best sort of fun. Little Liam, this dissertation is dedicated to you. I am happy to say that tomorrow when you grab my hand and say, “Mama come,” Mama will be ready to play. iv Abstract This dissertation focuses on the educational philosophy of Charlotte Mason (1841/42- 1923) and her educational organizations, the Parents’ National Educational Union (PNEU) and the Parents’ Union School (PUS) to better understand how white, English children living in the British Empire learned what it meant to be English during the years 1899 to 1950. Through the PUS, Mason provided an organized home-school curriculum to families living abroad that promised to solidify an English national identity in their children. Mason’s educational philosophy built on New Liberal conceptions of the individual and extended them to children. PUS children’s schoolwork and letters demonstrate that they were not just passive recipients of lessons on “place and race” but actively participated in shaping a new sense of Englishness. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments i Abstract iv List of Tables vi Introduction 1 Being British, English…and African? Women and Children at Home in the British Empire Chapter 1 33 The Educational Outlook in Britain at the Turn of the Century Chapter 2 69 Building an Educational Union: The Origins of the Parents’ National Educational Union Chapter 3 106 Diagnosing the Malady of the Nation: Protecting Children’s Individuality Chapter 4 150 Finding Home Away from Home: Women, Education, and the Empire Chapter 5 180 Creating Community through Schoolwork: Lessons on Home for/from the “Colonial” Children Conclusion 218 Savages or Citizens? Bibliography 225 Appendix 1 240 Parents’ Union School Time Table Appendix 2 244 Parents’ Union School Term Reading List Appendix 3 258 Parents’ Union School End-of-Term Exam vi List of Tables Table 1: Parents’ Union School Form I Time Table 240 Table 2: Parents’ Union School Form II Time Table 241 Table 3: Parents’ Union School Form III Time Table 242 Table 4: Parents’ Union School Form IV Time Table 243 1 Introduction Being British, English…and African? Women and Children at Home in the British Empire “It is different in India,” said Mistress Mary disdainfully… “Eh! I can see it’s different,” [Martha] answered almost sympathetically. “I dare say it’s because there’s such a lot o’ blacks there instead o’ respectable white people. When I heard you was coming from India I thought you was a black too.” Mary sat up in bed furious. “What!” she said. “What! You thought I was a native…” “…I’ve nothin’ against th’ blacks. When you read about ‘em in tracts they’re always very religious. You always read as a black’s a man an’ a brother. I’ve never seen a black an’ I was fair pleased to think I was goin’ to see one close. When I come in to light your fire this mornin’ I crep’ up to your bed an’ pulled th’ cover back careful to look at you. An’ there you was,” disappointedly, “no more black than me—for all you’re so yeller.” Mary did not even try to control her rage and humiliation. “You thought I was a native! You dared! You don’t know anything about natives! They are not people— they’re servants who must salaam to you. You know nothing about India. You know nothing about anything!”1 The Secret Garden Frances Hodgson Burnett, 1911 Despite Mary’s insistence that Martha “knew nothing about anything,” one might ask who really “knew nothing about anything”—Mary or Martha? Frances Hodgson Burnett’s The Secret Garden remains a much-loved children’s book, but lurking behind the story about Mary and her friend Collin is a story about the dangers of empire and the nature of home. An orphan whose parents and entire household staff had either died or run away in a cholera outbreak in India, Mary returns to England to live with her uncle in Yorkshire. For Martha, a maid in Mary’s uncle’s house, Mary represents the exotic and unfamiliar empire. For Mary, Martha represents the unfamiliar (and from her perspective rather drab) metropole. As a child of the empire, Mary, as the story makes obvious, was 1 Frances Hodgson Burnett, The Secret Garden, Norton Critical Edition, ed. Gretchen Holbrook Gerzina, (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2006), 17-18. 2 really the one with the most to learn. By virtue of their time spent in India, both Mary and her mother were left in a liminal position—neither wholly English or Indian, nor even entirely British. For Mary’s mother, the issue was her lack of motherly virtues. She hardly represented an ideal mother; rather she was only interested in parties, not raising a daughter. In fact, it is her refusal to move to the hill station because of her desire to attend one last party that results in the cholera outbreak that kills the entire Lennox household except for Mary.