PRG. 175 B(N) 750

CENSUS OF INDIA, 1961 VOLUME XI MY§ORE

PART VII-B HANDICRAFT SURVEY MONOGRAPHS

Editor

K. BALASUBRAMANYAM of the Indian Administrative Service, Superintendent of Census Operations in JJlYMre

[976

For ordinary edition Price: Inland Rs. 12-0'1 or Foreign £. 1.40 or $ 4.32

For deluxe edition Price: lnlanll Rs. 23.0() or Fureign £. 2.68 or $ 8.28 CENSUS OF INDIA 1961 VOLUME XI-MYSORE

List of Central Government Publications

Part I-A General Report Part I-B Report on Vital Statistics Part I-e Subsidiary Tables Part II-A General Population Tables Part II-B(i) General Economic Tables (Tables B-1 to B-IV-C) Part II-B(ii) General Economic Tables (Tables B-V to B-1 X) Part II-C Cultural and Migration Tables

Part III Household Economic Tables (Tables B-X to B-XVlI) Part IV-A Report on Housing and Establishment Part IV-B Housing and Establishments Tables Part V-A Tables on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Part V-B Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Part VI Village Survey Monographs Part VII Handicraft Survey Monographs Part VIII-A Administration Report-Enumeration ) f- not for sale Part V III-B Administration Report-Tabulation )

State Government Publications

] 9 DISTRICT CENSUS HAND BO OKS MYSORE STATE SURVEY OF SELECTE;D HANDICRAFTS, 1961

SCALE 2" 4B 72 ""I.ES q=~!~~; i ; [~!i!B; l 20 40 60 80 100 lNQEX TO NUMBERS

(!) 8,ORJ, WARE

(D POTTERY MAHARASHTRA STATE ~ CARPt;TS Of' NA\W.GuN,p (j) SILK WEAVING AT ICOLLEGJoI.. lSI .J£WEu.tlr( AT WI'!

ARABIAN SEA HANDICRAFTS SURVEY MONOGRAPHS ON :

1- Bidriware of Bidar

2. Pottery of Mysore

3. Carpets of Navalgund

4. Silk Weaving of Kollegal

5. Silver Jewellery Field investigation, draft and photographs Sri s. Ramachandran, B.Sc., Senior Technical Assistant (Handicrafts Survey).

Supervision and Guidance ,Sri K. Balasubramanyam, I.A.S., '", Superintendent of Census Operations 1:'1 Mysore. FOREWORD one of the first steps to be taken in the first what would on· the face of it seem a minor Five Year Plan, was the est,ablishment of six adjustment cast its heavy shadow on the nation Boards for the promotion of handicrafts. village when it was d~scovered that goldsmiths used to and Small industries : (1) The Khadi and working on ~~ carat gold all their lives fe':t sadly Village Industries Board; (2) The All-India helpless when asked to work on 14-carat, so Handicrafts Board; (3) The All India Hand­ narrow and unadaptable were the limits of their loom Board; (4) The Central Silk Board; skill and proficiency and so rud;mentary the (5) The Coir Board; and (6) The Small Indu­ tools and equipment with which they and their stries Board. forefathers had worked. This fiscal accident revealed that tools are even more important than The rapid ,expansion of the activities of these skills. Boards which concentrated not only on produc­ An early opportunity was therefore taken in tion and techniques, but also on organisation, February 1960 to suggest to State Census Super­ extension, credit, marketing, and export. consoli­ intendents, that the Census provided a unique dated and enlarged the position that the house­ opportunity for conducting and documenting a hold industries sector had so long enjoyed in the survey of this kind. As such a survey was (Illite nation's economic life. It was this fact that outside the usual terms of reference of Census forced itself upon the pr~parations for the 1961 work it was thought prudent cautiously to feel Census and demanded that household industry one's way with the thin end of the wedge of should be separately investigated for a proper what would, it was hoped, prove t.o be an exciting accounting of the nation's manpower, resources pursuit. It was therefore considered the wi.ser and its specific contribution to the national in­ course to wait until the State Census Offices felt come. The 1961 Census therefore asked a special so interested that. they would no longer take the series of questions in household industry input inquiry as an imposition but rather want to do it of family and hired labour, and the periods over on their own and ask for the necessary staff and which. household indust,ry is conducted. It was equipment. This office, too, in its turn, could felt, however, that an enumeration of the total make use of the interval to organise and elabo- number of establishments and their industrial ~ate the design of inquiry in order to feed the classification would he incomplete without a appetite that work in progress would serye to proper description of what they produce and how whet. Because it was a labour of love, (sought they produce. It was important to make an to be unobtrusively thrust on one's colleagues and assessment of the limits of rigidity within which because the inquiry itself was so vast that nor­ traditional skill operates. This could be obtained mally it would demand in any country as big a by studying the caste, occlJpational, social and set-up, if separately established, u.s the Census economic stratifications, the limitations of credit organisation itself and that over a much longer and marketing faciliti~s, the domina,nce of custom period and because it was almost a. pioneer ven­ over contract, the persistence of traditional tools ture, nothing like it having been undertaken since and design forms, the physical limitation of trans­ the 1880's it was decided to move towards a port, communication and mobility, the inability build-up by stages, to let the inquiry unfold itself to adopt new lines or adapt to changing circum-: only as fast as my colleagues chose to ask for stances. It was important also to .make an , more. assessment of the limits of flexibility that tradi­ tional skill is capable of because the transforma­ Thus, in the first circular of 18th February tion of traditional skills to modern .skills is easier 1960. it was suggested that the inquiry might be said than done and a thorough study may well conducted through the agency of the Develop­ reveal that it is perhaps cheaper from the social ment Department, the State Director of Indu­ point of view to develQP indu.strial skills from stries, the Director of Tribal Welfare, the scratch than to try to graft traditional skill on Registrar of Co-operative Societies, and other alien soil. A rather tragic case of failure to make organisations concerned with the promotion of ,,1 household industry. A draft questionnaire setting, the extent to which tradition bound him containing 30 questions in three parts Was' .ana tlie winds of change ruffled him, the extent recommended for canvassing. It was suggested of his mobility and immobility, the conditions of that jnforination on thig quest~onnaire,. village market, credit, new contacts and designs in which by village and area by area, might either be he operated, the frame of new as well as tradi. obtained through the regular departmental tional producer-customer relationships in which he channels of the State Government, or through still worked, and how far he was ready to pierce the newly set up Census organisation, or through his own caste-tribe socio-economic cocoon :md the hierarchy of the newly-created Pancha~Tets. make a br.eak through to new opportunities pro­ Stress was laiel on the need of photographic docu­ mised by the Five Year Plans. The aim was' to mentation and illustration of designs, shapes and hold up th~ mirror to hereditary skills struggling forms not only by photographs but with the help with the dialectics of tradition and change. of line drawings or sketches together with a full description of the materials used. Thus the first part of the questionnaire, pur­ Almost the whole of 1960 and the first half of porting to be a village schedule, sought to take 1961 \yere spent in organising and taking the account of the size and population of the village. census count, although s.everal States even during Its remoteness from or proqimity to centres of this period had not allowed the grass to grow trade and commerce, in short, the degree of iso­ under their feet but made exploratory studies and lation in which the artisan worked, and the re­ decided in their minds how the inquiry should be lative strengths of various communities in the organised. ;\ :ieries of r.egional conferences held village which would afford clues to social interde­ in Trinmdrum, Darjeeling and Srinagar in May pendence and the prevalence of the jajmani and June 1961 revealed much enthusiasm among system. The second part was devo~d m State Superintendents to proceed with the sur­ artisan communities in the village: the several vey, but the need of separate staff and equipment castes of artisans, the number of families in each. was felt nt the same tme as the realjzation dawned the total number of workers, males and females, that this was much too serious an inquiry to be the extent of co-operative activity among them, treated casually and left to be achieved through the extent of dependence upon employers and· of the usual administratiyc ,channels and State wage or contract labour. There were question. Census Superintendents pJ'oceeded to augment on the raw materials used, the means of their their staff with qualified research and inyestigat­ procurement, the possible extent of dependence on ing officers, technical persons, photographers, others for raw materials, the extent of the artists, draught:"mcn and other trained personnel. material that artisans can handle within the limits of their skill. There were other questions This was follm\'ed by rapid progress in co-ordi­ on the exchange and flow of designs, the use of nation between the Central and State Censu'5 colours, the ancientness of the craft and legends Offices in the matter of exchange and pro­ a:ssociated, the colonization of the craftsman, on cessing of information, documentation and inves­ patrons and customers and on social and econo­ tigation, of assisting each other with trained in­ mic contact with the world inside and outside vestigators and in eoiling and finalising drafts, the village. There were specific questions on the layouts. presentations. workshop itself and particularly the tools and the source of supply of these tools, because it wal'! l\Iention has been made of a questionnaire in felt that tools decide· everything and are the three parts and thirty questions. The idea was surest index of inertness or flexibility. Separate to mak.e a beginning with empirfcal, analytical hlocks of questions were designed to bring out studies ba;;;ed on a structured questionnaire the ramifications of artisa.n castes throughout the which would replace general descriptive accounts country and the ways they sustained themselves, tn8t had obtllined so far. The primary aim was the type of clientele they catered for, the extent to obtnin a picture as much of the artisan himself to which they operated on money or barter or as of his craft, to obtain. a perspective of the service, how specialized their craft was, how wide artisan and his craft in his social and economic the market, how dependent ,they were on their socia.lly preordained clientele and how restricted the counterpart of the :6.rst' part of the February the latter was by the seemingly unalterable laws 1960 schedule, contained 19 large sections of social custom; the extent to which they could ('ont~tining elaborate and probing questions. The operate in the open market, the range of heir Family Schedule for practising artisan famil~es lvares and the sizes to which these were ordi­ simila~ly contained 19 main questions each narily restricted either by the limits of their own subdivided into many questions. The }-'amily skill or the length of their customers' purse­ Schedule for non-practising artisan families strings. Inquiries were to be made about the contained 21 questions. There were schedules operation of middlemen and of co-operative for the study of co-operati,'e societies, of societies, the people who gave new designs and production-cum-training centres, anfl of con:m­ demanded new products. Finally, the several mer's preference. This enlarged schedule of stages of production of the articles themselves investigation, in the formulation of which the were to be fully described including the final and States themselves actively assisted, w:}s greatly finishing stage and a list of very skilled craftsmen welcomed. The surveys that will appent' in this of each community was to be furnished. The series win therefore consist of two main types: third part was devoted specially to tribal com­ (a) those based on the original short schedule munities and designed to find out how self-suffi­ and (b) those based on the much enlarged cient or dependent they were on the production schedule. In some cases Census Superinten­ and supply of manufactured goods, the extent to dents felt enthused enough to scrap the ,york which they produced themselves or depended on based on the original short schedule and do it others, their contacts with other communities and over again on the enlarged schedule. In the the specific forms of production and commerce meantime much experience was gained on the through which these contacts were maintained. analysis of facts and figures to clothe each observation with plenty of authentic information Particular emphasis was laid on the need of so that the reader, could make his own judge­ obtaining as full an account as possible for unique ment instead of being expected to see all the regional design differentiations as they reflect time through another pair of eyes. ~ not only the very culture patterns of the country This programme of survey of handicrafts and but the persistent inv,entive faculties of the household industries has been fortified by several craftsmen. The importance was emphasised of ancillary surveys, each one of whi.ch would giving full attention to articles of domestic use deserve major attention. Along with the survey as it is in their shapes, designs and forms that. a compilation has been made 01 all handicraft the culture patterns and traditional skills persist most tenaciously. centres in each State and an inyentory prepared of skilled craftsmen. Photographic and other SimultafltCously with the investigation of documentation has been built up to constitute specific crafts, State Superintendents proceeded what may now be regarded as the most to compile a comprehensive list of aU types of considerahle repository in the country. Ela bo­ handicrafts obtaining in their State. As for the rate and accurate maps of craft centres in taluks, specific crafts to be investigated several tahles tehsils and districts arc either ready or under were devised from the structured questionnaire preparation. A full census of all fairs and in order to guide investigations towards pointed festivals, weekly hats and markets, throughout observation and analysi'l, to enable them to India, has been taken and is being published for 'write, not just general descriptions, but with the first time. Andhra Pradesh has embarked their eye on the object and on facts. upon a project of chronicling the social and religious antiquity and uniqueness of eyery fair Investigations conducted between September and festiva1. A separate yolume will be devoted 1961 and May 1962, including a study group of to each distriet which promises to be of the all State~ and the Social Studies Division in utmost valtH' to sociologists and ol'ientalists. A December 1961 at Delhi, stimulated many of full and complete inventory, replete with the State~ into going in for a much enlarged sketches and measurements of every object, has schedule. The revised village schedule itself, heen prepared of exhibits in museums of tribal viii crafts in India. There has been a fairly satis­ organised and executed. under great stram . and factory survey of houses and buildings. indi­ in disregard of health and comfort, for which I genous architectural designs and use of local take this opportunity of ~xpressing my apprecia­ building material of the whole country. All this tion and grateful thanks to my colleagues. has been entirely a labour of love, patiently

New Delhi, ASOK MITUA, July 30, 1964. Registrar General, India. PREFACE

It was the express desire of the Registrar being the close preserve of the respective General, India, Shri Asok Mitra, I.C.S. to bring community. These and other artisans seem to out monographs on select handicrafts in vogue display an innate love for the craft they ply as in the various parts of the country, and in his evidenced by the fact that despite insufficiency foreword he has explained at length the genesis of earnings and lack of patronage, they ha ve for this desire. The crafts studied in Mysore still been clinging to them. This is especially have been chos,tm in accordance with the criteria true of _skills that are transmitted from father to that he has laid down. son in a traditional fashion which appears to infuse in the artist a more than economic Seven monographs-all dealing with crafts interest. which use wood as their chief. raw material­ have already appeared in Part VII-A. I am The post independence period is marked by happy to now place before the readers this efforts both at the' Governmental and institu­ second and final volume embracing the following tional levels, to provide a strong base to the crafts :- existing handicrafts in the country and in these (i) Bidriware. monographs an attempt has been made to high- (ii) Pottery. -light all recent changes. (iii) Carpets of N avalgund. Sri S. Ramachandran, Senior Technical (iv) Silk Weaving of Kollegal and I Assistant has carried out the field work with (v) Silver Jewellery. devotion and zeal. He has drafted these mono­ graphs besides taking the photographs presented These crafts, by and large, continue to be in the volume. The entire work of investigation carried on mostly by castes which are tradi­ and drafting has be.en carried out under my tionally associated with them. To illustrate, person~l guidance and supervision. Sri M. A. the weavers at Kollegal are Devangas and the Srinivasan, Assistant Superintendent of Census silversmiths at Udipi are either "Viswa Operations, has gone through the monographs Brahmins" or "Daivagna Brahm~ns", each craft and assisted me in editing.

Bangalore, K. BALASUBRAMANY AM. 10th October 1968. Superintendent of Cen.nts Operations in Mysore.

CONTENTS

1. BIDRIWARE OF BIDAR

CH~RI-INTRODUCTORY PAGES Introduction-Centre of Production-History of the Craft-Households of Bidri Workers­ Establishments 1-2

CHAPTER II-TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND ARTICLES PRODUCED Raw materials-Tools-Forms of Bidri-The AlloY-(I) Preparation of Alloy (2) Preparation of mould (3) Casting (4) Preparing the Wax-Bed (5) Designing (6) Preparation of Silver Wire (7) Inlaying (8) Colouring (9) Polishing-Designs-Articles produc~d : (1) Ash-trays (2) Boxes (3) Trays (4) Blades (5) Flagons and Vases (6) Figures .. 3-10

CHAl'TER III-ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS Cost of Production-Capital-Production-Marketing-Households of the craftsmen and their family composition-Economic condition-Migrants-Co-operative Societies-Bidriware Union-Training Centre 11-18

CHAPTER IV-CONCLUSION 19 Appexdix I List of Bidriware Craftsmen at Bidar 20 Appendix,11 Price list of Bidriware articles 20

2. POTIERY OF MYSORE CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTORY Introduction 23-25 CHAPTER II-TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND ARTICLES PRODUCED Raw materials-Tools-Techniques of Pro..!luction-Articles Produced-Articles made at Bijapur 26-34

CHAPTER III-ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS Cost of Production-Capital-Marketing-Economic condItion of Kumbars-Case Studies­ Co-operative Societies-Details of Potters, Co-operative Society at Ramanagaram- Training Centre 35-42

CHAPTER IV-CONCLUSION 43 Appendix I-Price list of articles produced at the pilot production unit attached to the Artisan Training Institute, Khanapur 44 Appendix II-Price list of articles produced at the pilot production unit attached to the Artisal\ Training Institute, Ra~nagaram 44

3. CARPETS OF NAV ALGUND CHAPTD I-INTRODUCTORY [ntroduction-Centres of Production-The Craftsmen-Establishments 47--4S zii

PAGES CHAPTElt II-TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND CARPETS PRODUCED Raw materials-Tools-Techniques of Production-Carpets produced 49-51

\ CHAPTER III-ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS Cost of Production-Capital-Production-Marketing-Households of Carpet makers­ Economic conditions-Co-operative Society 52-54

CHAPTER IV""':'CONCLUSION . S5 Appendix I-History of Navalgund .. 56

. 4. SILK WEAVING OF KOLLEGAL

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTORY Introduction-The Centre of StudY-Establishments-Sericulture in Mysore 59-61

CHAPTER II-TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND FABRICS PRODUCED Raw materials-Tools-TechR,iques of Production-Fabrics Produced-Designs 62-67 .

CHAPTER III-ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS Cost of Production-Wage Structure-Capital-Production-Marketir [-C c· (r uatiw SocietY-Households of Weavers 68-71

CHAPTER IV-CONCLUSION 72

5. SILVER JEWELLERY

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION Introduction-Centre of Study-The Craftsmen-Establishments 75-78

~ CHAPTER II-TECHNIQUES OF PRODY-CTION AND ARTICLES PRODUCED Raw materials-Tools-Techniques of Production-Articles produced .. 79-83

CHAPTER III-ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS Cost Structure-Households of Craftsmen 84

CHAPTER IV-CONCLUSION &.5 Appendix I-List of Goldsmiths in Udipi who are engaged in the trade 86 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

BIDRIWARE OF BIDAR Betult:ell Page,~ 1. 'Tharpatti' used for reducing the gauge of silver wire 20-21 2. Tools for chasing and inlaying-hammer and chisels 3. Bent and straight scrapers employed at the final stages of smoothening of a bidriware 4. M;:tal cutter and pliers are essential tools for the crafts 5. Graphite crucibles are the receptacles employed for melting the alloy 6. Making of mould to cast a flagon The pattern of the flagon is placed in the centre ofthe 'Darza'. The moulder is ready to dust the ash tied up in a cloth, on the pattern 7. After ramming the recess of the 'Darza' with moulding sand, the moulder presses it well by his heels S. Moulding sand left above the flask is levelled to the edges of Darza by means of a wooden blade. 9. The impression of the pattern left on the moulding sand .. 10. The molten alloy is poured into the mould through the feeding head of Darza 11. The mould is split and the cast piece is ready for withdrawal from the mould 12. The moulder is scraping off the moulding sand sticking to the cast pieces. The piece is to be trimmed by removing the runners 13. Filing is the stage of work after casting. A craftsman is filing a bidri box 14. Bidriware is scraped at the final stage of smoothening 15. A designer scratching the figure of TajmahaI on a piece for chasing. The plate is smeared with the solution of copper sulphate 16. Inlaying of silver wire. The design is the figure of Charminar 17. A craftsman inlaying silver sheets on the side of a box IS. A craftsman at the final stage of inlaying the lid of a box 19. Mixing of 'Rangachadaneke Mutti' and ammonium nitrate for colouring the bidriware 20. The bidriware after immersing in the boiling solution of 'Rangachadaneke Mutti' and animo- nium nitrate is washed in cold water 21. A tray of size 6"x4" 22. Kumkum box of mango shape 23. Ash tray of aeroplane shape 24. A plate of 8" diameter inlaid with the figure of Tajmahal 25. A plate of S" diameter inlaid with a figure representing raag Malhari 26. A Zodiac plate of 6" diameter 27. Peacock light stand 28. Set of bidriware buttons (sjze 3J4/1 x3;4/1) 29. A cigarette case . 30. An ash-tray 31. Mango shaped small boxes with hinged lids, the stem opening up by the movement of tbe lid ~ithet towards the left or the right . mv

Between Page~ 32. Circular box with a lid 20-2] 33. Spherically shaped bowl with cover and tray 34. Elliptically shaped box for a writing desk 35. Concave circular plate featuring a leaf design_ 36. Rectangular tray with curved corners 37. (a) Pandan: A rl!ctangular container with tray for serving betel l¢aves and accessories. This is divided into three sections, viz., the knobbd lid, the container and the tray (b) Tray in which pan is served 38. Butterfly shaped paper weights 39. The cobra featuring an intricate design produced by the inlay of silver wires, can also hold a candle in the cup and saucer like arrangement seen on its hooded head

POTTERY OF MYSORE H-45

1. Mysore type wheel having four spokes 2. Dharwar type wheel with six spokes 3. Propelling the wheel with a stick inserted in a hole in the rim 4. A thrower shaping a clayware on the wheel 5. Wheel of Kudikebevoor is of the Mysore type but smaller in size. Here a potter is shaping a tiny clay pot - 6. P.>tters of South Kanara siton a low stool while throwing. The assistant sits on the ground to propel the wheel. The wheel in the photograph is a solid stone disc padded on by a thick layer oftermitarium earth and coir at the outer periphery . 1 7. A cup sb'lped wheel of South Kanara-The quantity of clay on the wheel head would, suffice to throw 5 to 10 articles 8. Improved type of wheel designed by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission. The wheel is provided with ball bearing 9. Pounding of clay-a preliminary operation 10. Scraping of kneaded clay for rem9val of pebbles 11. Shaping the lip 12. Claywares still in a crude state-being dried in the sun 13. Stone and flat mallet employed for shaping thrown articles 14. Beating or drubbing IS. In Khanapur 'Bhing' is smeared on the ware to give an ~ttractive lustre 16. Women also drub the clay wares to shape 17. Loading of vessels in a kiln 18. After loading, straw is spread over the vessels 19. Glden P:Jts loading for firing in the kiln. Shards will be used to cover the articles 2). In Ki'liibbevoor tiny articles are loaded in a crucible type kiln for firing 21. Kiln-covered with shards ~2. A half completed kiln for baking bricks 23. A large cauldron of clay 24. Pots-with narrow and wide mouths :tv· ,'i

Retltleell, Pages 25. Clay vessels of Khanapur 26. Clay lids 27. Pots of Kudikebevoor 28. Garden pots of Ramanagaram 29. Water coolers 30. Improved garden pots 31. Making of stoneware by jigger-jolley method at Vanitha Sahakar Kamgar Sangh, KhanapuT 32. , Finishing a jar 33. Glazing of clay cups 34. Finishing a sanitary ware 35. Carrying claywares to shandy 36. Women attend to dispose of the clay vessels in the shandy 37. Wooden mould used in the making of garden pot (a) The surface of the mould is dusted with ash (b) Pressing the clay into the mould (c) The excess clay is cut off with a wire 38. The moulder removes the clay slab from the mould (a) Clay slabs are placed in the wooden mould and the edges are joined with slip (b) The mould is unlocked (c) A finished product 39. Making of bowl without a wheel-a little quantity of clay is placed on a stone disc. 40. The mass is drubbed with a stud shaped stone to a circular maSS 41. Drubbed clay mass 42. Finishing it into a bowl 43. A brick maker at work 44. Making of flooring tiles 45. Wooden mould for making bricks

46. Pressing of clay into the mould for making bricks. At a time two bricks can be made ill ?I mould 47. Stoll~wares m'lde in the Vanitha Sahakar Kamgar Sangh, Khanapur 48. Trainees at work-operating ball bearing wheels

CARPETS OF NAV ALGUND 56-67

1. A carpet on display 2. A fully spread carpet 3. A clrpet in th! mlking: notice the designs in the border and the peafowls in the body 4. A carpet of another popular design 5. A 'namaj carpet' highly cherished by Muslims

Sn.K WEAVING OF KOLLEGAL 72-73 1. A front view of an idle, fly-shuttle pit-100m 2. Arate the bamboo bobbin Between Pages 3. A view of the jacquard arrangement 72-73 4. Setting the jacquard for the desired design 5. Front view of the loom in action 6. Side-view of the loom in action 7. Folding a finished piece of saree 8. Saree folded and bUng on a rod shows a popular border deiign 9. Popular border design 10. Popular border design 11. Lace (Jari) design on a saree 12. Intricately designed Jari seragu of a saree

SILVER JEWELLERY After Pages 1. Goldsmith at his anvil 86 2. The wire drawing machine 3. A plir of gold b1ngles in bentex design 4. Two plirs of gold bangles 5. GJld necklace-Muttina Sara 6. Cycle chain necklace 7. Necklace-Rope pattern 8. Lotus shaped Kumkum cups of silver 9. Silver tumblers 10. Chombu-a small silver pitcher II. Silverware-Panchapatra and Uddarane (a tumbler and a small laddie) used by Brahmins and a few others during Salldhyavandana prayers and other religious occasions 12. A bowl like container of silver which can be used for keeping vermilion or turmeric dust or coloured rice or for holding water offered as oblations. DIDRIW ARE OF DIDAR

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTORY

Introduction States in 1956, Bidar was a district of the erstwhile The craft of Bidriware is a relic of the spacious Hyderabad State. Situated in 17°55' Nand days of old when life and problems of living were 77°32' E on an elevated' and healthy plateau, it is at a height of 2,330 feet above sea level. The area not so pressing and complicated as in modern times; of th(' town is 3.5 square miles and its population when beauty in craftsmanship was d{:'emed as impor­ according to 1961 Census is 32,420. tant and worthwhile as the utility of the products of a craft. In modern times persons care, by and large, more for usefulness on a large scale than for It is a town of historical importance. In the artist.ry in the select products of any craft however Imperial GazettE'E'r of India it is stated that beautiful they may be. From this standpoint the " According to local tradition, the Kakathiya Raja" Bidri craft may appear to be an anachronism in the of Warangal endowed a temple of :Ylahadeo whieh modern set-up of the machine age. In these days, existed here and a town sprang up in its vicinity persons are leaning more towards large scale and in the middle of the thirteenth century, which jwavy industl'ies apd against this background, a craft became the capital of a large province. Ulugh whose chief feature is delicate workmanship carried Khan afterwards Muhammad Bin Tughlak, besieged on by a small number of households in just one and took it in 1321, but subsequently, when the town may appear out-moded. But, modernism governors of the Deccan rebelled, Ala-ud-din Hasan, apart, if artistic workmanship in any craft is worthy the founder of the Bahamani dynasty, annexE'd the of notice, then the craft of Bidriware, indeed town to his new kingdom in 1345. Ahmed Sha Wali, constitutes quite an intcresting study. the tenth Bahamani King, founded the modern city and built the fort, removing his court here from As Damascening is derived from Damascus, so is Gulbarga in 1430. Bidar continued to be the Bidri from Bidar, the town where it was first made. capital of the Bahamani kings until the ('xtinction Damascening is the art of encrusting wire of gold o~ that dYllastl~', when AmiI' Barid founded an or silwr on the surface of iron or steel. The surface inflf'pendent S1ate in 1492. Amil Barid ruled over upon which the pattern is to be traced is finely Bidar and the surrounding country, and was undercut with a sharp instrument. The gold or buceE'eded by his son Ali Barid in 15138, who was silver thread is forced into the minute furrows of thE' fir&t to llSSlIllle the titl(~ of Shah and died in the cd surface by hammering, and the wire IS 1582, Three other kings, lbrllhim, Kasim Bal'id and securely hdd. This system of ornamentation IS Mirza Ali Bal'id, followed, the last of whom assumed peculiarly oriental having been much practised by the title of AmiI' Barid If, This short lived dynasty the early goldsmiths of Damascus. Bidri is the art became extinct when AmiI' Barid II was ma?e a of encrusting wire or silver or gold on the surface prisonE'r, and SE'nt to Bijapur by Ibrahim Adil Shah. 'Or ' Ihlri', a binary alloy of z:nc and copper'. The III 1624 the Nizam Shahi troops uncleI' ::\{alik Amber finished Bidriware resembles damascened ware as a.ttacked and plundered Bidar, but it was retaken (h(' Biclri is made jeot black so as to resemble stee! by the Bijapur king. In 1656 Aurangazeb besieged which is the base metal used in the craft of and took Bidar, changing its name to Zafarabad. :In maSCCll ing. The town remained in the possession of the }\fughals till the first of thE' Nizams dE'clared his independence, Colour eonlrast is the special attraction of Bidri­ earl? in the eig-hte0nth ecntury". ware. Bidriware nE'ither rusts nor corrodes. How­ ever, the alloy is brittle. The town of Bidar must have been of great extent Centre of Production in its pro, perous days, as appears from its palacE'S, mosques and other buildings. Among these may be Ridar is the only centre in M.vsore State, where mentioned .the great Madarasa or College built by . the craft is carried on. The place is the headquar­ Mahamud Gavan, the Bahamani Minister, which 18 ters of Bidar District. Prior to the re-organisation of now in l'lIins : ,the .Tama M[lsjid. and' the Sola Khllmba 2

or sixteen pillared mosque. The last of these is in local progenitors of the craft were goldsmiths, as they the citadel, which also contains the ruined Rang were the persons who were already practising an Mahal or' coloured palace', the remain" of Il,illt, allied craft. In the later years the Muslims of the a Turkish bath, an arsenal, and several powder locality took up the craft and even today the magazines. The fortification and battlemented walls majority of the craftsmJen engaged in this craft are of this place are very strong and are still well Muslims. preserved. On its numerous bastions, pieces of ordnance are mounted, some of very large size; one Households of Bidri workers of them specially remarkable as having been brought from Bijapur. West of the town are the tombs of According to the present survey 61 households are Ali Barid, Kasim Barid and others of the same engaged in this craft of Bidriware. Of these 61 house­ dynasty, while twelve tombs of the Bahamani kings holds, 55 are Sunni IVhlslim households and 5 belong are situated to the North-East in the village of to the Hindu castes of Medars and 1 Bestha. Medal' Ashtur. Most of the old buildings in the fort are is an occupational caste and members of this caste Are basket makers. Bestha is the caste of fishermen. now used as offices. The total number of persons engaged in this craft is Q6. Bidar is the chief trade centre of the district and has given its name to a class of metal work made of an alloy of copper, lead, tin and zinc, inlaid with Establishments silver or gold. This industry. however, is not flourishing. Seventeen establishments are engaged in the manufacture of Bidriware. Any production unit, household or non-household (co-operative) The crafts of leather goods making and smithy is deemed production are also prevalent at Bidar, but these as an independent establishment. Of the 17 esta­ cra.fts have nothing to do with the craft of Bidriwarc. blishments 11 are proprietary establishments run by households and 6 are Co-operative Socidie~. Out d the 11 proprietary establishments, 7 are based on History of the Craft household labour, 3 are carried on with household The craft of Bidriware flourished under the and hired labour and one depends on hired labour patronage of Bahamani and Barid dynasties when only. they had Bidar as their capital. It is said that the first. artisan who was working in the Bidri medium The six Co-operative establishments are run by the was Abdulla bin Khaiser a migrant to Bijapur. It promoters of the Society where the members work appears, the earliest craftsmien might be migrants as hired labourers. In 3 of the Societies the finan­ from Iran. According to Mr. Speight the first Bidri ciers and their household members also work and work might have appeared in the last years of ta.ke wages as apy hired worker. The financiers of Bahamani dynasty, i.e., the earlier decades of the the other :3 Societies are sympathisers of the sixteenth century. However, it is believed that the respective societies and are also businessmen. I

CHAPTER II

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND ARTICLES PRODUCED

Raw Materials manufacture of coins, ornaments and jewellery. The metal is of a brilliant whi,te colour and re, istant to The raw materials used in this craft are zl,nc, atmospheric oxidation. One gram of pure silver may copper, silver, German silver, tin, lead, copper be drawn intO' a wire more than a mile long and can sulphate and, the O'ther materials employed are re,in, be beaten to leaves thinner than 0.00025 mm. beeswax, groundnut oil, castor oil, moulding sand, ash, etc. For purposes of inlaying on Bidri, silver is used in Zinc the form of wire as well as leaf. It is sold by jewellers at Bidar at Rs. 2.30 for 10 gms. This is the basic metal In the alloy.* Freshly cast zinc has a bright silvery blue surface German Silver and on storage in air it becomes grayish owing to The constituents of this alloy al'e copper, nickel the formation of a filin of its oxide, which protec~ s and zinc. It is a silvery white alloy of good strength it from further oxidation. Zinc is mostly used for and resistant to corrosion. It is employed in the g1tllvanizing. It is also used for dye-casting alloy. form of wires to hinge the lids of boxes. It is available with the local dealers at Rs. 14.00 per Kg. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, the portion of zinc being 30 per cent to 40 per cent of the alloy. Lead and Tin Zinc used at Bidar for manufacture of Bidriware Tin is a white metallic element wi'h a yellowish tint. is imported from Australia and supplied to the Lead is a bluish grey metal. Lead is the heaviest Bidriware Co-operative Societies • through the Union and softest or common metals. The soft solder of Bidriware Co-operative 'Societies. The Govern­ (lead-tin alloy) is used for soldering when the parts ment quota is sold at Rs. 1. 50 per Kg. and it is of a Bidriware cast separately are joined. Tin costs available with the dealers at Rs. 3.30 per Kg. Rs. 42.00 per Kg. while lead costs Rs. 1.50 per Kg. Individual workers and private establishments obtain the quantities of zinc ,they require from local dealers Copper Sulphate as the Union supplies zinc to the Co-operative It is a salt soluble in water. The solution of copper Societies only. sulphate smeared on Bidri lends a temporary black­ ness to the alloy. This black background makes it Copp'er easy for the artisan to chase the design on it, as the Copper is the other metal found in the composition lines drawn by him would expose the metal which Df the alloy. It is a reddish blue mel:>] which is would shine against the black background. Crystals malleablc and ductile. It is the principal constituent of COpPlT sulphate are sold at Rs. 3.00 per Kg. hy or a wide range of alloys. The major portion of this the local dealers. metal produced to-day is utilised by the electrical industries. Formerly it was uscd extensively for Resin household utensils. In Bidar it is sold in ~heets at It is the residue got from the diistillation of turpen­ Rs. 5.00 per Kg. tine. The colDur Df resin used at Bidar is brown and Silver this resin eosts Rs. 1.62 pel' Kg. Re'im is used in the preparation of the moulding sand to render it Silver is employed for inlaying the alloy. Silver is sticky. It is also used in the preparation of wax­ used as it is very malleable and ductile and also bed on which the Bidriware is reposed for chasing cheaper than gold. It has long been used in the and inlaying.

*It is a metallic clement with atomic No. 30 "nel atllluic weight 65.38. It melts at 42{)'C. hnd hoils at 9{)7~f'. The chief Ofe vf zinc is zinc blemle or sphalerite. AftEr mining, the sphalorite deposits (\r~ cru~hcd and conceutn1te(1 in flotatiGu circuits of consie­ derltble complexity. Efforts are mane to soparate load, copper and other values as sep'trate concentratcf'. Zinc was not in \'ogyc­ ill ,,'t)mmercial quantities till tho heginning of tht 18th centhl'y, as the metal could not be made in oither hlast or reverberatory furances which are employed for producing most of the major metals. It was in tho beginning of tho 18th centmy t.hat tho diffL culties were overcome and since then the metal is made in commercial qualltitieH. Groundnttt Oil pliers, tongs, hammer, anvil, flasks, carving chisels, wire lhawing scale, scrapers and crucible are the It is extracted from gronndnut anu is used with important tools and articles used in the craft. resin in the preparation of the wax-bed. It is sold in the provisi·on shops of Bidar at Rs. 2.00 per Kg. Files of different shapes like half-round, round, It is also used in the ultimate stage of work in which square with rough and smooth' surfaces and of sizt' Bidriware is made lustrous. 6", 8", 10" & 1'Z" are used for smoothening the alloy after casting an article and prior to inlaying. Castor Oil This oil is empl0.Yc,d in thc preparation of moulding Vices are needed for holding the article to be filed sand. It is also availahle in the provision shops of and scraped. the loclllity at Rs. 2.00 per Kg. Blower is indispensable and employed for supplying , Dhalneki l\,f itt i , air to the (urnace.

This is the moulding sand employed in the making Drill is essential for making holes in the cast pieccs. of moulds for casLing. It is available in the vicinity of Bidar. The artisans have to spend about Re. 0.25 A wire drawing scale or Tharpatti is employed for towards lahour charges to c01le('t m01l1dil!~ sinH] of [l I'eclucing the gauge of the silver wire to be inlaid. quantity which Clln be filkd in a cement bag. The Tharpatti consists of as many as 'ZO apertures of various gauges ranging trom 14 to 34. The silver , Rangchadanel... e Mitti' wire whose gauge is to be reduced is heated and drawn through the apertures in 'Tharpatti' starting It is a kind of mud used for blackening the alloy from the gauge of the wire itself and then the next of Bidri after inlaying. This is a special typc of mud smaller gauge and so on till the wire is reduced to the uyailahle in the fort area of RicIar. The artisans get required gauge. this mud from that place quite free of cost. Scrapers and chisels are made by local blacksmiths .4sh out of used up files. A scraper whose edge is l" to Ash obtained from burnt firewood is used as a 1 r' and resembles that of u.ehisel is used (or scraping parting medium and for smoothening the surface of and smoothening the articles after inlaying. Scrapers the casting. Ash is (lustd over fncil1g s:w(l after are of two shapes, one is straight and in the oth~r ~'ithdrawing the paHf'I'n from the mould and on the there is a rough right angled bend at the scraping ;>attern before ramming moulding s:l11(l OYPI' it . end.

.4mmonillm Nitrate Three kinds of chisels are used in the craft. The 61'st called d1'a'wing Kalam or drawing pen has a shrap This salt is used along with the mud got from thr edge like that of a needle and is used to sketch the fort area for preparing' Rangchadaneke Mitti '. design on the smface of the alloy. The second type is called 'Chilne Kalam' meaning the chisel for The metals and all other materials except the mud chasing. This type of chisel has also a sharp edge and ash employed in the craft are brought to the and is employed fo.r chasing the design on the alloy locality from different part.s of the country. The to hold the mllterilll to be inlaid. The third type local dealers obtain these articles from merchants at , Chappat Kalam' is a chisel with a blunt edge and Hyderabad. used for emhedding the silver wire into the engraved design. TOOLS (Plate 1)- Tools and implements employed in the craft of The drawing Kalam is manipulated with fr('c hand, Bidriware arc' mostly factory made and these arc while the Chilne Kalam and Chappat KalwTn arc bought by the artisans from local dealers who gct hammered by means of crosspan hammer. them from wholesalers at Hyderabad. Files, bcnch and hand yice, hack-saw frame and blades, blower, Tongs are used for holding the crucible containing metal cutters, calipers, drill with bits set, cutting- the molten alloy. 5

Cutting scissors, calipers, cutting-pliers, anvil and Rs. Ps. hammer are llsed as and when needed and no specific Drill with bits SQ.~O type of use can be assigned to them. Cutting pliers 4.00 Tonges 3.00 The flask called Dm·za is made by local blacksmiths Hammer 0.75 to 5.0n to order. This flask is made of pressed steel sheets. Darza 3.00 to 5.00 It is a stirrup-shaped flask of size 8"X 4" to 16"X 12". Carving chisels-dozen 1.50 The Darza box is made in two similar pieces, one a Wire clra wing scale 2.50 cope, or the upper half of the Darza and the other a Anvil 5.00 drag, or the bottom half of it. Both cope and drag Crucibles-lb. 0.50 consist of only s.ides in stirrup shapes, the width of which is !i" to ~". Forms of Bidri The two main forms of Bidri are known as Taih­ Crucible nishall and zarnu:ihall. Taihnishan is deeply ellt work The crucible is the receptacle used for melting the and Zamishan is raised work. In the Taihnishan the alloy. The thickness of the sides of the crucible i..; pattel'll is dccply excavated and the slinT or gold in 8 to 10 mms. The size of this container is expressed the form of wire or leaf is embedded and afterwards in terms of lbs. representing the quantity of the the surface is smoothed and polished. In Zarnishan metal that the vessel can contain. The size ranges the oulline of the pattern is engraved, the silver leaf from ~ lb. to 24 lbs. Formerly the artisans were held over and rubbed with fingers until a tracing of using crucibles imported from Germany. Now they the design is imparted on it. The leaf is thpn cut are using the crucibles made at Rajamundry in into the dpsired pieces, each a little larger than the Andhra Pradesh. space it is intended to cover. A deep etching is made and a core of soft lead is prepared to fit into The current retail rates of the articles used in the the cavity. This lead coyered with silver is pressed craft are as follows:- into the cayity. AHel'\\"ards it is hammered all round ~o as 1n calise the Sll daee metal to embrace and fix Rs. Ps. the appliC'd piece. The process is finished by the 4.00 (Indian) Files 12" flat & rough silwl' It'af being punched on the surface in completion Files 12" flat & smooth 4.00 of the desired pattern. At Bidar the craftsmen 8.00 Files 12" half round & rough follow the Taihnishan proceb8. J;'iles 12" half round & smooth 8.00 Files 10" flat & rough 4.00 Files 10" flat & smooth 4.00 THE ALLOY Files 10" half round & rough 4.00 Bidri is a nun-flTrous binary alloy of zinc and Files 10" half round & smooth 4.00 copper and consists of 16 parts of zinc to 1 of copper. Files 10" round and smooth 2.00 Files 10" flu t & smooUl 4.00 References show that the composition of the alloy Files 8" flat & rough 4.00 has not always b{'('ll uniform. In a pamphlet exhi­ Files 8" flat & smooth 4.00 I,ited at lhc Archaeological :\IUSl'llll1 at JIyderahad, 4.00 Files 8" half round and rough it j~ ,tated that "The Bidri is composed of zinc Files 8/1 half round & smooth 4.00 83.5 pc'r cent, copper 12 per cent, lead 3 per cent and Files 8" square !l.00 tin 1.5 per cent". In the Asiatic .Juurnal foJ' -:\£a1"("h Files 6" flat & IOugh 4.00 1817 Dr. Benjamin Hc,\'cns has mentioned. " the alloy 4.00 Files 6" flat & smooth consisls of 24 parts of tin to 1 of copper ". ~Ir. Wil­ 8.00 Files 6" half round & rough kin') lws Wl'i! tel} in )"('1)]'\· to Dr. Heyens tha ~ "IIl(' allov Files 6" half round & smooth 3.00 c[)ntailJcd zinC' ill place of lin alung with copper ". Bench vices 3" n.oo In the" Indian Art at Delhi ", Sir (~("orgc Watt h.as Bench vices 4" 30.00 llH'llliollCd that" Both the forms of alloy seems to Hacksaw frame 7.00 preyail ". He says further: ,. In Lucknow the cl1ief Blower ~O.OO ll1etal is zinc and the other~ lead, tin and copper eu tting Scissors S.OO being [uMe(l each ill the proportion of ] /16th of thp Ca]wers 8.80 zinc ". Again, hc S1YS: "In Hyderabad, zinc ~eem~ ti to bc grf'atly red'uc('d, ani! lead mllch inCl'C'llse". J\faJ'king the design and chasing it for inlaying can All these, however, are accounts relating to the he easily done on the alloy. After colouring, the composition of Bidri as it was in times gonc by. At alloy becomes jet black and has the a:ppearance of present, however, these proportions of the metals in steel and the silver inlaid Bidriware always looks as the alloy do not prevail either at Bidar or at. Hydera­ if it is a damascened ware. bad. The artisans say that the alloy of Bidri is of zinc and copper since a pretty long time and they 2. Preparation of do not know anything about the other metals being Mould used in producing the alloy. Moulding sand locally called Garki mitti is sieved to produce a fine powder, as the presence of any Techniques of Production coarse grain spoils thc mould. Resin is heated in The production process of Bidl'iware can be set castor oil and stirred intermittently so that the down in the following nine stages of work :- ingredicnts become a fine mixture. The mixture of resin and castor oil is straightaway "floured illto the heap of sieved garki rnitti, The mitti is kneaded well 1. Preparation of alloy. with hands till it becomes sticky. This prepared 2. Prepara t ion of mould. materials is called Dhaln'eki mitti. 1.18 Kg. of 3. Casting. pwpared moulding sand contains 1 Kg. of ga rld mitti, 4. Preparing the wax-bed. O. 12 Kg. of resin and 0.06 Kg. of castor oil. 5. Designing. 6. Preparation of silver wire. The drag of Darza, the bottom half of the 7. Inlaying. i.e., flask is placed on a flat wooden board. The 8. Colouring. patt~rn 9. Polishing. of the article (made of bidri) to be cast is placed flat side down on the board in the centre of the drag after dusting the pattern with ash, well sieved and 1. Preparation of alloy tied up in a piece of cloth. This coating of ash keeps Zinc is weighed and placed in the crucible. The the pattern from sticking to the mouding sand when it will be removed from the box. The crucible is LhcIl placed in the fire box or the furnace. recess of the Darza is rammed with moulding sand The furnace employed is of the crucible type in which and pressed well by the: heels of the moulder. the heating chamber is movable and indepen<1C'nt of After iramming, the moulding sand left extra the furnace structure. The furnace is a crude con­ above fhe frame of the: the Darza is removed by struction of mud. A fire box in which the fuel is means of a wooden blade so as to level the moulding burnt is built in the furnace and the air required to sand too the' edgcs of the frame. Another flat woe (teTt support combustion of the fuel is let in through a board is placed on this levelled top side and the set hand operated fan blo,,,er. Of late, the arti., ans have is turned over so that the board, formerly at the base, taken to using blowers in lieu of bellows. Charcoal can be removed. Ash tied up in the pouncing cloth is put in the fire box and fired. is sprinkled on the pattern as well as on the levelled moulding sand. The cope of D(1Ifza, i.e., the upper The crucible containing zinc is placed in the fire half of the flask, is placed on the dmg consisting of box and is heated by the burning charcoal. COPPCl', the pattern rammed with moulding sand, with the kept ready at hand, is added to the zinc bath amI locks of cope and drag intact. Now the recess of the allowed to melt. Dross, if any, is skimmed off. cope is filled with the moulding sand, evenly rammer] The molten alloy is poured into mOlllds and east and pressed again with heels of the moulder. The into blocks. These blocks can be readily used. The extra moulding sand above the frame's edge is alloy also melts sooner than copper and saves time. remoyed a'l was done earlier. The frame is unloeked But the practice of making the alloy jll~t befllre the and {]'ivided into its .component parts of cope alld casting is to be done, is also in vogue. The alloy drag. The pattern is withdrawn from the mould with­ contains zinc :.md copper in the proportion of 16 : 1 out de"troying tlbe shape imparted to it. hy weight. This alloy lends itself easily to producing good castings. 'When it congeals in the mould it 3. Oastrng takes a perfect form. The molten alloy does not clog in the mouth and runs freely in the mould. It Again, ash is sprinkled on the facing sand of both neither rusts nor corrodes and take's a fine polish. the halves of the flask so that the a'lloy may not stick to the moulding sand after casting (Plate .. ) . t!horoughlfy mixed up. The proportion by weight of Besides, this affords a smooth surface on the cast groundnut oil, ral and wax in this mixture is 1:4:4. piece and makes it crack proof. The cavity being The mixture in its molten gltate is a viscous liquid. The molten mixture is poured on a stone slab of ready, channels are cut on the moulding sand in the about 120 square cms. in size, and allowed to solidify drag (the bottom half of the flask) to connect the to some extent. The slab may be square or rectan­ feeding head or mouth of the cavity (Plate .. ). gular in shape. The Bidriware to be chased and inlaid Ash is sprinkled on this channel also. Afterwards, is laid securely on this bcd at the pre termination the cope is placed on the drag intact and locked by stage of solidification. There is a double a(lvantage means of the locking device. The whole set is held in using the wax-bed. On the one hand it holds tight between the wooden boards at top and bottom the Bidriware as firmly as a vice and on the other, and is taken to the furnace. The crucible containing it also serves as a resilient pad to cushion the hammer the moIten alloy is removed from the fire box of the blows on the chisel during the chasing operation. !urnace wi~h the help of tongs and the molten alloy The alloy base which is very brittle is liable to'crack IS poured mto the mould through the feeding head unless properly cushioned. of the DarzH (Plate .. ). After waiting for a few minutes for the alloy to cool down, the Darza is A single article is fixed m a wax-bed when the unlocked and split into cope and drag (Plate .. ). article is sufficiently large. But when the articles The mIouIding sand holding the cast pieee is with­ are tiny, like buttons, paper knives, etc., some ten to drawn from the mould with the help of a plier. twenty of them are reposed on the same wax-bed. Moulding sand, if any, sticking to the piece is then scraped off (Plate .. ). The 'runmrrs, risers and cores are also removed and projections are trimmed off 5. Desigmng from the casting. It is not necessary to pt0-hent the By using a needle edged chisel called 'drawing mould as in the cire perdue process. The alloy will Kalam' the artisan scratches the design to be chased not suffer any serious change when poured straight­ on the piece. away into the mould. The same pattern can be used in the making of a number of moulds, whereas in the As already explained, a wax-bed is prepared and cire perdue process a wax replica can be used only the piece is placed on it. The artisan keeps the slab once and then one has to be made afresh for the carrying the wax-bed with the piece to be chased subsequent mould. Unlike in the cire perdue method reposed in it, on a low wooden desk and works of casting metal, here the same mould can be sitting on a mat placed on th€ ground. employed for more than one casting. 6. Preparation of silver 'Wirre The cast piece i" thoroughly filed by the use of rough and smooth files of different shapes and The craftsmen depend upon the local goldsmiths smoothened. At this stage the piece takes on a for preparation of silver wire. They supply the greyish white tint. lump of ,silver to the goldsmith and get the wire or sheet made in a wire drawing machine. The gold­ Copper sulphate solution is smeared on this piece smiths charge Rs. 0.10 per 10 grams of silver eithf~r which turns the greyish-white surface of the alloy to to convert the lump iuto wire or a sh€et. black. This black colour is removable by washing. This process helps the artisan more easily to However, to rE'duce the gauge of silver wire got distinguish the design configurations he chases on the from goldsmiths the craftsmen employ Tharpatti, a metal right through the black surface to the object's wire drawing scale. The silver wire whose gauge is greyish-white colour. to be reduced is drawn through the apertllfcs in Tharpatti starting from the gauge of the wire itself 4 . Preparing the wam-bed and Ithen the next smaller gauge, and so on till the wire is reduced to the required gauge. Bidriware to be chased and inlaid after easting has to be fixed on a bed of wax to facilitate the work of 7. Inlaying chasing and silver inlaying. Ral is heated and i:ntermitten+ly stirred with groundnut oil in an iron By using sharp edged chisels Lhe pattern of the 'pan. Bee-wax is added to the heated mixture and design is chased on the piece to the required depth. stirring IS continued till the ingredients get Thus is the ground well prepared for inlaying. Narrow cavities of the design are filled with wires Articles with flat bases cannot be straightaway and the w:der cavities with sheets. Th: wire or made in one casting. Typical of this type of artick~ sheet is placed in the cavity and pressed into it by are boxe~ and ash trays. A separate plate of the means of a blunt edged chisel and hammer. Further, required size and shape is cast and soldered to the the wire or sheet is well secured by hammering. The mam pIece. process is continued till the chased des~gn is comrlc­ tely inlaid. Articles having a lid undergo an extra stage in their making, namely hinging. The lid is cast and After this stage of work, the object is smoothened the usual process upto inlaying is carried Oil. Then by means of straight and bent scrapers. Then the the lid is hinged to the main body of the piece by article is withdrawn from the wax-bed and buffed means of German silver wirf: well with abrasive paper. Soldering is generally completed prior to the stage 8. Colouring of colouring. Hinging is doue even after the final stage of work, polishing. Next comes the stage of colouring, i.e., the process viz., of turning the alloy to ebony black. Designs , Rangchadancke miUi the fort mud' and ammonium The artismls have adopted both geometrical and nitrate are mixed in the proportion of 6: 1 by weight conventional patterns as the designs for inlay. and ground well wiLh some water. This mixture is boiled with water in an iron pan over a simmering The geometrical patterns inClude lines, spots, fire. The article to be coloured is immersed in the spirals, rectangular and rhombic frets, chequer, boiling solution for about a minute, withelmwll from chevrons, etc. Conventional patterns include croix the pan and immediately washed in cold water. The pattee, lozengers, poppy plant with flower and whitish-grey colour of the alloy turns jet-black whOle imbricate or fish scale patterns, etc. the inlaid silver is left unchanged. The artis,ans have not bound themselves down V) When a single piece is to be coloured, the piece any rigid rules regarding the use of any design on a itself is heated and tllf' solution of the mixture of given type of article. The designs, viz., geometrical fort mud aml amllloniulll llitrale is merely smeared patterns or conventional patterns, have been inlaid over the piece. individually or in combination on Bidriware of different types according to the fancy of the artisans. 9. Polishing The final stage is polishing. The blackened article The trays and plates consist of floral designs as is rubbed with a few drops of groundnut oil and a well as figures like the Tajmahal, the Charminar, the thorough rubbing lends a brilliant lustre to the twelve signs of the Zodiac (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, article. Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn", Aquarius and Pisces), a Lambani, a dancing girl and female figures representing the All the articles of n;driware are not solid. A few Raags, Raguni, Bhairavi, Todi, ::\lalhari, Sohini, of them are hollow. They arc so made either for Pahadi, Ramkali and Ashavari. minimising weight or to serve some practical purpose. Goblets and flower vases, etc., are examples of such Articles Produced hollow articles. Solid ones are cast without any During the last century and at the beginning of tht difficulty, entirely in a single casting, but pieces present century the artisans were interested ill which are holloware casL in one of two wa ys. producing articles of Bidriware that pleased the According to the first method, two equal halves of aristocrats. The articles made by lhel11 induded . the article are cast by the darza box method ill vases, hand-washing basins. ewers, hukkas, spittoons, separate castings and soldered together. According ClipS, flagons, dishes, cosmetic boxes, calldle-stieb to the other process, a clay core is made in the and paper weights. These articles are costly and moulding sand and placed in the mould to form the antiquatell. Many are preserved at the Salarjung inner form of the casting, and then the whole yesscl l\luseum and the Archaeological Museum at with the exception of the base is made in one casting. Hyderabad. 9

Cbange in customs and tastes in the course of Trays subsequent years induced the artisans to launch on the manufacture of articles like cigarette cases, ash Trays arc usually made in a single cas ling. They trays, buttons, light stands, bangles, bracelets, are made in shell, oval, leaf, hexagon and rectangle broaches, ear-rings, medals, bowls, trays, photo and shapes and in different sizes. The shallow part of mirror frames, bust sizc images, sari-pins, tie-pins, the tray is inlaid with designs of flower traceries, stationery sets like paper cutters, paper weights, creepers and scrolls. clips, pen stands and other utility articles.

Plates Ash-trays Plates of diameters ranging from 4" to 10" A common item of the present day Bidriware is are made in a single casting. The designs of the the ash tray. These trays arc made in various pla,te, however, deviate from the normal geometrical shapes of which there arc at least about twenty, anu conventional patterns. PIa tes are inlaid wit.h \"hich have become quite popular, namely round, figures ?f the Tajmahal, Charminar, the twelve signs round half-closed, round flat, tyre shaped, hexagonal, of ZodIac, figures of Lambani, dancing girls, and polygonal. triangular, rectangular, diamond shaped, female figures representing the raags Raguni, Bhai­ oval, in the shape of a heart, shield, egg, fish, shoe, ram\ Todi, Malhari, Sohini, Pahadi, Ramkali and aeroplane, star, duck, elephant and tortoise. Ashavaxri.

In making ash' trays, sides with top are made in Flagons and Vases one casting and the flat base in the second casting after which the two parts are soldered together. These two articles are made in different sizes and Inlaying is done only on the top. The designs com­ shapes. They arc made in two castings. The two monly seen on ash trays are floral traceries, creepers, halves of the articles arc soldered together, each poppy lcayes and zig zag linesh etween two parallel having heen cast separately. They arc also made in lines, a single casting by using a 'core'. However the base of yase or goblet is cast separately' and soldered to the main piece. Boxes

Bidri boxes are made in rectangular shape of -The designs on the vase" and gublets consist of assorted patterns of geometrical and conventional sizes 61" X 3i">('2", 6"X4"X1", 4li"X3~"Xlr, designs. 7" X 3" X H", etc. Parts of boxes are made in three castings, namely (i) the casting of the 4 sides, (ii) the casting of the base and (iii) casting of the FigUJtes lid. The base is soldered at the bottom of the sides and lid is hinged by means of German silver wire. Busts of Negro women, Ajanta damsels inspired The sides as well as the lid of the boxes arc inlai(l. h,\' pllintillgs in the Ajallta eayes, IWevls of Buddha The UCSigllS on thc sides arc poppy plant'i with and Gamlhi, and full-size figures of (lancing girls are flower. flowcr trHcel'ie·', eont inuolls looJl coils, scorlls anu plait ornaments. The designs on ,the lid arc made, These figures ar(, not cast in the round but , BulHS " Dhalia or other flowers in lozellges, scrolls are in frontal relief only. Ornamentation of these fignres is made by silver inlay. and flower traceries.

Buckles, broaches, bnngles, bracelets, buttons, Powder and Kumlun1n (vermilion powder) boxes agarhathi sUmds, necklaces. spoons, pendants, napkin are made in s('Yel'aL shapf's like that of the mango, rings, ear tops, ear rings, sari-pins, a.nd tie-pins are oval, heart [lnLl shell. Sides of these boxes are inlaid made in Bidriware with a "iew to s('liin!!; thpse ,with gcometrical desi?)lS like stmight and zi!:(-7"lg articles Ilt moderate ratc's. Simple geometrical lines, and the lid is inlaid with designs like the poppy designs involving only a little labour are chased and plant, flower traceries and creepers. inlaid on these articles. 10

Paper clips are made in stylished shapes of human with silver inlaying from beak to tail. A bulb holder hands. Paper weights are made in playing card is fixed on its head. shapes of hearts and clubs. Paper ('uttcrs are made in the shapes of knives, swords and daggers. By and large, as Bidriware articles are considered as works of metal art, their prices are based mostly Snake Panthi, consisting of a figure of a cobra and on their fine workmanship. The prices, therefore, a 'pant hi' attached to its hood to hold oil, is a vary within a very wide range and any price list of recent addition. these articles would only serve as a very rough guide. Still, fr'orn the commercial point of view the The pl."acock lamp is a table lamp. The figure of Union has prepared a, price list of the articles of a peacock is cast in the round and ol'namcnt('(l Bidriware and an extract is given as Appendix II. 11

CHAPTER III

ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS

Cost of Production III. Cigarette case to hold 10 cigarettes Some difficulty was experienced in preparing the Cost of raw materials: cosit structure as neither the Co-operative Societies Rs. Rs. nor the proprietary concerns have maintained any 1. 70 records regarding the raw materials, fuel, and the Zinc 0.30 labour and the time consumed in the making of any Copper 1.45 article. Inspite of this diffi'culty, experienced Silver 0.20 3.65 craftsmen who were contacted in this connection Others have given the following cost analysis of a few Fuel 0.90 0.90 items. Cost of labour: rAsh ttray-hexagn of big size 5i" Moulding charges 0.50 Cost of raw materials: Filing 0.75 Rs. Rs. Designing 2.00 Chasing, inlaying and buffing 8.00 Zinc 0.7& Colouring 1.00 Hl.2& Copper 0.15 16.S0 Silver 0.60 Total Others 0.25 1.75 IV. PIa te of Zodiac-S" diameter Fuel 0.60 0.60 Cost of raw materials: Cost of labour: Zinc 1.55 Moulding charges 0.25 Copper 0.25 Filing 0.90 Silver 1.85 Designing 0.50 Others 0.25 3.40 Chasing and inlaying 2,.75 Fuel 0.90 0.90 Buffing 1.25 Cost of labour: Colouring 0.25 5.90 Moulding charges 0.40 Total 8.25 Filing 4.00 Designing 5.00 Chasing, inlaying & buffing 12.00 II. Box-rectangular size 6"X4"X!f" Colouring 1.00 22.40 Cost of raw materials: . Total 26.70 Zinc 4.00 Copper 0.60 V. Tray-rectangular 6"X3" Silver 3.00 Cost of raw materials : Others 0.40 8.00 Zinc 1.50 0.25 Fuel 2.50 2.50 Copper Silver 1.30 Cost of labour: Others 0.25 3.90 Moulding charges 3.00 Fuel 0.90 0.90 Filing 5.00 Cost of labour: Designing 2.50 0.76 Chasing and inlaying and 20.00 Moulding charges 4.00 buffing. Filing 2.50 Colouring 1.00 31.50 Designing Chasing, inlaying &: buffing 6.00 0.50 13.75 Total 42,.00. Colouring Total 1'7.95 12

This cost analysis reveals that 'it5 per cent of the As mentioned earlier the profit or the wages of an cost is accounted for by the raw materials. Fuel artisan varies ill this craft and' he seldom experiences and wages form 75 per cent of the cost. The Co­ loss, unlcss he has produced an article solely by using upc'rativl' Societies sell t.he arlicles to the Ullio.n as hi,red labour, which is indeed a very remote conlin­ well as to the dealers, the margin of profit varying gency. from 5 to 10 per cent. Marketing The que:otion of loss arise.; when the entire work Individual pieces of finished articles are wrapped is got dOlle from hired labour. In the proprietary in kraft paper before they are kept in a container cuncerns the work is carril'd o,!l by household labour, for stOl'age, for avoiding scratches which may and the articles are always sold to a cost more than disfigure thc articles if they are piled up without a lhe expenditure met to secure the raw materials used. wrapper. Afte~' wrapping, the articles are placed in ,\s such the proprietor who works with household steel trunks and deal wood boxes. Independent labour with or without hired labour always stands workers who work mainly with ho'usehold labour to get a profit, But the margin of profit varies store the articles hardly for about a month or two. according to the circumstances of each case. In the They then take them in steel trunks either bv bus Co-operative Societies the promoters work with hired or by ~,rani to Hyderabad and sell them to pi'ivale dealeras. Proprietors who run workshopo with house­ l;lboul·. On account of tris, the profit margin of the hold labeur as well as with hired labour stock the Co-operativ(' Societies is generally much the same Bumbay by train, and sell them to

The hous('s of the craftsmen are concentrntrd III Out of 96 hidri workers 4!l are working in the 6 Kusumgalli of Binar. Howev!'r, a few of them are Societies as employees on monthly salary. nnd of distributed in different pnrts of the tOIl'I1. The these 49 employees,] 7 work as independent bidri houses are 2-3 roomed tenements with mull' walls workers at home also, after working in the Society and mud floorings. They are roofed with zinc or between 10 A.M. and 5 P.M. 3'l of them work as country tiles.. 'I1h.e surroundings -of the houses of bidri workers for wagl's in private workshops. Ten the craf.tsmen are not clean. None of the houses of are owner workers. Eleven are unpaid family enter­ Bidri workers is provided with tap or electric light. prise workers. Sixteen are employed under pri~ate They take water from public taps and lise kerosrne hidri workers. Of the remaining 10, 3 are promoter lamps. workers of the Societies and 7 are members of the promoter's household's a,nd they work in the respec­ tive societies financed by them as workers on Out of the 6'1 craftsmen households at Bidar, 29 monthly salary. households consist of head, wife and unmarried children, 13 households consist of hend, wife, married For 17 households birlri craft is the principal oceu­ son (s) and other unmarried children, 11 households pation. The number of memb~rs engaged in the consist of head, wife, unmarried' children, widowed ~ubsldinry occupation ann the percentage or income mother and other members, 5 households consist of from th(' craft of bidriware to the total income of the unmarl'i('(l hf'ad, widowerl moihrr, brother., and/or sisters, 3 households comist of widowed head and household;; are as follows: unmarried children. Percentage' of No. of income/rom The elderly male person in the household manages Sl. Nn. of Subsidiary 'Workers in the craft ti) the No. bid,.; occupation of subsidiary tolal income of the affairs of the household nnd is the head of the 'War/eel's wor/eers occupation the h01t.1eho!d. householrl. When children are young the widowed mother looks after the household affairs. The crafts­ 5 men work for about 12 hours a day and find little time to take part in recreational activities. 'Occa­ 1. Bi,li makers 2 52 sionally they go to films. They have not, so far, 2. 2 Biili leaf contmctor 1 75 3. 2 Peon in Exciso Dept" 1 54 formed a club or a common recreation centre in the 4. 2 Compounder 1 63 locality. ------14

The income of a household from all sources is taken 2 ;! into consideration to decide whether the eraft is pursued by a household as a principal occupation or 5. Basket maker 2 77 as a subsidiary occupation. A household which Firewood seller 70 6. 1 derives more than 50 per cent of its total income 7. I Fruit saller 70 8. 3 Peon in Tahsil Office 77 from this craft is deemed to be pursuing this craft ~, .. 2 Cartman 54 as the principal occupation, while a household which III. Cultivator 60 derives less than 50 per cent of its income from the 73 ll. 2 Bidi makl'r craft is. deemed to be pursuing the craft as a sub­ 2 Tailor sO 12. sidiary occupation. 13. I Fisherman 70 14. S Baskot maker 2 83 5'. I ]<'rui t spJ/er 1 80 'So far as the earnings of these households from the lu. I Shop assistant 1 77 craft are considered, 5 households earn less than 60 17. I Bidi maker Rs. Q5 a month, 16 houoeholds earn Rs. 26-50 a 27 20 m'onth, 13 househords earn Rs. 51-75 a month, 11 households earn Rs. 76-100 a month, 10 households 17 For households the craft is a subsidiary occu­ t'm~n Rs. 101~150 a month, 3 households earn pation. The number of memUers, engaged in the Rs. 15'O-~OO a month and only 3 households earn principal occupation of the, household and the more than Rs. ~OO a month. percentage of income from the craft to the total income of the household are :;is under: EXYfJenditure patrtern Percentage of The craftsmen spend the major portion of their income fr01n SI. No. oj No. of income on food stuffs like cereals, pulses and oils and No. bidr; OccupaJi~n member' bidri cra.ft to workers enlluged the tot,!l income on ancillary requirements like pan, supari, tobacco of tile lWlL,le­ alld bidi. After spending the amount 011 these item~ h"ld. of consumption they are left with hardly any amount 1 2 3 4 5 to spend on any other item.

1. 2 Flour Mill Owner 40 The proprietors and indepllndent craftsmen do not and Instructor in have any system to kecp their domestic and enter­ R.A.T.I. prise accounts separate. From the amounts earned, 2. 2 Police Constable 45 3. 1 Flower Seller 25 they take a portion for purchase of raw materials 4. 1 Cycle rickshaw 40 and another portion for domestic expenses. The driver. proportion of the enterprise expenses to that of ll. peon in Education 1 45 domestic eXpenses is not constant. It varies accord­ Department. ing to the requirements of the craftsmen. 6. 1 peshkar 1 25 7. 1 Butter seller 1 45 8. 1 Basket makers 4 A craftsman will have normally two sets of dress. Shop assistant 43 His usual wear is a shirt and trousers or pyjama". 9. Trader 25 10. 1 Cycle Rickshaw 47 Articles made now-a-days are cigarette cases, pan Drivor. boxes, trays, button sets, ash-trays and such other 38 1I. Chowkidar things which answer utilitarian requirements and find 12. 1 Goldsmith 1 Cycle Shop assistant 1 a ready market throughout the year. As SUell in .Ambar Charllka 1 40 ma,king them the craftsmen find steady employment 13. 1 Trader 1 from local dealers. wrry Driver 14. 1 Cho~kidar Raw materials arc easily obtainable from local 15. 1 Driver dealers. The work of the craftsmen slackens only 16. 1 Private Tutor 1 when the finished articles remain unsold. Supari worker 1 15 17. 1 Bidi maker 3 15 An artistic bent of mind is the essential require­ 19 27 ment for a person to take up the craft or Bidriware. 15

No strenuous manual lab'0ur is inv'0lved in the craft. number '0f members '0n the roll is 35 and the share The foundry part '0f the work is not much. The amount is Rs. 10. The Society has received a loan articles cast during a period ,of 3 days W'0uld keep '0f Rs. 7,740 in 1955 from the G'0vernment. During a craftsman busy in inlay w'0rk and chasing and 1958 many members '0f this S'0ciety migrated to finishing for ab'0ut a m'0nth. He w'0rks in shade and Hyderaba,d. These persons formed Bidriwarc Co­ does not expose himself to sun or rain. A~ such, operative Societies with producti'0n units at Hydera­ the craft, n'0rmally does n'0t have any ill effects on bad. At present this Society is functioning as the the health of the craftsmen. branch of the Society at Hyderabad, and the articles produced by this S'0ciety are marketed through the Migrants Society at Hyderabad. Seven workers make Bidri articles in the premises of this Society and they are As a result of reorganisation of States the district paid m'0nthly salary. F'0ur of them receive a salary of Bidar was transferred t'0 l\Iys'0re from Hyderabad. of Rs. 50 a month each, and 3 others receive Rs. 70, The G'0vernment of Andhra Pradesh informed the Rs. 38 and Rs. 15 respectivel~. craftsmen that they could expect assistance fr'0m the G'0vernment only- in case they settle within The annual producti'0n of Bidriware in this S'0ciety Andhra territory. As a result, about 25 of the crafts­ men migrated t'0 Hyderabad and settled down there. costs about Rs. 10,000. During the years 1954-55, These craftsmen formed C'0-operative S'0cieties and 1955-56 and 1956-57 the S'0ciety pr'0duced articles continued t'0 carry '0n their crwft in the capital city worth Us. 23,229, Rs. 25,458 and Rs. 21,440 respec­ of Andhra Pradesh. Consequently Bidar t'0wn lost tively. From 1957-S8 onwards the production has its usual market at Hyderabad. been reduced by 50% and the adual value of articles produced are as follows: The migrant craftsmen have formed two Bidriware Year Rs. Co·'0peral!ve S'0cietie;; at I{de'~ll)::.1. These tw r , Societies are I'0cated in the same building. B'0th '0f 1957-58 10,946 them have independent pr'0duction units. Produc­ 1958-59 9,580 ti'0n '0f Bidriware in these tW'0 s'0cieties during 1961-62 1959-60 8,795 ,vas Rs. 90,701 almost equal to fhe pI'oduction of the 1960-61 11,882 6 Co-operative and 11 proprietary establishments '0f 1961-62 10,185 Bidar t'0wn. During the same peri'0d the two Socie­ (ii) (Anmole Bidri Works Co-operative Society' ties have sold Bidriware wort.h Rs. 65,337. The was the second Bidriware C'0-'0perative Society t'0 be Handicrafts Emporium at Hyderabad buys regularly formed at Bidar. This S'0ciety was registered on Bidriware w'0rth Rs. 5,000 every month from these loth July ]952. There are 21 members in this Society. Societies. This fea;turc has infused some confidence Thirteen persons including the President-cwnt­ in the craftsmen regarding sales of their articles. The Financier and his son are engaged in producing bidri­ Union at Bidar is handicapped for want of an agency ware. All oP them are paid mlOinthly salary. Out of drawing ".locks of finished artides regularly. It has 13 workers 2 are paid Rs. 60 each per month, " are undertaken printing and publication of a catalogue paid Rs. 50 each per month, 2 are paid Rs. 30 each for pUblicity purposes. For this undertaking the per month and 5 others are paid Rs. 55, Rs. 40, Government has given a grant of Rs. 3,000 to the Rs. 35, Rs. ~o and Rs. 12 respectively. Union. The catalogue is under preparation. A steady sale '0f articles will be beneficial· t'0 the Uni'0n (iii) The ( Rattan Bidriw'0rks CO-'0perative and through it to its members. '30cie~y' was registered on 30th July 1957 and the number of members on the roll is 26. Only 5 of Co-operative Societies them are ~vorking in the Society as employees on monthly salary and the salaries paid to them are There are at· present six Bidriware Co-operative Rs. 65'. Rs. 60, Rs. 55, Rs. 45 and Rs. 17 respectively. Societies at Bida'r. One was cl'0sed down recentlv. A brief account of each of the six Societies n~w (iv) The ' Vijayahind Bidriware Co-operative existing at Bidar, is given under: Society' was registered on 1st July 1958. There are 12 members on the roll and 6 '0f them are paid Rs. 60 (i) The 'GuIzar Deccan Bidriware Co-operative a month each, 4 others are paid Rs. 50, Rs. 35, Rs. 25, Society' was registered on 18th April 1951. The and Rs. 12 a m'0nth respectively. (v) 'Ahmed Bidri Works Co-operative '30ciety' . designer and engraver ranges hom Rs. 60 to Rs. 70 located at Chid1'i is nbout t\\'o miles fl'om the [o,'.n a month. nnd that of a filing and huffing worker proper. The number of members in this Societv is ranges from Rs. 40 to Rs. 50 a month. The salary 15, and 8 of them including the President and'· his of moulders ranges from Rs. 30 to Rs. 40 a month 4 sons work in the Society and receive monthlv and that of the boys who do odd jobs like colouring salary. The monthly salarics of these workers a1"e the warp and preparing raw materials ranges from Rs. 80, Rs. 65, Rs. 50, Rs. 45, Rs. 45, Rs. 30, Rs. 20 Us. 15 to Rs. 30 a month. The President or the and Rs. 20 respectively. Chief promoter of the Society fixes the salary of the workers. (vi) The latest of all the Societies is ' Azizia Bidri Workers' Co-operative Society' registered on 5th Bidriware Union October 1960. There are II members in this Society. On 2nd January 1960 the Biclriware Co-operative This Society is managed by :3 brothers belonging to the same household. The clele t of 'them is the Societies at Bidar formed a Union, viz., the ' Ridri­ Sccrctary and the second one is the President. Thcsc ware Co-operative Societies Union l,td.'. It is a 3 hrothcrs ,york in the Society with eight OtlWf Co-operativc Society with other Soeietiit's as its workers and all of them receivc monthly salary. members. The object of forming the Union is to The salaries of 3 brothers nrc Rs. 150, Rs. lOt) and proviile even diptribution of aids and facilities to the Rs. 55 respectivdy. Of the other 8 workers, 2 art' member societies. The Union is also a marketing pnid Rs. 60 per month 'Cach, 2 are paid Rs. 20 pel' agency of Bidriware. month, and th'e rest a:t·(, paid Rs. 40, Rs. 50, u.s. 30 The Union was constituted by 7 Societies of which and Rs. 15 respectively. one was recently wound up. The share amount is Rs. 100 per share. Of the 7 societies, 5 are having These so eaIIrd 'Co-operative Societies' arc in fact 11 shnres rach, one has 6 shares and the other (the proprietary concerns. They have been named as one which was wound up) is having one share . . Co-oucrat iyc Socicties' by the proprietorR and got ],(,gistered as such only with the object of securing The Union received a loan of Rs. 15,000 in l\lay the facilities provided hy Government to the Co­ 1960 and Rs. 30,000 in March 1961 towards working opemtivr Establishmell'ts, like finnncini awl supply capital. The working capital has been utilised for r:f mnterials ill subsidised rates. thc purchase of finished products from the member societies, for purchase 'of zinc from the Government The persons who finance the ~ociety take th" for sllPply to the mpmber societies and to meet the profit and the memhers who work in the society are establishment charges of the Union which include paid monthly salary. 'alal'Y of staff, rent of thl' office building. The Union is located in a rented building consist­ Up-t,o-date accounts or the Au(rt Reports of these ing of 2 rooms. The front room is used as a show­ Societies Ilre not available. room cum office and the interior one is IIsed to stock both zinc and finished articles. The total working capital of all these Societies is The Union has purchased Bidriware worth in the neighbourhood of Rs. 45,000 of which Rs. 3,000 Rs. 30,100 from its ml'mbcr Societies during the years is invested on tools and Rs. 4~,OOO on raw materials. 196]-(i'1 an(l HI62-63. Details of the purchase are llR The money for the working capital is got from the follows: promoter who is the Pre·ident or sympathi,er of thp Society concerned. NWrt,IP of the Society 19f1l-6~ 196~-63 Rs. Rs. Out of thp six societies, functioning at present, four 1. Anl1lo}e 6,286 1,334 were formed prior to, and the other two hnve been ~. Rattan S,254 estahlish(:e! after the formation of the new SlateR 3. Vijayhind 1,683 161:' in 1956. 4. Ahmed 5,853 9hl 5. Azizia 8,904 I,70S l\{emhprs who work in the Society rf'ceive monthly salary nne! the amount depends on the type of work Total 25,980 4,12f that is entrusted to the member. The salary of 17

During 1961-62 the Union had on hand the loan has always had on hand, a heavy stock of finished amount it hud got from Govemment. Besides it nrticles unsold. The value of such articles as on was the first year of purchase. As such it had no the date of survey was about Rs. 25,000. difficulty in buying articles costing nearly Rs. 26,000. In the subsequent year the Union could not make Training Centre such huge purchases as it had a heavy stock of articles left unsold. The Bidri School started by the Government of Hyderabad in the year 1013 was the first institution In the year 1961-62 the Union advanced Rs. 20,259 to train candidates in the Bidri craft. Sri Ramanna, to the member Societies on the security of articles. a local goldsmith who was also a bidri worker was appointf'd as an instructor in this school. This This amount was due from those Societies. Details of this amount advanced to the Societit's are as school trained candidat!:'s in Bidri craft till 1938. In under: 1938 the Bidri School was merged with the local High School and training in the craft was given to every Name of the Society Rs. student of this High School. This scheme had only a brief existence uf about five years. 1. Azizia ' 6,292 In 1948 the Government of Hyderabad started Anmok 4,747 2. another training centre, 'Bidriware High School.' 3. Ahmed 4,816 In this school, along with Bidri craft, other occupa­ 4. Rattan 3,674 tional crafts like Lohari (smithy), Darji (tailbring) li. Vijllyhind 1,230 and leather craft were also taught to the alumni. This training centre imparted training for 10 years Total 20,259 in the crafts mentioned above and latcr on thc Bidri training section was transferred to the Hyderahad School of Arts at Hyderabad. The other sections The working capital of the Union is Rs. 45,000. were transferred to the training centre at Raichur. The ent.ire amount has been received as loan from At present Bidri craft is taught at the Artisan the Central Government. The rate of interest is Training Institute at Bidar. The Institutc was 21% per annum. The Union has rep;lid R~. 6,000 founded in 1960 by the Government of Mysore. together with interest. During the period from its inception to the middle of 1963 the Institute had trained three hatches of The Union received the Government quota of zinc candidates in Bidri craft, and the fourth batch had worth Rs. 10,938 in three consignments and has commenced training at the time of the survey. The supplied the metal to its member Societies during duration of the training is 12 months from April to 1961-62. March. In the first three batches trained, there were in all 46 candidates, of them 18 were from Bidar The promotion of marketing of Bidriware wns one and ~8 were outsiders. Fifteen candidates are under­ of the objects of forming the Union. With this end going training in the fourth batch. Trainccs are ill vie,,,, the Union buys articles made by its member paid monthly stipend. A local candidate is paid societies. It does not receive articles from any Rs. 20 per month and an outsider is paid Rs. 80 individual or from proprietary concerns. The Union per month. stocks the articles in its stores and also displays them in its 8how-room to promote local sales. It Of the 18 local candidates trained in the first three slippli!:'s articles against orders to emporia. As batches only 7 are working as Bidri craftsmen. compared with the purchases made by the Union for 1961-62 and 1962-63, the sales show discouraging A selection committee selects the candidates to he figures. The Union purchased Bidriware worth admitted for training. This is done after an inter­ Rs. 30,100 during 1961-62 and 1962-63. It has, view of the candidates. The candidate should have dming the same period, sold article" worth Rs. 16,450 passed the final examination of primary school. . only. Nearly 50 per cent of the articles bought have Preference is given to candidates from Bidri worker rem 'lined unsold. It is not surprising that the Union fllmilies. Training is given in the various stages of HS.M.-2 18 the craft from preparation of raw materials to . made by trainees, the workmanship cannot stand finishing of articles after inlaying. At first training comparison with the articles made by whole time is given in the making of simple geometrical designs Bidri workers. The trainees of the first three and later on conventional patterns are practised. batches made articles worth Rs. 884 of which 95 per In the beginning copper wire is used for inlay work cent of the articles were sold out. and later silver is used. The Imtitute does not have schemes for provid· Articles of Bidri made by the trainee." are displayed ing any assistance to ex-trainees. in the Institute's Sales section. The articles being 19

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

Till recently the Bidriware craft flourished under is primarily the reason why some among them h."e the encouragement of Nawabs and Sultans and taken up to other subsidiary occupations for Zamindars who had money to spend on objects of augmenting their income. art without any considerations of utility. With the disappearance of artistocracy based on political There is an urgent need to improve the craft on power or land owning, and the emergence of a Socia­ both the production and marketing sides, if this listic Society, the craft . cannot SIll'rvive unless it ancient and skilled industry· is to survive. The exist­ adopts a "new look" and takes up production of ing Co-operative Societies have to be organised on articles of daily use on a large scale. sound lines and suitable measures should be devised to give necessary incentive to the craftsmen through The economic depression preceding World War II Co-operatives for producing better marketable witnessed a perceptible decline in the prosperity of articles. this trade, particularly in view of the fact that these products are characterised more by their artistic A steady sale of articles will provide continuous excellence and display of creative imagination than employment to the craftsmen. Some improvement by their utilitarian value. The fil'lip given to village should also be effected in the mechanism of produc­ crafts and cottage industries geneTally after ithe tion. Use of casting dies in lieu of the moulds advent of independence has enabled a few craftsmen employed at present, lathe for scra,ping and buffing still to cling on to this avocation. They are now machine will certainly go a long way to increase the trying to at tune themselves to the changed times and out-put which in turn will increase the earnings of produce articles of mIoder:n tastes and needs. In the the craftsmen. In view of the inability of the articles they now produce is to be noticed a discerni­ craftsmen to individually own a lathe and buffing ble tendency to satisfy the present day needs of the machine, the setting up of a common facility centre discerning public than to lay emphasis on mere fancy '1:0 meet the needs of crafhmen for all such modern hings which 10 not find a ready markcl. appliance may be worth considering. If such and other measures in the direction or improving the With the limited field open for marketing, these living conditions of the craftsmen are not taken articles which are expensive and not within the easy betimes by organisations interested in the expansion reach of the average buyer, these craftsmen have to and improvement of handicrafts, the craft of Bidri­ struggle hard even for a marginal subsistence. This ware is apt to fade out gradually.

2* 20

BIDRI CRAFT

APPENDIX I

LIST OF BIDRIWARE CRAFTSMEN AT BIDAR

Sriutha- Sriuths- Sriuths- Srilitha-- l. Gulam SattM' Siddiqui 25. Narayan Rao 49. Abdul Sattar 73. Jagannath 2. Gulam Khaddus 26. Abdul Hameed 50. Nassiruddin 74. Fath€ Mohammed 3. Mohammed Sh8Alid Mehtab 27. Abdul Razak 51. Sheik Ali 75. Basappa 4. Mohammed Usman 2S. Mohammed Iqbal .52. Abdul Rahim 7. Sankarappa .5. , Mohamm\ld Yasin 39. Abdul Karim 53. Abdul Haleem 78. Abdul Hameed 6. Mohammed Haniff 30. Siddappa 54. Mohammed Pasha 79. Mohammed Azimuddin 7.· Mohammed Sattar 31. Tulsiram 55. Sheik Ahmfd SO. Mohammed Jamaluddin 8. Abdul Azeez 32. Manik Rao 56. Kurshid Ahmed S1. Mohammed Moinuddin 9: Sheik Chand 33. Mohammod Mustan 57. Mukthar Ahmed S2. Mohammtd Mustan io. Abdul Kha

APPENDIX II

PRJCl<~ LIST OF BIDRIWARE ARTICLES

Rs. Rs.

Ash.trays 1. 75 to 12.00 P'·nda.nt 2.00 to 3.0( Boxes 10.00 to 250.00 Goblets 35.00 t(> 300.00 Powdar and Kumkum hoxes 2.50 to 10.(\{) Trays 10.00 to 45.00 Buckles 2.0~ to 2./)0 Pin trays 2,50 to 5.00 1iroaches J .50 to 3.01 PlatFs 12.50 to 50.00 Bangles 1.50 to 3.00 Paper clip 2.00 to 3.00 Buttons set 3.nO to 35.00 Papu weight 3,00 to 5.00 Cigarette cases 12.00 to 45.00 Paper cdters 1 .. 50 to 2.5(l Figures 12.00 to 40.00 Napkin ring ~.5·) Flower vases 20.CO to 160.00 Ear tops 2.00 to 3 O! Photo frames 12.00 to 40.00 Tie pin 3.00 Agarbathi stand 8.00 to 15.00 TIrac6lets 12.00 Neckla.ct> 12.00 to 20.00 Snako panthi 12.0~ Sreons 1.50 to 2.00 Peacock lamp stand )lIO.O!) BIDRIWARE PLATE I

I. 'Tharpalti' used for reducing the gauge of silver wire

2. Tools for chasing and inlaying-hammer and chisels PLATE 2 BIDRIWARE

r 1\

i \

3. Be!1,t and straight scrapers employed at the final stages of smoothening of .~ bldriware BIDRIWARE PLATE 3

4. Metal cutter and pi iers are essentlal .. tools for the craft PLATE 4 BIDRIWARE

>-.o

l- .£! -a (l) >-.o Q.. E (l)

'II> (l) u N ~ Q.. (l) I.' (l) s... (!) ..r::. ~ (l) I­ m II> (l)

U ::l l­ I.' (l) .'~ .s::. r:a.. CJ BIDR WARE PLATE~5

J

6. Maki ng of mould to cast a flagon. The pattern of the flagon is placed in the centre of the "Darza.' The moulder is ready to dust the ash tied up in a cloth, on the pattern.

... • PLATE 6 BIDRIWARE

7. After ramming the recess of the 'Darza' with moulding sand. the moulder presses it wei! by his heels BIDRIWARE PLATE 7

8. Moulding sand left above the flask is levelled to the edges of Darza by means of a wooden blade ~Lt.rE 8 BIDRIWARE

~ 1

9. The impression of the pattern left on the moulding sand BIDRIWARE PLATE 9 :

10. The molten alloy is poured into the mould through the feeding head of Darza PLATE 10 BIDRIWARE

II. The mould is split and the cast piece is ready for withdrawal from the mould BIDRIWARE PLATE II

12. The moulder is scraping off the moulding sand sticking to the cast pieces. The piece is to be trimmed by removing the runners PLATE 12 BIDRIWARE

13 . . Fi~ing is the stage of work after casting. A craftsman is filing a~idri box. BIDRIWARE PLATE 13

14. Bidriware iS ,scraped at the final stage of smoothening PLATE 14 SIDRIWARE

15. A designer scratching the figur~ ofTajmahal on a piece for chasing. The plate is smeared . with the solution of copper sulphate BIDRIWARE PLATE. 15

,.

16. Inlaying of silver wire, The design is the figure of Charminar PLATE 16 BIDRIWARE

, 17. A craftsman inlaying silver sheets on the side of a box BIDRIWARE PLATE 17

18. A craftsman at the final stage of inlaying the lid of a box PLATE 18 BIDRIWARE

j

- _.___. - ~- 19. . MIxing of 'Rangachadaneke Matti ' and ammonium nitrate for colouring the. bldriware BIDRIWARE PLATE 19

20. The bidriware after immersing in the boiling solution of Rangachadaneke Matti and ammonium nitrate is washed in cold water PLATE 20 BIDRIWARE

21. A tray of size 6" x 4"

22 Kumkum box of mang;) shape

23 Ash tray of aeroplane shape BIDRIWARE PLATE 21

24, A pl'ate of 8" diameter inlaid with the figure of Tajmahal PLATE 22 BIDRIWARE

25. A plate of 8 diameter inlaid with a figure representing Raag Malhari BIDRIWARE PLATE 23

26. A Zodiac plate of 6" diameter PLATE 24 BIDRIWARE

27. Peacock light stand BIDRIWARE PLA:rE 2!>

28, Set of bidriware buttons (size !"x!") Set of square buttons clipped at their four corners, the faces of which are worked in a simple criss-cross pattern in silver tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri technique. Dimensions ~ i" X i". 20th century. Provenance not known with certainty. Courtesy: Collection of the Central 'Cottage industries Emporium' New Delhi. (R.G.'s index No. 13637) PLATE 26 BIDRIWARE

1..9, A cigarette case

Cigarette case, the centre of which is decorated with an oval of diamond-shaped criss-crossed lines centred with dots, the whole formation being contained within a linear border further ornamented with a scalloped linear edging, the points of which terminate in trifoliate leaf forms with dot patterns in between them. Worked in tarkashi (inlay of silver wiresj and taihnishan (inbyof silver sheets) bidri techniques. Height: 3i". Currently produced. Courtesy: collection of the Government Handicrafts and Cottage Industries Sales Emporium, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. (R.G. 's index No. 2068) BtDRIWARE PLATE 27

30. Ar ash-tray

Cctagonally-shaped ash tr~y, t:'!, cntr-- o' v,' i::1 j, d~(:or~":~d wit'-i a full bITN:1 lo~us flow~r, Th~ rais~d rim is shaped like a p."t<1 hd flow-'r, it.;; d~si:;r) m.')~· f":'('J 'OJ'·ll_.r chai'l and I~af d2signs fl3.n'dng arr..JN2d

bands centred with VErtic' y-pbCEd loze r • Sf,-.... Tlo ( i.:. ~.n ~ri'an~crn~nt on the fcur diagonal ends 0; the raise::] rim for keeping four cig'rett 3. Wo·'{ed 'n aft oi (cut cut designs in over 131d silver she2ts) and tar:

3 4

31. Mango Shaped small boxes with hinged lids, the stem opening up by the movement of the lid either towards the left or the right. (R.G'S. Index No. 5621.)

31. (I) Mango-shaped (kairi) small box (dibya) with hinged lid, the stem of which opens by moving it either towards the left or the right. The lid and sides feature a linear criss-cross design executed in silver tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri technique. The stem end features a thenpati-ki-booti (trifoliate leaf) design motif worked in the Zarnishan (low relief) bidri technique.

(2) Shape similar to that described in (I). Lid features a leaf and flower design executed in taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) bidri technique, outlined by bidri technique outlined by a railway track motif in tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri technique. Stem end of the mango-shaped dibya features atrifoliate leafdesign in the taihnishan (low relief) and tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri techniques.

(3) Shape and design of the ste m end similar to that described in (I). On the lid is featured a leaf motif executed in aftabi (cut out designs in overlaid silver sheets), centred between linearly-outlined mango shapes executed in tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) and filled with straight repeats of stellated forms that merge into a thenpati-ki-booti (tt'ifoliate leaf pattern) at the end of the stem. Worked in the zarnishan (low relief) bidri techn ique. On the sides of the box is featured a border of repeating, horizontally moving bell-shaped leaves executed in the taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) bidri technique.

(4) Shape and stem end similar to that described in (I). Top of the lid features 3 floral designs in taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) bidri technique.

(5) Shape and stem end similar to that described in (I). Lid of the box features a swirling grape-vine design motif edged with the railroad track motif. Executed in the taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) and tarkashi.(inlay of silver wires) bidri techniques.

(6) Shape and stem end similar to those in r I). Design features on all-over pattern of diagonally placa 1 parallel lines. Executed in silver tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri technique.

(7) Shape and stem end similar to that described in (I). DeSign in the centre is a poppy plant bordered by the chain motif. Executed in silver taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets), and tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) bidri techniques. 20th centliry. Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. BIDRIWARE PLATE 29

32. Circular box with a lid

Circular box with lid. The outer border of the lid and the sides of the box feature the fret design motif, while the central portion of the lid is decorated with stylised poppy flowers and leaves. Worked in silver taihnishan (inla of silver sheets) bidri technique. Diameter: 2.7 cm. Height: 20.5 cm. Circa 19th Century, Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. (R.G.'S index No. 5618.) PLATE 30 BIDRIWARE

33. Spherically shaped bowl with cover and tray

Spherically-shaped bowl with cover and a tray, featuring floral designs in oval medallions between railroad track borders containing leaf motifs, set in silver with a gold base (Ganga-Jamuna, a designation symbolizing the meeting of the two great rivers of India in metal objects decorated with or mad::! of brass and copper or gold and silver). Similar designs are used on the cover. Worked in bidri techniques of taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) and aftabi (cut out designs in overlaid silver sheets). Height: 12.1 cm. Diameter: 12.5 em. Circa 19th century. Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. (R.G'S. index No. 5582.) BJDRIWARE PLATE 31

34. Elliptically shaped box for a writing desk

Elliptically-shaped box for a writing desk, the lid and sides of which feature floral and leaf designs with double fret motifs around the lid's outer rim and the base of its knob. Worked in silver taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) and aftabi (cut out designs in overlaid silver sheets) bidri techniques. Height 4" Length 20.5 cms. Circa 19th century. Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra pradesh. (R.G'S. Index No. 5613.) PLATE 32 BIDRIWARE

35. Concave circular plate featuring a leaf design

Concave circular plate centrally featuring within a linear border a stylised form of a ferm frond. Worked in silver tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) and taihnishan (inlay of silver sheets) bidri techniques. Diameter: 25 em. 20th century. Courtesy: Collection of the Government Handicrafts and Cottage Industries Sales Emporium. Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. (RG'S Index No. 456.) BJDRIWARE PLATE 33

-0 (J) ~.... o u (U ""C

....:::l o a.. E w

VI QJ ....L. VI ::J "'0 c:

....VI (J) ....c o U c -0 ..... (J) 01 > OJ ~ ...... 1:>0 c... '....' :::l o r:::: '" a.. U 3: ... ~ .... ~ '" VI t0 .... o C ...... '"U C (U ...... QJ ... .~ o 0 E c: -0 >-. L. (U to:: QJ U .... > '" (!.) o a... ~ Q) Q) \.-' ..r:::: >.. ~ "5 QJ ..c ... (;-0 c ...... UI .... 1:; Q) (U ...... Q) o ,..., Q) c -;; -a Lt') .... (U U ... r:::: Lt') c: .... U I o ... o .0 .Q uo 0...'" '" VI .... o Q) VI v ' Z -0 Q) Q) ..!!! Ql 1:>0 .... >< > 0 :::l V ... ~ .... 8 "'0 :::l '" c: c: Uo.!::!~ .... "'0 '"U .... IV "0 o .... bO E

....fG ..c: ,...~ -0 o ,... c: E~ 4{ PLATE 34 BIDRIWARE

37. (a) A rectangular container wi.:l tray for serving betel I_aves and accessories. This is divided into three se '~tions, viz., the knobbed lid, the container and the tray. BIDRIWARE PLATE 35

37. (b) Pandan--Tray in W~ich pan is served

Rectangularly-shaped lidded pan dan (container with tray for serving bet21 leaves and accessories). The box is divided into three sections; the container which has f.:::>ur inner compartments to hold the various ingredients for making the pan, the knobbed cover of the container and the serving tray. Designed in an allover pattern of alternating horizontal rows of stylized poppy plants and circles centred with dots. set between the linear edgings that form the rail-road design motif. Worked in silver aftabi (cut out designs in overlaid silver sheets) and tarkashi (inlay of sliver wires) bidri techniques, Length 11.7 ems width: 7.6 ems Circa 19th Century Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh (R.G'S index No. 5584 and 6585). PLATE 36 BIDRIWARE

c: o

>.. In ....(l) ""0'" .._

V> (l) -0..0 (l) c: N 0 ~.~ VI "'- 00 M c: ~ ""0 (l) U

(l) (l) ~, "'­ '­

s... (l) (l)...c:: > ._.... o ....I

39. The cobra featuring an intricate design produced by the inlay of silver wires; can also hold a candle in the cup and saucer like arrangement seen on its hooded head. Candle stick produced in the form of a cobra, on the hooded head of which is a decorative cup-and-Saucer like arrangem,ent for holding a singie-candle. The body of the cobra features an intricate design (mahi-push) worked in silver tarkashi (inlay of silver wires) and talhnishan (inlay of silver sheets) bidri techniques. Height 22.5 cms. Circa late 19th or early 20th Century. Courtesy: Salar Jung Museu m, Hyderabad. Andhra Pradesh. (R G.'S index No. 5604).

POTTERY OF MYSORE

23

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Introduction In the districts of Bijapur, Bellary and Dharwar, Earthen vessels are made on the wheel since time potters are mostly Lingayats a.nd they are strict immemorial. Of all handicra~ts, making of vessels vegetarians. Kumbara is only a sub-caste of Linga­ out of clay seems to be the earliest and the craft has yats in these areas, others being Banajiga, Pancha­ developed through centuries. masali, Kuda.vokkaliga, Jangams, Ganiga, Nekar, Banagar, etc. Members of these sub-castes inter dine with one another though custom prevents their inter­ , Ceramics' is a general term for the art of making marriage. As in the case of Kannada and Telugu pottery. Pottery includes all articles fashioned from Kumbars marriage with sister's daughter, father's clay and hardened by, fire. sister's daughter, or mother's brother's daughter is recognised. It is usual for them to add the suffix In Mysore State, as elsewhere in India, the pottery Kumbar to their names. Their mother tongue is craft is of very a.ncient lineage and unglazed vessels Kannada. of plain tel'racotta of red or black colours are Tl'ade In Belgaum district are found Maratha Kumbars. in the villages and towns throughout the State. The They are concentrated in villages arollnd hhanapur craftsmen belong to the community called' Kumbars ' and more pronounQed~y in G.arlgunji village. The meaning potters. family names of Kumbars who reside in Khanapur are Askur, Ghadkari, Kedar, Chandgadkar, Khimana, K umbars (Hereditary potters) Rowlu, Therwadi, etc. A member of this caste cannot marry his sister's daughter or his father's sister's Kumbars form an important section of our village daughter; but he can marl'lY his mother's brother's community. In the districts of the erstwhile Mysore daughter. l\laratha Kumbars are non-vegetarians. State are found both Kannada and Telugu speaking Karade and Desastha Brahmins officiate as priests to Kumbars. These Kumbars supply the poorer :!\Iaratha Kumbars, on festive occasions. sections of the village folk, who eannot afford to possess metallic vessels, earthen vessels and thus In the district of South Kanara potters are called render a useful service to society. Kulals. Their names end with the suffix 'Kulala', 'Moolya' or 'Handa '. In Udipi taluk Kulals speak Kumbars generally have the suffix Setty to their Tulu and follow Aliya~anthana system of inheritance. namcs. The exogamous clans among the Kannada The exogamous clans called Bali are numerous among ~;peaking Kumbars are Kasturi, Semanthge, Nagara, Kulals; they are Mundanna, Ganjaranna, Char, Kendavare, etc., but many have now out grown this Salinna, etc. In Coondapur 'taluk Kulals speak distinction. The exogamous clans (Kula) of Telugu Kannada at home and they also follow the Aliya­ speaking Kumbars are identified by flowers like santhana s;ystem of inheritance. Their Bali. (clans) M allige, Sannpige, etc. are Kadina, Banna, Belana, Hole, Tholera, Chithara, Gangara, Namada, etc. Potters in the villages of Both Kannada and Telugu speaking Kumbars take Kadaba, Uppinangadi, Koila, Charvaka, Nelyadi of food prepared by Brahmins, Lingayats and Vokka­ PuttUI" taluk speak Kannada at hOllie ,and follow the ligas. The Kannada speaking Kumbars interdine patriarchal ,ystem of inherItanee. Kulals are non­ with Kurubas and the Telugu speaking Kumbars vegetarians. A member of this caste cannot marry interdine with Vokkaligas, Telugu Banajigas and his sister's daughter. Marriage betwcen cross cousins Hoovadigas. Both considor Agasas (Washerman), (cousins belonging to non-identical siblings) IS Hajamas (Barbers) and such others as low castes. pcrmissible and widow remarriage i~ recognised. Marriage with sister's daughter, father's sister's Shivalli Brahmins officiate as priests on festive daughter or mother's brother's daughter is permissi­ occaSIOns. bIre. They are no vegetarians and cat meat. Pork is rarely taken by Kannada Kumbars and 110t by Kumbars ill the taluks of Karwar and Yellapur of Telugu Kumbars. Local Brahmins officiate as North Kanara DisLrict speak Konkani ami they an' priests for them on festive occasions. migrants from Goa. 24

Districtwise figures of a number of centres where Fourteen households out of ~o belong to the locality Pottery craft is pursued and the number of persons while 6 are immigrants from Gunji, a village ncar engaged in the craft, enumerated during the 1961 Khunapur. The households of the 14 local potters Census (Compiled in Table E III) are given live in their own houses, and among the immigrants below:- 4 stay in rented h,ouses and 2 in houses allowed to be occupied free of rent. No. of centre8 No. of ptrao1f,8 Sl. where pottery engaged in These ~o households contain 117 members of whom Name of the District No. craft i8 the craft 37 are males, 36 females and 44 children below pur8ued '14 years of age. Out of 37 males :31 are potters 1 :.! 3 4 working on the wheel, ~ are students, 3 are aged and _------1 is disabled. Among the 36 femafes, 30 assist the male members in ancillary work connected with I. Bangalore 172 172 2. Belgaum 261 1,412 the craft p,nd 6 are housewives. Of the .t4 ch;hlren, 3. Bellal'Y .. 4 31 3 assist their parents, 17 are students and ~4 are too 4. Bidal' 8 19 young for any occupation. 5. Bijapul' 61 201 6. Chikmaglur 22 220 The size pattern of the households is also indicated 7. Chitl'adurga 104 735 below:- 8. Coorg , 9 122 9. Dharwar 59 122 No. of No. of 10. Gulbarga 18 145 Sl.No. member8 homeholds 11. Hassan 26 135 12. Kolar 50 310 1 2 3 13. Mandya 10 141 14. Mysore 79 947 1. 2 i 15. North Kanal'a 25 1:l5 ~. S 1 16. Raiohur M 194 8. 4 /) 17. Shimoga 30 311 4. 5 1 18. South Kanal'a 62 800 19. Tumkul' 210 1,492 5. 6 4 6. 7 8 7. 8 1 8. 10 1 D,etails of the hereditary Potters at KhanapulJ' 9. 11 2 Khanapur is a town and taluk headquarters in Thirteen households operate country wheels of Belgaum district on the Poona-Bangalore railway Dharwar type and 7 belt driven wheels made by a line at a distance of 586 Kms. from Bangalore. It is carpenter of a neighbouring village. situated at 15° 37' North latitude and 73° 34' East longitude, on the bank of Malaprabha and at a All the ~o houses in the occupation of these potters distance of ~6 Kms. from Belgaum towards South. are mudwalled with roofs made of country tiles. It is connected by bus as well as by train from Electric lighting is installed in only two of them and Belgaum. It is in a heavy rainfall area and the the rest use oil lamps. Out of the twenty households average rainfall in the region is ~,~17 mms. There who are carrying on the craft, seven households have are two High Schools, Post and Telegraph Office, floor space ranging 500-1,000 Sq. feet. Five house­ TaIuk Office, Police Statio,n and a Munsiff's Court holds have floor space in the range 1,001-1,500 Sq. located in the town. The area of the town is ~. ~o ft. Four households in the range 1,501-~,OOO '3q. Sq. miles and the population according to 1961 ft. 3 households in th e range ~,OOI-Sq. ft. ajnd only Census is 8,U7 . one household in the range 3,001 to 4,000 Sq. ft.

. There are ~o households of hereditary potters at The tota'! capital invested on the craft by the Khanapur. All the ~o households are independent hereditary potters at Khanapur is about Rs. 60,OO{) proprietary establishments engaged in manufacturing of which Rs. ~1,OOO represents the investment on clay vesels for cooking food and storing water and buildings part of which is utilised for dwelling also, country tiles for roofing. O';1t of the QO households, Rs. ~,OOO on tools and equipments, and about 19 are lVlaratnaKumbars and 1 is a Lingayat Kumbar. Rs. 1,000 on paw materials. 25

During the year 1963 the craftsmen manufactured Establishments clay articles worth Rs. 35,000 made up of vessels Pottery is carried on as a hereditary craft and each Rs. 25,000 and roofing tiles Rs. 10,000. Only a quarter of the production unit is a proprietary establishment. of the vessels produced are sold for cash, the rest being bartered for food articles like paddy and ragi. Tiles are invariably sold for cash. Thee are in aU 107 Potters' Co-operative Societies in the State. Under the Co-operative Societies there Raw materials· and firewood are available locally are 13 common work shed units, 13 small common to the potters. The consumption of clay by potters worksheds, 5 building material units, 3 brick Bhatti, in this town during 1963 is estimated at Rs. 1,000 and 4, country roofing tile units. of firewood at Rs. 7,200 though no money has actually IJ~ e,n paid by them for firewood which was collected There are two Pilot Production Units in the State. without cash in the neighbouring forests. One is attached to the Pottery Section in the Artisan The principal means of livel~hood of aU the Training 'Institute' at Khanapul' in Belgaum District 20 households is pottery making and none is engaged and the other to the Pottery Section of the Artisan in any other gainful subsidiary occupation worthy Training Institute at Ramanagaram in Bangalore of mention. However, 3 households receive rent from District. the lands as a secondary source of income. 26

CHAPTER II

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND ARTICLES PROI?UCED

Raw material.. Emnthenwevre ., Clay occurs ill nature, amI il:i compo-;ed of aluminu All permeable pottery made of white or coloured silicates, sand and other minerals. Clay when wet clay and with a glaze coating is known as earthen­ is pliable. It retains its shape when dry. When red ware. The word earthenware is often misused to hot it hardens without losing shape. indicate the common unglazed pottery.

In its pure form clay is called Kaolin. It is white Stoneware in colour and is largely used in ceramic industries. Stoneware is vitrified and opaque clayware made Ball clay, also called potter's clay, is malleable ill1d of white or coloured clay. The ware made of white due to its higher alkali contents fuses at a lower clay is ooioul'ed with a glaze while tJhe eoluured wares temperature than Kaolin. Ball clay is used for are salt glazed. making stoneware and earthenware' articles. Fire clay which is less pure contains silica, ferrous Porcelains compounds and other alkalies and is largely used in Claywares of pure white China clay which are the making of refractory bricks and saggars. translucent when thin and: vitrified at high tempera­ ture are known as porcrlains. Red clay used by potters for making terracotta warcs all over the State is composed mainly of certain Rej1YLCilariea insoluble sediments. Wares of fire clay or of high heat resisting materials fired at very high temperatures which remain porous Clays are of two kinds namely (a) primary or and without glaze are called refractories. Hefractnries residual clays and (b) secondary or transported clays. are used primarily for the consLruCtion of furnaces I,aterrte and Kaolin belong to the fir"t category while and for making crucibles used in melting IlJet.als and fire clay, ball clay and the like to the second. Primary glass. clays are those which are found near the site of original ro~ks from which they were formed, and HerJditary potters in the State arc engaged in s('colldaQ' clays are those that w.ere carried a way from producing tl'l'l'acotta. They usc the clay in its pure the original spot by the agency of water and deposited form or with the addition of certain other substances elsewhere. The present study is confined mainly to depelllling on the quality of the clay. red clay which is a secondary clay. C1ay is available to the potters from nearby tank beds or lands. They tran:"port clay to their houses Cla,yware or potet'l'y can be grouped under porous either by carL" Oi' in head loads. They usually .ware and non-porous ware. Porous ware can further collect the clay during summer. be classified into Terracotta and earthenware. Non­ porous ware can be either stoneware, Jlorcelains 01' Tools refractories. Potter's wheel is the chief contrivance employed for the making of pottery. The other accessories are Terracotta wire, spongMangalore type'. Terracotta is always unglazed and fired at low While the Mysore and the Dharwar type wheels are temperature. It is softer and more porous than propellPd by the thrower himself, the Mangalore type earthenware. wheel is propelled by his assistant. 27

Mysore type wheel a stick into a hole in the rim of the wheel. He holds the stick by both hands and rotates the wheel with It is a four spokell wheel f 7~ ems diameter. Two cross jointed pieces of wood are dovetailed at the maximum speed. Then'after he keepsby the stick and aUends to throwing. centre to resemble a four bladed propeller. The disc called the wheel head is 30 ems. in diameter and the length of each spoke is 18 ems. Bamboo splits are Mangalore type wheel tied to thc free ends of the adjacent spokes and This type of wheel is in use only in South Kanara covered with a thick plaster of clay, termitarium district. The wheels are solid discs of the followin: earth' and eoir waste to form the rim of the wheel. types :- The width of the rim is 20 cms. A stump (shaft) 7 cms. long and 2 cms. thick is fixed at th\.' c\.'ntre. (i) Solid stone disc of 30 cms,. diameter with an The free end of the shaft rests in a hole made in a axle of 10 cmsX5' cms. chunk of stone to act as a fulcrum. When the wheel is not in motion it will rest slantingly on the ground. (ii) Solid wooden disc of GO ems. diameter with an axle of 10 ems. X 5 cms. The wheel head and spokes are made of hard wood like mango (mangifera indica) jack (Artocarpus (iii) Solid stone disse of 23 cms. diameter with an intcgrifolia) or Kaggali (Acacia Catechu). For the axle of 10 cms.X 5 cms. The stone disc is shaft either tamarind (Tamarinclm lnrlica) or Kaggali padded on by a thick layer of termitarium (Acacia Catechu) is used. earth and coir waste at the outer periphery. Dlu1ruar type wheel It is a wheel of 76 cms. diameter. The wheel head A socket to fix the axle is ~cooped out in a chunk (hub) is a solid disc made of tamal,ind (Tamarindu3 of stone whieh is placed on the ground. When not Indica) or Jali (Acacia Arabica) and its diameter is ill motion the wheel stands parallel to the ground. 36 ems. Six mortises are made in the rim of the Because of friction this type of wheel is devoid of hub to receive the tenons of an equal number of easy motion and therefore requires the constant atten­ tamarind spokes. The length of each spoke is 18 tion of a person to keep it spinning. ems. The rim of the wheel is 24 ems. wide and it is ma,de of bamboo splinters and cane bound by coir Wheels are made by potters themselves and the and covered with a thick plaster of clay mixed with expenditure on raw materials ranges from Rs. 15 to ,coiir waste. A stone disc 8 ems. in diameter and Rs. 20 each. having a pit at the centre is fitted to the centre of the wheel head (hub). The wheel revolves on a .Tali The whecl used by potters in Kudikebevoor, a (Acasia Arabica) wood pivot fixed to the ground. village in Channapatna taluk of Bangalore District, This wheel also rests slantingly on the ground when is of the l\1ysore type but smaller being only of not in motion, as the MYsore type wheel. 62 cms. diameter.

The Mysore and the Dharwar types of wheels are Clay is placed on the wheel head and shaped skill­ designed on the same principles, the difference being flllly by the thrower to required form. The article only in the position of the axle. The rim of the is taken off the wheel, dricd to leather hard, beaten wheel acts as a balance. When set in motion the to shape, and then baked. centrifugal force makes the wheel revolve freely. Keeping the wheel in a stable equilibrium when in While operating the 1\1,\'sore 01' Dharwar type of position is an essential prerequisitc to commencing wheel, the thrower stanlis on the ground, bends the work. Such an equalibl'ium is sought to be forward and shapes the clay using both the hands, secured by a deft. manipulation of weight with the In KlIdikebevoor, the wheel being small, the potter addition of extra clay at the periphery of the wheel squats on the ground while working at it. wherever deficient in the required quantities.

Methods adopted to impart motion in both types . Pott~'rs in South Kanam sit 011 a low stoel ",h;Je .of wheels arc similar. The thrower gives an initial throwing. The as,isbnt sib on the ground to propel sptn to the wheel with his hands. Then he inserts the wheel. 28

Belt driven wheel 1. Prepara tion of the clay. This mechanism has a driving wheel at one end 2. Throwing on the wheel. and a tUI'll table at the .other end on which claywares 3. Beating or drubbing to shape. are fashioned. The driving wheel and the tUI'll ta.ble 4. Firing in the kiln. are connected by a belt. This equipment is made by a carpenter of the neighbouring village and the Much of the use of terracolta is of a purely utili­ making charges comes to about Rs. 30. The whole tarian type as it is relatively cheap. Potters in this equipment has a crude finish, but meets the need. of SLate make mostly hOll,sehold wares required for the potter. An assistant helps the potter in operat­ cookil)g, storing water and such other purposes. ing the driving wheel which in turn rotatel-l the turn They also make flower pots, tiles, chimney pieces table. From the prepared lump of clay the potter and other articles. takes the required quantity, p1aoe1s it over the centre of the turn-table and then the potter's assistant sets the turn-table into motion by turning the 1. Preparation of the clay driving wheel. This type of wheel helps to save the Clay is freed from grit and pebbles and the mass additional manual labour which the potter himself is kneaded well by the potter by adding water in has to expend when he has to operate the traditional little quantities. The body for throwing must be type of wheel. absolutely homogenous and free from air pockets whose presence may cause the ware to break while firing which in turn may also damage the other The other accessorIeS commonly i;n use al'e the wares in the kiln. following:

Wire Methods adopted in preparing and purifying clay For cutting the thrown piece fr·om the wheel head in different parts of the State are more or less similar. the potter needs a fine wire. A string may also be employed for this purpose. Potters in Udipi Taluk ·of South Kanara district Sponge bring Madimannu (Clay) I~rom fields, reduce it to fine powder and allow it to remain in 'water for 12 hours. Sponge is needed for taking excess water and for Shede (a type of clay available in the locality) moistening the surface while throwing. Gl'een leaves collected from the nearby fields .0£ the potter's house and rags are also used in lieu of sponge. is dried in the sun for :3 to 4 days. After completely drying it is pounded with a pestle and the powder Stone wnd Mallet thus obtained is sieved by using a wicker sieve. The The thrown articles are beaten to shape with the fine powder of Shetle is mixed with Madimannu help of a round stone and a bat shaped flat mallet. (clay) soaked in water, in equal proportions. The mixture is kneaded well by hand. This clay is Pestle heaped on a plank kept in an inclined position and scraped in thin layers by means of a bamboo splinter Wooden pestle helps to pound the dry maSs of or an umbrella rib. This process helps removal of clay. pebbles or any other hard substance left in the clay

Sieve In Coondapur taluk of South Kanara District Wicker sieves are employed to sift pebbles, if any, potters mix Koje mannu (clay) soaked in water with in the clay. powdered H aralu mannu in the proportion 1: 2. Haralu mannu is powdered by pounding with a pesUe. The mixture is kneaded well and freed from pebbles Technique of production etc., by scraping. The production process of making pottery from the stage of preparation of raw materials to the In Mangalorc taluk clay is soaked in water, stage of deriving the end products, can be explained kneaded well, purified by scraping. No other mate­ under the following heads: rial is added. 29

In Bijapur the body for throwing is made up of When wet the vessel turned out on the wheel is three types of clay, viz., Kotamannu, Kalebagmannu crude and its size also smaller then the end produce. and BiIimannu in the proportion 1: 2: 1. To the prepared clay is added ass refuse, and the entire 3. Beating or drubbing mixture is thoroughly kneaded. The quantity of ass When sufficient number of vessels are made and refuse mixed depends upon tlfie "type of a;rticle made. dried to leather hard condition the potter attends to 'beating' or 'drubbing' (Piates 15 and 16). The In other PJirts of t.he Sta'te clay is usc(l in a pure essential tools for beating are a round stone and a form. bat shaped flat mallet. To carry out this opera'tiol1, a bowl shaped a'epression is made in the ground. The 2. ThT

The thrower will have water with him to wet his Roofing tiles fingers while throwing. Roofing till'S are also manufactured on tI,e wheel. The wares assume their crude initial shape as the;v It is thrown in the shape of a hollow cylinder of are thrown on the wheel. The mass of clay on the height 30 ems. The diameter of the free end of thc wheel head is first shaped into a cone. A depression cylinder on the wheel is 10 ems. and that of the is made with thumb,s at the top of the cone and as bottom end is 15 ems. After its removal from the the wheel revolves the sides are gradually raised to wheel and while the clay is still soft, it is scratched form a cylinder until its wall assumes the required lengthwise on the diametrically opposite outer surface thickness (Plate 4). The thrower then skilfully by means of a blade or sharp strip. The cylinder shapes the lip (Plate 12) and finally moulds the will split into two equal halve5 when tapped slightly. object he is working on (Plates 5 & 6). Country tiles are popular in the village parts even after the introduction of machine made tiles due to Water collected on the surface is removed by ;their l1elatively low cost. means of a ~ag (a sustitute for sponge), and exc('ss clay scraped off with a tin strip. -:' Bricks This is an essential building material mostly in The quantity of clay placed on the wheel head at use in the urban areas. Bricks are made by persons a time would be such as to suffice throwing 5 to to who are not traditional potters. The size of the pieces depending on the size of the aTticle (Plate 7). brick is Q4 cms.XIQ cms.X8 ems. Bricks are mad. After shaping the lip and the sides of the vessel it is in the hollow wooden moulds (Plate 53) . The severed by means of a wire or string and, taken out moulder fills the clay into the mould which usually of the wheel head. By practice the potter does it has two spots (Plate 54). He removes the excess of even without the help of a string. clay sticking out on the frame and raises the mould carefully which leaves behind two pieces of bricks on In all the districts or the State, except South the ~ound. The bricks are backed in the kiln after Kanara, only men atte.nd to throwing on the wheel. being allowed to sun dry, In South Kanara even women do this work. Flooring Viles Vessels removed from the wheel are exposed to sun for drying (Plate 13). This process is commonly Flooring tiles of 15 ems. square are made in adopter) throughout the '3tate. Ramanagaram of Bangalore District ont of n d 30 clay available locally. Clay which is sllitahJe for fingers and then by means of a wet rag. The bowl throwing can also be used for pressillg. Ash iii dilstcd is dried in the sun and later fired along with other on tlte wooden mould and eJay is pressed ilito it in articles. small quantities, to be forced in. After filling, the excess clay, otherwise called cap, is cut off by means In South KanaI'll large vessels like cauldrons are of a wire. The moulder presses his palm on the clay, made entirely by hand. Usually ladies work on it. removes it from the ltJIould and places on the it The worker takes a little quantity of clay from the ground for drying. pile and place" it on a low slool the top of which is dusted with ash. She rolls the wet clay into a hollow Garden pots cylinder, pulls up the sides and after shaping the Garden pots are also made on the wheel. A neck and lip allows thc piece to dry in the sun. rylinder of vnrying heights with mouth wide anel WhE'n it sufficiently drit's she inver'.s it on the ground :r.radually narrowing downwards i", tm:ned out on the and pulls up the sides by a deft beating by the hands, wheel and to it a flat base made by hand is attached. As she proceeds doing so she adds up handfulls of To prepare the flat base, the potter takes a little clay and smoothens it. She distends the sides in qn:mtity of clay from the prepared lump, places it on this manner and also by bringing her hand up a stone disc presses it with his palm into a thick strongly from inside. After the desired shape is circNlar mass and then drubs it with a stone into a obtained the surface is smoothened first by fingers flat circular mass suitable for attaching to the pot. and then with a moistened leaf and finaIly with a At the Central Village P~'ttery Institute, Khannpur, I rimmed cocoanut shell. Imperfections, if any, arc gardens pots are made by pressing clay into a wooden rectified by scraping using a shard, The surface i~3 mould (Plates 39 to 46). For preSising in woode,l1 finally rubbed with a round stone. mould the clay is preparerl in the same manner as it is preparcd for throwing. The surface of the mould is Artides are made, particularly in the training dusted with ash so that the clay may not stick to the centrcs, by modelling and slip casting. mould. Then clay is pressed into the mould in small quantities hy hand. After filling the mould. the Sli7) casting excess clay (called cap), is cut off by means of a wire. The slah is then taken out of the moulrl by gpntly Clay reduced to a thick viscous state like a cream pressing with the palm. Six such slabs arc made for by the addition of water'is called slip. Mould made making a garden pot. These six slabs are placed in of plaster of paris which is good absorbent of water a hexagonal mould the sidE'S of which arc elo"cl~' is used in slip casting. The slip is poured into the hinged. The clay slabs placed in the wooden mould mould to fill it completely and allowed to remain are joined together lengthwise with slip. The mould there for 5 to 10 minutes. Due to rapid absorption is unlocked and released which leaves the pot behind. of water, the slip shrinks a little in the mould in the A hexagonal slab is attached to the haO'le of the pot. beginning and to make it up correction slip is added. It should always be ensured that the mould is A few of the articles are also made without wheel. completely filled with a slip without giving any vacant In Bijapur bowls are made without the aid of a wheel, space' before it is allowed to set. The absorbent and mostly by women. (Plates 47, 48, 49 and 50) . plaster of paris hastens its setting. The mould is Seated on an "old rag the lady takes a little quantity lnereafter released. Protuberances that. may be of clay ~rom the prepared lump, rolls it and places it noticed on the surface of the article cast are removed on a stone disc. She presses it by her palm into a by careful scraping. This is the process of slip thick circular lllass and then drubs it with the help casting. The advantage of this type of casting is of a stud shaped stone into a flat and thin circular that when a mould is made articles of any intricate mass. "Then she removes it from the disc, places it. and complicate shape can be cast which may not be in a metallic bowl and gives the finishing to the possible by any other method. inner surface by smoothing it with ~et fingers. Afterwards she takes it out of the metallic bowl and 4. Firing in the kiln trims the outer surface to remove all irregularities and crm1eness. When the desired shape is achieved The final stage of work in the production of she aUt nds to final smoothing first by means of pottery is biscuiting or firing for whieh the clay 31

wares require to be thoroughly dried (In Khanapur Kiln for bricks are preparco when they are to. be 'Bhing'-mica powder is smeared on the claywal't' actually burnt. Bricks arc piled nne above the other just before loading them in the kiln-Plate 17). The with grating arrangements (Plate 24). system adopted for biscuiting by hereditary potters is the same all over the State except for slight Firewood is the chief fuel used for firing claywares differences in regard to the mode of construction in the biscuit ovens. Cowdung cake, groundnut husk of the kiln attributable mainly to local practices. arc also used depending upon availability (Plate 23) . The firewood is locally purchased in the urban areas where there are no. forest". The price varies from A shallow pit dug in the ground near the potter's place to place and in view of this craft being diffused house constitutes the nascent type of kiln. Large all over the State it has been found not possible to vessels are arranged at the ground level (Plate 18) indicate with any exactitude the expenses incurred ftnd care is taken to see that the interstices are filled bv this craftsmen. Groundnut husk is used in Bijapur \vith straw , brush-wood and other waste to avoid a~d the price is about Re. 0.50 per gunny bag. This possible damages. Wares are placed in the kiln aspect has also been discussed in Chapter nt-cost making the most advantageous use of the available analysis. space, and in a manner as to keep down to the mini­ mum the cost of firewood. After loading the kiln Articles produced is covered by straw and daubed with mud. The kiln In South Kanam district 12 types of vessels are is set on fire from the bottom and firewood is fed mad!.' fol' cooking food and storing water. through the fire hole situated at the bottom in the front side of the kiln. When the wet mud covering 1. 01ldana lhe kiln becomes mffide;ntTy dry, holes are made in it for the smoke to escape. Usually kilns are set on A cauldron for heating wat('ol' and for boiling paddy fire in the evening and opened early the following as a preliminary to preparing parboiled rice. It is a morning. The fire is extinguished and the entire pot with medium size mouth, constricted n(:'ck, bulged apparat'us is allowed to cool. After sufficient cooling silks and ronnd bottom. Its price varies from the wares are carefully taken out of the kiln one by Rs. 1.37 to Rs. 2.50. one as they are highly brittle. 2. Bani

Another type of kiln commonly in use is a crude A wide mouthed vessel with conical sides and flat construction usually erected in a separatc shed. A bottom. This is priced betwee.n Re. 1. 00 and wall with two holes to serve as feeding mouths for R~. '2.75. firewood is built. On one side of this wall two sloping sides are put up. Vessels are arranged in the 3'. Madike kiln with enough space in between for the smoke to escape. After loading is completed, sweepings, straw A pot with wide mouth, constricted neck and round etc., (Plate 19) are spread over the vessels and the bottom u,!(:'d for -cooking fooO' and its price is He, 0.31. whole system is covered by a layer of ash. Water is 4. Kada ~prinkled to wct the I))sh to make it stick. A pot with a narrow neck and mouth, round bottom A crucible shaped oven with a grate about .90 ems. and a smaN flat base. It is used for carryingwater. from the ground' is constructed for biscuiting small The prier is Re. 0.37. and tiny wares (Plate fll). The kiln is loaded and covered w_ith shards to retain heat and to allow the .5. Alige smoke to escape (Plate 22). Vessel for making curry having a wide mouth, involute neck and curved bottom. Price Re. 0.19 to The usual time required to bake the clay ware eevn Re. 0,25, in this type of kiln is one night. The kiln is, set on fire in the evening and opened in the following 6. Mage morning. The firc is quenched and the whole system 'is allowed to cool. . . , A pot of smaller size. Price He. 0.12. 32

7. Marige 6. Karegadige A large bowel with flat circular bottom used as a 'Medium sized pot with narrow mouth, curved neck, trough. Prince Re. 0.34, to Re. 0,.1.0. bulged sides and round bottom for keeping prepared dishes. Price Re. 0.22. 8. Gaddaga A small bowl with curved bottom used to serve: 7 . A pachetti prepared food. Price Re. O. 06. A pot with wide mouth, involute neck, curved bottom and less de<'p than wide used for cooking 9. Bavadi veg<:'tabl('~. Price Re. 0.22 to Re. 0.25. It is a lid. Price Re. 0.09. 8. Bosi A bowl. Price Re. O. 15 to Re. 0.22. ~O. Korilw

A bowl with a base which is used as a substitute 9. Koladappale for plate especially by women in post natal pf'rioll. A large vessel with sides widening downwards and Price Re. 0.09. with it flat circular bottom used for heating water. Price Rs. 1. 25. 11. Hooji A jug for keeping drinking watf'r.' Price Re. 0.31 10. Kallum.artige A pot resembling a ware made of sort stone, with 1'2. Deepadu Odll almost uniform hollow from mouth to bottom. The bottom is flat and circular. It is used to keep salt A cassolette. Price Re. 0.31. and other articles in raw state. Price Re. 0.22.

11. Mannina Ge1'ugoode Articles made in Bangalore District A pot with 11 wide mouth, bulging sides, contrac­ 1. Arive ting downwards and with a flat bottom. It is used to keep provisions. Price Re. 0.22. A large pot with wide mouth, involute neck, bulged sides and round bottom used for storing and heating 1Q . Kadlekayv beyisuva gadige water. Price Re. 0.88 to Re. 1.00. A pot with perforated boltom for the roasting of ground nuts . Price Be. 0.7.5. 2. Gadige or Koda A medium sized pot with narrow mouth, constric­ 13. Henchu ted neck, bulged sides and round bottom, for carrying Country tiles.-Price Rs. 40.00 for 1,000 pieces. ,,·ater. Price Re. 0.37 to Re. 0.44. 14. Chadarabille 3. Madike Flooring tiles. Price Rs. 10.00 to Rs. 12.00 for 1,000 pieces. A common term which denotes a pot. Price Re. 0.15 to Re. 0.22. 15. Kunda 4. Pasale Garden pots, including seed pan and grafting pots. . Price for 100 pots :- A small pot with wide mouth, involute neck and Rs. curvrd bottom used for making CUl'l"y. Price Re. 0.15. Garden pots SIze 14" 50.00 Garden pots sIze 12" 34.75 5. Lota Garden pots size 9" 17.75 A small pot to hold oils and other liquids. Price Seed pan 24.00 Re. 0.15. Grafting pots 17.50 33

At Kudikiebevoor in ChannapaJtna. taluk of Banga­ 3. Gagar lore district tiny pottery is made. Clay bells are a A pot for carrying water. Price Re. 0.37. speciality of Kudikebevoor. The bells produce metallic sound. Halu kudike, Ede kudike, BatJtalu, Ach~r1t kudil(/!, "ft!ilte, Dubbi, Enne gadige, Thuppada 4. Moat gadtge, are all tmy pots of almost same shape with slight variations in sizes (Plate it9). Prices for A vessel for cooking rice, with wide mouth, short 100 pieces of each type of article :- constricted neck, curved bottom. Price Re. 0.44.

5. Bmdiga Rs. A pot for carrying water. Price Re. 0 . 37. Halu kudike 1.00

Ede kudike 1.25 6. Tenthula

Acheru Kudike 3.50 A vessel for cooking vegetables with wide mouth, constricted neck, curved bottom and less deep than Seeru kudilw 5.00 wide. Price Re. 0.19.

Mille 1.00 7. Moya Dllbbi 3.5'0 A small pot for drinking water. Price Re. 0.12.

Enne Gadige 7.00 8. Dhakni Thup:pada gadige 7.00 A lid. Price Re. 0.03. Battalu 1.25

Hanathe (oil lamp of clay) 1.25 9.. ThQ/Va A pa.n. Price Re. 0.06. Chilume (tobacco pipe) 2.00

Dhooparthi (ca88oloUe) 2.50 10. Ubo A small pot with narrow mouth, constricted neck, Following are the articles made at Khanapur in round bottom used for serving liquid dishes. Belgaum District (Plates 25 to 28) :- Price Re. 0.06.

1. Dera 11. Sugudo A large cauldron with constricted neck, bulged sides Tiny PQt used for distribution of Ellu (a mixture and round bottom used for storing water. Price prepared of seasmum, groundnnt, fried gram, gur. Rs. 4.00. copra, etc.,) on the occasion of Sankranthi. Price Re. 0.06. 2. Bachak A large vessel with narrow base, wide mouth and 12. JogM round bottom used for heating water. Price Rs. 2.00 to lliI. 2.50. A bowl. Price Re. 0.06.

H S.M.-3 34

Articles made at Bijapur

1. Harave 8. Ole It large pot with medium size mouth, involute Oven. Price: netk, bulging sides and round bottom for henting Firewood oven (direct fin.') water. Price Re. 1.00 to Rs. 1.50. Firewood oven ( double stage) 0.31 2. Koda Charcoal burner 0.20 A medium sized pot with narrow mouth cons­ tricted neck, round bottom IIsed for (,llrrying water. Articles for cere!monial use Price Re. 0.75 to Re. 1.00. He~'cditary potters make utility articles for dome­ ~lic use. As regards the ceremonial use of clay 3. Madike llrticles, the making of the image of Ganapathi out of clay is worth mentioning. According to Hindu Pots of vlll'ying SlllCS for cooking food. Price custom the image of Ganapathi is worshipped on the Re. O.'Z5 to He. 0.75. Chaturthi of Bhadrapada month (August-Septem­ ber) every year and later immersed in a tank or well. 4. Kooji This custom has given scope and opportunity to A water jug. Price Re. 0.7.1•. those engaged in making these imll?e~ of making fl sizable profit !during this season. While persons belonging to the castes of Gudigar, Jingar or Chitra­ 5. Kunda· gar, etc., make cl~y images of Ganapathi as II Garden po t . l)l'ice Rc. 0.50. seasonal occupation, hereditary potters rarely engage themselves in doing tbis. The images are m:ldc h~' hands as well as by moulds. Handmade illlag~s 6. Pannolige cost more rang·jng form Re. 1.00 to Rs ..5.00 while Water pipe. Price Re. 0.50. moulded ones cost les~ ranging from Re. 0.25 to Re. 0.75. The larger demand for images made by hand in spite of their higher cost is due to a belief Dsali of their being' morc sacred. After ma king the images Smoke ('himney. Price Re. 1.00. in clay they are attractively coloured. - CRAPTER III

ECONO~C AND GENERAL ASPECTS

Cost of Production to the potters at the time of harvest. The quantit, of grains so given depends upon the size of the The production of articles of varying shapes and recepient household calculated at 6 seers (measures) sizes in one lot at a time ~o as to make fullest use per member. of the capacity of the kiln defies even an approxi­ mate assessment of the cost of each individual piece. Hence cost of production is worked out for the Potters transport claywares from their respective entire output of the kiln. It is Rs. 30.00' per lot homes to the market in hcad loads (Plate 37) in and, if disposed wholesale of is expected to realise slings Qr in bullock carts. Rs. 100. This cost is made up of: Economic conditions of Kumbars Cost of clay (including transporting Rs. Kumbars are independent workers and the craft charges) 5.00 is carried on exclusively by household members. Cost of firewood 20.00 The earnings of a potter ranges from Re. 0.88 to I,oss due to hreakage 5.00 Rs. 1.25 per working day. Case studies have shown that 88 per cent of the income has been derived from Total 30.00 pottery craft, 2 per cent from agricultural labour and 10 per cent by way of rent and other sources. To earn as above a profit of Rs. 70.00 two persons Regarding the expenditure of the Kumbar house­ have to work for so days and the earning of each holds, 57 per cent of the total was on food and person per day works out to Rs. 1.12. drinks, 3 per cent on fuel and light, 1 per cent on house repair, 7 per cent on clothing, 7 per cent on Capital pan, supari and tobacco products, 6 per cent on other miscellaneous items and 19 per cent on The initial investment in the craft is about Rs. 20 purchase for production. made up of Rs. 15 towards the cost of wheel and Rs. 5 of other tools. An investment of about Rs. 25 towards clay and firewood will suffice to set the first Potters find employment throughout the year kiln. Practically no household not belonging to the except in Malnad areas where weather condjtions line of the hereditary craftsmen has ventured to during the monsoon is unfavourable for the drying take up this avocation. of clayware. They work from sun rise to sun set without adhering to any strict hours of work or interval. Normally they do not work at nights Marketing excePt on the days the kilns are set. Articles made by potters are stored in their houses without any extra packing. Articles are sold locall'y Most of the Kumbars are solely dependent on or at weekly markets in the nearby villages or towns. pottery while a few have agricultural labour, or self Usually there is no intermediary or middleman. cultivation as subsidiary occupations. As regards Wherever Co-operative Societies have been establi­ the availability of raw material or fuel the potters shed, disposal of finished wares is channeled through are not experiencing an,y hardships. them.

Case studies In Khanapur and a few other centres of the State, potters supply clay ware produced by them to the 1. A household in Hunsemakki village in Co'onda­ villagers and receive payment in kind under Jajmani pur Taluk of South Kanal'a District. system. Under this system the potter is under an obligation to supply clay wares to households who It is a hereditary potter's household with 6 normal . happen to be their regular customers, as and when residents. Their mother tongue is Tulu and they needed. In return the households give ragi or paddy follow the Aliyasanthana law of inheritance. The

3* 36

8 members are (1) head (52); (2) wife (42); The household owns no assets. It is put up in a (8) Son (26); (4) Daughter (6); (5) son (4); rented hut and the rent per annum is Rs. 20.00. (6) Mother (76); All of them are illiterate. The household possesses 4 brass vessels and 4 bronze vessels. Each male member has one pair of dress The head of the household owns 4.00 acres of land and female members have 2 saJries and 2: blouses, each. granted to him by the Government as Darkasth. All the members of the household take tea at 7 A.M., Out of the 4.00 acres he has leased out 1,50 acres Ganji at 8 A.M" and meals (rice with curry) twice for crop rent and receives 4 muras of rice annually. a day once at 1 P.M. and again at 8 P.M. The head, his wife 3jud son work as potters. The son also works as agricultural labourer. The house­ The household sets ~o kilns a year and the average hold owns the house in which it resides, It is a mud value of articles produced per kiln is Rs. 100. house with thrutched roofing varued at about Rs. 300. Family budget for last year: (1963). The household' possesses 2 brass vessels used for taking food and 3 aluminium tumblers. Income Rs. Expenditure Rs.

The two male adults have 1 shirt and 1 dothi each and the two female members have 2 saries each. 1. Pottery 2,000 1. Food (cereal) 840 (non.cereal) 260 The boy has only one shirt and the girl a frock. 2, Drinks 60 All the members take tea at '1 A.M., ganji at 11 A.M. 3, Fuel and lighting 50 and a square meal of rice and curry at 9 P.M. 4, House rent 20 5, Clothing 170 The household sets 16 kilns per year and the 6, Pan, etc. 200 7, Others 100 average value of articles produced per kiln is Rs. 6(), 8, Purchase for pro· 300 duction. Family budget of the household for last year (1963) Total 2,000 Total 2,000

Income Rs. Expentliture Rs.' 3. A household in Khanapur, a taluk headquar­ 1. Pottery 960 1. Food (cereal) 800 ters in Belgaum District: , 2. Agr. labour 100 (non.oareal) ., 120 3 Rent 100 Drinks 40 2. There are 11 members in this household: (1) Head 3. Fuel and Light .. 40 (65); (2) Wife (60); (3) Son (32); (4) Son (28); 4. HouSe repair 10 4, Clothing 60 (5) 2nd son's wife (24); (6) 3rd son (18); (7) 4th 6. Pan and TobacCo 100 ,.on (12) ; (8) 2nd sQn's son, (4) ; (9) 2nd son's son 7, Others 40 (2) ; (10) Son's daughter (2) ; (11) Son's daughter (11) . Total 1,210 Total 1,210 These are Marathi speaking Kumbars and are non­ 2. A household in Wakvadi village in Coondapur vegetarians. Persons shown against the serial num­ taluk of South Kanara District. bers 2, fJ and 10 assist the 4 male adults who work as potters, by bringing firewood from the nearby The household consists of 7 members: (1) Head forest and attending to the marketing of the wares. (65); Wife (48); (3) Son (30); (4) Son (25); (5) Daughter (20); (6) Daughter (18); (7) Son The household owns 16.00 acres of land at (10). All the members of the household except the Machigad and has leased it out for crop rent and son aged 10 years work as potters and are married. receives an annual rent of 12 bags of paddy and The wives of the two sons and the husbands of the Us. 400 cash. The household regularly supplies cIayr two daughter~ are with their respective parents ware to 9 households in Lokuli, 10 households in and the persons enumerated are the normal members Kukkatageri, 16 households in Asoka and ~o house­ of this household. The members speak Kannada at holds in Machigad round about Khanapur under home and follow the Aliycumnthana law of inherit­ Jajmani system and receives payment in kind at the ilDce. time of harvest. The quantity of paddy to be paid .37

to the Kumbar depends on the size of the recepient's Family budget for last yeaiI': (1963) household calculated at 6 seers per member. The imputed value of the paddy collected by this house­ Income R'J. Expenditure Rs. hold during the year previous to this survey is Rs. 800. In the local shandy the household sells 1. Pottery 1,050 1. Cereals (00 clayware worth Rs. 15 every week. The household (non·cerpals) .. 120 is put up in a dwelling of its own, which is quite 2. Drinks 50 spacious Iljnd roofed with country tiles. AN the 3. Fuel and light 40 members have two sets of dress. They take tea and 4. House repair 10 Bakri (chapaties of jowar and ragi) at 7 A.M., rice 5. Clothing 50 and curry at 1 P.M. and 9 P.M. The household sets 6. Pan, Tobacco 80 30 kilns a year and the average value of articles 7. Others 50 produced per kiln is Rs. 60. 8. Purchase for 250 production. Total Total Family budget for la;st year: (1963).

5. A household III Kudikebevoor, a village III Channapatna taluk of Bangalore District: Income Rs. Expenditure Rs·

There are 5 members in this household. (1) Head 1. Pottery: 1. Food (ceroal) I,OSO (42); (2) Wife (38); (3) Daughter (22); (4) Son (a) Cash 1,000 (non.cereal) .. 360 (12); (5) Daughter (9); It is a Kannada potter's (b) Kind 800 2. Drink 120 household. 60 2. Rent 600 3. Fuel and light The household is staying in its own house and 4. 10 House repair also owns 3.00 acres of land which has been leased 5. Clothing 200 out for crop rent. Last year receipts (rom this 6. pan aud tobacco 120 land were 3 pallas of paddy, 4 pallas of ragi and 7. Others 200 10 headloads of straw. Each member in the house­ i. Purchase for *250 hold has two sets of dress. All of them take tea production. in the morning and two meals with the menu of ragi balls (hittu) and rice with curry. Total 2,400 Total 2,400

The household sets 20 kilns a year and the value of articles produced per kiln ranges from Rs. 45 to * At Khanapur tho potters collect fircwo,.<1 frem t he forests and Rs.50. aB IPlch thc cost of firuwO!)d is minimisl'd. Family budget for last year: (1963).

4. A potter's household in Bijapur Town: Income Rs. Expenditure Rs.

Jot is a four member household. (1) Head (SR); 1. Pottery 940 1. Food (cereal~) 450 (2) Wife (29); (3) Son (U), (4) Sun (9);. The 2. Rent 160 (non·cereals) .. 120 head and wife pursue pottery trade and the two 2. Drinks 40 sons are students. They are Lingayat Kumbars and 3. Fuel and light .. (0 speak Kannada. Each member has two sets of 4. House ropair 10 dress. They take tea every morning, breakfast at 5. Clothing 60 9 A.M. and will also have two meals consisting of 6. Pan, tobacco 70 Bakri, rice and curry once at 2 P.M. and again at 7. Others 90 9 P.M. The household is put up in its own house. 8. Purohase for 220 production. The household sets 21 kilns a year and the Total 1,100 Total 1,100 average value of articles produced per kiln is Rs. 50. 38

Co-operative Societies Societies are l'CCelvmg help from the Khadi and Village Industries Commission through the State In all there are 122 Potters' Co-operaJive Societies in the State as on 31st July 1963. The number of Khadi Board. Co-operatives in the several districts are as follows: Following is the statement of Grants alld J,oalls Bangalore-7, Belgaum-ll, BeUary-3, Bidar-2, Bijapur- given by the Commission for various schemes under­ 2, Chikmagalur-3, Chitradurga-9, Hassan-S, Coorg-3, t:k"11 by the Co-operative Societies under extension Dharwar-7. Gulbarga-9, Kolar-G, l\Iandya-9, Mysore- 6, North Kanara-ll, Raichur-5, Shimoga-3, programmes : South Kanal'a-ll and Tumkul'-7. The Co-operative

St. No. of Grant Loan Sl. No. of Grant Loan No. Particulars Units Rs. Rs. No. Particulars Units Rs. Rs.

1. Common work shed unit .. 13 58,500 58,500 7. Model production centre 3 20,050 2. Small common work shed 13 15,750 17,750 8. Equipment subsidy 5 32,800 27,900 3. Building material unit .. 5 50,540 54,940 9. Assisted with- 4. Briok Bhattis 3 5,000 1,000 (i) Share Capital 56 57,972 5. Country roofing tile unit .. 4 8,700 8,700 (ii) Working Capital 3,82,370 Training -cum-production 62,490 6. 6 27,690 ------OElntres.

Following are the details of the schemes sponsored by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission through the Co-operative Societies.

Sales Employment Wages paid ST. Total Set 'up Working Pro- (including (No. of Units) (Es.) No Type of Unit as(tn as on a8 on Units duction previou8 ------_ 31-3-1963 31-3-1963 31-3-1963 reported value in Btock) Full Part Full Part Rs. Rs. time time time time

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. Common workshed unit 13 13 10 10 63,046 81,577 100 62 32,144 2,705

2. Small common workshed 13 8 8 8 38,483 36,826 49 19 13,155

3. Building material [5 [5 [5 [5 58,796 41,099 63 43 24,675 4,011

4. Brick Bhattis 3 2 2 2 7,856 19,334 13 3,940

5. Country roofing tiles 4 2 2 6,053 4,185 9 2,017

6. Training-cum-production 6 6 6 6 47,919 47,367 88 16,524

7. Model production centre ..." 3 1 1,943 2,080 2 756

8, Equipment subsidy 3 2 ' 1 3,240 3,338 8 8 1,080 153

(I. Units assisted with share 56 54 53 33 57,809 1,38,450 370 108 50,634 3,265 and/or working Capital 39

Details of Potters' Co-operative Society at Demonstration Centre at Khanapur for training Ramanagaram candidates in the craft. This centre lauer merged with Artisan Training Institute on 2nd January "The Potters Craft Co-operative Society Ltd.," 1960. was registered on 21st January 1958. Training is imparted at 'this Centre to 30 candi­ dates every year. At present a batch of 20 candi­ Ramanagaram is a town and taluk headquarters dates is undergoing training. An Clubide train~e in Bangalore District at a distance of 28 miles from gets a stipend of Rs. 30 per month and a local Bangalore situated on the Bangalore-Mysore Road. trainee Rs. 20 per month. Candidates are selected The town is connected by rail as well IlS by road by the Block Development Officers and sent to from Bangalore. Khanapur. Hereditary potters are preferred for admission ove]" others. Candidates must be between The aim of the Co-operative Society at Rama­ the age of 16 and 25 and must have passed the final nagaram is to provide marketing facilities to the primary examination. The duration of training is pottery produced by its members. The area of 12 months commencing from 1st of April. operation of the Sociely is n0't limited to the town of Ramanagaram but also extends to the entire taluk From 1956 to 1960, 40 hereditary po~ters were of Ramanagaram. trained in this centre at the rate of 10 each year. Trainees of the earlier batches were paid a stipend There are 125 members in this Co-operative Society at Rs. 15 per month while the ~ast batch was paid at and they hold 160 shares of value of Rs. 5 each. The Rs. 40 per month. paid-up share capital is Rs. 589. The affairs of the society are managed by an elected committee. After its merger with Artisan Training Institute, S hatches of candidates have completed training and The Co-operative Society has received a loan of the 4th batch was undergoing training during the Rs. 1,000 towards share capital and Rs. 3,000 towards period of Sllryey. The numher of candirlates trained working capital from the' Khadi and Village Indus­ in t,lw Arti~ml Training Institute each Yl'ar j, set out tries Commission. An amount of Rs. 500 has been below:- received from the same- agency for putting up of 1960-61 7 tra inees common work sheds. The society has yet to repay 19(H-62 7 trainees the loans. 1962-63 15 trainees 1963-64 20 trainees This Co-operative Society gets orders for garden pots from establishments such as Hin(lu·tall 1\behiee Among the 7 ealHlidates of the first batch, 6 were­ Tools, Hindustan Aircraft, Indian Telephone Indus­ hereditary potters. All the 7 of the second batch tries and for grafting and seed pans from horticul­ were hereditary potters while in the third out of tural and sericultural departments. As there is no 15 only 3 happell to be so. In the present batch production unit attached to the Society it gets the nOlle belongs to the profession by heredity. pots made by its members and supply 3gain;o;\ onlers. The Society keeps a margin of profit of 61 per cent The syllabus for the course is throwing-jigger on the products sold. During 196'~-G3 pots worth jolleying-casting-body-washing-saggar making­ Rs. 13,000 were sold by this Co-opl'l"ative Society. wad making-biscuit and glost firing in kilns-paint­ illg--cngobe applying-glazing-tiles pres-ing-m~llId makillg-dra wing-estimu Ling, etc. Training Centres

The Al,tisan Training Centre at Khanapur in There are 4 rope driven wheels, 1 kick wheel and Belgaum District has been functioning from ~nd 3 ball bearing whePis in the Institute. January 1960. Pottery is one of the subjects taught, the others being carpentry, smithy and 1(,\lther The Pii(lt Production Unit attaelH'd 10 tIte Artisan stitching. Training Institute produces painted clay toys. About 40 toys of articles are made in this unit and they In 1956, prio:!." to Sta;te's Re-organisation, the have bcen given in Appemlix I indicatllls also lhc Government of Bombay establl,shed a Pottery price at which they are sold at the show room. 40

In the Pilot Production Centre there are 3 skilled Stipend at Rs. ~f) per month to local trainees and workers who are being paid on the basis of daily at Rs,. 30 per month to outside trainees is paid. wages. One of them gets Rs. 4 per working day and two others at Rs. 2 each per working day. In the In the Pilot Production Unit attached to this Pilot Production Centre articles are made by slip centre there is one skilled worker (moulder and casting a brief description of which is given in painter) and 4 unskilled workers. All of them work Chapter II of the monograph under Techniques of on daily wages. The skilled worker is paid Rs. 4 prr working day and the unskilled workers Rs. 2 each Production. The following table shows the values of per working day. various types of articles produced, sold since the inception 0 fthe centre and the stock to the date of During 196~-63 articles worth Rs. 6,3~~ were survey:- produced in this unit and articles worth Rs. 5,436 were

J'Jescnption Pro- :,old out against orders and also at the show room duction at Ramanagaram. The total expenditure during th(' same period on raw materials was: Rs. ~,056 a.nd RI. R~. RB. 1. Bis,;uited &rti.lcl! 3,475 111 3,460 wages Rs. ~,824. Painted biscuited articles .. 1,928 747 1,181 2. Articles are made by using plaster of paris moulds •• Glazed articles 3,091 350 3,041 4. Painted gla zed &rticles 152 265 487 and by adopting the slip casting as well as pressing 5. Plaster of Paris moul~s :J,(23 3,423 methods, the details regarding which are furnished 6. Plaster of Paris panels 64 64 in Chapter II under Techniques of Production. 7. Painted plaster of Pari. Articles produced at this Centre and their retail price panels 573 42 531 are given in Appendix II. These articles are available 8. Clay models 48 41 at the Handicrafts Emporium in Bangalore. The above excludes the clay valued' at R~. ~81 and green articles valued at Rs. 1,046. Central Village Pottery Institute, Khanapur Another Training Institute, IRamanagamm In 1954, the All India Khadi & Village Industries Another training centre run by the Government of Gommission took up village pottery for country wide Mysore is located at Ramanagaram in Bangalore development. The Commission decided to establish a district. In the year 1939 a Pottery Production unit training-cum-research centre at Khanapur, where Was founded at Ramanagaram where production of good clay, fuel, water and other 'facilities are readily clay toys was carried on till 1959. On ,1st October a vailable. To begin with the cen'ure started function­ ing in a rented building. Later, as certain difficulties 1959 t!he production unit was marged with the Arlisa.n Training Institute established at the place. In thIS were encountered for its continuance in the same centre candidates are trained in prepara'tion of clay, premises, the Commission thought of owning a building. The efforts made in this direction actually throwing, casting and pressing, firing and kiln cons­ bore fruit in 1962 when a new building was put up, tructing. on the banks of river Malaprabha by the ~ide of the Since 1959 five batches of candidates have been main road from Khanapur to Pa.njim. A hostel is trained here. The first batch was trained from also attached to this centre to accommodate September 1959 to March 1960. The duration of 40 trainees. training for the remaining batches is HZ months from The training for first batch commenced on the 1st of April to 81st March. Details of the candidatr~ ~lld October 1954. The course lasted for 5 months trained since 1959 are as follows:- and 40 candidates were trained. Later the duration Total Heredi- Non-here- Loc"Z of training was extended to 10 months and the number St. Period cltndidates tary ditary candi- Others of trainees was reduced to SO. No. irainad potle,.s potter6 datts

2 3 4 5 6 7 The Institute is under the control of a Super­ 1. 1969-60 13 5 1 3 10 intendent, the remaining sltaff being Ceramist-I, 2. 1960- 61 8 8 7 Technical Assistant-I, Instructors-S, Master Potter-1 3. 1961-62 6 6 6 and Supervisor-I. The Institute p~ovides two courses, 4. 1962-63 14 g 6 10 one for Pottery Supervisors and the other for :Mastel' I) " 5. 1~63-64 5 5 Potterll. -----___ ------_.. Pottery supervisors deal with the general orgam­ usually preferred for admission to this course, sational aspects of pottery craft and the master Ca.ndidates should have passed the final primary potters acquire proficiency in the various improved examination and should be between 18 and 35 years. techniques of the industry and become sufficiently The duration of the course is l(} months from 1st skilled and efficient for successfully running the October to 31st July followed by practical training village pottery production units. for a period of 2 months.

Candidates trained in this course wiII have a basic Details of the candidates trained III the Institute since 1954 are as follows: knowledge of the trade and would be sufficiently equipped to undertake the making of normal village pottery articles. They will also be competent to Trained for Batch Total ------adopt new methods of production techniques with .Vo. Yeal' No. of Super. Master the necessary know how of kiln settings, firing, trainees visor's potter'~ unloading, etc. They also become well versed in course course testing clays and serving in production, training or demonstration units. 2 3 4 5

I 1954-55 35 22 13 Syllabi for both the coarses include history of II 1955-56 28 7 21 pottery classification of terracotta-building materials­ III 1956-57 32 18 14 clay toys, art pottery-selection of raw materials­ IV 1957-58 28 19 9 fuel-preparation ·of clays for shaping, shaping of V 1958-59 29 21· 8 VI 1959-60 32 14 18 cIaywares by throwing on the wheel, building by VII 1960-61 30 17 13 hand, pressing to shape in plaster of paris, clay and VIII 1961-62 28 17 11 wooden moulds, Jigger jolleying-casting-drying of IX 1962 63 26 12 14 claywares-firing of daywares-colouring and paint­ 196~64 18 18 X 36 ing of earthenwares-simple glazing--simple modelling and moulding.

Po~tery SupervisoOr's Course An examination is held at the end of the training Candidates sponsored by the Potters' Co-operative period and certificates are issued to successful Societies, Registered Institutions, State Boards and trainees. Trainees are paid a stipend of Rs. 45 per the State Governments are admitted to this course. month. Besides, travelling expenses from the home The minimum qualification for admission is Pre­ place of candidate to Khanapur and back will be university course, though graduates are preferred. borne by the Board. Free accommodation is pro­ Candidates must be between 18 and 35 years of age. vided in the hostel run by the Institute. The duration of braining is 10 months from 1st Ootober to 31st July and, in addition, practical tmin­ Vanitha Sahakal"i K(JfInagar Sangh ing for 2 months. The Vanitha Sahakari Kamagar Sangh at Khana­ Candidates who receive training in this course pur is established with the object of providing work would acquire sufficient technical knowleuge and' for the women folk in their spare time. :\:l/s. Cera­ skill to organise and run village pottery craft on mic Products Ltd., Khanapur help the Sangh in sound technical lines and also to supervise the work­ several ways. They are giving such work as prepa­ ing of the units so organised. They ~ill have a ration of sanitary wares and fittings to the Sangh. thorough knowledge of all aspects of pottery They have also permitted utilisation of the spare technique including the preparation of schemes for capacity of their grinding and washing equipment production units and planning of production pro­ and supply them ready clay mix. They have allowed grammes. the 8angh to use their spare kilns on a reasonable rent. At the time of investigation the rent to be Master Potter's Colurse paid by the Sangh for using the kiln had not been fixed. They have also promised to provide small . Professional, experienced and skilled potters electric power of 10-15 H.P., and to spare the services sponsored by Co-operative Socicties, registered insti­ of their technical and engineering staff to solve tutions, State Boards and State Governments are their technical problems. 42

The 8angh came into existence on 19th January Members of the Sangh work on daily wage system. 1963. There arc ~5 members and 5 sympathisers on Workers of the Jar section a re paid Rs. 1. 25 per the rolls. The share value is Rs. 25. A sum of day. They have to work for 8 hours from 8 A.M. to Rs. 8.50 has been subscribed towards the share 12 NOON and from 1 P.M. to 5'-30 P.M. with two capital by the members and Rs. 600 has been intervals of 15 minutes each. Jars (stoneware) are collected from sympathisers. The total working made in 36 different sizes ranging from i lb. to ~5 lbs. capital of the 8angh is Rs. 18,600 of which Rs. 6,000 in varying shapes with or without screw tops has been given by the Government as subsidy and (Plate 55). Rs. 8,600 has been advanced by the Chairman of the Sangh as loan and Rs. 4,000 has been advanced by ~I/s. Ceramic Products Ltd. Workers of the sanitary section are paid on piece The following equipment has been supplied to the work basis, the 1'a tt, of wage being Re. 0.33 for a Bangh by Mis. Ceramic Products for which no hire 4" trap, Re. 0.37 for a 6" pan and Re. 0.88 for a is being charged: 9" pan. These sanitary fittings are supplied to Mis. Ceramic Products in an unglazed condition against st. No. Particulars No. Valve (Rs.) ordeJ'~. 2 3 4

1. Jigger jollt y 5 3,000 Jars are sent to dealers at Belgaum, Bangalore, 2. PresS \ 1 3,010 3. Th ~ ading ]Jr6~s 500 ctc. During the year 196Q-63 Jars worth Rs. 8,464 4. Moulds 3,000 were sold by the 8angh. 5. Work shed 1 10,000 6. Kiln 1 15,000 43

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

Claywares manufactured by local hereditary nium ware which is of mere recent ongm has, on potters arc used mostly by the poorer sections of the account of its comparative cheapness, come to people, who cannot afford the luxury of burnished replace to some extent the clay utensils evcn in brass vessels or even the cheaper aluminium village homes. Due to rapid improvement in the utensils. Even among some of the affluent classes, economic conditions of the people in all strata of there is a belief that food cooked in clayware is society after independence, even the poorer section more beneficial to health than food cooked in metal­ are now in a position to find the wherewithal to go lic wares, most of which are attacked either by the in for small quantities of mtlallic wares though acids or by saltS! in food. In consequence thesc ware,:; these can and will never completely replace c1ay­ are in demand all round the year. wares. The belief that claywares do good to health dies, hard. Also the earthen pots being liable to The potters have been conventionally subjected to breakages require frequent replacement thus creating a social stigma as being inferior to certain other a never ceasing demand for this cheap ware of higher castes. Their earnings are also not commen­ essential domestic use to keep the potter's wheel surate with the amount of labour they put in. Being spinning for ever. Even if metal ware, which is a economically weak, they naturally occupy a lower status symbol, replaces earthen pots to some extent, rung in the social ladder. the spread of tiled houses-another status symbol in rural areas will continue to provide employment There is a widespread belief that potters are to the potter for some more time. The potter's facing hard days after the advent of metallic wares. life has all along been one of bare subsistence with This statement cann@t be totally accepted. Metallic few luxuries. As the potter leads a simple life with wares have been in use from time immemorial and limited wants and the trade involves a small initial if this statement were true the pottcry craft should outlay, it has been possible for some to pursue this not have survived this long. However, the alum i- trade. 44

POTTERY OF MYSORE

APPENDIX 1

PRICE LIST OF AH:l'IOLl~:3 PRODUCED AT THE PILOT PRODUCrION U:\IT ATrACHED TO THE ARTISAN

TRAlNING INSTITUTi~, KHANAPUR

Sl. No. Name of arlicles Price 81. No. Name of article Price

Rs. R •. I. Bowl (big) 1-00 21. Standing Bhataji 1-00 2. Bowl (small) 0-82 22. Marwari girl 1-50 3. Ash tr y (big) 0-80 23. Girl with bracelot 1-00 4. Ash tray (small) 0-55 24. Hyderabad monkey 1-25 5. Sleeping dog 0-60 25. Sitting cat 1-00 6. Buddha 0-00 26. Standing dog 0-43 7. Dog with fur 0-45 27. Oriental horse 1-12 8. Indian Dancer 1--00 28. Deer 0-90 9. Watoh dog 0-70 29. Small elephant 0-40 10. Gopal boy 1-10 30. D. C. B. Bull 0-40 11. Cat head 0-90 31. Sitting danoer 1-30 12. Shagi dog 0-65 32. College girl 1-65 13. Lady with veMa 1-30 33. Standing rabbit 0-37 14. Sethji 1-00 34. Flower vase 1-54 15. Sothani 1--00 35. Flower vase (bamboo type) 1-31l 16. Small Ganapathi 0-50 36. Bowl D. C. C. 1-00 '17. Flying bird 6--05 37. Boy on fish 0-50 18. Kothwal horse 1-25 38. Boy on dog 0-50 19. Bagal bird 1-27 39. Krishna with fruit 1-00 20. Air India Man 1-27 40. Tamburiwala 1-00

APPENDIX II

PRICE LIST OF ARTICLE3 PRiJDUC.;o AT THE PILO r PRODUC ['ION UNIT ATTACHED TO TH~ ARTISAN TRAINIKG INSTITUTE, RAMANAGARAM ._----- 81. No. Name oj article Price Sl. No. Name of article Price Rs. Rs. 1. Swan (hig) 0-37 24. Gomateshwara. 4-00 2. Swan (small) 0-15 25. Belur panel (coloured) 1-50 3. Elephant (big) 0-56 26. Bolur pa.nel (bisouitedl 1-00 4. Elephant (small) 0-06 27. Lepakshi panel (col, ured) 2-00 1. Bear (big) 0-50 28. Lepakshi panel (biscuited) 1-00 6. Bear (small) 0-25 29. Dasa.vathara set 0-62 7. Elephant plate 1-00 30. Rana set (4 pieces) 0-50 8. Sea bird 0-50 31. Tiripuathi set (6 pi.ces) I-SO 9. Venkateshwa.ra panel 12-50 32. Meenakshi panel 0-50 10. Buddha (big) 2-00 33. Assorted panels 0-50 11' Buddha (small) 1-00 34. Wall vases 1-15 12. St. TeTP8a 1-00 35. J psus Christ 3-00 13. Radhakrishna 2-00 36. Shiva.Ganas (5 pieces-c"loured) 10-00 14. Namasthe lady 1--00 37. Shiva-Ganas (5 piec(·s-biscuited) 5-00 15. Horse (Bongsl) 3--00 38. Bowl-hang pot 3-75 16. Raghavendraswamy 2-00 39. Pot with stand 2-75 17 Decorative plate 2-00 40. Small sllving box 0-40 IS. Ganesha 1-00 41. Golka O-IV 19. Ajantha head O--iSO 42. Clay pip6S 0-87 20. Sitting lady 0-50 43. Cement pip6S 2-00 21. Bull (pair) -2-00 44. Flat tiles (1,000) 14-00 22. Bamboo hanging pots 2-00 45. Light tiles 0-26 Gandhiji 4-00 46. Cement cholas 2-00 23. --,_ ----- POTTERY P,LATE ' I _"",I ~ " .

... QJ ~o a. III x PlA,TE 2 POTTERY

3. Propelling the wheel with a stick inserted in a hole in the rim POTTERY PLATE 3

4. A thrower shaping a dayware on the wheel PLATE "4 POTTERY

5. Wheel of Kudikebevoor is of the Mysore type but smaller in size. Here a potter is shaping a tiny day pot POTTERY PLATE 5

N,

6. Potters of South Kanara sit on a low stool while throwing. The assistant sits on the ground to propel the wheel. The wheel in the photograph is a solid stonedisc padded on by a thick layer of termitarium earth and coir at the outer periphery. PLATE 6 POTTERY

7. A cup shaped wheel of South Kanara-The quantity of clay on the wheel head would suffice to throw 5 to 10 articles

8. Improved type of wheel designed by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission . The wheel is provided with ball bearing POTTERY PLATE 7

9. Pounding of clay-a preliminary operation PLATE 8 POTTERY

10. Scraping of kneaded clay for removal pebbles POTTERY PLATE · 9

II. Shaping the lip PlATE'I O POTTERY

12. ClaywarES ,till in a crude state-bein3 dri.d in the sun POTTERY PLATE! I

13. Stone and flat mall~t employed for shaping thrown artie les PLATE 12 POTTERY

[4. Beating or drubbing POTTERY PLATE 13 ---

,. '{ .'1 'ii j

~ .c " V> ....,'"

'"

~ >-. ,0

OJ ..c...., ..n .._:::I ""0 0 '" l'.l C ( . E (') 5

'-D

c

'" oc ...0 :::I '" .;. '" u - :. ... -. "'00 ~'" ~:. ct;: .s:::. co '"

I- ::J c.. co c ..r;;'" ~ C

11 PLATE 14 POTTERY

17. Loading of vessels in a kiln

18. After loading, straw is spread over the vessels POTTERY PLATE 15

19. Garden pots loading for firing in the kiln. Shards will be used to cover the articles ;

20. In Kudikebevoor tiny articles are loaded in a crucible type kiln for firing PLATE 16 POTTERY

21. Kiln- CoverEd with shards POTTERY PLATE 17

22. A half completed:kiln for baking bricks

23 . A large cauldron of clay

24. Pots- with narrow and,wide- mouths , PLATE' 18 POTTERY

25. Clay vessels_of Khanapur

\

26. Clay lids

1 . -I " ,I , 1 -.' ! :-', 27. Pots of Kudikebev:>o: f.:'"

/' POTTERY PLATE 19

28. Garden- pots of Ramanagaram

29. Water coolers

30. I mproved garden pots PLATE 20 POTTERY

31. Making of stoneware by Jigger jolley method at Vanitha Sahakar Kamgar Sangh. Khanapur POTTERY PLATE 21

32. Finishing a jar PLATE 22 POTTERY

u...

)

til 0.. ::r u >-.. '"u- ...... 0 0.0 c: N l?'"

tv'; (V') POTTERY PLATE 23

35. Carrying claywares to shandy PLATE 24 POTTERY

36. Women attend to dispose of the clay vessels in the shandy POTTERY PLATE 25

37. Wooden mould used in the maki ng of garden poes

(

37. (3) The surface of the mould is dusted with ash

•f ~t

J ------

37 . (b) Pressi ng the day i n~o the moul'd POTTERY

37. (c ) The excess clay is cut off w ith a_wire

I

38. The moulder removes the clay slab from the moul'd POTTERY PLATE 27

38. (a) Clay slabs are plac.ed in the wooden mould and the edges are Joined with ~Iip

38. (b) The moulld is unlocked PLATE 28 POTTE RY

38. (c) A finished product

39. Making of bowl without a wheel- a little quantity of clay is placed on a stone disc. POTTERY PLATE 29

40. The mass is drubbed '<'v ith a stud shap~d stone to a circLllar mass

41. DrLlbbed clay mass PLATE 30 POTTERY

42. Finishing it into a bowl

43. A bric'( maKer at work POTTERY PLATt: 31

44. Making of flooring tiles

45: Wooden mould for making bricks PLATE 32 POTTERY

, - ~ - ... - - . _-_- - -~" ------,_

46. Pressing of clay into the mould for making bricks. At a time tWO bricks can be made in a mould

47. Stonewares made in the Vanitha Sahakar Kamgar Sangh, Khanapur POTTERY PLATE 33

48. Trainees at work- operating ball bearing wheel's

CARPETS OF NAVALGUND

" CHAPTER I

INTRODUCfORY

Central Jail at Bangalore and the Central Jail at Introduction Gulbarga are reputed or the production of quality The manufacture of carpets is an ancient indllstry carpels, In Mysore woollen pile carpets are known in India. This industry is not confined to any parti­ as Ratnakambli. They have a warp of strong cotton cular region but is widely dispersed, each region and the piles of coloured wool are knitted into each specialising in its own variety. Regarding the warp thread. introduction of carpets into India, Sir George Bird­ wood says, "The manufacture of pile carpets was Cotton carpets, popularly known os Jamkhana are probably first introduced into India by the Saracens". made of cotton fibres. They are used as hed mats Sri Shanti Swarup writes, " It was once believed that and for being spread on floors for squatting. These India learnt carpet-weaving from Persia. But the pieces are washahlf' and tHe also durable. methods and designs of the carpet Weavers in our country are so peculiady indigenous and so distinctly In the Mysore Gazetteer, Sri C. Hayavadana Rao recognisable from those of other ("()untries that this states, "Bangalore carpets are well known for t hi' theory has now been aballd'oned."l peculiarity of huving the same pattern on boch sides, The number of men gf:'nerally engaged in this industry Regarding the South Indian Carpets Mr. F. H. varies wiLh the df:'mand for carpets, and the number Andrews in his article on ' Indian Carpets and Rugs' of looms now in use for making carpets may come up has mentioned, "Southern Indian Carpets anrT Rugs to a hundred. From a commercial stand point the appear to suffer from want of feeling. The rlesigns indust"y is ndt a big one. The total value of carpet, are seldom, or never, indigenous" and what is horrowcd manufactured every year by cottage mvners does not is not understood ...... These craftsmen of the south exceed Rs. 2,00,000. Owing to the fact, however, may USe the finest material and put into their work that the woollen mills have each a department for the the most minute caire, yet the fail to move us. manufacLure of carpets, the output i~ ac [resent There is something ab.out the most insignificant likely to he increased on a large scale. For making sa.drlle bag woven in the north th3;t tell of the daily low 'grade carpets, aniline colours are used and the of the maker. It seems to be part of him and his vegetahle dyes are used for betLer qnality. Thu'l' family. He bought the wo01, or grew it, or otherwise is not much demand in the local market for plush or acqu~red i't; his wom~nfolk spun it and perhaps pile carpets, though the plain carpets find a ready dyed it, or he exchanged the good offices of some sale locally. In foreign countries, as England, the village dyer for some commodity bought along on United States of America, Australia, etc., there is a his travelsl, Each

In Mysorr, carpets are made of cotton as well as The carpets of Navalgund, called lamkhan locally, wool. The Bangalore carprts are known for t h('rr are produced out of low quality fabric. These are durability, attractive desill:n and workmanship. The used as floor coverings.

1 :-Arts and Orafts elf India and Pakistan by Sri Shantiswarup page 83 * F. H. Andrews. "Indian Carpets and Rugs" in the Journal ofIndian Art and IndUatl'Y Volume XI. Published in 1905-06 .* Sri C. Hayaova,adanRao, Mysore Gazetteer, Volnme TIl (Economic) 1929-pages 244-245. 48

A well finished Navalgund carpet appears like a Gudar woollen car-pet, though the cotton yarn employed for its production is not of high quality. The Navalgllnd Gudar is a piece of cotton fabric extensivcly used by til(' rural folk in Dharwar and Belgaum districts. carpets are long-lasting and ! he colours never fade'. The fabric is produced by simple weave and the raw Further, the rlpsigns arc the same on both sides of materials used being cotton yarn of 6 counts-3 plys the carpel.. The type Clf loom used by the cupet for the warp and 4 p~ys for the weft. On the loom makers provides scope for producing carpet of allY the fabric is produced to the size of 10 inches in width dimension and naturall~' they are priced rat:ber and 18 feet in length. After weaving, 12 such high. pieces arc stitched together to form Gudal' o.f the size lIS feet by 10 feet, using twisted yarn i 6 plys and Cen~es of Production a needle made of an umbrella rib. Gudar is used The important centres of production in the State as a floor-spread and for packing jowar cobs and are Bangalorc, Bijapur and Navalgund and Hmong similar materials for transportation from field tlJ rick­ these the present study is confined to Navalgund. yard. Depending upon the size, the cost of a gudar This is a municipal town and a taluk headquarters varies from Rs. 80 to Rs. 120. Gudar is produceJ town in the Dharwar District. It is situated about for purposes of utility and it is not given an artistic 28 miles to the North-East of Dharw:lf, the clistri,t finish as in the case of carpets. headquarters town which can easily be reached by bus. It is situated at 15°33' north latitude and 75°~5' east longitude. The town is connected by buses to The Craftsmen many important centres like Hubli, Gadag, Bagalkot, The carpet makers in Na.valgund are Muslims Bijapur and otht'J's. Armigcl'i which is about lQ (Musalmans) belonging to the sect of Shaikhs. miles distant is the nearest railway station on the They speak Urdu at home though all are well conver­ Hubli-Gadag line. The town is served by electricity sant with Kannada. The male members have since 1958. At the time of conducting this study Jamkhan as their surnamcs which signifies their being that is November, 1966 arrangements were under producers of Jamkhan (carpets). They dress just way for supply of filtered water from Neela~!Vana like Hindus with a dothi in Kacha style and put on loere, a tank in the town through public taps. The shir.l, coat and a tm,ban when they have to visit work of laying mains was undpr progress. The area public places. The women of these ·households too of the town is 0.30 Square Miles and its population are clad in Hindu style and wear sarces and blouses. according to 1961 Census is 1O,123. There is a bazaar in the town with many retail shops. A weekly There are 8 households of these craftsmen at m1rket is also held every Tuesday and a cattle Navalgund and they carryon the craft as a heredi­ market of limitcd size the same week day. The town taryoccupation. All the households of the craftsmen relatively to its size and importance affords adequate are located in one street of the town called Jamkhan educational facilities, there being four primary schools oni (carpet lane) . and also a high school. There is a general hospital, a veterinary hospil-al and also an improvised cinema • house to cater to the needs of the local peopk. Establishments

A history of the to\'I"n has been givcn at I he pnc1 According to this survey, there are 8 establish­ of this monograph. ments engaged in producing carpets in Navalgund. All the egtablishments are proprietary concerns run by individual households. Only household labour Apart from cn.rpet making, the other hamlicrafb is utilised in the production processes and hired extant in the town are gudar weaving, handloom weaving on a limited scale, bla'lket weaving by :J lahourers are seldom entertained for fear of the trade few households of Kurubas and Pottery· making by secret lwcoming known to them. Kumbars. 49

CHAPTER II

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCI'ION AND CARPETS PRODUCED

Raw Materials 22 feet. It i5 of uniform width and depth, both The main Taw material used in the craft of carpet being 18 inches. The two ends of the roller are making is cotton yarn, and the only other material shaped flat to a length of about 6 inches on which is synthetic colour powders. holes are made to permit of inserting a crowbar and turn the roller. Yarn The looms in use III all the establishments are The yarn used at this centre is mill maul' and of a d~ades old lind the construction of It new loom is coarse variety. ;Gokak Mill produces the yam hnd estimated to cost Rs. 100. the craftsmen buy it from the merchants of Hubli. For the warp, twisted yarn of :3 plys and 6 counts is Rate u"ed and for the weft, strands or 10 counts are used. Th(: twisted [IS well as untwisted yarns arc ;;old in This is a draw wheel employed in the preparation bundles locally called maote. Each bund11e weighs of weft. Six skeins of untwisted yarn are mounted 4.54 kgs. made up of QO ladw (skeins). on the rate and from each skein strands are simulta­ neously drawn and wound into balls of 6 ply!!.

The cost of twisted Y[l1"1l is Rs. Q4. '25 pCI' bundle and untwisted yarn Rs. 21. 75. Lakl~uni Thi. is a small wooden piece resembling a peg. Colaw Powders Using its narrow end the weft is pushed down to the Synthetic colour powders are .available in one of fell of the carpet. the local shops and carpet makers buy them ill small quantities as they cannot afford bulk purchases with­ Panja out orders on hand. Red, yellow, green and black are It is a forked comb made of iron, with a serra Led the colours used. The retail price or the colour edge. While the Lakkuni serves the purpose of powders per tola, in the town is as hereunder :- pu~hing down each weft, panja is employed to beat down a sending of wefts to tIIC fell of the carpet. Re. Lakkuni is opL'ratca on each weft ImL the Panja Hed 0.37 after interlacing a few wefts through the warp. Yellow 0.50 Green 0.75 Techniques of Production BI.ack 0.50 The production process. consists of SIX distinct Tools stages as set out below :- Among thp tools used the carpet loom is of prime 1. Preparation of warp. importance, the other tools being Ratf!, Lakkuni, ~. Preparation of weft. Panja Ilnd a knife. S. Mounting of warp on the 100m. 4. Beja kat~uvudu (arrangement for shedding) Carpet loom 5. Weaving. 6 . Removing of carpet from the loom. This is a rugged vertical loom installed within the houoe of the craftsmen. It consists of two upright PrepamtJion of warp posts and two heavy wooden rollers both made of mathi or teak wood. The rollers lie horizontally The carpet makers get twisted yarn and are aWe between the posts, the lower one in a t.reneh and the straight away to prepare the warp, thus being spared upper one a bout 6 feet above the lower roller. The tJ1C. labom' of having them~clves to twist the strands trench is of varying lengths ranging from 8 feet to also. H-S.M.-4 50

'1'0 begin with, three iron pegs are fixed upright in securely by means of a twine. The other end of the the ground. The· two farthest pegs are placed 35 feet warp which also carries a bamboo split is tied to the apart. The usual pracLicc is to llavc warp of upper roller and the warp is rolled on the upper roller. sufficient length to weave five carpets per mount in The warp is stretched tight between the rollers,. and order tv minimise the superfluous ends reqllired at the to provide necessary tens.ion to the war!_' that l~ to warp ends for winding 011 the rollers. The third peg be woven, the tension rod of the loom IS also tIgh­ is struck between the two outC'r Olles, but quite close tened. to the second 011e and about a foot outside the line fonned between the two outer pegs. 4. Beja kattuvudu (preparation fo1' Shedding) The readvmade skein is taken in hand by the This process involves an arrallgemenL hy which the warp layer ~nd one end of the yarn tied to the first front amI the back yarm, of the warp can be crossed peg. Then the yarn is wound round the pegs each to form the shed. The loom is provided !leithlT with alternate yarn going round the third peg. This opera­ regular heads nor reed, Each of the front yarn amI tion is continued till the predetermined numbel' of the bad. yarn is tied with a loop fastrned to two warp threads are run round the pegs, the bl'eadth of diffpl\3nt split bamboos called bejakolu. In order to the carpet determining this number. Two bamboo have uniform loops a beja1nan!~ (a sLrip of wood) splits of length about 5 feelt are inserted in place of is used. The length of each bejalcol1l is slightly the two end pegs and the yams are slipped on to more than the width of the warp Oil lhe 100E!. these bamboo splits in an arrangeq: order. The cros­ Both the bejakobu are fastened by means of a twille sing of the yarn is preserved by inserting two lease to another bamboo piece called Kaman. The !Lamon rods of bamboo alternately at the cross and the ends is held in tension by another bamboo fiXed bet,vcl'Il of these lease rods are connected with each other with two posts at a height of about 3 feet from grQund twine so as to prevent their slipping out of the warp. lewl. The upward and downward movement of the The preparation of warp is thus complete lIllll it is kaman pulls one set of yarn (either back or front) made ready for mount on the loom. while the other set is relaxed. The arrangement to form the shed being thus made, the loom is ready for fl. Prepamtion of WefL weaving. The y.arn for the weft is untwisted and its prepa­ ration consists merely of forming a 6 ply. Six skeins 5. Weaving of the untwisted yarn are mounted on the rate (also By passing the wdt bL'l ween the picks by han~l, called Khandike 8uttuva rate) . From each of the a little lcngth is wov'cn in the same way as in plam six skeins strand is dmwn simultaneously to form a weaving. A carpet. of 30 il1che~ width is normally 6 ply which is wound into balls. worked upon by two persons at a time, one working on the one vertical balf of the luom and the other Preparation of weft includes dyeing of yarn also. ('11 the other v0rtieal half. They weave so syste­ The desired synthetic colour powder is added Lo matienlly that the entire width of the carpet gives boiling water under constant stirring. A little the appearance of having been worked by a. single quantity of common salt is also added. Then the person. Eaeh worker will have halls of dlfferellt container is removed from Lhe oven and skeins are e'c'lcured yarns. The weft is threaded through the immersed in the colour. The yarn, after a1~orption Wlll'lJ, fection by section by hand, and each time the ~f colour is tak0Il out and sun dried. weft is pU5ihcd dow.n to the fel'l of the carpet with Lakku111ol:, and after threading the warp with a few Dyed yarn alone is used for weft. It is only when wefts they are beaten do\vl1 to the fell of the em'pet white designs are required a little length of un­ with panja. This process .is continued till the whule coloured yarn is used for weft. length of the carpet is compleLed. As tl~e work pruceeds, the woven portion of the carpet 18 rolled 's. Jrfonnt:ing of Warp on the Loom on the bottom roller, which operation automatically The warp prepared as explained in stage 1, is rolled hrings down the warp for weavnig from the upper up and brought to the loom. One of the split roller. bamboos carrying the warp is tied to the lower beam

4* 51

6, Removing the carpet from the loom family of the town. Carpets of 18 inches square lor squatting and Namaz carpets of size 3 ft. by 2 ft. are Weaving of one carpet being over, unwoven warp also made. of about 4 inches is left ,followed by fl inches of plain weaving for the subsequent carpet. The carpet Both the sides of the carpet will have the same which is ready i:. taken out of the loom by cutting the design. The designs employed in the making of warp breadthwise at the middle of the unwoven warp. these carpets are mostly geometrical patterns and The fringe of the warp is left loose without hemming. floral motifs. Peacock seems a special favourite. The borders have a band of triangles in a single Carpets Produced series or a continuous chevrons. They also consist Thc craftsmen of Navalgund produce carpet.s of of croix pattee, lozenges and rosettes of simple coils. several sizes, the common one being 7 feet by 3'~ feet. However, the carpet makers are capable of producing The largest carpet made by the craftsmen is of lhe carpets of any design and size as desired by thfir size 40 ft. by ,20 ft. This carpet was made about customers. 80 years ago, 'lnd it is in possession of a well-to-do 52

CHAPTER III

ECONONnC AND GENERAL ASPECIS

Cost of Production Production

The working cost of a carpct of size 7 feet by The value of carpets produced by the carpet makers 3~ feet as furnished by the local craftsmen is del ailed of Navalgund during 1965 was about Rs. 1:2,000, below: They have utilised raw materials worth Rs. 5,040 over this period. Cost oj Ran' lIlaterials Rs. Rs. Marketing Y Rrn for warp ~.44 Yarn for weft 10.87 The carpets made at Navalgund arc sol(, Liircctl~' Colour powders 1.69 15.00 to the consumers. The customers are local ngricul­ turists and persons in other avocations residi~~g in the To weave this carpet. 2 persons have to work for vicinity. Normally they buy Lhese carpets for 5 days and the ~elling price of this carpet is marriage occasions. The producers arc neither in a Rs. 35. 'position to dispOSe of the carpets as soon as they are made nor in .a position to stock carpets till they are Of the total cost of production, raw materials. sold out. Hence they pledge the carpets and obtain acconnt for 42 per cent and labour, which is always a loan. household, 58 per cent. The workers get the labour charges of Rs. 2 a day provided the piece fetches Rs. 35. Households of Carpet Makers HOWJehold I When a carpet is made, thc craftsman pledges it with local money lender for a loan, which is repaid Head of household.-Abdulhashim Imamsab with interest after finding a sale for the carpet. Jamkhan. According to carpet makers, a portion of even the little profits they make goes towards interest. This This household consists of 10 mcmbers-4 males, trade is practised solely with household labour and :3 females and 3 children below 14 years of flge. outside labour is never employed. Hence the Out of the 7 adults, the head, his wife, one of question of the carpet makers undergoing a los~ does his sons and a son's wifp arc in th,' lr.1 de. .\ not arise at 'all. However, their margin of profit or son is a cleaner in a lorry transport COllcern and to be more precise their earnings by way (f wages another is blind and cannot take up any job. depend on the sak of their products. If they can Another female attends exclusively to domestic dispose of the carpet wilhout pledging it for a loan, duties. they are able to earn a wage of Rs. ~ a day which is slightly higher than other types of labourers earn Tlie average monthly income of the household IS in the locality. about Rs. l~O.

Capital The carpel makers pursue their hereditary craft in HOWJehold II their household premises and th-ere is no separate Head of household.-Nabisal! Imamsab Jamkhan. investment on buildings for running the trade. The looms in their possession are inherited and no esta­ There are 9 members in this household with 1) ,;lishment has acquired it in recent years. The males, :3 females and 3 children. One male iotal capital on looms ill possession of the 8 establish­ member and ~ female members are carpet ments comes to, about Rs. 800. As regards the makers, The remaining 2 males are cycle shop investment on raw materials, it was ascertained to assistants. One lady attends exclusively to be' about Rs. 500 during thc period of this study. domestlC duties. 63

The household's average monthly income IS head, his eldest son and 2 females are engaged about Rs. 130. in carpet making. Of the remaining two males, Houaehold III one is a shop assistant and the other is a. carpenter. Head of household.-Maktumsab Aminsab ,Jam­ khan. The household members earn an average monthly income of Rs. 120. There are 5 members in this household-one male, one f-emale and 3 children. The male Hous'chol,J, VII member (the head of the household) is a cycle shop owner and occasionally works on the Head of household.-Mahboobsab Davalsab loom. The female member is a carpet-maker. Jamkhan.

On the average th[> household earns about This household consists of 7 members-3 males, Rs. 100 per month. 1 female and 3 children. Only the lady (wife of the head) makes carpets. The 3 adults H mtgehold IV occasionally work on the loom. The head and onc of his sons are painters and another Head of household.-Jand'isab Rajesab Jamkhan. Ison is a shop assistant.

This is a 12 member household with :'3 males 4 Average monthly income of the household is females and 5 children. Of the :'3 male memb~s Rs.12o. one (the head of the houschold) is a carpet maker. One of the sons of the head is a tailor Hausehold VIII and the other is a carpenter. Of the 4 females onc (the wife 6f the head of the household) Head of household.-Hussainsab Muktumsab IS a carpet maker and :'3 females are not gain­ Patwegar. fully employed. Out of the 4 members III this household, one is 'The average monthly income of this household male, 2 are females and one is a baby. The from all sourccs is about Rs. 220. two fcmale members are carpet makers and the head of the household runs a cycle shop. Homehold V The household's average monthly income is Head of household.-Mohidin Kamal Sab Jam­ Rs. 115. khan. Economic Conditions This household consists of 6 members comprising The craftsmen are pursuing the trade only with of one male (the head of the household) 3 household lllbour and no hired labour is employed. fcmllics and 2 children. The male member is a carpenter and the 3 females are carpct makrrs. Out of the 8 houscholds of carpet makers, 7 are in the income group Rs. 100-150 a month and one household has monthly income of more than Rs. 150 A verage monthly income of this household IS about Rs. 130. a month. All these households are staying in their own inherited' houses. The 8 houses are old construc­ tions with mud walls and fiat mud terrace. Household VI Head of household.-Davalsab Khadirsab Pat­ They have their carpet looms in a part of the wegar. living room. As the looms arc of vertical type only a 16 sq. ft. area is occupied by each loom, except This is a 10 member household. Of them, 4 are in case of one which has occupied a floor al'ea of males, 2 are females and 4 are children. The 40 sq.ft. Carpet making is the principal means of livelihood During. the years 1959-60 to 1901-62, the Handi­ for 8' households and a subsidiary occupation for crafts Board, Bangalore sanctioned a loan of five. They take two meals a day which consist of Rs. 14,900 of which Rs. 400 was towards share capital jowar rotti with a side dish. The male member;; &1'6 and Rs. 14,500 towards ,,.orkiJtg capital. A grant of habitua ted to take tea in hotels. Rs. 3,700 was also made for meeting the Manngerial expenses. Out of this loan of Rs. 14,500 a sum of Rs. 1,300 has been repaid. Co-operative Society The Co-operative Society has received another 10lln "The Navalgund Jamkhana Mattu Glldara Tha­ of Rs. 15,000 for the installation of power looms and yarisuvavarll: Sahakari Utpadaka Sangha " (meaning no part of this has been repaid by the Society so far. The Navalgund Ca1rpe't and Guaar Producers' Co­ operative Society) was establishcd at Navalgund on Further, the 4 power looms in possession of the Society were not pilt to USe at the time this study was· 28th luly, 1948. The Society has for its object the providing of aid to persons engaged in the production conducted. of cal pets, Gudars and saris. The District Industrial Co-oJwrative Bank Ltd., Hubli has advanced a loan of Rs. 3,000 out of which The membership is 78 of whom 3 are sympathisers. the Society has paid back Rs. 1,2'13. The value of each share is Rs. 5. ,The paid-up share capLal is Rs. 2,192. The Society supplier! raw materials to carpet makers on credit basis on an assurance from the craftsmen that thC'y would supply the finished Out of the 75 members in the Co-operative Society products to the society for marketing. They 15 are carpet. makers, 44 are Gudar makers and 16 marketed the carpets through the Society only in arc weavers. the beginning but did not stick to their assurance later. Since 1962, this Co-operative Society has not The Society has received financial aid from several been actively functioning and there are quite a good org9.l1 is a tions . number of defaulters. - 55

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

According t~} the information conta~ned in the years ago by a person of Hebsur (a neighbouring Bomhay Gazetteer, there were 8 households of carpet village of Navalgund but in Dharwar taluk) attrac­ makers at Navalgund during the last century. The ted many entrepreneurs and there are to-day as many present stuely also revealed that only 8 households as 30 households of gudar producers and 63 house­ are pursuing the trade., There has been no increase holds who work on [/udar making for wages. In all in the nllIuber of households pursuing carpet making, 21~ I?ersons, both males and females, are engaged in over this long period of a century. Local enquiries thIS mdustry. Besides persons from all the ca~tes in revealed that persons who moved out of the original >the town including Chaluvadis are to be found in this households on account of partition did not continue industry. The raw materials used in gudUll' making their hereditary occupation. No new entrant could are tllC same as those used in carpet making. also take up this trade due to the expressed reluc­ tance of the hereditary craftsmen to train freshcrs. According to carpet makers the advantage of gudar is its easy saleability on account of its better utili­ The male members of these households are taking tarian value while it involves lesser skill in its making up other avocations such as carpentry, tailoring, than carpet. It is perhaps this feeling coupled with painting and the run,ning of a qycle !lhop, while their reluctance to train new persons that has exertlld youngsters prefer working as assistants in one Or the a baneful effect on this industry. other trade. This attitude indicates waning interest in their hereditary craft, owing perhaps to the diffi­ culty encountered in disposing of the products for a Aid by way of sl~fJPlying raw materials oncredit basis made a vailable through co-operative was not reasonable return. The heads of' three households properly utilised by tihc craftsme.n. aged over 50 years are, however pursuing the craft it being too late, perhaps, for them to think of an alternative. They are, however, not enthusiastic The authorities of Janatha Shikshana Samithi of towards training lheir children in this trade. The Dharwar have started a production unit of Naval­ female members who work on the loom [Ire without gund carpets at Dharwar to help promotion of this scope for being employed in other types of jobs. languishing industry HUrl the success of its endeavour is yet to he watched. Carpets produced about a century ago in this centre are in possession of a fcw households in the town. They are even to-day good and preserve their A study of the situation surrounding this craft has charming colour which speaks to their excellence of revealed that it is already in quite a bad shape, and quality. Yet the crnflsmen are hard put to it to if further deterioration is Lo be arrested, a bold and market their product on account of the limited comprehensive scheme will have to be evolved for number of buyers. ',With the available labour power attracting new entrants and also make the- product each 'hoiI,ehold can produce on an average one carpet remunerative. Adequate facilities should also be per week. If freshers are not encouraged to take up created to interested career seekers in the liue for a. this cmft, the output cannot be increased. full development of talent. If there is no centralised action for its rejuvenation betimes the crart is bound to be condemned to a listless and lingering existence. Incidentally it may be mentioned here, that (Judar making which was introduced in this centre about 30 APPENDIX-l HISTORY OF NAVALGUND No remains of old temples or inscriptions h4tve b~en' ; '~rl'oliti.~ ,II 11 a Maratha revenue statement of about lound at Navalgund, and it appears to be a DeW tOWJl.. " , 1.790" Navali gund appears in the Torgail District or Its earliest mention is in 1454 as the headquarters' of 'Sa-rkc:,r as t he head of patrgartJa with it revenue of a Sarkar or province governed under t~e Bahmani .£7,54~ ·(Bs. ,j5;4~O).4 Between, 1795 and'1800 in the king A1a-un~din IT, (14-3&'1'\51) by 'his brother-in- struggtes ," 'hich convulsed the :)faratha State law J~Ialkhan. In ,th~ same 'year Jahilkh~ and his Pbonrlho PI !lit Gokhla took ~al'algund and Gadag SDU Sl~andar Sah hearm~ a false report that tbe king from their} lereditary Desai.5 In November 1817 had died, seized .on SE;vel'al districts l'ound_ Na:VJ1I- General !\-Iu ndo app{)inted one Ramra,,; as the mill- gund. The king promised a free pardon to the tary offl~er or amilda.r of Navalgund. AfteT his rebels if they submitted. {Lnsteid of submitting appoint:ment ' Ramrav quickly took,possession of more Jalitlkhan calh"d for' aid to, tbe Malw:i king telling than half th e district, and on the 19th of December him that Ala-ud-din was dead and that the ministers advanced ·Ir om, near ,N:ivilJgund with 500 men to were dividing the kingdom. The J\lahv:a king crossed ~ttack 'Gok hfa's son who as in NavaIgund with Khandesh and came to the Deccan in 1457 but Seven hu.mw ed horses. About 600 of the horses were learning that he had been deceived retreated le~ving picquet~edil ::dhe streets and in the open space bet- secret orders to 'ca'pture Sikandar and bring him to ween the to, ¥n' and the furl. The l'e&t we're mounted Mandu. Sikapdar retreated to N avalgund and Dn and watchiI 19 Ramrav whO' advanced at nDDn so the promise of a free pardon gave 'up Navalgund fort. .rapidly that he t;ntered the town before the horsemem In the distribution or governorships and commands could mount and leave. Stl"l),ck with panic the 'Mara- whieh followed :the death of Ala-ud-din II and the tha horse He d Without offering auy resistance. N\ne- succession of his son Humayun Zelim (1457). Sikan. teen' horses ' !,vere taken alive and twepty were found dar Shah suffered a disappo~ntment :Ind joining his dead, on hea ring of hi" son"s defeat Gokhla came (rDm rather at Navalgund b~gan to rai!le lroops. He Badami to jl ::lin him with 550 horse and ~oo foot and ~efeated the force sent against him. Then the king after gatheri :ng the fugitives reached Nava1gund on advanced in person~ and offered to pardon the rebei the 22nd of] )ecember. Ramrav retired into the (ort, father and sDn if. they subinitted.' As they refused and on the S ~3'rd, with ammunition nearly exhausted, to submit, Humayu!1 ordered an attack The insur- he ,w~s har, clpresse.d by Gokhla. On hearing that gents fought w~t)1 the greatest. bravery. After a long Gokhla, had i, reached 'Navalgund, ~neral MunrO' indecisive action the king who was pressing forward marched, fror n Dharwar with tW9 ftank ,companies cne in the centre 'mounted on' an e1~phant was attacked of the 'batta) ion gnns. and a five and half inch mortar by Sikandar. The king;s life was saved by his under the c( Immand of Major Newall. Within two elephant whi~h' seized Sikttndar i.n his trunk and miles of N: itvalgurid small parties of horse ,vere threw him :from his horse. Sikandar wa's ktUerl ana seen; and about a mile further the gmain body his follower:s flE'd. Next day the siege of Navalgnnd was. " i]iscov, ered moving. slowly al?n side Df was };egun; and at the ~nd 01 _a, w€f!k haying, no a. rlsmg grc lUnd at, a dlstancc of Uf)out. a thou- hOPe of relief, Jal~ilkha;n submitted." His Jife ,,'as. .sand yards. As the enemy seemed to mtend to spared but he ~mained a prisoner (or the rest. of hiB aUa'('k Gene ,ral 'Munro's baggage, two shells were days. About 1690,imde.r Aurangzeb's governor of tlm)w" and t ;WQ horsemen were killed. At this whole Savanur Navalgund, was the headquarters of a Jx>dy moved ()ff attenged by about two hundred foot revenue division managed 'by it hereditary Lingayat and were sOlon' out of sight leaving about ten delld officer caUeq th~ 'De~ai of Navalgujlld. ' In 1747 the in the street~ \. After the hl(lckade of Navalgund was Savanur Nawab 'Wa~ qhliged to, agree to a trelJ,ty rl'lised Gener: a1 Munro and ·Major Newall retmned to ceding to the P~sbM th~'whDle of the present sub- Dharwar.CS The Desai' family of Navalgund enjoy division of NavaJ~nd aloJ;lg with o,theI' p~rts of the some inaqI lands. In 1838 on the death of the Dharwar Distrlct~. 11n 17'78 wheri:Raidar Ali becalnc grandfather of.. t~e ,present chief adoption was master of the country south of the Krishna, Naval- allowed on condition that the chief abolished all gund was left to its chief on' condition that he duties on tra de, and assimilated his administration to acknowledged Haidar's supremacy and paid him the system : prevailing in the neighbouring Goycrn- L,,- , ,ment villaget I. 4. Waring's Marathas, 243/5 Stokes' Belgaum 63. I. Briggs' Ferishta, II. 447--456. 6. GI{lig'e M, lJIl"O, I. 480-82. 2. Stokes' BeIgs.uro, 44, 48 j We5f's History, 21. 3. Stokes' Delgaum, 55 jWest'1l Hietory, 22. Sow-c,e.- llambs.y Q8.1.{lttoor, VQ ,Iume XXII, Dharwar (l884), pages 781-782. CARPETS OF NAVALGUND PLATE I

I. A carpet on display

2. A fully spread carpet PLATE 2 CARPETS OF NAVALGUND

!

3. A carpet in the making: notice th.a designs in the bor.der and the peafONI.i in the body

4. A carpet of another popular design CARPETS OF NAVALGUND PLATE 3

5, A "Namaj Oarpet" highly cherished by Muslims

SILK WEAVING OF KOLLEGAL

._ .. - -======

5Q

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Introduction While cotton weaving 18 found Jl1 many centres Cloth weaving is an ,ancient and most important scattered throughout the State, Rilk weaving is industry in India. This handicraft is the monopoly .confined to a few centres. The City of Bnugalore 01 members of a particular group of occupational leads the other centres in the production of silk caste recognised hyrlistinct names in different regions fabrics, where they are produced on hand looms and of the country. The craft ranks next to agriculture also on poW'erlooms. In Kollegal, silk fabrics are in the order of importance, as this is the source of proGuced on handlooms by hereditary weavers. sustenance for millions of craftsmen as their principal occupation. The Centre of study Kollegal, headquarter~ of the talllk of the same The Indian weavers produce cloth for daily weal', nam,e in J\,ly50re District is a Town Panchayat having and also fancy cloth to cater to the tasles of the an area of I), 5 square miles and a populalion of members of the affluent classes. These traditionallv ~~,663 as pel' 1961 Census. The town is connecte(l skilled craftsmen have attained perfection in thf';r hy hus a"ld the nearest railway station is Maddur on t.rade. The beauty of the hand-woven fabrics have Mysol'e-Bangalore line. However lhe people of heen acclaimed for their excellence of design, texture Kollegal avail of the railway facilities frolll' ?llysol'c and durability, Man does derive the benefits of IIUlBS on account of its convenience and almost equi­ produced goods to satisfy his needs, but his innri' distance as that of l\'laddur. The town is situated at aesthetic urges make for something entirely different a distance of 40 miles towards South-East of Mysore, which would answer his individual fancies of design, and district headquarters. Prior to the rcorganislltion colbur and harmony which onl(y the adroit fingers (If SLatrs in 1956, the town was in l\hdl'

In Mysore, weaving is essentially a household According to 1\ legend current among the people industry. In a few centres, particularly at Bangalore of this place, the site of this town was the place and Doddaballapur (a town and taluk headquarters where, long ages ago, the great sages Kohala and of the same name in Ba,ngalore District), hanillooms, Galava performed penance and the present name of Lo a great f'xtent, are supplanted by power looms. the town Kollegal, it seems, has been derived from However, credit should be attributed to the Wf'avE'l'S the names of these sages Kohala-Galava. who J1ave struggled hard and also struggling hard to keep their trade alive, even after receiving a set back River Cauyery runs at a distance of about 2 miles on account of the advent ef pewerlooms in the from this town amI the noted Cauvery falls-Gugana indusLry and facing severe competition from mill chul.. ki and Bhara chukki-are about 10 miles away, goods. Efforts are being made by several organisa­ and the Hydro-f'lectJ'ie station at Sivasamudl'am is tions and particularly by the All-India Handloom 9 miles from Kollegal. The town is the meeting place Board to place the craft on a sound footing by of hadel'S of Mysore and Madras States, as it is an affording facilities to the craftsmen. important commercial centre. 60

The town affords educational, welfare and recre­ Among Devangas marriage alliance has to he ational facilities. It has a College, 3 High Schools contracted between 'members of the same group who and good number of lower grade schools. The town belong to different clan. Consanguineous marriages is electrified since 1945 and water supply to the lown are common. A member may marry his elder sister's is through private and public wells. At the time of daughter. Cross cousin marriages are also prevalent this study during August, 1967 a scheme for supply but marriage between cousins who belong to identical of tap water was under execution. There are two siblings is taboo. cinema honses in this town. The male members wear sacred thread. Brahmins The chief industry of Kollegal IS weaving. Pure used to officiale as their priests but are now replaced silk, art-silk and colton fabrics arc produced on by men of their own caste. Widow remarriage is traditional pit looms by Devangas, the community of permitted among them though by local usage this weavers who form a sizeable portion of the population. has come to be viewed with disfavour in Kollegal. They lay claim to strict vegetarianism. They follow Sericulture is a major hOllsf'hold industry in the the usual law of inheritance from patrilineal ~ide. villages round a bont. Kollcgal and the cocoons are They worship Shiva and also Vishnu with no marketed by auction at Kollegal 'to licensed reelers. distinction. Chowdeshwari is their tutelary deity. There are many silk r<,ders and throwstf'rs at They bury their dead. Kollegal. There is also a Government Silk Filature. The silk fabrics of Kollegal are as f:H~ous as those of Df'vangas as a whlIe have weaving as their occu­ Bangalore. For want of authentic data it has not pation. They also follow agriculture. The weavers been possible to trace the origin of silk industry at are generally poor. Kollegal. About the conditions of the weavers in Mysore, Dcvanga C. Hayavadana Rao writes: " At present, the weaver is illiterate, ignorant and hopt'lessly conservative. Devanga is one of the oceupatjonal castes of He does not devise new patterns and even if they are weavers and fOiI'llls, a division or the Neyige .. ,. Neyige hrought to his notice he does not readily adopt them. i, a general appeUation applied to both silk and Some important changes have, however, come over cotton handloolll weavers ill Lhe State and 'lhis broad the eondi~ion of the handloom weaver. (My ore group consi:~ts of Devanga, Bilimagga, Sale, Katri, Gazf'tteer, Vol. III Page 240) . Patvegar, Sourashtra, Seniga and Togata. Members of Vhese castes neither inter-dine nor inter-marry. In the following tablc* information regarding the Further, persons belonging to the caste of Bilimagga persons engaged in silk industry is furnished :- call themselves Kurnvina setty or Knruvina Banajiga and they speak Kannada. Sales are divided into Household NOII·Houselwld Padmasale, Pattusale (pattu-silk) and Sankusale. I nil1tstry lnduolry The Padmasales speak Telugu while Pattusale and Sankusale speak Kannada. Per· Males Fe. Per. Male8 Fe. males sons male. ----_.__ --_.------The Devangas of Mysore are divided into four 1. Spinning and 5,760 4,860 900 endogamous groups: Shivachara Devanga, Kannada weaving of silk Devanga, Telugu Devanga and Hatagararu. The textile in Mill. Shivachfi.ra Devangas appear to be converts to Veer­ shaivisim from among the other Dcvangas. The 2. Spinning of silk 4,538 2,897 1,641 2,092 1,553 5:'19 Kannada and Telugu Devangas who, to begin with, J. Weaving of silk 6,311 3,fi28 2,7113 1,541 1,357 184 happened to be wide language divisions, hardened textile by later into separate endogamous groups. Handloom.

In Kollegal, the Devangas are mostly Telugu Devangas and Kannada Devangas are only a meagre * Census of India 196I-Volume XI-Mysorc. fraction. Devangas have exogamous divisions or General Economic Tables-B IV, Part C, Part clans. II B (i) . 61

Establishments Mysore cocoons are greenish yellow in colour. Till 1922, th practive was to rear pure Mysore silk There are 79 establishments engaged in producing worm and the production was about 1,200 cocoons silk fabrics at Kollegal. Seventy-seven of the units per gram of seed. The length of bave ranged between are proprietary concerns run by households of tradi­ 250 to 300 metres. This race lost its potentiality and tional craftsmen. Of the remaining two units, one is at present it is used as a female component to cross attached to the Government Silk Filatures and the with Japanese male. Such hybrid races are reared other to the Silk Weaving Centre of Khadi Gramo­ throughout the year and they yield five to six crops dyoga Kendra. These two institutional units arc annually-the rearing period ranging from 30 to 35 having 16 and 7 looms respectively in them. Work days. This hybrid race is superior to Mysore worm. in the proprietary establishments is carried on purely In that it has a high IJercentage of neatnc:,s, higher by household labour and ~the looms are installed in silk cuntent, better reelability and a shortcr larval the household premises. period.

Sericulture in Mysore At present a silk rearing station has been esta­ bli~hed at Biligiri Ranga Hills in Yelandur Talnk of Sericulture is the art of rearing of silkworms under iVIysore District, for prcscrvntion of .'It.ock l'ae('s md artificial conditions, their feeding, and formation of their improvement. There are six basic seed £arm8- cocoons. These worms feed on mulberry leaves and three for foreign races and three for local multiyoltine are voracious eaters. A report** mentions that races. There arc 40 grainages and more than 600 Tipu 'i3ultan introduced sericuitUl'e industry ill licenesed seed preparers for procTuction of industrial Mysore by the end of 18th Century. In the course seed. Including the 4 for demonstration centres, of less than 200 years, Mysore has secured a foremost there are in all 7 Chado/ri rearing centres. place in mulberry cultivation and silk production. Dl1l'ing this brief period the industry suffered two Raw silk reeling is done in Mysore by traditional sCVe!rc setbacks-the first was during 1886 and the Char/cas, cottage basins and also by modern filatures. second during 1914-15 when a strange and deadly disease made its appearance and proved calamitous The filature industry came into being in Mysore to the worm resulting in a markedly diminished in 1920 and, to begin with, it had 12 basin Frency yield of silk. Government therefore thought fit to type filatures. In 1937 this was m'ade a joint stock establish a separate department in 1914-15 so that eom pany ulHkr the banller " :l\[ysore Silk Filatures." continued attention could be paid to the problems During the period of Second World War the filature facing this industry and its development secured on reeling industry assumed great importance and the proper and scientific lines. With the transfer of Humber of filature basins were greatly increased. Kollrgal taluk from Coimbatore district (Madras After the war, the organisation is encountering State) to Mysore in consequence of States Reorgani­ difficulties to run the industry on profitable basis and sation effected in 1956, Mysore became the biggest efforts at modernising production to make the rates silk producing State in India, contributing a little competitive are afoot. more than three fourths to the total output of the country. The industry is concentrated mostly in the The raw silk produced in this State is marketed rural areas in the districts of Bangalore, Mysorc, through Kothi merchanls of Bungalore. There is Mandya, Kolar and Tumkur. Agriculturists in these also a Silk Marketing Co-operative Society in Banga­ districts engage themselves in silk worm brecding as lore since 195"7, and cocoon marketing units in several It side occupation and dispose of cocoons to reelers. centres. The silk waste is utilised by "Mysore Government Spun Silk Mills" in Chanhapatna Mulberry is raised as bush in rainfed and irrigated (This mill was a joint-stock company till 1958 under lands. About 76,000 hcctarcs of lana are under the name "Mysore Spun Silk Mills, Ltd., Channa­ mulberry cultivation in this State. In the rainfed patna ".). There was also a SerieulturaI Training area the annual yield of mulberry leaf is about School at Channapatna which is now shifted to 1,800 Kgs. per acre while in the irrigated area it is Mysore City. 3,600 Kgs. _------_-_.- ---_._------*OH. Mu",.. 1 1.e£ro, Vol. 1 Page 2S 'The Silk Industry' CHAPTER II

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND FABRICS PRODUCED

Raw materials Production of raw silk in Mysore for the year 1965 is as follows:- Haw ~ilk is the chief raw material used in this industry. The other necessary materials are Jari (lace) and dyes for colouring the yarn. Production (Kgs.) Raw Silk 1. Charaka 9,40,000 Haw silk is the yarn reeled from cocoons. It is an £. Cottage basin 1,79,000 animal fibre like wool. These two animal fibres v." :Filalurc 1,04,000 diffcr from each othcr in chemical as well as physical 4. Dupion 22,000 properties. Total for the State 1£,45,000 Haw Silk is a two stage production-the first being Production in other States Lhe CUCOOll raising (which include nlulbeni,Y culLiva­ during 1965 3,88,602 tion side by side) and thc second, raw silk recling. Total 16,33,602 The cocoon filament is produced ao a fluid in the salivary glands of lllulbpl'fY silkworm Bambyx mario The lifc cycle of Bombyx mori takes about six weeks More than 75 per cent of the Mulberry silk is pro­ to cUlllplete from egg back tu egg. Each cycle has duced in lVfysore, and Kollegal too is an important a foUl' stage passing. The first is from egg to larva, raw silk producing centre. the second from larva to pupa, the third from pupa to silk molh and fourth the silk moth laying eggs Raw silk is reeled in hanks from cocoons and this again to start the life cycle afresh. silk is not sufficiently strong to be ,used on the loom. It has to be twisted before it is passed on to the The female silk moth lays about 400 tiny eggs loom. The process of twisting io normally not called seeds. After about 10 days ant-like worms of attcnded to by the weavers of Kollegal as they get about onc eighth of an inch hatch out of eggs. rcady warps from throwsters of the town. There are During' the metamorphic process which lasts for as many as 15 oilk twioLing units under private scclor £0 to £(j days the caterpillar consumes mulberry, and one unit attached to the Govcrnmcnt Silk Fila­ moults four times each time sloughing off its own tures in the town. skin. When it reaches its, maximum growth, it ceases to eat, its weight diminishes and its colour Ready warps (Hun) becomes creamy white. These ripe worms are picked up and mounted on Chandrike. The worms on Haw silk is coiled on a bobbin from 'hanks in order Chandrika from a pail' of glands running the length to form a yarn package convenient to handle. At of their body, emit through the spinncret a viscous this stage of transfering tht' raw silk on to the bobbin solution which emerges out as silk filament. The it is imparted 20 twists per inch. Next is the stage worm spins the cocoon around itself and a fully ripe of doubling in which two plys of the twisted raw silk worm normally completcs the wark in about 2,t hours. is combined to form a compound yarn. At this Then the cocoons are harvested by separating the stage 3 twists are imparted pel' inch. In the next good from flossy cocoons. In order to prevent th~ (and the final) stage the two ply-yarn is imparted moths emerging out· and spoiling the cocoons they 15 twist.~ pel' inch. This yarn intended to be used as are subjected to dry heat and the moths inside the warp is called organzine and its local name is; Huri or cocoon are killed. The cocoons are soaked in boiling jodi Huri. Then, strands of organzine are wound water in reeling basins and the threads from about on the warping wheel and the length of a warp is 10 cocoons are reeled into a joint Lhread. generally 60 yards in the locality. 63

The twisters produce warps for sale or produce The other materials required for degumming and them to order in which case they charge Rs. 160 per dye~ng arc washing ,oda, seap, colour powders and Kg. of raw silk used in the preparation of warp. acetic acid. TOOLS

Ready wefts (Sappe) Thc loom and its many accessories constitutc the chief Louis uf this industry. The weaving machinery The silk yarn inte.urled for weft is called tram and in addition lo the loom includes a few prcpamtory thc local term is Sappe 01' Sa;ppe Huri. The raw machines which are quite simple in construction. silk ~trand is wound on to bobbins with no initial twisting. Then three strands of raw silk are combi­ ned to form a compound yarn at which stage it re­ Loom (Magga Settu) ceives 3 twists per inch. In thc final stage of twist­ The loom is the machine for weaving cloth in whkh ing the yarn is impartcd 9 twists per inch. More two sets of threads, warp (hasu) and weft (hoklcu) twisting is necessary for organzine as it has to with­ are intcdaced. Warp is the collection of threads stand the strain of weaving. spread out lengthwise on the loom and weft are the Lhreaus that run crosswise along the width of the In order to relicve of its spiraling character gained warp. on acconnt of twisting, the silk yarn is subjected to strt'aming for a period of 10 mmutes in a vessel use 1 The handlooms can be classified into groups either as a steam chamber. on the basis of raw material used for weaving or on the structure of the looms. Both the organzine and tram are wound in hanks of 42 inches in circumfercnce. The hanks are reduced On the basis of the raw material used for weaving into skeins and packed by paper wrapping. the looms can be classified into the groups:

The cost of organzine was about Rs. 175 per Kg. (1) Cotton weaving looms; and that of tram was Rs. 110 per Kg. at the time of (2) Silk weaving looms; this study. (3) Woollen weaving looms; (4) Luoms weaving fibres other than the materials included in the first thrce groups. Lace (jari)

Lace is produced from filature raw silk, silver and Considering their structure for categorisation, gold. Finc silver wire is wound round silk yam in hand looms can be classified as : such a way that the yarn is completely concealed within the coil of silver wire. Then this is su1>jccted (1) Primitive looms; to gold plating and thus the lace is produced. This (2) Pit looms; ma'tcrial is imported from Surat and the Im'al cmfts­ (3) Frame looms; men get it from the dealers at Bangalore. The unit of transaction of lace is Marc which is about 240 (4) Semi-automatic looms. grams in weight either in the shape of eight skeins or four bobbins (reels). The cost of lace is Rs. 125 The primitive looms, as the term itself indicates, per marc. have remained unchanged since generations. In this State, woollen blanket loom and carpet loom come under this category. These looms arc simple Incidentally it may be mentioned here that manu­ in structure and the weft are threaded by hand for facturing of gold lace was an important industry in interlacing the warp ends. Their cost is meagre and Bangalore till the year 1870. The imports of lace the production capacity is low. from France where the industry had made great head­ way killed the local industry. The preparation of Pit looms are the most widely employed hand- gold lace was the occupation of 'SarigeYllvuru' a looms in this State. They are of two types-the caste found chiefly in Bangalore District. * throw shuttle and the fly shuttle.

* This information is based on 1931 Census Report. 64

The frame loom has come into being as an This loom is suitable for long warps and for improvement of pit loom. Frame looms have be­ weaving as it puts minimum strain all the warp. qome popular on account of their many sided Despite its simple construction it causes no vibra­ advantages. tion while weaving as the frame posts are firmly fixed. The semi-automatic looms are improved frame looms similar to a power loom. These looms arc in The Fly Shuttle Pit Loum use in places where electric power is not available. Unly a limited range of fabrics can be produced on The fly shuttle pit looms are in use to a very large this loom. The out-put is about 3 to 4 times more extent at Kollegal. It has become quite popular as than that of a handloom and about half of that of a its prodiIction capacity exceeds by 3 to 4 times that powerloom. of ordinary th.row shuttle pit loom. It has all the Ildvantages of a throw ~hultle pitloom excepting In Kollegal weavers produce silk fabrics on fly the weaving of intricate weft patterns. shultle pit 100m5. Only two of the weavers in the ~~.:;,' "'Q:~+ .... -~~ town weave on throw shuttle pit looms. The introduction of .fly shuttle looms has streng- As the name implies the loom stands on a pit. thened the handloom iudustry to a great extent. Till the advent of fly shuttle, throw shuttle pit looms Wide range of choice designs can be produced on were in use. The main difference between the two this loom in combination with dobbics or jacquards. looms is that in the throw shuttle \ sley, the shuttle are thrown across the shed from one end to the The .fly shuttle pit loom is similar to a throw other by hand and in the loom with fly shuttle sley, shuttle pit loom excepting for this major difference. the shuttle is propelled from one shuttle box to the In the fly shuttle loom the sley carries a race board and two shuttle boxes (lali pettigc) on either side, other by pulling a cord attached to the picker. with a l,licker (pikker) propelled by means of The Throw Shuttle Pit Looln strings. The fly shuttle oscillating sley works at a higher speed than the throw shuttle sley and CIUI This loom consists of a sley without a race board, have !W to 30 picks per minute and this higher a cloth beam (kunte) and country healds (achu). speed results in an increased rate of production. The he aids are operated through treadles (avuge chakke) by feet in a pit (maggada guni) at a depth Description of the parts of the loom-Sley (magga) of ~~ feet. Ball warp is arranged at the back of the loom. After weaving a little length the warp is let The sley or slay is the swinging frame of a loom off. This releases the chord tied to the warp and ha ving the reed guiding the warp threads and the length of woven cloth is wound on the cloth carrying the race board and shuttle boxes. It has beam. This process is repeated as the weaving is Q to and fro movement which enables. it to beat up carried on. The sley of the loom docs not have a the weft to the edge of the cloth. race board but carries a country read ( made of jowar straw). The whole is supported by a beam HeaUs (Achu) resting on ,thc connecting rods of the four posts Healds, olso called heddles are that part of the fixed to the ground-two at each end by the side loom mechanism used to raise and lower the warp of the pit. The weft is beatcn to fell of the cloth in a loom. It consists of an eye formed of twine by swinging the sIey at the end of each pick. through which the warp thread is drawn. A large number of healds are . mounted to a shaft in each This type of loom has many advantages. Its cost loom. is low and it provides vast scope for weaving a large variety of fabrics with extra weft designs. Further, Reed (Tha.ttu,lN Panne) this loom is more suitable where design necessitates change of weft for each pick. It is easy to adjt!st It is a comb-like arrangement of flattened steel the pre-dyed weft for the correct formation of tie­ wires (or of jowar stalk) fixed in a frame. Its dye patterns of the weft. Fabrics having borders of functions are to keep the warp threads in position soild colours require three or more shuttles which to form a guide for the shuttle and to beat up the operation cannot be easily effected on a fly shuttle wrft to the fell of the cloth. It also helps to deter­ pit loom. mine the number of warp threads per inch. The 65

Dumber of threads per inch indicate the quality of Techniques of Production fa~ric. As lhe number of threads per inch increases The weavers 'Of Kiollegal get readymarle warp and the quality becomes superior. weft yarns, and as such the preparation of warp and weft from raw silk need not be done by the Race board (Lali mane) weavcrs. The following stages of work are 'attended This is the parl uf Lhe sley in a loom along which to by the wcavers in the production of silk fabrics : the shuttle travels. This is also called shuttle race. Each end of the race board is provided with a shuttle (1) Degumming; box (lali penige) , from which the shuttle is thrown (2) Dyeing; to and fro when the loom is working. (3) Arranging of warp yarn; (4) Winding of the weft yarn on the pirns; Shuttle (Lali) (5) Weaving; (6) Finishing. This is a device which carries the weft across the luom Lhrough the shed (Ani), i.e., the horizontal opening formed between the warp thrt'aas. It is Degu.mming made of teak \vood, boat shaped with a metal tip This is the process to removE' the gum contents (Lali kupJle) at each end, and one of the ends has ill the silk yarn and it is essential for dyeing the yarn. iln eye (lali mani) through which the weft passes. About one and a half gallons of water is boiled in a A small wooden bobbin called rirn (Khandike) copper v('>sel. A mixture of soda ash textile soap carrying the weft fits the shuttle. and Hydrasulphate is added to lhe boiling waleI' and stirred well. This degumming solution is allowed Beam (Kunte) to boil fcr a few minutes. The ha,11k of yarn Lo be It is a flanged wooden roller which carries warp drgummed is dipped and rotated in the solution for threads in a loom when they are in position. Eal:h a period of one to one and half hours till it becomes son-w'hite losing its yellowish t'nge and there is a loom consists of two beams, one a warp beam on loss of weight to the tune of ~5 - per cent. It is which the warp threaQs are wound which also , r-emovrrl from the solution and dried. If the yarn provide necessary tension'and the other a duth beam has to be dyed immediately there is no need fa!' on which the woven length of fabric is .wound as the drying. \waving proceeds.

Next to loum the fullowing l'quipU[('Ui:5 are essen­ Dyeing tial in the weaving induotry. This prucess is generally done by the weaver~ themselves. Two to three gallons of water is placed Warping Charaka in a copper vessel and heated to builing point. The

It is 11 machine ma(k !(Jcnlly. It compri' ('S of a cololll' pO\y,jf'l' is mixed to the boiling water. The (,-vele wheel wilh hub and spokes fixed in a \yooden colour powrlC'1' is first dissolved in a little quantity fork and a hamill' is fixcd to the hub which facili­ of colfl \I'll t('1' a nrl t hf'll t lw solution is poured iut') tates imparling IIlolioll to the wheel. This wheel tIll' boiling water nnll stirrl'd well. The temperature ncts as a fly wheel as it imparts motion \0 a rohting uf Hll' water is rl'dllcnl n little by reducing the heat wheel carrying a spindle for ]'c('Pi"illg pirn ill the hearlh. The deglllllmed hank c! ~'arn is (klvundik,e) . dipped in the colour solution and rotated in it for about an hour. Samples of coloured yarn arc tested Arate for the fastness of colour and this is based on the experience of the craftsman. Then, the hank is This is a deviee made of bambou splinters for rcmoved frum the colour bath and a little quantity takillg yarn before the same is wound on to the pirn. 'Of aeelic acid in liquid form is added to the wlu­ tion and the hank is again soakeu in this colour T lwdu ua 'lTUlne sulution and rinsed for abuul 15 minutes. After- This consists of two bamboo pieces each of about' wards thc coloured hank is dried in shade. The 21 feet in length. The xaI'n is placed ill the Thoduva quantity of the colour powder to be used in the mane while it is wound on to the ,ira.ie. preparation of colour solution depends upon the

H.S.M.-5 66

$hade to be imparted to the yarn. The quantity is WellDing more for dark shades and it is less for light shades, but the difference in cost is not appreciable. With tilC ,"arp laid on the loom, i.e., after the reed and hcddles are adjusted, the weaver com­ mences the work of weavilIg the cloth. Arranging of warp yarn

The Wan) yarn in hanks haye to be stretched out Hp puts the shut tIc containing weft bobbin in the before transfer to the loom. This work is done ill ~hllUle box at his right and presses the right pedal the open area for want of enough space in the "ith his right foot. When this is done the heddlc household preIIlis~b. The warp frame consists of attar:hed to it goes up along with the warp thread,; four bamboo piece:.;, Lwo on each side within a pas.'wc] through it. This separates the warp yarn,; distance dcpending on Ihe J.ellgLh of tIle warp ,nto two "layers" and the opening so formed it; (usually 60 yards), each of these two pieces being called a ' shed'. This shed should be large cnough to fixed cross-wise and firmly secured by a ropc to 11 enable th" shuttle to pass through it smoothly. When peg fixed to the ground. The warp is then stretched the shed is formed the weaver pulls the string of the over this frame. Broken Fuds, if any, arc carefully loom whieh connects the pick!'r with force in such mended. This process of stretching out the yarn a way that the shuttle passes swiftly from one cnd OVFr Lhe frame is locally called 111 adilcolu suttuvudu to the other carrying the weft thread along with it. or Banke halcul J1uru. A nlllllb"'I' \ of leas,; rods are When thc shuttle reaches the other shuttle box the placed in the warp breadthwise wil h a spacing of weaver brings back the skv so that the weft yarn is about a Ylnd between them. Since 5 yrars a rollcr brought to the " f~'II" of the cloth. has been used to roll up the warp threads and this has saved the use of too many lease rods. This process of rolling the yarn into a roller eannQt be He then releases the pressure on the right pcdal and presses the left one with his left foot and again done by a single Pl:l'SOIl and :3 Lo ~, peI'sons hriVc to the pre-determined warp threads go up and a shed attend to this operntioll 011 IICCOIIllL of the ulIwieldy length of the warp. is formed. The shuttle which was resting at the other shuttle box is brought back to its original The rol'lcd up warp is 'taken lo the loom, the frce I'csiti"n hy ·pulling tllP coni connected to the picker. end is out and each pick is join cd to the warp ends Thc wcfL thread is again hrought to Lhe " fell" of the of the fabric already finished on the loom. This cloth with the' help of the slcy. process is called Achukechuvudu. Normall;, the weaver himself does not attend 10 this operation. This allcl'llatillg process is continued till a suffi­ TherE' arc experts who finish in n day and II half ciPllt length of f:tbric is woven after which the weaver this work of joilling lhe ends of the new warp to gives a turn to the eloth heam oveI' which the woven the ends of a portion of the fn brie already woven cloth is wound. The weaver has to keep a steady for II Ilormal charge of Rs. 4 only. watch over the movement of the shuttle to ensure that the weft yarn passes through the shcd unerringly. In thc next stage the picks of the new warp are Sometimes the yarn sn'lDS and the weavcr stops the drawn through the healds and reeds and \I'ouml on operation, joins the brokcn ends of the weft and the cloth beam. continues his operation.

Winding of the wefi yam on the l)irns Fini,~hfllg

While the ahon pl'o{;esses arc attelI(Ied to by I1l(,U, After weaving a full IengLh Dr sari or rabric, the the fcmale folk of the household will Ill' clIgrlgf'd weaver allows a little length unwoven, and then in supplying the weft yarn to the W(,;1VCfS. The weaves a little length of the sub~cqucnt fabric on the h;wk of wdt is placed in the Tlzodll/'a 7lll1lle (two sallle warp. It has to be noted that one full length bamboo picces) an~l tllf' yarn is wound on to an of warp facilitates the wcaving of 5 to 6 saree, depcnJ­ Arate. This proe('ss fllt'iJitates the winding of weft ing upon the- length of the saree which varies from yarn 011 the ph'n (lwndi1w). The }lim is fixed to ,Ii to 6 yards. Tht·n, l)etwl'CIl the finished end of thr the spindle of the cllaraka all,l the yarn froUl the iil'st fabric the warp is cut and thc woven fabl'ie is arate is wound on to it. taken out from the cloth beam of the loom. 67

Then the sari or fabric is folded and wrapped with made with no designs. Following are the popular a kraft paper. designs found on the borders of sarles :-

Fabrics produced 1. Rudrakshi design. The silk weavers of Kollegal produce sa,rees, 2. Double Rudrakshi design. shirLing, coa Ling, turban and blouse pieces. 3. Jalary (mesh) design. 4. Hamsa (swan) design. The length of a sari varies from 5 to 6 yards. 5. Kamala (lotus) design. Sarees of 8 to 9 yards are made to order. The width of a sari is about 45 inches. The turbans of Kollegal 6. Vanki (spiral) design. are in good demand in North Karnataka and 7. Bentex design. 1\Iahal'ashtl'!l areas. The turban is a cream piece of 8. Bulb design. fabric with no designs, measuring 8 yards in length 9. Mango design. and having a width of 28 inches. In the following table information regarding the numher of looms on 10. Leaf design. which different types of fabrics are produced at the 11. Star design. time of this study is furnished :- 12. Moon and Star design.

Private Seotor 13. Heart design. GOVI-rillneut Khadi 14. Banal'as design. Type of Fabric No. oflo~ms Filature Centre Handloom Handloom 15. Thilakam design. Handloom powerloom 16. '8' design.

1. Saree 30 13 17. Cadroi design. 2. Shirting 38 3 3 4 18. Circle design. 3. Coating 5 I 19. Ariarkali design, 4, Turban 13 20. Leaf and flower design. 5. Blnuse pieoes (; Dothi These designs are used separately or in combination.

Total 87 3 16 7 There was a good designer at Kollegal but he has left Kollegal for Delhi and the local weavers are following the same dp~igllS he evolved and they are tmable to Designs produce new designs for want of skill. They are The silk sarees of Kollegal are populll1: for the yet to make use of the new designs innovated by the attractive designs, colour and types of borders. Weavers' SC'l'Viee Centre of thc All India Handloom Designs of other types of fabrics are not worth Board, Bangalore, and the Handloom Research and mentioning and fabrics like turban and shirting are Designing Centre, Bangalore. 68

CHAPTER III

ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECTS

rvlost of tIl{' weavers at Kollegal work on their own Helling price. of each piecfl uf Sari 1'3 looms, but produce fabrics for thc master weavers. lts. 640,37/5 i.e., 128.0S (Rs. 12S .08 hpillg rnundecl off to :Fourtccn looms are plying in eslablislullellt'i which 1{s.12S.1O). produce their own fabrics. Out of 73 craftsmen working :for the master weavers, 68 own looms and 11. Shirting- 5 work on hired looms. The hirc chRrges per loom Wovon with goofl warp and sub- stamhll'd weft. per month is Rs. 3. Two of the loom owners hire Rs. '.1:1. weavers on piece-rate basis. Vost of raw materials :- 1. Yarn for warp In the handloom unit of the Government Silk (730 gmS. at 221.64 jler Kg.) 161.80 Filatures tht' looms are owned. fln the silk weaving 2. Yurn for weft centre of Khadi' Gramodyoga Kendra, the wea.vers (1961 gms. at III ,()() pOl' Kg.) 217.67 4.75 ha vc installed their looms in the, premises of the 3. Dye stuffs 4. Other materials 2.50 3.86.7·~ Kendra. The number of looms that wt'r,~ pl~'illg in these two units during the course of this study was Cost of labour :­ 16 and 7 respectively. I. Wtav;ng H.9S 2. Alta, winding and uysing 1~.20 3. Pirn winding 13.60 72.7B Cost of production Overhead chargos 22.113 22.93 The following is an itl'mised cost statement of raw materials, labour and over-head charges as ascertain­ Total cost of productiull 41>2.43 l'rotit at 12t% 60.31 ed from the Govcrnmpnt Silk Filatures, l\fasler­ weavers and Own~r-weavers :- Total 542.74 SAlling priot, per metre is Rfi. 20,25 Government Silk Filat'urC8 III. Sari- I. Sari: 5 Sarles ot 5.5 metres each. Length of warp: 27.5 metres. 5 saries Design 17 dents of brick design both of 5.5 metres each 15 dents of hearth sides jari and seU- design, both sides jari and self Rs. Rs. mundani. Cost oJ raw murerial..- (0.00) (0.00) G08t of rutv malen:uls : - 1. Y .. rn f"f warp 1. Yarn fur wa,l'p (725 gms. at 221.64 per Kg.) 160.69 (700 gmR. at Rs. 221 .61 per Kg.) 155.15 2. Yarn f"f woft 2. Yn,!'Il for weft (922 gms. at Rs. 202.03 per Kg.) 187.10 (971 gmb. ,.t Hs, 2U2.93 pel' Kg.) 197.65 3. Gold laeo 82.~7 3. Gold lam (104 gons.) 62.4fl 4. Dye stuffs 10.75 4. Dye stuffs 4.75 5. Other materials 2.50 443.31 Ii. Other materbls 2.50 -tH.:;1

Co.t of labolJ,r:­ Cost of labour :­ I. Weaving 78.12 I. Weaving 78.12 2. Alta winding and dyeing 8,84 2. Alta winding 5.96 3. Pirn winding 12.60 99.56 3. Dyeing 3.20 4. Pirn windjllg 12.61J 99.8S Ovorhoud charges (such as G.P.F. Overhoad chargus 28.7~ 28.75 E.S.L und leave benefits to craftsmon) 26,35 26.35 Total cost of production 551, 64 Total cost of productiun 569.22 Profit at 12! per cent GS.96 profit at 12t% 71.H' Total {,30.S0

Total 640.37 f 8elling price pCI' l'Jeeu 1):1 Rs. 124.1.j (K. 620.60/5). 69

V. Coatlng- Shirting: Length of warp: 60 yards- Length of warp: 26.3 metres. Gosi of raw malC1·ia,1s:- Rs Rs. Rs. Cost of raw material. :- 1. Yarn for warp (l,OM} gms. at Rs. 221.\\4 per Kg.) 231.&1 Yarn for warp 216.00 2. Yarn for weft Yam for weft 450.00 (3,309 gms. at RH. 141.00 por Kg.) 466.57 Dyeing 16.00 682.00 3. Dye 8.75 4. Other mat~rials 2.50 709.66 The weaver has sold the whole length of piece for Rs. 765. He has realised a profit of Rs. 83. The f)ost of labour :- total number of days spent by him in the production 1. Weayinf( 51.21 of this piece is 16 and his earnings per day is Rs. 5, 2. Alta winding 23.32 almost equal to what he gets if hc should work for 3.. Dyeing 3.21) a master weaver. 4. Pirn winding 12.60 87.13

Overheati charges 24.7~ 24.78 It is perhaps for this reason that most of the weavers work for master weavers which rather Total (lOSt, of production 821.59 involves no further investment on their part towards Profit aL 12~% 102.70 raw mat.e-rials. The proportion of overhead charges Tota.l 924.29 is seen to be higher in the public sector.

Selling price per meLre : RH. 3".14 or Rs. 35.15 Wage Structure Cost of prodl1.eti on UB j,... nishpd "1! The weavers in the handloom unit of the Govern­ (a) M usl-rr Tr eaver ment Silk Filatures get piece work wagE'S at the Sari- following rates shown against each item of work:­ Length of warp 60 yards, with 1 " border- Rs.

Cost ofrl1w matorials: 1. Plain shirting (width 45", 3:l yards) 49.00 Yarn for warp 2. Plain Dothi (width 54", 32 yards) 5'4.00 (1.3 Kgs. at Rs. 15.5 Kg.) 201.('O Yar n for waft 3. Plain coating (width 45", 32 yards) 57.00 (2.2 Kgs. at 12fi Kg.) 275.00 4. Sari (plain with no dobby work, Dye 45.00 width 45", 32 yards) 49.00 Jari 85.00 (\06.50 5. Sa'ri (with dobby of less than Cost of labour :­ 50 dents) 62.00 Twisting and warping 35.00 6. Sari (with border design above Colouring 10.00 50 dents) 67.00 "'caving 05.00 140.00 for the subsequent dents charges

Total '146.50 at Re. 1 for 10 dents or fraction Lhereof a.re paid) . (b) Owner Weaver :- For sanes with designs extra Sari: Length of warp 50 yards charges are paid at the following 8 sarles 01 6 yards each, with !" lace rates: border- For self, jari combined border of quarter inch and ~l yards at 008t of raw materials :­ self Re. 1. Yarn for warp 175.00 Yam for weft 220.00 For Butta mundani (sclf) B.s. 4 Lace 95.00 per self. Colouring 15.00 505,00 For single self or mundani upto 'fhe weaver has worked for about ]5 days with the 200 dents Rs. 4 per self. Rssistanec of a lady for pirn winding. He has wId For double self or mundani above lhe piece for Rs. 570 realising a profit of Rs. 71 Rnd 200 dents below 400 dents Rs. 8 he has earned at the rate of Rs. 5 a day. for each self. 70

Rs. Capital 7. Pavadi (plain with no dobby work The productive capital in the silk industry at 80" width, 3fl yards warp) 44.00 Kollegal is Rs. ~,5~,000 of which Rs. 1~,000 is invested on looms and accessories and Rs. ~,40,000 8. Pavadi same as above with dobby serves as the circulating capital. About 67 per cent work 57.00 of the capital is the contrilm~ion from the private 9. Dothi (54" width, 32 yards warp) 60.00 sector and 83 pcr cent from the public sector. 10. Dothi (same as above with dobby work of less than 50 dents) .. 77.00 Production Butta charges fol' saries are paid The aunual production of silk fabrics at Kollegal at the ra te of Rs. 5 for] 00 butas is valued around Rs. 14,40,000 from both the private of less than 24 dents and and public sectors. Rs. 6.50 for 100 butas of ~5 dents and above. Marketing The silk fahrics of KolIegHI find a morkct in :1il Wages paid to weavers by the master weavers important commercial centres of Mysorc ami in the are: neighbouring States of Madras, Andhra Pradesh and Rs. l\Iaharashtra. The Handloom Export Commission has placed orders for coating and shirting with the 1. Turban (28" width nnll 45 yard~ warp) 38.50 mnster weavers for export. The rural folk around Kollegal go in for these silk saries on marriage ~. Shirting (50" width, 60 yards warp) 70.00 occasions. Kollegal turbans are in good demand in 3. Dothi (50" width, 60 yards warp North Mysore and Maharashtra. and f" jari) 108.60 4. For sari of 411' width and 110 yards The master weavers supply the fabrics l1gainst warp with 1" border 95.00 orders. They are also sold through the Emporia attached to the Silk Apex Society of Bangalore. The Silk Filatures is also having a show room in Kolle.'!al The weavers working at the silk weaving Ct'ntre for its own products. of the Khadi Gramodyoga Kendra receive wages at the following rates: Accorrling to the All India Silk Board, Silk fabries Rs. valued Rs. 74 lakhs and Rs. 81 lakhs were exported to foreign countries during the years 1959 and 1960 1. Sari, per metre 2.20 respectively. '.. 2. Shirting, per metre 1.60 3. Dothi, .per metre 2.20 Co-operative Society 4. Coating, per metre 1.00 The Kollegal Silk Handloom Weavers (Production and Sales) Co-operative Society Limited, was established in ]957. There are 143 members on the Wages paid to the weavers in the handloom unit roll, all from Kollegal, though the entire taluk of of the Government .silk Filatures exclude prepara­ Kollegal has now been brought within its fold. The tory charges which the concern itself would meet paid up share eapital of the society is Rs. 5,043. while the master weavers and the silk Weaving Centre of Khadi Gramodyoga Kendra do not them­ The Society has received a loan of Rs. 7,875 selves meet these charges and the wage they pay is towards share capital and Rs. 37,500 towards working inclusive of this item. capital from the Government and the Apex Society. It has also received a grant of Rs. 1,300 towards managerial expenses. The craftsmen who work for master weavers are assured of their wages for the work done, whereas The affiairs of the Society are managed by a the weavers who work on their own earn almost the Committee consisting of 9 Directors of whom one is same profit that too having invested substantially a President. A paid assistant attends to work on raw materials. relating to accounts and saJes. 71

In the year 1964-65 the Society supplied silk control. The annual production is about ~7,000 Kgs. yarn to 48 members of the Society and paid to the of raw silk and 12,000 Kgs. of twisted silk. members wraving charges on piece rate basis. /I. hand loom sectiqu is attached Lo this unit at On the date of Survey the Society had stock of Mamhalli. At the time of this survey 16 looms were fabrics worth Rs. 13,084 and raw materials worth working. The WPflvers of this unit belong to Rs. ~,O~lO. Devanga caste.

The Mysore 8tate Silk Handloom Weaver.~ Central Households of Weavers Co-operative Society. The weavers arc concentrated in the Devangapet the town afLer whom the locality takes its name. This Apex Society was registered on the 5th of or :\farc·h 1956. Its area of operation extf:nds over the The craftsmen's hOllses are mostly built of mud walls, floorings and country tiles. Only a few houses entire Stale of which Kollrgal Soriety is a member. 'l'his institution has for its ohject the extending of are electrified. every asistance for the smooth working of the primilry Societies, Statistics furnished in the following paras pertain to hOllseholc1s pngaged in silk weaving in Kolkgal irresp('ctive of the establishment in which they The Apcx Society supplies raw silk, warp, weft work: and gold lace to the primary societies for distribution nmong its members. The Apex Society has also a Out of 100 weaver households covered in this Ce,lJtl'af Store for marketing the products of the survey, 4 are Q member households, 17 are ~~ member primary societies, It has also established sales households, '23 Hrc 1 mE'mb('r housdlOlds, 18 arc .5 rmporia in important centres like Bangalore, Hubli mcmber households, 16 are 6 member households, and Davangere within the State, and also in Madras fi lire 7 member households, 6 arc 8 member hOllse­ aud lVIadurai of Maoras State, holos, .5 arc!) member households. 3 ore 10 member households, one i" 11 membr]' housrhold nnrl one is a household with 17 members. Government Silk Filatures The Silk Filature aL Kollegal was started in the Th eir popul a tion is .530 eOllsisting of 173 males, year 1930 as a private company and was taken over 178 females and 179 children below 14 years of age. by the Governmcnt of Madras during World War II. After the Government took over, its activities were Th(' heads of all the housdlOlrls arc weavers. Out enlarged to meet the growing needs of parachute of the 100 households covered in this study. 93 house­ manufacture. The centre was managed on the lines holos arc depending upon weaving alone for their livelihood. ,yhilc for 7 households weaving is the of 11 commercial concern and came to be transterrerl principal occ1Ipation with some other subsidiary to Mysore in consequence of States Reorganisation o('cupa tions. • c in 19.5(t In these 100 hOUSE'llOlds. 3~JO persons are gainfully The Factory has silk twisting unit in which 3,000 employed. including hdies who assist in the prepa­ spindles ply, producing about 12.000 Kgs. of orgun­ ratory process of weaving. ~o brly of a weaver zinc. Another unit at M:amballi function~ under its household idles away her time. - CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

Silk weaving is a full-time occupation for organisational approach both regarding production 100 housdlOlds in Rollegal. During the last few and marketing should it be enabled to slmre the decades the weavers of this centre have been a prey general prosperitY'ol the industry. The weaver of to a series of adverse devrlopments which threa­ Kollpgal who ought really be a proud partner in the tened to push the industry to the brink of disaster. ven tUri' is in fact reduced conspired by circumstan­ First, pure silk weaving came into distress befc,rc ces, to the sla tus of a wage-earner. This anamolou3 World War II on account of the competition it had position is likely to be redressed were it he that a tu face from fn bries millie of chi'll!! Ill'ti Heinl iilll'l's. Co-operati,'c Society is established whieh would Next during thl' war, seven' restrictions were imposed cntcr more generously, to the needs of the weavers on the import of silk, na~, it was even suspended 111111 htlp them earn profits commensurate with the followed by the commandeering of most of the labour they put in. indigenous production for raw purposes. Thirdly, due to I he inflal.ilPHlI'), tpnds of po-st-war year" the Unfortunatdy the Weavpr,·' -Co-operative SOl'iety price of raw materials sky rockeUed. These adverse now functioning in this Centre rloes little in this circumstances coming as Lhey did, one OIl the heel direction. Consequently the inlerests of the members of the other led many a IYea vcr of this centre to ;-, the society are quailing. FJ'austra tion is writ shift his preference from pure silk weaving to art­ large on the weaver's face. silk weaving. Things may change for the better if the working <11 Silk has a vital role in the nation's economy. the Society is improved, Hnd the pale of its benevo­ Loug before World War II the industry used Lo lent influence sufficiently enlarged as to make it absorb all the raw silk produced in the country thus worthwhile for the worker to take a more abiding giving a fillip to its sustained growth. Then a interest in this institution. In effect, for this decline in the offtake of indigenous silk became laudable objective to be achieved, the Socirty should manifest due to competition from foreign producers. ellileavour Lo srClife an llplifiment of the stalus of But in recmt ),l'ars tht' export of silk fabrics has the weaver from tliat of a mere wage earner to considerably picked up mainly due to an increase in that of a partner in the industry, and a sharer the world silk consumption year by year. These in the profits earned by the Society. This is a currently favourable circumstances presage a hetter problem which, in the last resort, has to be future for the industry as a whole, and the Kollegal tackled by the Government. The remedy for centre should al,o na'urallv share the boom _ What is the paradox that despite the existence of demand required is only the malil;n of conditions favourable and supply, the industry languishes appears to for the production of ra)V silk anrl silk fabrics by the lie in better organised and more efficiently local weavers and their easy saleability. managed Co-oPNative efforts. It is only the Government that can supply this lacuna. While the outlook for this industry appears gene­ rally satisfactory, this centre seems to need betler SILK WEAVIN~ PLATE

I. A front view of~an idle, fly-shuttle pit-loom

2. 'Arate' the bamboo bobbin PLATE 2 SILK WEAVING

3. A view of the jacquard arrangement SILK WEAVING PLATE 3

4. Setting the jacquard for the desired design PLATE 4 SilK WEAVING 1 .• j - - ~ ,j

5. Front view of the loom in action

6. Side_view of the loom in action SILK WEAViNG PLATE 5

7. Folding a finished piece of saree

8. Saree folded and hung on a rod shows a popular border design PLATE 6 . SILK WEAVING

9. Popular border design SILK WEAVING PLATE 7

10. Popular border design PLATE 8 SILK WEAVING

II. lace (Jari) design on a saree

12. Intricately designed Jari Serag·· /. of a saree SILVER JEWELLERY

75

CHAPTER I

INTRODUcrORY

Introduction ('olonr thrE'ad. Some string pearls, some grind lapis lazuli. some cut shells, some turn ancl pierce. ('ora~s . .Jewdlc-ry is a collective term used for jewels and Sir 'Gcorge Birdwood points out the close relatlOnshlp their making. Jewels are ornaments made either of such operations to thc practicc of the present day. purely of precious metals or with an inlay of precious A dialogue in the drama has reference to the skill stoncs for personal adoration. with whieh jewcllcry was even then imitated.

In India, ornaments have been worn from times " Few early cxamples o'f Indian jewellery have been immemorial both as 1I mt'ans o'f adornment, and for preserv,~d to the ·prescnt. day. The sculptures of religious a 1111 superstitious reasons. The oriffin of Sanchi Bharhut, Amnvali and Orissa, and paintings jeweller's art in this count.ry goes to the obscur~ past, such a~ those of Ajanta, dcmonstrate the similarity and down the ages it has played its role in history, in appearance of the Rucicnt. jewellery to that still arts and mythology. When the art of writing was made and worn. Numerous representations of the unknown, ri,lIgs have becn the insignia of oiliee or of Hindu Gods, whethcr human or animal, illustrate thc authority, almost equivalent to the passport that early USE' of tiaras, necklaces (sometimes hanging in people carry now-a.-days. If these bl' the roles in f('st~ons to thc waist) , armlets at the plbow, bracelets, J'oyal circles, the rings with· individual designs anklets and othcr forms of jewellery". fashionE'd by fancy or calliography havc bccn consi­ r]erpd a.'; ahbreviated signatures and hence thc term ,. One of the oldest known cxamples oi ancient "signct ring" came about. Religion E'njoins or Indhn jcwellery in existcnce is a small relic casket rccommcnds the wearing of certain jewels. J~wels fOIlIld in a Buddhist shrine in the Kabul valley ne.'lr w€'re also WOl'll HS an amulet and protection against Jellabad. It is of gold, studded with balas rubies, evil, 0ach haying significance according to shape and and when found it contained burnt pearls and coral, precious jewels used. Throughout the agcs, jcwellery and bcnds of sapphir£', agate amI crystal, besides a has thus been a thing of great importance in religious, I1umlwl' of small gold ornaments. Coins found with rega.l. commercial 11,'ld private matters in this country. the casket show that its workmanship is to be attri­ Thc following. excerprs taken from the Encyelopaedia butcd to thc 1st century B. C. It betrays Greek Britanica Vol. 3, page 35 on the Jeweller's Craft in influence, due to the conquests of Alexander the India may be of interest to the reader: Great ".

"The Jeweller's Craft in India is of the highest "The Indian goldsmiths are expert in t.he economy antiquity. The ·form of ornamentation of the jewel­ nf the precious metals, beating gold .and silver into lery described in the ancient Hindu epics is said to the thinnest plates. Bracelets often end in the head elenote an unbroke,n continuity of tradition from of an animal; earrings represent the flower of lotus; those times of shadowy history to thc prcsent. day and various blossoms are fashioned for hairpins. It anel even the names have suffered little cha.'1gc. Thl' is principally in the South India that elaborale gold cod(' of lVlanu, which is believed to have taken its jewellery is made with subjects in relief with Hiudu present form about 2,000 years ago, contains a descri­ mythology" . ption of the jeweller's craft, and mentions the fines for bad workmanship and punishment. for debasing Sri C. Hayavadana Rao in his Mysore Gazetteer gold ". Vol. III pages 246-s!47 has the following to say about this craft:- "A Hindu drama ", "The Toy Cart ", written about the samc time, describes a jewellcr's workshop Gold anc! Silver have always been emp­ where craftsmen examine pearls, topazE's, emeralds, loyed to a very large extent in making jewellery sapphires, lapis lazuli, coral and other jewels. amI this has heen the favourite method with the '3ome set rubies in gold. Some string gold beads on masscs of investing their savings. IThere afe certain 76 areas in the State where a small quantity of gold hping usually supplied by the customer. The must OIwe have iwen ob~ained from the washing of remuneration of n goldsmith is therdore, practically the alluvial soil. At present there is a regular trade the payment for his lnbour only amI it is regula led ill gold aud silver bullion. In ornmnents proper as according to the nature of the labou!' required. The manufactul'cd llTt ides, there is hardly any ('arr~"ing actual profits of the trade, if any, constitute a matter trade worthy of being noLiced and the import lIf such OIl whi('h it is very difficult to get definiLe illforma­ articles by private persons for their own lise does not t'on. The wear and tear of tools, conslImption of constitute an important. item nf tl'ade ill thclll from a charcoal and lIlt' like, form the outlay Lo bc incurred commercial point of view". by the go](bmith. When he is employcd by the customer to procure him gold and silver on which to " The common ngency fm' the distI'ibulion of the work, as \\,(,11 as to do the work itself, he will have pree'olls metal'l inside tI](' !-'hl'tc is lhal of "Shl'offs", grcatcT opporlunities to work for making profits". 1m ill

" Goldsmiths as a class are not always in a pros­ "Thill' duly of the AkTwsale or gOQsmith was to perous condition and most of the m€mber~ of lhe nH'aSllre the songuru or ha1'£-share of the crop which class in the interior pa!l'ts of the St ate are pc"r and the ryots paid to the Sarkar, nnd to shroti the money it is this poverty that m1y compel them to have collected in the village in payment of the revenue. recoursc to doubtful pract.iees often complained by For any other work done by him he might take iheil' customers. Such of the goldsmiths as nrc payment, but for these the hore-hollu and nwra-lmtin prosperous have acquil'cd their wealth by money '\"l'r(' his perquisites. lending. or agriculture ?r some otll£'r occupation. . " The abo,"c LweIvc were the village scrynnts : tJwir " Goldsmiths are g('lH~l'al1y pair] for their work at offices werc hereditary, going from father to son; and a fixcd T'ate per tdTa on the wcight of the finished tlhcy VI"ere authorisl('d to sell or mortgage their office articlf', the material on which they have to work wheu i,u distress." 77

In ~fysore the traditional craftsmen engaged in the The nearest port IS J\1alpe 11 bout 4 miles from the making of jewellery are producing articles in pnrely town. Hindu style marked by high artistic value. The: rcputed centre, for jewellery in the State arc many and as is well known, every hrge village and every The Craftsmen town has its own goldsmith. There is, therefore, no In Udipi the tradilional goldsmiths arc found in point in sp;:aking about any centres of jeweller's two groups 'viz . .. Daivajna Rahmins" anc! "Viswa craft as such and a detail"d study of the craft in all Brahmins". The trade, in so far as the manufactur­ the centres is also impracticable. The present study ing Jo;ide of it is cOllcerned is confined purdy to the is, therefore, confined to the one town of Udipi. t raditional cr~fl smell. P,-,rsons of other caste~ who have taken up to this trade, are only concenlraLing Centre of Study on the business aspect of it. Udipi is municipal l!own and a taluk headquarter in the South Kanara District, South Kanara Daivajn'a Brahmins belongl'd to 1\1 adl'as State I ill 1956 when it was trans­ Daivajna Brahmins also callcd Sonars, are sLated fcrrer] to :\lyson~ under the s.;heme of Reorganisation to have come to these parts from Goa after its con­ of St:ltl'S on linguist.ic basis. South Kanara i,., a quest by the Portugese in 1510. The Gods and Disl.rid in the coastal bell In Lhe west of Western Goddesses they worship are J\Iahlsa, Shantadurga and ghats, .'I1allgesh in Goa. Local repo'rts aver that they '\'l're attracted by the glory of Somla chiefs iu North The area of Udipi Town is '8.80 Sq. :'trill'S auu il" Kanara when leaving Goa. In thc past they were populalion 24.6-10 al'cording to the 19fH Census. It probably considered good astrolog'ers which probably :i, a,t a distance of 37 miles from ]\oIangalore accounts for the caste name 'Uaivajna' (on who ~onncC'ted by an all-wea.ther road. It Joi an knows the fate) . important pilgrim centre. This town came into existence more than a thousand ypars. ago ali They have g'Cnerally stuck to goldsmithy their could be subslanti:lted by the two great templps of traditional o('cupation, though somc hav" taken of Chandreshwant and Ananthcshwara of thc place. late to other avocations such as cultivation, trading, The name Udipi for the town appears to have origi­ strvice etc. nated, accorciillg to a legpnd, from the temple of ChamlrPiihwarlvI'S Viswa Brahmins in the same m:luner Udipi is connected by bus to many imporlnnt as Sonars l'all Ihcln,dvl's, Daiyajna Bl·ahmins. The centres like J\1angalorc, 1\'I~'sol1e, Bangalore etc. The classes pursuing the fiyc superior crafts go by the nearest railway station to this lown is Mangalore. I1nllle of Vibwakarmu. Thcy claim descent from 78

Viswakarma, the celestial architect. Viswaka1'ma Widows are not allowed to marry again, but widows comprises five groups viz., J\fanu (carpenter,) Maya do Hot shave their heads as among the Sonars. (Blacksmith), Throushtu (bell-metal worker),

Shilpi (carver and sculptor), and Viswagnya (golo­ The position of Viswa Brahmins III the caste smith). In J\,[ysore they go by the names of Badagi, hiel"Hl"chy is superior, but still 110 caste accepts food Kalllmara, Kanchugara, Shilpi and Akkasale from them. Their women do not assisL the male respectively. They arc found distriouted all over the members in tl1cir trade. State, though called differently in different parts of the Slate. TIlt're is little or 110 diffprenee between Daivajna and Viswa Brahmill~ in their daily lif.,. But yet they neither interdine nor intermarry. Viswa Brahmins, according to local reports, lire migrants to Uclipi from "\1y,01'c. Th"y do 110t [H"O­ Establishments ciak with Sonars and claim superiority over them. They are v(·getarians and their mother tongue is In Udipi 51:l establishments arc engaged in thc Kannada. I,ike Sonars, they work ill gold ns wdl making; of jewellery. All lhe'e al'e l')'opridary as silvcr. They arc religious minded and worship concerns owned hy tradi6111al goldsmiths. Three KalallJlll:l, \,,1I,d1 is lheir tutelary deity. They WCHr esLablishments engaged in the mere trading of the sacred thread following the Brahminieal custom. finished products are owned by others. - 79

CHAPTER II

TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCTION AND ARTICLES PRODUCED

Raw Materials Silver.-

Gold and silver are the principal raw materials This is also a greatly mal1e.able metal. It is of 3 Iyhich the craft needs. These two metals are used brilliant white colour and is resistant to atmosph3ric -', fur different purposes. While gold is used for making oxida tioll. 'This is eheapl'l" than gold and its pos~es­ ornaments, larger articles of household utility are sion is also a prestige symbol. Articles such .as plates, madc of silver. Precious stones serve the purpose of cups, tumblers and vesscls for household use and embellishing ornaments of gold. ut'rcmonial occasions are made out of this metal. The local goldsmiths buy silver from the jewellers of ~Iangalore . Goldr- Gold is a quality metal on which one could work with eaSe on account of its highly ductile and malle­ Precious Stones,-- able properties. Gold weighing only one grain can On the USe of pr&ious stones by jewellers, be drawn to .a wire of about 50n feet long and can Sri .Jamila Brij Bhushan has the following to say in also be beaten into a very thin sheet. Gold is the his work" Indian Jewellery, Ornaments and Decora­ universal symbol of grcat trcasure. tive :pcsigns" :

The local goldsmiths buy their gold from the jewel­ "The use of precious stones in early times 3S lers in }\:fangalore. The need for their purchasing tbis amu!ets and talismans is shown in many ancient records and the belief in the magic efficacy of stonel metal is hmited as it is invariably supplied b;r the customers thernselve,s. Gold in its purest form is may have given rise to their USe as objects: of personal known as A paranji. The sovel·eign (gold coin) is an adornment. a:lloy of gold and copper, gold being ~~ parts out of 24. It is called ~2 car.at gold. The traditional "Not only were precious stones endowed with the,e units of weight for gold are' tala' and ' sovereign' . qualities by the sages, they were supposed also The sovereign is 11/16th of a tola. Metric weights subject to diseasc, old age and death. They evcn are gl'adu ally coming into vogue. The local gold­ take offence if an injury be done to them and become ~milhs URC old silver rupee coins which weigh a tala rOl)gh and p~lc." for weighing gold. The gulaganji (Abrus precato­ rius) , the little scarlet grain with black top ,UP'iJOSea to cqual 4 grains exactly is the smallest unit adopted. "Most prccius stoncs are found in crystallinc foorm, but thi" charactcristic is destroyed in cutting. Upto the 14th century pierced stones cut len cabochan were Gold is mixed with copper for manufacturing thc greatest fashion. In India gems were polished jewellery as it is difficult to work upon pure gold on according to their original shapes and colours and account of its high mallt'ability. The alloying the objecL was always to preseryc them as much Ub hardens gold and rendors it workable. possible. " .

The most familiar way of assaying gold is by Other matkri.a1,.- rubbing the metal 011 a tOllchstone (oregallu). A few of the chemicals only that are used by gold­ This is a piece of soft blackstone on which gold is smiths need mention. Borax is used as a flux in rubbed and by the colour of the ma;rk it lea yes, the melting, l\Iercury, nitr~ acid and sulphuric acid purity of the metal is assessed. are required in the purification process. Emery 80

Pftpet and polish powders Ilire helpful in the polishing Techniques of produdloll of wares. The cost of these and othn" is indicated The technique of manufacture is much alike foi' below:- g.old and silver and is simple. It calls. for a great deal of ,kill amI dexterity on the part of the W1orker. Un.t R •. The manufacturing process is mark-ed by five dislinct 1. I,'lux: (l1orax) 12 gms. 0.10 stages VIZ.:- <, La. 12 gm •. 0.12 3. Nitric aeid 1 oz. 0.50 1. Converting the metal to a workahle bar. 4. Sulphuric acid 1 oz. 0.40 2. Re(lueing the hal" into sheets and Wlrl:'., G. Pulj::o;h 12 gms. 0.111 6. Ena,nlel colour 12 gruB. Ill.OO 3. Sbaping of sheets' and wire. 7. Elllery paper a. ahee' of 4. Finishing. 10" X 8" 2.00 5. Polishing. 8. :r..lercul'Y 12 gms. 4.50 9. Sanko. paRhfuul 12 gms. 3.00 10, Copper Sulphatu 10 gm~. 0.12 1. Con veTting the metal to 11 'Workable l>ar II. nladns for ~aw Each 0.45 ThE' goldsmith is normally given old ornamt'nts. sovereign or ingots by his customers to make new Ullt'S or tht'ir' choice and descriptiun, The metal, in The fud used is charcoal obtainable from the local whatever form it be, is first cleaned by 'pickling' dealers. for duing which the metal is placed in a bath of ~lliphuric acid diluted with water. A few moments Tools of imnwrsion in the acid will help diHsolve the dirt The tool:; and implements in use with thc gold­ on the surface of the metal. smiths arc few and simple. Thc apparatus for 11eating and melting of mdals in a furnace The metal is then placed in a crucible and melted (aggistike). a crucible (Kove or 7/lll0se) nnd IwlJows in the flll'llaCp, As already mentioned an earthenware (Thidi) or blow ·f,ip". The furnace is an impro­ ,,'aterrot or garden pot ~l'rves the purpose of vised one made of an earthen pot or garden pot, and a furnace. Air is supplied to the furnace by the aid the crucibe which is of graphite is factory made. of bellows or a blower. Borax is added ns a flux to aecderate melting. The molten metal is run into TIll' ut her Lools more commonly in Us'€ are listed narrow channels of a machine tile where it cools and below wilh costs :- solidifies into a thick workable bar of gold. This bar readily lends itself lo being cut, bent or hammered Tool. Co.1 as desired.

RB. If the O'rnament is to he prepared out of a c,:rtaill 1. Anvil (Adiga!lu) 25.00 to 30.00 weight of the metal, the artisan haH to first decide 2. Hammer (SII./Ililfc) 1.50 to 6.00 on the allocation of the metal between the severlll 3. Tongs and Forceps (lkkula) 1.50 to 3.0~ 4. rin(',cr~ (Ghi11lata or Dhandasu) 1.50 to 3.00 parls of the ornall](·nl. Important parts will be 5. S(li~sors (l{alll(1,ri,) 0.50 to 2.00 made first and the variuus compoll'€nts will be joined 6. Files (Ara) 1.00 t.o 5.00 together at a lakr stage. 7. Chie!'ls (Chana) 1/16" to 1 1"1 0.50 to 3.50 8. Drill 10.00 9. 8awfl'ame (Ouragasa Kalil"'" 10.00 2. Reducing the bar into "heet"~ lLnd mire 10. Vice 2.00 to 10.00 II. Whetstono 01' hone (Sa.ne l.;aU,,) 12.00 to 20,00 The bar of gold is then beaten into thin sheets or 12.· 'Vile drawing sca.le (f(ambechu) 2 00 to 8.00 draWl! into a wire. The bar is beaten 011 thc anvil 13, Dies (rl rh,,) (8Bveral desings) 1.110 to 25.00 into convenient Size and shape, being healed 14. Touchston6 (OregaU,,) 5.00 frequently all the while to make it pliable. The 5. {,,'l'uciblc (KGL'e or .Muuse) U.50 tu 1.00 process of healing the metal into' a 'Clullred ('n lhe forge which burns oft deposits of dirt and evens out liold'mlths of UdipI obtain the t.oors either locally any sll'l'ss and strain so as to render it ·soft enoUf)l or from dealers at Man,alore. for wurk is called" annealina ". 81

For making wire, the bar is first beaten to II Ii . Polulving IImrkable thickness and l'educed thereafter to the This proces~ needs considerable care. After finish, required size by passing it through holes of a wire­ the article is thoroughly cleaned in a pickling bath. drawing scale or draw-plate, which is locally called Thereafter it is rubbed with an emery paper which Kambe'Chu. Tongs is used to apply the pull force. removes the film oIf oxide, if any. It is then washed This tool is an essential aid to a goldsmith, hut used in hot soapy water and dried. An application of rarely by other metal w'orkers. It is a hardened polish on a chamois leather gives the article a steel plate containing .a ~Ties of holes of different b:rilliant glittering. gauges. The wire whose gauge has to be reduced is heated to a dull red and drawn through the holes in In order La produL'C quality j'ewellery, a piece is the Kambech u commencing the process with the hole usually mnde by a' single craftsman from start to equi,valent in gauge Lo the wire and then moving on finish. to the- next until the wire .~ttains the required size. The process of working on silver is similar in its :3. Shaping of .• /z.eets and tvire broad detail to that of gold described in the preceding paras. The gold sheet or leaf is pl'esscd on the ach1.l or die for shaping. The achll is a cube of bell metal with many circular hollows of different swes on its sides. To make a Yesst'l of silver, a sheet metaJ of required Dies of diffel'cnt design aJ'e also used with the help gauge is marked Dut and cut to CDrrect size. After of which thc desired pattern of the material iji fabri­ pickling, the sheet is brought to the shape of the cated. vessel by peing beaten with a hammer on a hollow block of wood. The piece is then piae('d on a steel o.r wooden stake and by further beatings with a The wirc is wound into tiny rings Or twiMed into hammer its shape is gradually perfected. The a band the shape of which depends .upon the article vessel by being bellten with a hammer on a hollow made. annealing at 'frequent intervals becDmes quite a necessity to soften it. When the vessel is thus hcaten into a perfect shape, it natura.lly carries on .., . Filli6hing it the hammer markings. These marks are removed Ornaments made arc either solid or hollow or a by heating with a special type of hammer having an combination of buth. Hollow pieces hue' firs! made almost flat steel faL"e. This special hammer is so. in two halves amI then joined together. wielded as La secure a close o.verlapping of the flat marks h leaves on the vessel which are later smoothed over by a careful polishing. )oIost of the neck Ol'llaments ,lre m;td,· by joinillg several pi('ces. As many of the pieces as are requil'ed for a particular ornament are made and they are In case soldering is necessary, borax is mixed with joined together ill a chain hy soldcrhllg. Bcforc water to form a ereamy paste and this paste is s~dering, thc pieces arc made absolutely clean to painted at the spots where thp solder is required - facilitate all C\Tn spread of the solder on thc joiut. to run. Giving proper shape and look to the various compo­ nocnts and cutting Oil' carving of the various designs Articles produced rE'qllires skillful workmanship. Hammers and filES Due to World War II and its aftermath the price' of diff<'rent ,mall size" are used in all the processes of gold and of precious stones reached unprecedented of work, depending upon the delicacy involved. heights. This prDhibitive cost necessitated economy and a tast~ deVeloped fast for simplicity. Heavy Rings, ear-rings, nose-rings and a few lypf'S of ornaments of old, made of solid bar without an,. necklaces are generally studded with precious stoncs. jsoldering 1.0 avoid a debasing of the metal, for a. . The goldsmith makes sockets in the ornaments by better store value than fDr appearance, went out of chasing thE' surface to a depth sufficient to embed fashion. Sophistication, modern education and wider scc~rely th(' stones in thepl. The stones are care­ contacts with the outside world accelerated this fully and securely fix;cd in these sockets. change. It may be no exaggeration Lo say that H.S.M.-0 82

goldsmiths of Udipi were l'ngaged after 1940 lUainly Coffee beejada sara.-A necklace made by joining in converting the old heavy ornaments into moderll together a number of pieces in gold made into simpler pieces. The traditional jev{cllery in this the shape of coffee seeds. region is now almost extinct. It is generally the financial ability that decides sinking of money in ROPe chain.-A necklace resembling the shape of gold. While richer women deck themselves in gold, twisted rope. the poor can ill afford to do so. But even then. any Hindu lady will possess at least a ,. Thali" in gold. Such is the lure for gold in Indian BOciety. Para clvain.-A chain-work of oval shaped gold leave". The following gold ornaments are made by gold­ smiths of Udipi and they are commonly come across Cyde clwin.-A chain-work of gold leaves with serra Led margin. in all parts of South Kanara district.

Mohan mate. -A necklace compnsmg of large Head ornmnents gold beads string in a gold th,read. Jade Bille-It is a broa<.:h worn on tlw scalp or queue. It is round or heart ~haped and studded Godki 8a1'a.-A chain work of gold piecea ea,cll. with precious stones. shaped like a wheat grain.

Ear Orrwmwnts Addige. -A t:hain-work of tiny gold rings.

Bendole 01' ew--rings.-The common patlerns made necklace lllJl.de gold M"C the following:- MiS'ri or Kauina sa1'a.-A or coins. The coins are fashioned by the Jeweller himsdf. Hamsa.-An ear-ring in the form of a swan, often set with jewels. Plate c;lw,irL-A necklace with diamond shaped Sudarsana.- A wheel shaped ear-ring. gold leaves.

Parijatha.-An ear-ring in imitation of Nycthaln­ Sringara Kari'11umi. -A chain made by linking thes flower. pieces of gold resembling many varieties of vegetables . Bandha .. et and Kulla.-Ear-rings studded with

precious stones. Karirnani Kanti.-This IS a rope for the Manga­ lyam. Nak.• h(itra.-Star shaped ear-rings studded with precious stones. A few more designs of neck-cha.ins are Clwhra, Ring.L-Rillg shaped ear-ring. Radio chain, Flynig chain, Three-ring chain, Chandra­ lcka and Mushti. ,stejl.-Eal'-l'iugs l'cseillbling a flight of steps. N O/i~e ornamen"t8.- Kl'IlliC Sampali.-A chain woru from lUI) to the Alooguthi.-A nose screw with a wheel Or II iLone. lobe of the t·ar.

Neck ornwrnen ts Be8a"ri.-A nose SCl'eW studded with preciouM stones. Ko.thambari sal''' . ...:....\ necklace consisting of hollow gold bends ill the ,;lwpe of coriandel'. lYathu.-A large lmic-ring (used by the :\luslim ladies in the locality) held up by a chain llatani sara. -A necklace consisting of hollow gotd aUachw to a hair by a hook tu 'relieve the beads in the shape of peas. strain on the no,e. 83

Wrist Orname1Ou.- Shanka Ungura.-A conch shaped ring with or Bale or Banale.-They are of the same shape but without stones. of different designs. They are either plain or studded with stones or pearls.' . Rekend.-A engagement ring used by the Chris­ tians of the locality.

Kompina bale.-Bracelet set with rubies. Ody ungura, oval, metro, step, bandh ring are a few more designs of rings. ]l.luthina bale.-A bracelet resembling a band of pepper grains. Apart from these, another important ornament made is Tha/;i or Mangalya, a pendant adorning the Bent.ex.-A bracelet shaped to re3emble wrist neck of married women as a symbol of married watch chain. status.

The other designs of bracerefs are cU1J;ing bale, The silver articles 'produced by the jewellers are Sindhikatti, BiOmbai bale, MUrl, Mangamma, Kalungura and piUi (toe-rings worn by married Vasanfha, Bridge, Tayar, langin, gOUlU, Vajra, women), Kalu sarapali (a chain for anklet) Udu-dara Choode, Suragi and Mungai. (a waist band for boys), S.ooji (hair-pin), Gejje (anklet with pendants which clink together when the wearer walks), 'Bale' (bracelets worn by women in FinfAeT ornamenU.- the lower income group of families), Thayati (mascot Ring or ornament for finger is called Ungura. or talisman), Hwrake Samanu (tiny articles such as Rings are made in different designs. vessels, ear-rings, necklaces, belts, bangles and bracelets ann many others for offerings by ncvotee5 to temples in fulfilment of vows) and Murthi (small Plain Ungura.-A plain ring with no extra size images of Hindu gods and goddesses). Further, material such as enamel or stones. household utility articles such as cups, plates, dishes, tumblers, etc., are made which are largely used hy HaralunflUra.-A ring set with precious stone or people of affluence. They al'e also used as gift pieces stones. on wedding and other ceremonial occasions.

H.S.M.-7 CHAPTER In

ECONOMIC AND GENERAL ASPECfS

Cost structure The total amount of rent paid by these establish­ ments per annum is about Rs. ~,4re not in a position to gold, s~lver and precious stones are mostly supplied invest on gold or silvel1. by the customers themselves. It is sometimes pos­ sible that customers may advance money for their purchase. According to the local craftsmen, their Households of Craftsmen main job is eQnversion of old ornaments into new. In Udipi, there are 48 hou~eholds of Daivajna Orders for making them from fresh gold are rare. Brahmins, of whom 36 are Qngaged in their heredi­ They make the jewel according to specification and tary occupation and 1~ in other trades. In these receive wages therefor, the amount depending upon 36 households 65 persons are engaged in the work of the design and intricacy of the wOfk involved. The goldsmithy. Eighteen of these households consists making charges of a few items are enumerated of single workers, 10 of ~ workers, 7 of 8 workers and below: one of 5 workers. Nineteen of the households run Rs. shops in different areas of the :tiazaar and the other Rings 3 to 4< 17 work in their own houses. Bangles 6 to 35 There are !!2 households of Viswa Brahmins engaged Neck chains 8 to 1~ in the craft and the number of workers in them is ~8. Necklaces fl5 to 50 Two have rented workshops and the rest do the work Ear-rings 3 to lfl in their own house. Nose-rings :l to 3 Jade biUe (hair pins) 10 to 15 Only the male membars alre engaged in the crolt, and female membells keep out. A total of 93 persons The jewellers meet minor expenditure on chemicals, in the 58 establishments are jewelsmiths. fuel and such other petty items.

The concerns which maintained workers on wages The craftsmen in this centre have no defined have after the adv!1nt of the Gold Control Order holidays. They do not, however, work on festive closed down their working units. There is no esta­ days and other important occasions. Want of work blishment now working with hired labour. The may also keep them idle for some part of the year. craft is carried on by household labour. A craftsman in this trade earns on ~n average Out of the 58 establishments, ~o are working in Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 a day depending upon the orders rented shops, one is having its own workshop and secured. This compares favourably with the earning. the rest work in their respective household premises. from any other craft in the locality. CHAPTER IV

CONCU:JSION

,In Udipi, the jeweller's craft is of a peculiar nattitre. sant pressure brought to bear on GOvernment from The traditional craftsmen, whether they belong to various quarters, the order was libetalised and its Daivajna Brahmins or Viswa Brahmins are pains­ l'igourSJ reduced by a series of amendmCjnts. l'hough taking, efficient and experts in their field. They.are there is no restriction new on using gold of higher capable of producing an exact replica of any given purity for making ornaments, it has to be melted and design, but only lack originality. No goldsmith of refined in an authorised refinery only. The middle the locality has been able to produce any new design man between the owner and the customer who till now which has become distinctive or significant formerly constituted an important and traditional of the town. They have their training at home. link has pnactically disappeared. The sweeping changes that have been brought by law in the age This study was made after the coming into being long customs and pra,ctices have given the industry of the Gold Control Order. This order imposing, as a violent jolt. The information gathered particularly it did, severe restrictions on the acquisition and pos­ com:erning the economy of the trade is found to be scssion of primal1Y gold beeame necessary as a result far from satisfactory. Hence no elaborate discussion of an increased tendency in smuggling, hoarding and of the economic aspects has been attempted in this speculations noticed among a wide net-work of monograph. racketeers in this metal. The discrepancy between the official international price and the market price As has already been stated the wearing of gold of gold madc the risk a worthwhile and paying ornaments in India is necessary not only for personal proposition. Under the Gold Control Order originally embellishment of the fair sex generally, but also promulgated the use of more than 14ct. purity metal because religion and superstition enjoins thcir wear. for jewellery was made an offence. Mpst or the This socio-religious compulsion has been responsible craftsmen practised to work only with !l!l ct. gold for the workers yet to obtain some orders for making found the change irksome and many lost their liveli­ jewellery, despite the restrictions of law. It is on hood. Rehabilitation programmes were set afoot this account that they have been able to stick to quickly to alleviate t.heir distress, but even they made their traditional avocation, and makc at least a little impression, and the plight of the jewellers marginal living. continued to be deplorable. Later owing to inces- 86

.TliiWELL~RY j APPENDIX I

LiST OF GOLDSMITHS IN UDll?I WHO ARE ENGAGED I:r-; THE TRADE

SI.No. St. No. SI.No. SI.No. of of of of H_ehold Worker iloUll,hold Worker

Daiva!na Brahmins 27 51 M. Sandar Shet 28 52 Dattatreya Shet 1 M. Rams Shet 29 53 K. RamaShet Z C. Subbaraya Shet 54 Laxmana Shet 3 Sundar Shet 30 55 J alandar Shet 4 Kumaraswamy 56 Balakrishna Shet 5 Sank.ranorayana Shet 31 57 S. Ram.. Shet 4 6 Gop.! Shet 32 58 Krishnanahada Shet 7 Srinivasa Shet 33 59 U. Vasudova Shet 8 SOlll"sekhar Shet 60 Vadiraja Shet 9 Krishna Narayana Shet 6l RamShet 10 Bhaskar Shet 34 62 V. Vasudeva Shet II Dhavani Shankar Shet G3 Bhasker Shet 12 ShantaraIll Shet 35 64 H. Rama Shet 13 Sunder Shet 36 65 Ganapathi Shet 7 14 K. Sanjee" .. Shet 8 15 Madhava Shet If) Gajanana Shet Vlswa Brahmins 9 17 Laxman Shet 10 18 S. Padmanabha Shot R. VOtlkataramanaahar 19 Kogga alias Annapp. Shet 2 K. Sri<1harachar 11 20 Chandrasekh.r Shet 3 3 K. Moh.uachar 21 Sundel'Shet 4 4 B. Sanjivachar 22 Keshav .. Shet I) B. VamanBchar 23 8ubharaya Shet 6 M. Scshappaehar 24 Gurnraja Shet 6 7 M. Bhadraiahach... 12 25 Kone l.ianjunatha Sh.t 7 S S. Narayanschar 26 V.. sudeva Shet 8 9 P. C. Vasudeva.har 13 27 V. Krishna Shet 9 10 V. B. Vasudeva.har 28 Sadananda Shet lO 11 M. Sankarayachar 29 Damudara Shet 12 M. Ganapathachar 14 30 S. Anantha Shet 13 M. Sadashivachar 31 Dhaskar Shet 11 14 P. M. Damodar achar 15 32 S. Panduranga Shet 12 15 Y. Vamana Rao 16 33 Srinivasa Shet 13 16 K. Janardhanach.r 17 34 Pundalika Shet 17 K. S. Sridharachar IS 35 Gop.lakriehna Shet 18 K. S. Ilarishchandraohar 19 36 Nagesh Shet 14 19 M. Srinivastlchar 37 Gopal Shet 20 M. Harisehandraohar 20 3S V. Shivaraya Shet 15 21 M. Ananthachar 39 Raman anda 8het 16 22 K. Shivappaohnr 21 40 Nag.ppa Shet 17 23 K. Padmanabhachar 4l Sriniva,sa Shet 18 24 P. GanapathMhar 42 Bhaskar Shet 19 25 K. Devappachar 22 4.3 Narasimha Shot 20 26 K. N or a yana.har « Bhaskar Shot 21 27 K. Janaraan80har 23 45 Manjunath Shet 22 28 T. Sridharachar 46 Panduranga Shet 47 Subbaraya Shet Trading unltl- 24 48 V. Rayappa Shet 1. Durga Jewellery, Tenkapet, Vdipi, 25 49 V. Krishna Shot 2. Krishna Jewellery Mart Vdipi. 2. 50 V. Mohan She 3. NoveltT Stu..... Car Street, Vdipi. SILVER J.=WELLERY - PLATE I

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II. Silverware-Panchapatra and Uddarane (a tumbler and a small laddie) used by Brahmins and a few others during Sandhyavandana prayers and other religious occasions.

12. A bowl like container of silver which can be used for keeping vermilion or turmeric dust or coloured rice or for holding water offered as oblations.