Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Adrian S. Edwards

An earlier eBLJ article1 surveyed the British Library’s holdings of early books in indigenous North American languages through the example of Eastern Algonquian materials. This article considers antiquarian materials in or about Northern Iroquoian, a different group of languages from the eastern side of the and . The aim as before is to survey what can be found in the Library, and to place these items in a linguistic and historical context. In scope are printed media produced before the twentieth century, in effect from 1545 to 1900. ‘I’ reference numbers in square brackets, e.g. [I1], relate to entries in the Chronological Checklist given as an appendix. The are significant for Europeans because they were the first indigenous languages to be recorded in any detail by travellers to North America. The family has traditionally been divided into a northern and southern branch by linguists. So far only has been confidently allocated to the southern branch, although it is possible that further languages became extinct before their existence was recorded by European visitors. Cherokee has always had a healthy literature and merits an article of its own. This survey therefore will look only at the northern branch. When historical records began in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Northern Iroquoian languages were spoken in a large territory centred on what is now the north half of the State of , extending across the St Lawrence River into and , and southwards into . Isolated groups could also be found further south in Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. The Northern Iroquoian languages encountered by European colonists and , and which subsequently appeared in early printed books at the British Library, are Laurentian, Huron/Wyandot, , Tuscarora, Nottoway, Seneca, Mohawk, Onondaga and Oneida. There are however further languages which are not represented in the Library’s antiquarian collections to any significant extent, Cayuga for example. Several of the long extinct and poorly documented languages of the Virginia-North Carolina coastal plain might also have belonged to the Northern Iroquoian branch. Table 1 provides a tentative list.

Table 1. The Northern Iroquoian Languages

1. Laurentian Quebec 2. Huron/Wyandot (possibly including Neutral, Erie, Wenro, Petun,2 Tobacco, Tionontati, etc.) Ontario, New York. Later Quebec, Kansas, 3. Mohawk New York. Later also Quebec, Ontario

1 Adrian Edwards, ‘Early Eastern Algonquian Language Books in the British Library’, eBLJ (2005), art. 9. 2 See comments about the relationship between the Petun language, the Wyandot, and the Attignawantan variety of Huron in Floyd G. Lounsbury, ‘Iroquoian languages’, in William C. Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. xv: Northeast (Washington, 1978), pp. 282-89.

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Quebec City Canada

Montreal ‘Laurentians’

Toronto

Mohawk Oneida

Cayuga Onondaga

Seneca Tuscarora (1715– Albany

Huron Confederacy New York ) City Erie

Susquehannock

Washington

United States

Tuscarora (1700)

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of North Iroquoian-speaking peoples at the time of European contact.

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4. Oneida New York. Later also Wisconsin, Ontario 5. Onondaga New York. Later also Ontario 6. Cayuga New York. Later also Ontario, Oklahoma 7. Seneca New York. Later also Ontario, Oklahoma 8. Susquehannock Pennsylvania 9. Tuscarora North Carolina. Later New York, Ontario 10. Nottoway Virginia 11. Meherrin (?) Virginia, North Carolina 12. Coree-Neusiok (?)3 North Carolina

In linguistic terms, the Northern Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic. In other words, a single Iroquoian word may contain as much information as a whole sentence in English. An extreme Mohawk example is washakotya’tawitsherahetkvhta’se, which means ‘He ruined her dress’, or more literally ‘He made the thing that one puts on one’s body ugly for her’.4 The order of the elements that are put together to create these words is strictly regulated, and the separate elements may be meaningless on their own. As far as phonetics are concerned, these languages traditionally lack labials such as [b] and [p], and most also lack [m], [f], and []. The glottal stop and [h] are common, and have been represented in a variety of ways in early printed literature. In their written forms, several of the languages make use of the symbol ‘o ’, sometimes rendered ‘8’. This was originally introduced by Catholic missionaries to represent a vowel sound close to the French ‘ou’. Although this survey aims to identify all examples of printed literature in the Northern Iroquoian languages, it has been deemed practical to omit the large number of publications that simply reprint small amounts of previously published material, usually short word-lists or the Lord’s Prayer. Amongst works that fall into this category are:

Johann Christophe Adelung, Mithridates, oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe in bey nahe fünfhundert Sprachen und Mundarten (Berlin, 1806-1817, and later editions). Benjamin Barton, New views of the origin of the tribes and nations of America (Philadelphia, 1797). George Catlin, Illustrations of the manners, customs and condition of the North American Indians (London, 1841). Albert Gallatin, ‘A synopsis of the Indian tribes within the United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian possessions in North America’, Transactions of the American Antiquarian Society, ii (1836), pp. 1-422.

3 Douglas W. Boyce, ‘Iroquoian Tribes of the Virginia-North Carolina Coastal Plain’, in William C. Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, vol. xv: Northeast (Washington, 1978), p. 282. 4 Wikipedia. Entry for ‘Synthetic language’. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_languages/ (consulted 21/06/2007).

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That said, where short vocabulary lists are the earliest or only examples of a language in print (e.g. Laurentian), they have been included. Three volumes of Mohawk interest that appear in older catalogues of the British Museum collection were unfortunately lost during bombing of the Museum building in May 1941. These were the items at shelfmarks 3226.a.51, 3365.ff.15, and 3406.c.28. As they cannot be examined, they have also been excluded from this survey.

Survey of Northern Iroquoian Books in the British Library

Laurentian

European documentation of the Northern Iroquoian languages begins in the mid-1530s with two short vocabularies. Fewer than 230 words are known of the language identified variously as Laurentian, Hochelagan or Stadaconan by linguists. Nevertheless, because they found their way into one of the early compendia of exploration literature, they have been reprinted many times over. It was the French explorer (1491-1557) who assembled the word-lists in question, and the Italian Giovanni Battista Ramusio (1485-1557) who included them in his influential work Delle navigationi et viaggi. Jacques Cartier first travelled up the valley of the St Lawrence River in 1534. He met and befriended a group of about 300 Indians who were on a fishing expedition from their home at Stadacona, a village at the site of present-day . Two of the chief ’s sons accompanied Cartier back to France, where they stayed for about a year. Whilst in Paris, they helped compile a French to Laurentian word-list of fifty-eight terms, which were appended to the account of Cartier’s journey. The first time this list appears in print however is in the third volume of Ramusio’s Italian-language Delle navigationi et viaggi, printed in Venice in 1556 [I2]. The word-list, headed ‘Linguaggio della terra nuovamente scoperta chiamata la Nuova Francia’, appears on folio 440 of the ‘Prima relatione’. The British Library’s copy of this work was once in a royal collection, possibly associated with Queen Elizabeth I. Subsequent Venetian editions of the third volume (1565 [I3] and 1606 [I5]) also contain the list, as does John Florio’s English translation of 1580 [I4].5 Cartier returned to the St Lawrence River in 1535-6. He again met the people from Stadacona and also some residents of , a village located on Montreal Island. This time he seems to have kidnapped a chief and ten others who were taken back to France and not returned. These are the people who provided the vocabulary for the next French to Laurentian word-list, printed in Paris in 1545 at the end of Brief recit, & succincte narration, de la navigation faicte es yles de Canada, Hochelage & Saguenay [I1]. The second word-list therefore appeared in print eleven years before the first. It is headed ‘Le lãgage des pays & Royaulmes de Hochelaga & Canada’, and contains 170 entries, divided into basic numerals, body parts, and a general vocabulary (fig. 2). Ramusio again translates the material into Italian, and includes it in editions of the aforementioned third volume of Delle navigationi et viaggi (‘Seguita il linguaggio de paesi & Reami di Hochelaga e Canada’). The second word-list is also in John Florio’s 1580 translation.6 Cartier travelled to North America for a third time in 1541-2, but the published accounts of this trip do not contain any linguistic material. By the time that the explorer (c. 1567-1635) visited the same area in 1603, it seems that it was no longer possible to identify the speakers of Laurentian. For linguists, the two Cartier word-lists are problematic. First, the transcription is not systematic: ‘g’, ‘c’ and ‘qu’ are all used interchangeably to represent a [k] sound. Second, both lists appear to include words from at least two different but closely related Northern

5 ‘The language that is spoken in the Land newly discovered, called new France’, p. 80. 6 The vocabularies found their way into several other works, e.g. the second edition of Johannes de Laet, Beschrijvinghe van West Indien (Leiden, 1630) and its Latin translation, Novus Orbis (Leiden, 1633).

4 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library Brief recit, & succincte narration de la navigation faicte es ysles de Canada, Hochelage & es ysles de Canada, Hochelage faicte Brief recit, & succincte narration de la navigation [section: ‘Le lãgage des pays & Royaulmes de Hochelaga & Canada’] (Paris, 1545). Shelfmark: G.7082. & Canada’] (Paris, de Hochelaga & Royaulmes [section: des pays ‘Le lãgage I1. French to Laurentian word-list. Jacques Cartier, Cartier, Jacques to Laurentian word-list. I1. French Fig. 2. Saguenay & autres…

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Iroquoian languages, maybe ‘Stadaconan’ and ‘Hochelagan’. Many linguistic features are strikingly similar to those found in Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk and Huron. On the other hand, there are elements which are different enough from all other Iroquoian languages to suggest that Laurentian was in fact a related but totally separate language or group of languages.7

Huron/Wyandot

The French were the first to travel extensively in the interior of the new continent, and by the beginning of the seventeenth century they had reached Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe in present day southern Ontario. At that time the area was inhabited by the Wendat (‘peninsula people’?), a loose confederation of linguistically close peoples thought to include the Neutral, Erie, Wenro and Petun, among others. The French initially called them ‘Canadois’, but later settled on ‘Hurons’. Ongoing warfare with the neighbouring Confederacy (see below) led to the dispersal of the Wendat, starting in about 1649. Those that remained close to their original homeland in Ontario are now known as the ‘Anderdon Wyandot’. Many moved to a site in the St Lawrence valley near to Quebec City, where they became known as the ‘Huron of Lorette’, or more recently as the ‘Huron-Wendat’. They are today one of the Indian groups that use French as their first language. Many other Wendat people moved south, initially to the Valley where they merged with other displaced Iroquoians, and then on to Kansas (the ‘Wyandot’) and Oklahoma (the ‘Wyandotte’). Their language goes by a variety of names, but Huron/Wyandot is perhaps the most frequently used by scholars. The last native speakers passed away in the 1960s, but Huron/Wyandot is extensively documented and attempts are now being made to teach it again. The earliest printed book in Huron at the British Library is the Doctrine Chrestienne, a Catholic catechism printed in France in 1630 [I6]. The questions and answers of the catechism are arranged in double columns, with Huron or ‘Canadois’ on the left, and French on the right. The catechism itself is the version originally written in the sixteenth century by the Spanish Jesuit Diego de Ledesma (1519-1575),8 but the translator into Huron is not named, being simply credited as ‘un père de la mesme Compagnie’ (i.e. the Jesuits). This is in fact St Jean de Brébeuf (1593-1649), sometimes known as the Apostle of the Huron. work among the Huron had begun in 1626,9 and Brébeuf had been there from the beginning. But in 1629 all Jesuits were temporarily recalled to France, and Brébeuf returned to his home region of Normandy. This explains both the date of this edition and the fact that it was printed in the French provinces at Rouen. The first European traveller to make extensive notes about the Huron had in fact been Samuel de Champlain (c. 1570- 1635), who visited Georgian Bay in the first decade of the seventeenth century. He did not however make any observations about their language. Nevertheless, the editors of the 1632 Paris edition of Champlain’s Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale [I7] have added Brébeuf ’s Huron catechism as an appendix.10 It also appears in C.-H. Laverdière’s 1870 Quebec edition of the collected works of Champlain [I68].11

7 The identity of the Laurentian Iroquoians and their subsequent disappearance is discussed in Bruce G. Trigger and James F. Pendergast, ‘Saint Lawrence Iroquoians’, in William C. Sturtevant, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. xv: Northeast (Washington, 1978), pp. 357-61. 8 First published in Italian: Diego de Ledesma, Dottrina Christiana (Rome, 1573). 9 Conrad E. Heidenreich, ‘Huron’, in William C. Sturtevant, op. cit., pp. 368-88, at p. 388. 10 The second appendix is the Lord’s Prayer in Montagnais or Innu, an unrelated language spoken on the northern side of the Gulf of St Lawrence. 11 Vol. x, pp. 1393-1407.

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Most French Jesuit writings relating to Canada in the mid-seventeenth century were published in the series Rélations des Jésuites de la Nouvelle-France, issued in Paris annually from 1632 to 1673. Father Paul Le Jeune’s 1636 volume contains an anonymous five-page introduction to the Huron language and a prayer with interlinear French translation. The British Library holds two printed states of this edition [I9], both printed by Sebastien Cramoisy but with different paginations. One was purchased at some point before 1836, the other was owned first by Sir Robert Cotton (1570/1-1631), then passed into the hands of King Charles II, and finally arrived at the British Museum with the Old Royal Library in 1757.12 The only other volume of the Rélations to contain any Huron material is the 1653/4 edition [I10, two copies], which reproduces a four-page letter headed ‘Ao ataken &c.’ (pp. 140-4). One key study of the Huron language, compiled by a Jesuit missionary in the mid- seventeenth century, did not find its way into print for a very long time. Father Pierre- Joseph-Marie Chaumonot (1611-1693) arrived in Canada in 1639 and joined the Wendat group that moved to Quebec and became the Huron of Lorette. His manuscript grammar of their language, written in Latin, was found among the archives of the Lorette Mission in the early nineteenth century by a certain John Wilkie. Wilkie translated the Latin to English, and published the grammar in the 1831 volume of the Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec [I30]. The grammar comprises extensive notes rather than a structured journal article. It considers the language’s sound system, nouns, pronouns and above all its adverbs and verbs. The survey is however incomplete, and Horatio Hale points out in his literature review of Iroquois language materials that it omits to mention several core features of the language, such as the combining of transitive verbs with double pronouns and the use of conjugations.13 The Jesuits were not the only missionaries working in this part of Canada in the seventeenth century: the Franciscan Recollet friars were also there. One of their number, Gabriel Sagard (born Gabriel Théodat; fl. 1614-1636) lived among the Wendat people in 1623/4 studying their society and language. His findings were published in 1632 after he was summoned back to Paris by his superior Father Polycarpe Du Fay, and appeared under the title Grand Voyage au Pays des Hurons [I8]. The subject matter of this work is wide ranging, covering the geography and wildlife of southern Ontario, in addition to looking at the language, customs, agricultural methods and political institutions of the Huron people. Two copies of the Grand Voyage are held at the British Library: one from the Grenville Library and one from the Old Royal Library. The Royal copy is signed ‘Iean Maurice’ on the title-page, which indicates that it had earlier been in the library of antiquary John Morris (c. 1580-1658),14 and was subsequently acquired for King Charles II about 1660. One reason why this work is so important in the study of Northern Iroquoian is that it contains an extensive ‘Dictionnaire de la langue huronne’, arranged into classified sections such as ‘Membres & parties du corps humain’. The dictionary is French to Huron only, underlining the fact that its purpose was to help Frenchmen to communicate with the Indians, but not necessarily vice-versa. After this promising start, Huron/Wyandot then disappears from the Library’s printed books collections until the twentieth century.

12 In the former copy, the Huron content is in Part 1, Chap. 4, pp. 48-49 and 79-84. In the Royal copy, it is in Part 1, Chap. 4, pp. 35-37 and 59-63. 13 Horatio Hale (ed.), The Iroquois Book of Rites (Philadelphia, 1883), p. 101. [I72]. 14 The gallicized form of his name reflects Morris’s preference for indicating ownership in a form ‘according to the language of the book’. T. A. Birrell, The Library of John Morris (London, 1976), p. xx.

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Susquehannock

Early texts use a variety of names for the people now generally known as the Susquehannock, including Susquehanna, Mahakans, Mynckussar, Andaste, White Minqua and Conestoga. The Susquehannock were living in southern Pennsylvania when first encountered by Europeans, although evidence suggests that they had earlier been in the Wyoming Valley to the north-east.15 During the seventeenth century they traded successfully with the English, Swedish, Dutch and French, but by the early eighteenth century their society had collapsed as the result of warfare and diseases brought from Europe. The last Susquehannock Indians were hunted down and massacred in 1763 by a vigilante group of Euro- known as the Paxton Boys. It is possible however that some descendants survive among the neighbouring Cayuga, Seneca and Delaware peoples. Linguistically, Susquehannock appears to have been close to the languages of Iroquois Confederacy, particularly Onondaga.16 There are only two early printed works that record the language of the Susquehannock, both Scandinavian. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Swedish and Finnish settlers attempted to establish the colony of New Sweden along the lower reaches of the Delaware River, centred on what is now the city of Wilmington. Their principal trading partners were the Unami Delaware, but contact was also made with the Susquehannock further up river. New Sweden failed as a venture; in 1655 the Dutch won control of the territory and many settlers returned home to Scandinavia. Amongst those who headed back to Stockholm was the pioneering Lutheran minister Johannes Campanius, surnamed ‘Holmiensis’ (1601-1683). After his death, Campanius’s effects were found to contain a draft translation of the Lutheran Catechism into a pidgin version of Unami,17 which church leaders published as the Lutheri Catechismus in 1696 [I11]. The main text is not relevant to this study, but at the very end of the volume there is a short Susquehannock to Swedish vocabulary, headed ‘Vocabula Mahakuassica’. Two copies of this work are held at the British Library, both purchased in the mid-nineteenth century.18 This was not the only one of Campanius’s manuscripts to be published posthumously. In 1702, his grandson Thomas (1670-1702) published edited selections of Johannes’s notes as Kort beskrifning om provincien Nya Swerige uti America [I12]. Of particular interest is the first part of the addenda, ‘Om the Myncqueser eller Mynckussar och theras Språk’, translated as ‘Of the Minques, or Minckus, and their language’ in Peter du Ponceau’s 1834 English translation [I32]. The text comprises a brief description of the with a word-list of over seventy terms with their Swedish (or English) equivalents. The British Library has two copies of the 1702 Stockholm edition, one acquired at some point before 1836 and the other received in 1986 with the Torgrim Hannås bequest. Although the latter copy lacks its frontispiece and plates, the title-page and selected initials have intriguingly been coloured by an earlier owner.

Tuscarora

When first encountered by Europeans, the Tuscarora (Skarù·r˛e’ or Sgarooreh’) were living on the coastal plain of North Carolina. Ongoing disputes with colonists however led to their migration northwards, starting in 1713 and continuing through to 1804.19 They were

15 A history of the Susquehannock is given in Francis Jennings, ‘Susquehannock’, in William C. Sturtevant, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. xv: Northeast (Washington, 1978), pp. 362-67. 16 Floyd G. Lounsbury, op. cit., p. 336. 17 The Unami Jargon content of this work is discussed, and indeed illustrated, in Adrian Edwards, op. cit., p. 9. 18 A facsimile edition of the catechism and its appendices is also held: Johannes Campanius, Lutheri Catechismus, ed. Isak Collijn (Uppsala, 1937). 19 Douglas W. Boyce, op cit., p. 288.

8 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library accepted as kinsmen by the Iroquois Confederacy in northern New York, and allocated land between the Oneida and Onondaga. The vast majority of tribal members today live either around Lewiston, New York, or at the Six Nations Territory near Brantford, Ontario.20 Fewer than a dozen fluent speakers of Tuscarora remain.21 The only significant record of Tuscarora is a word-list of around 185 terms collected by John Lawson (1674-1711), explorer, naturalist and land surveyor, in the first decade of the eighteenth century. The list contains basic numerals, and words and phrases relevant to everyday life. The Tuscarora entries are printed along side examples from two unrelated languages, Pamticough (Carolina Algonquian) and Woccon (Carolina Siouan). Lawson includes the vocabulary in his account ‘A new voyage to Carolina’, first published in John Stevens’s 1708-10 compendium A new collection of voyages and travels [I14].22 Of the Library’s four copies of this work, one was received with the bequest of Major Arthur Edwards (1680?-1743), one was from the library of lawyer Francis Hargrave (c. 1741-1821), one from the library of Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820), and the last was purchased at some point before 1836. A new edition of Stevens’s travel compendium appeared in 1711 [I15], and Lawson’s survey, complete with the Tuscarora word-list, was finally issued as a separate publication in 1714 [I16]. Both 1711 and 1714 volumes were collected by King George III, and it is these copies that are now in the British Library. The only other early book in the Library relevant to the study of Tuscarora is Lewis Morgan’s League of the Ho-dé-no-sau- nee of 1851 [I61].23 This work provides numerous linguistic examples (sound systems, adjectives, nouns, verbs and sentence formation) for all the Iroquois Confederacy languages, including a record of Tuscarora as it was spoken after the migration northwards.

Iroquois Confederacy

The Iroquois Confederacy was founded in the mid-sixteenth century, or so historians have believed for the last two centuries. However, recent research based on archaeological evidence and an examination of the astronomical data included in Iroquois oral histories now means that a date in the twelfth century is quite probable.24 When Europeans first encountered the Confederacy it comprised five related but separate member nations: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk. Of these, the Oneida and Mohawk are linguistically close, as are the Seneca and Cayuga. From 1713 to 1804 the five were joined by the Tuscarora, forced to migrate northwards by British settlers (see above). The origin of the term ‘Iroquois’ is disputed, and Mohawk, Huron, Ojibway, Micmac and Basque sources have all been proposed. Whatever the source, the name entered the via French. In British historical documents, ‘Five Nations’ and later ‘Six Nations’ are commonly used. Academic texts from the late twentieth century often prefer ‘Haudenosaunee’, meaning ‘people of the completed longhouse’. The Iroquois themselves use a variety of names when writing in English, and some have recently begun to use indigenous terms such as rotinonhsón:ni, hodino˛hs´o˛:nih and o˛gwehoweh. In older texts Iroquois often stands for ‘Mohawk’, including in the titles of several of the books discussed below.

20 It has been argued that the descendants of those Tuscarora that remained in Carolina became a constituent of today’s people. 21 Survey undertaken for the Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Indian Community Newsletter (winter 1998), cited on the ‘Peace 4 Turtle Island’ website, http://www.peace4turtleisland.org/ (consulted 13/11/2007). 22 Further copies of A new collection of voyages and travels are held, but they do not contain Lawson’s Tuscarora vocabulary list. 23 Particularly in Book 3, Chapter 2, ‘Language of the Iroquois’. 24 See Jerry Fields and Barbara Mann, ‘A Sign in the Sky: Dating the League of the Haudenosaunee’, American Indian Culture & Research Journal, xxi (1997), pp. 105-63.

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Seneca

Historically the Seneca (Onödowága or Onondowagah) were the most westerly of the Confederacy nations, living between the Genesee River and Seneca Lake in New York State. Some remain in New York today, but others are at the Six Nations Territory in southern Ontario or at Miami, Oklahoma. Just twenty-five people were fluent in Seneca in 1998,25 although ten times this number claim some knowledge of the language. Although the Seneca were regularly visited by Jesuits during the second half of the seventeenth century, their missionary work did not lead to any publications of linguistic interest. For this we have to wait until 1818 when Jabez Backus Hyde published Indian hymns in the , an item which is unfortunately not held at the British Library. There is however an 1829 bilingual Seneca and English edition of St Luke’s Gospel [I27], translated under the auspices of the American Society by Rev. Thompson S. Harris, Superintendent of at Buffalo Creek, near the city of Buffalo in New York. One of Harris’s successors was Asher Wright (1803-1875), who followed the Indians to a new reservation at Cattaraugus when Buffalo Creek was closed down in 1846. The Library holds two important works by Wright. The first is a copy of An elementary reading book [I54] (fig. 3), acquired some ten years after it was printed at Boston in 1836. This slim volume comprises an illustrated primer and vocabulary, and is almost entirely in Seneca. The other item is a full set of the Mental Elevator or Ne Jagu¯h’nigo_’˘_a Ges’gwatha¯h [I58], a small periodical issued in nineteen parts from 1841 to 1850 at Buffalo Creek then Cattaraugus. It is again predominantly in Seneca, and its contents include pieces of news, hymns and prayers, extracts from the Bible and local laws. The Library’s set of the Mental Elevator was only recently purchased and has not yet been catalogued or shelfmarked. The final example of Seneca is a pamphlet by John Wentworth Sanborn (1848-1922) entitled Legends, customs and social life of the Seneca Indians, of Western New York [I69]. Sanborn was a methodist episcopal minister and anthropologist, known to the Seneca as O-yo-ga-weh (‘Clear Sky’). The pamphlet was printed in Gowanda, a village just outside the Cattaraugus Reservation, in 1879. Of particular note is Chapter XI, which gives an overview of the Seneca language, including a full conjugation of the verb ‘to go’ and the Lord’s Prayer with interlinear translation. The Library’s copy was purchased shortly after publication.

Cayuga

The Cayuga (Gayogo_hó:no˛ or Guyohkohnyoh) originally lived around Cayuga Lake in New York. A few still remain at this location, but others are at the Six Nations Territory in Ontario or with the Oklahoma Seneca. At the beginning of the 21st century, about one hundred people claimed to have some knowledge of the language, almost all in Ontario.26 The language is only barely represented in the Library’s early collections: just a few comparative word-lists cited in works of wider interest, usually from the mid-nineteenth century.27

Onondaga

The original homeland of the Onondaga (Ono˛da’géga’ or Ono˛ta´?ke·kà?) is just south of the modern city of Syracuse in New York. Many Onondaga still live in this area, but large numbers are also at the Six Nations Territory in Ontario. About ninety people spoke

25 Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Indian Community, Newsletter, op. cit. 26 Frances Froman, op. cit., p. xi. 27 For example, in Albert Gallatin, op. cit. The British Library has now started to acquire contemporary materials about the , including: Marianne Mithun & Reginald Henry, Wate˛way´e˛stanih: a Cayuga teaching grammar (Brantford, Ont., 1982), and Frances Froman, et al., English-Cayuga, Cayuga- English dictionary (Toronto, 2002).

10 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library ´ anandenyo (An Elementary reading book in the aóyadih Dówˇ aóyadih h Sgˇ as Goyádo¯ h. Gówah¯ a¯ h Gayádoshˇ Diuhsáwahgwa¯ ) (Boston, Mass., 1836). Shelfmark: 12910.aaa.39. ) (Boston, Mass., . I54. [Seneca]. Asher Wright, Wright, Asher . I54. [Seneca]. language oflanguage the Seneca Indians Fig. 3

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Onondaga at the end of the twentieth century, seventeen of whom claimed to be fluent.28 Since they were the most centrally located of the Five Nations, the main Onondaga village was traditionally seen as the capital of the Iroquois Confederacy. Onondaga contact with European visitors dates from the early seventeenth century, and in the following decades relations developed with French missionaries from the north and with Dutch and English traders from the south. The earliest Onondaga item in the Library results from the work of an unidentified French missionary who compiled a short dictionary, probably towards the start of seventeenth century. The manuscript found its way to the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris where the American historian John Dawson Gilmary Shea (1824-1892) came across it in the mid-nineteenth century. He transcribed the document and published it in 1860 as the first volume in his ‘Library of American Linguistics’ series [I64]. In his introduction, Shea freely admits that he was unable to identify the language, and had to seek advice from Father Antoine at the Sault-St Louis Mission (Kahnawake Reserve) near Montreal. In its published form, the dictionary is some hundred pages in length. The British Museum purchased its copy shortly after publication. A remarkably similar story accompanies Zeisberger’s multilingual Indian Dictionary. David Zeisberger (1721-1808) was a Moravian (United Brethren) clergyman who had helped establish a German colony in Pennsylvania in 1741. He worked as a missionary first among the Unami Delaware people, and then from 1750 to 1755 with the Onondaga. By 1760 he is thought to have finished drafting his German, English, Onondaga and Unami dictionary,29 but the manuscript was not published and instead found its way into the library collections at Harvard University. It was not until the 1880s that Eben Norton Horsford (1818-1893)30 transcribed and edited the document, leading to its publication in 1887 [I73]. The British Library’s copy is a donation from the University, received in June of the same year. At about the same time that he was working on the dictionary, Zeisberger also drafted in German various grammatical notes about the . These papers found their way to the Moravian Archives in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where they were translated into English by Bishop John Ettwein (1721-1802). At some point they were also seen by the Franco-American linguist Peter Stephen Duponceau (1760-1844), who added some grammatical observations of his own. Only towards the end of the nineteenth century did Zeisberger and Duponceau’s notes finally receive wider circulation when John W. Jordan submitted them for publication across several issues of the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography [I74], with a consolidated reprint in 1888. The published versions contain a brief if somewhat ambiguously phrased introduction signed simply ‘J’ (= John W. Jordan). The works cited above all record aspects of Onondaga as spoken in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Library holds no Onondaga materials written during the nineteenth century, with the exception of the usual brief word-lists found in works of a more general nature.31

Oneida

Since the 1840s, the majority of Oneida (On^ yota’a:ka or Onayotekaono) have lived in Wisconsin or Ontario. Their earlier homeland however was at the southern end of Oneida Lake in New York, where a small number of decendants still remain. At the end of the

28 Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Indian Community, Newsletter, op cit. 29 John Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder cited in Hanni Woodbury, ‘The Loss of a ’, International Journal of American Linguistics, xlvii (1981), pp. 103-20, at p. 103. 30 The ‘father of American food technology’, perhaps best known for inventing baking powder. 31 See Marianne Mithun, ‘Iroquoian’, in Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun (eds.), The Languages of Native America (Austin, 1979), pp. 133-212.

12 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library twentieth century around 250 people were thought to have some knowledge of the , but only 160 claimed to be fluent.32 Oneida is poorly represented in the Library’s historic collections. The only printed book purporting to be in the language is a prayer book compiled by Solomon Davies (d. 1846) and printed in New York in 1837 [I55]. Davis was an Anglican deacon and schoolmaster who followed the group that migrated to Wisconsin. The content of the prayer book is adapted from various Mohawk sources, and doubts have been raised about the accuracy of language used.33

Mohawk

The Mohawk (Kanien’kehá:ka) were originally located at the eastern end of the Five Nations, in and around the Mohawk Valley of north-eastern New York. A small number still live in this area, but the majority today are in southern Ontario, along the St Lawrence River in Quebec, or in New York City. Mohawk is the most widely spoken of all the Northern Iroquoian languages, with 3,433 speakers claiming a a high degree of fluency in 1998.34 That said, this number represents less than ten per cent of the overall Mohawk population. It is the best represented of the Northern Iroquoian languages in the Library’s early collections. Although the French explorer Samuel de Champlain first encountered the Mohawk in 1609, it was nearly another century before their language appeared in print. Another Tongue Brought in [I13] is a short Boston publication of 1707 comprising a series of questions and answers about the Christian faith in Mohawk, Latin, English and Dutch. Its strongly Protestant character reflects the fact that it was intended as a response to Catholic missionary work being undertaken at about the same time by the Jesuit Jacques Bruyas (1635-1712). The author of Another Tongue is not named in the publication itself, but Samuel Mather includes it in a list of works written by his father, Cotton Mather (1663- 1728).35 Mather senior, perhaps best known for his involvement in the Salem witch trials, is not thought to have spoken any Iroquoian language and it is likely that the Mohawk texts were provided by one of his associates in Albany, perhaps the Dutchman Father Godefridius Dellius (c. 1650-1710). The British Library’s copy of Another Tongue remained unstamped until recently, but the shelfmark suggests it was an early acquisition. In 1710 a small party of Christian Mohawk chiefs led by ‘King Hendrick’ (c. 1680-1755) (fig. 4)36 were brought to England by the mayor of Albany, where they were presented to Queen Anne. Whilst in London they asked for missionaries to be sent to their people, and in 1712 Rev. William Andrews (b. 1671?) of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts arrived to set up a mission in the heart of Mohawk territory at Fort Hunter. His principal literary achievement was the publication in New York City in 1715 of the first Mohawk Anglican liturgy, known in English as The Morning and Evening Prayer [I17].37 The

32 Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Indian Community, Newsletter, op. cit. 33 Samuel Bagster, The Bible of Every Land: A History of the Sacred Scriptures in Every Language and Dialect (London, 1848-51), p. 459, ‘…this translation, though intelligible to the people of his charge, is not written in pure Oneida, nor indeed in any dialect ever spoken by the Six Nations.’ 34 Kanatsiohareke Mohawk Indian Community, Newsletter, op. cit. 35 Samuel Mather, The Life of the Very Reverend and Learned Cotton Mather (Boston, 1729), p. 168. 36 King Hendrick was either a Mohegan or a Mohican by birth, but had been adopted as a Mohawk. His Iroquois name is variously rendered as Te Yee Neen Ho Ga Prow, Theyanoguin, Tiyanoga, or perhaps most accurately, Deyohninhohhakarawenh. For more information about his visit see Richmond Pugh Bond, Queen Anne’s American Kings (Oxford, 1952). 37 A fuller history of the Mohawk Anglican liturgy is given in Edmund Burke O’Callaghan, ‘History of the Translation of the Book of Common Prayer into the ’, Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries concerning the Antiquities, History, and Biography of America, i (1857), pp. 14-16.

13 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Fig. 4. ‘King Hendrick’.

14 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library text is a synthesis of manuscript notes left by the Dutch-American missionary Bernardus Freeman (1660-1743) and new material created with the help of local interpreter Lawrence Claesse. Included are segments from the Book of Common Prayer, selected Psalms, the Book of Genesis, and the Gospel of St Matthew. Apart from section headings, it is entirely in Mohawk (which it calls ‘Mahaque’). Two copies are now at the British Library, one each from the private collections of King George III and Thomas Grenville. A Boston edition of The Morning and Evening Prayer followed in 1763 [I18], but the text is largely unaltered.38 At the end of the American Revolutionary War, most Mohawks migrated to Canada. A new Anglican prayer book was considered necessary for use in the new territories, and the task was taken up by Christian Daniel Claus (1727-1827), who used the 1715 and 1769 editions as his sources. Publication came in 1780 under the title The Order of the Morning and Evening Prayer [I19]. Linguistically it is significant for its use of accents over longer words to assist with pronunciation. Further Anglican prayer books followed in 1787 [I22], 1842 [I59] , 1853 (not held) and 1867 [I66]. Of these, perhaps the most interesting is the 1787 London edition, Ne yakawea yondereanayendaghkwa oghseragwegouh. For the first time the Gospel of St Mark is added (fig. 5), in a Mohawk translation by Joseph Brant (c. 1742-1807). Brant, otherwise known as ‘Thayendanegea’ or ‘Tyendinaga’, was both an Iroquois chief and full captain in the British army. He was instrumental in setting up the reserves in southwestern Ontario known as the Six Nations of the Grand River. In the United States his reputation has long been poor owing to his probable involvement in a series of massacres of pro- independence settlers.39 The 1787 edition is also interesting because it contains an illustrated frontispiece and a fourteen engraved plates by the British-born draughtsman James Peachey (d. 1797). The eighteenth century also saw two editions of A Primer for the use of the Mohawk Children. The first was published in 1781 in Montreal [I20]. As with most Christian primers of the time, it begins with a look at the alphabet, shows how words are divided into syllables, and then launches into a series of catechisms and prayers. English translations are only provided in the first few sections. The primer itself is uncredited. The British Museum catalogues have long entered it under the heading for the James Peachey, the draughtsman mentioned above. The Dictionary of Canadian Biography40 however implies that Peachey was responsible only for the frontispiece in the 1786 London edition [I21], and that the text was compiled by Christian Daniel Claus, the Canadian government official responsible for the 1780 prayer book. The nineteenth century is characterized by the translation and publication of numerous books of the Bible. Some of these are the work of the British and Foreign Bible Society in London [e.g. I23] and Montreal [I70], others are by the American Bible Society in New York [e.g. I25], but the vast majority were issued by the Young Men’s Bible Society, also of New York. The Library holds two dozen of these books of the Bible in Mohawk, many bound together shortly after acquisition [e.g. I38-I43]. Translators include John Norton (‘Teyoninhokarawen’) (fl. 1784-1825),41 Henry Aaron Hill (‘Kenwendeshon’) (d. 1834),42 John Aston Wilkes (1807-1836), William Hess (d. 1843), and Chief Joseph Onasakenrat (d. 1881). Further Protestant titles produced during this period include a religious tract by

38 The 1763 edition is not mentioned in William M. Beauchamp, ‘New York Indian Missions’, Church Review, xlvi (1885), pp. 87-110. This article otherwise surveys each of the Mohawk prayer books in turn. Equally, it is excluded from the edition numbering cited on the title-pages of later versions, which credit the William Johnson and Henry Barclay version of 1769 (not held at the British Library) as the ‘2nd edition’. 39 For more information about Brant, see William Leete Stone, Life of J. Brant-Thayendanega, 4th ed. (New York, 1838). 40 Entry for ‘Peachey, James’ in Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. http://www.biographi.ca/ (consulted 23/11/2007). 41 A Mohawk chief born in Scotland to a Cherokee father and a Scottish mother. 42 Joseph Brant’s son-in-law.

15 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library (The Book of Common Prayer and (The Book of Common Prayer Ne Yakawen Yondereanayendaghkwa oghseragwegouh… Yondereanayendaghkwa Ne Yakawen . I22. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] [Liturgy. . I22. [Mohawk]. Administration of the Sacraments… A New Edition to which is added the Gospel according to St. Mark), trans. Captn. Joseph Brant Joseph Captn. to St. Mark), trans. the Gospel according Edition is added A New to which Administration of the Sacraments… (London, 1787). Shelfmark: 222.h.17. Fig. 5

16 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Eleazar Williams (1788-1858)43 [I24], collections of hymns printed in New York [I28] and Toronto [I29], and a collection of psalms produced at Hamilton, Ontario, specifically for use at the Six Nations reserves [I57]. Nineteenth-century Catholic publications are dominated by two names: Joseph Marcoux and Jean-André Cuoq. Marcoux (‘Sose Tharonhiakanere’) (1791-1855) was a Canadian- born missionary who worked at the St Regis- and Kahnawake reserves. He became proficient in Mohawk and produced several linguistic and religious works. Unfortunately only his French-printed catechism of 1842 [I60] and his Montreal prayer book of 1852 [I62] are held at the British Library. Frenchman Jean-André Cuoq (1821-1898) joined the Society of St Sulpice in Paris as a young man, and was sent to preach among the Mohawk and neighbouring Algonquin peoples of Quebec. He was an associate of Marcoux, and may well have learned to read and write Mohawk from him.44 The earliest of Cuoq’s Mohawk works in the Library is a short primer of 1857 printed like all his works in Montreal [I63]. Cuoq’s name rarely appears in any of his publications, and the primer was published anonymously. In the second of his works, Études philologiques sur quelques langues sauvages de l’Amérique [I65], Cuoq is credited as ‘N.O.’ This represents his two Indian names: ‘Nij- kwenatc-anibic’ (Algonquin for ‘second bellefeuille’) and ‘Orakwanen-takon’ (Mohawk for ‘fixed star’). Much of the content of the Études philologiques relates specifically to Mohawk (here called Iroquois), including a detailed grammar and comparative tables of Mohawk and Algonquin vocabulary. In the 1850s the French philosopher Ernest Renan (1823-1892) made a series of derogatory and inaccurate comments about American Indians and their languages.45 These were a cause of great irritation to Cuoq, who responded in 1864 with Jugement erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur les langues sauvages. Again Cuoq’s name is not given: the work is credited to ‘l’auteur des Études philologiques’. Only the second edition appears to survive, and the British Library holds two copies of this [I67]. Although the majority of examples are Algonquin, there is a significant amount of Mohawk material as well. Specifically, fifteen linguistic features are examined, including diminutives, augmentatives, cislocatives, translocatives, duplicatives and reiteratives. The last of Cuoq’s Mohawk publications at the British Library is the Lexique de la langue iroquoise of 1882 [I71], also held in two copies. The main part of the work is indeed a lexicon of word roots with their French definitions, but there are also appendices which discuss verb conjugations. The final Mohawk items are a two almanacs issued in Montreal by Catholic missionaries for use on the reserves at St Regis-Akwesasne, Oka-Kanehsatake, and Kahnawake. Only the volumes for 1899 [I75] and 1901 [I76] are held, although others were published through to 1917. Apart from the sub-title (Almanach Iroquois …) the contents are entirely in Mohawk. They were edited by Joseph Guillaume Laurent Forbes (1865-1940), parish priest at Kahnawake and later Archbishop of Ottawa. Sadly the British Library’s copies are now in a poor physical state, particularly the volume for 1899.

Provenances

A statistical analysis of the dates when the British Library acquired the items discussed in this article shows that the main period for collecting was the nineteenth century. The breakdown is:

1752-183646 25% 1836-1899 68% 1900-2007 6%

43 The translator of the 1867 Mohawk Book of Common Prayer [I66]. 44 Entry for ‘Cuoq, Jean-André’ in Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, op. cit. 45 Comments published in Ernest Renan, De l’Origine du langage (Paris, 1858). 46 In 1836 a new series of library stamps was introduced and dates of acquisition were routinely recorded inside the volumes for the first time.

17 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Library stamps used at the British Museum are not always as informative about dates and methods of acquisition as one would hope, but a rough calculation suggests that 65% of the volumes are likely to have been purchased through the book trade, 8% were one-off donations, and 1% arrived through colonial legal deposit arrangements. The remaining 26% were received when the private library of a major collector arrived through bequest or purchase. These collectors were:

Thomas Grenville (1755-1846): seven volumes [shelfmarks beginning G.] King George III (1738-1820): seven volumes [shelfmarks 215.d.12 to 217.a.25] Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820): two volumes [981.c.17 and 984.h.3] Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode (1730-1799): one volume [679.h.10] Francis Hargrave (c. 1741-1821): one volume [1052.c.18] Torgrim Hannås (1916-1998): one volume [Han.52/1] Major Arthur Edwards (1680?-1743): one possible volume [T.236].

In addition, five volumes [566.k.3, C.32.c.18, C.32.h.10, C.79.e.4, and C.83.b.7] were received with the Old Royal Library, books belonging to the sovereigns of England donated to the Museum by King George II in 1757. Furthermore, some show evidence of even earlier ownership in the form of inscriptions, bookplates or armorial bindings. Most significantly perhaps, the Cracherode volume [679.h.10] once belonged to the historian and bibliophile Jacques Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), the volume at shelfmark 867.c.7 (an early donation) was once owned by the economist Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), and three of the Old Royal Library volumes [C.32.c.18, C.32.h.10, and C.79.e.4] formerly belonged to the antiquary and book collector John Morris.47

Henry Stevens

Of the material purchased through the book trade, a large proportion of the monographs printed in the United States and Canada were acquired in the years 1845 to 1865. Most if not all of these acquisitions are likely to be associated with the American bookdealer and bibliographer Henry Stevens (1819-1886).49 Stevens arrived in London in 1845 aged twenty-six, quickly gained access to the British Museum, and entered discussions with staff about the American collections and their deficiencies. He so impressed curators with his knowledge that Anthony Panizzi50 tasked him first with compiling an alphabetical list (now lost) of some 10,000 volumes wanting from the collection, and then with acquiring all items on this list in return for a ten per cent commission. For the next twenty years Stevens acted as agent for the British Museum, sourcing copies of books in the areas of history and literature, including ‘anything about the Indians’.51 Whilst it is not clear what proportion of the desiderata Stevens did manage to acquire, statistics show that the number of printed Americana in the collections grew from 4,000 items to around 30,000 at exactly this time.52 Items I19, I25-27, I33-53, I55-56 and I61 are all probable Stevens acquisitions; I62-63 might also fit into this category.

47 T. A. Birrell, op. cit., items 361 = 804, 1161, and 1222. 48 Thirty monographs, or 32% of all the monographs identified in this survey. 49 The sources for information about Henry Stevens include: Wyman W. Parker, Henry Stevens of Vermont (Amsterdam, 1963), pp. 67-77; and John A. Wiseman, Henry Stevens and the British Museum (thesis, Fellowship of the Library Association, 1972). 50 Antonio Genesio Maria Panizzi (1797-1879), known in Britain as Anthony Panizzi, Assistant Librarian, later Keeper of Printed Books, and finally Chief Librarian at the British Museum. 51 Stevens in the Henry Parkman Papers, cited in Wiseman, op. cit., p. 11. 52 ibid., p. 63-4.

18 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Conclusions

This survey shows that the British Library holds a significant range of early materials relevant to the study of the Northern Iroquoian languages. There is a wide spread in terms of chronology (6% of the material is sixteenth century, 16% is seventeenth century, 17% is eighteenth century, and 60% is nineteenth century) and country of printing (12% England, 24% continental Europe, 16% Canada and 47% United States). In terms of content, 60% of the works contain texts in a Northern Iroquoian language and 40% contain linguistic material about the languages, albeit short vocabulary lists in as many as half the examples. Table 2 shows the breakdown of material in the Library according to language.

Table 2. Breakdown of Early Northern Iroquoian Holdings by Language

Mohawk 55% Huron/Wyandot 12% Laurentian 10% Susquehannock 6% Tuscarora 6% Seneca 4% Onondaga 4% Oneida 1% Various 1%

The predominance of Mohawk is striking. The original location of the close to European settlements such as Albany and Montreal is undoubtably a factor. Furthermore they were receptive to Christian missionaries, and have always engaged with both the Anglo- American and French Canadian cultures. Equally interesting is the scarcity of Oneida and Cayuga material. A reading of Pilling’s Bibliography of the Iroquoian languages53 suggests that there was in fact very little printed in these two languages in the period to 1888.54 Many of the Northern Iroquois language volumes identified in this article are difficult to identify and contextualize using the British Library’s Integrated Catalogue.55 Furthermore, the range of countries in which the books were printed (England, United States, Canada, France, Italy and Sweden) makes it complex to approach the subject via national retrospective bibliographies such as the English Short Title Catalogue.56 It is hoped that this study will go some way to assist Iroquois scholars find resources relevant to their research and place the books and their contents into a cultural and historical context.

53 James Constantine Pilling, Bibliography of the Iroquoian languages (Washington, 1888). 54 Key items wanting from the collection include (in date order): William Andrews et al., The order for morning and evening prayer (Ne yagawagh niyadewighniserage yonderaenayendaghkwa) (New York, 1767). [Mohawk] Iontrio aiestako a ionskaneka n’aieienterijag gaiatonsera... (Montreal, 1777). [Mohawk] Jabez Backus Hyde, Indian hymns in the Seneca language (Buffalo, 1818). [Seneca] J. C. Crane, [Spelling book in the Tuscarora dialect] (Buffalo, 1819). [Tuscarora] Analysis of the Seneca language (Na na none do wau gau ne u wen noo da) (Buffalo, 1827). [Seneca] Jacobo Bruyas, Radices verborum Iroquæorum (New York, 1863). [Mohawk] Hamon Güen, Iontaterihonniennitak o a ne kari o iioston teieiasontha..., ou Instructions sur la foi catholique (Montreal, 1870). [Mohawk] 55 British Library Integrated Catalogue. http://catalogue.bl.uk/. 56 English Short Title Catalogue. http://estc.bl.uk/.

19 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

Chronological checklist of works held at th British Library in or about the Northern Iroquoian Languages, 1545-1900 The Sixteenth Century

I1. [Laurentian]. Jacques Cartier, Brief recit, & succincte narration de la navigation faicte es ysles de Canada, Hochelage & Saguenay & autres… [section: ‘Le lãgage des pays & Royaulmes de Hochelaga & Canada’] (Paris, 1545). Shelfmark: G.7082. I2. [Laurentian]. Jacques Cartier, ‘Prima relatione’ and ‘Breve, et succinta narratione della navigatione … all’isole di Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenai’ in Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Delle navigationi et viaggi, vol. iii (Venice, 1556). Shelfmark: 566.k.3. I3. [Laurentian]. Jacques Cartier, ‘Prima relatione’ and ‘Breve, et succinta narratione della navigatione … all’isole di Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenai’ in Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Delle navigationi et viaggi, vol. iii [2nd edn.] (Venice, 1565). Shelfmarks: 679.h.10; C.79.e.4.[v.3]; G.6820. I4. [Laurentian]. Jacques Cartier, A shorte and briefe narration of the two Navigations and Discoveries to the Northwest partes called Newe Fraunce, trans. John Florio (London, 1580). Shelfmark: G.6491.

The Seventeenth Century

I5. [Laurentian]. Jacques Cartier, ‘Prima relatione’ and ‘Breve, et succinta narratione della navigatione … all’isole di Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenai’, in Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Delle navigationi et viaggi, vol. iii [3rd edn.] (Venice, 1606). Shelfmarks: 215.d.12; 566.i.7; 566.i.10; 984.h.3; G.6823. I6. [Huron]. Diego de Ledesma, Doctrine Chrestienne… Traduite en Langage Canadois, pour la conversion des habitans dudit pays. Par un Pere de la mesme Compagnie [i.e. Jean de Brébeuf] (Rouen, 1630). Shelfmark: 3504.b.37. I7. [Huron]. Diego de Ledesma, ‘Doctrine Chrestienne’, trans. Jean de Brébeuf, in Samuel de Champlain, Les Voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale, dicte Canada, faits par le Sr de Champlain… & toutes les descouvertes qu’il a faites en ce pais depuis l’an 1603 iusques en l’an 1629… (Paris, 1632). Shelfmarks: 981.d.21; C.32.h.10. I8. [Huron]. Gabriel Sagard Théodat, ‘Dictionaire de la langue huronne’, in Le Grand Voyage au Pays des Hurons (Paris, 1632). Shelfmarks: C.32.c.18; G.7269. I9. [Huron]. Paul Le Jeune, Relation de ce qui s’est passé en la Nouvelle France en l’année 1636 [two printings] (Paris, 1637). Shelfmarks: 866.c.3 [printing A]; C.83.b.7.(2.) [printing B]. I10. [Huron]. François Le Mercier, Relation de ce qui s’est passé en la Mission des Pères de la Compagnie de Jésus, en la Nouvelle France, és années 1653. et 1654 (Paris, 1655). Shelfmarks: 867.c.7; 867.h.21. I11. [Susquehannock]. Johannes Campanius, ‘Vocabula Mahakuassica’, in Martin Luther, Lutheri Catechismus, öfwersatt på American-Virginiske Språket, trans. Johannes Campanius (Stockholm, 1696). Shelfmarks: 1018.d.7; 3506.aa.42.

The Eighteenth Century

I12. [Susquehannock]. Thomas Campanius Holm, Kort beskrifning om provincien Nya Swerige uti America (Stockholm, 1702). Shelfmarks: Han.52/1; 1061.g.8. I13. [Mohawk]. Cotton Mather, Another Tongue brought in, to Confess the Great Saviour of the World. Or, Some communications of Christianity, put into a Tongue used among the Iroquois Indians, in America (Boston, 1707). Shelfmark: C.32.a.27. I14. [Tuscarora]. John Lawson, ‘A new voyage to Carolina’, in A new collection of voyages and travels: with historical accounts of discoveries and conquests, edited by John Stevens (London, 1708-10). Shelfmarks: 566.d.1-2; 981.c.17; 1052.c.18; T.236.

20 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

I15. [Tuscarora]. John Lawson, ‘A new voyage to Carolina’, in A new collection of voyages and travels, into several parts of the World, edited by John Stevens (London, 1711). Shelfmark: 303.h.5-6. I16. [Tuscarora]. John Lawson, A history of Carolina (London, 1714). Shelfmark: 279.i.24. I17. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] Ne Orhoengene Yogaraskhagh Yondereanayendaghkwa… (The Morning and Evening Prayer, the Litany, Church Catechism, Family Prayers, and several chapters of the Old and New-Testament, translated into the Mahaque Indian language), trans. Lawrence Claesse, ed. William Andrews, et al. (New York, 1715). Shelfmarks: 221.e.7; G.17117. I18. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] The Morning and Evening Prayer. The Litany and Church Catechism. Ne Orhoengene neoni Yogaraskhagh Yondereanayendaghkwa… (Boston, Mass., 1763). Shelfmark: 3406.bb.25. I19. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] The Order of the Morning and Evening Prayer, And administration of the Sacraments. 3rd edn., rev. with corrections & additions by Daniel Claus (Quebec City, 1780). Shelfmark: 3408.bb.23. I20. [Mohawk]. Christian Daniel Claus, A Primer for the use of the Mohawk Children. To acquire the Spelling and Reading of their own: as well to get acquainted with the English tongue (Waerighwaghsawe Iksaongoenwa Tsiwaondad-derighhonny Kaghyadoghsera) (Montreal, 1781). Shelfmark: G.16708. I21. [Mohawk]. Christian Daniel Claus, A Primer for the use of the Mohawk Children. To acquire the Spelling and Reading of their own, as well to get acquainted with the English tongue (Waerighwaghsawe Iksaongoenwa) (London, 1786). Shelfmarks: 236.d.48; C.33.a.31. I22. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] Ne Yakawen Yondereanayendaghkwa oghseragwegouh… (The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments… A New Edition to which is added the Gospel according to St. Mark), trans. Captn. Joseph Brant (London, 1787). Shelfmark: 222.h.17.

The Nineteenth Century

I23. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. John.] Nene Karighwiyoston tsinihorighhoten ne Saint John (The Gospel according to Saint John), trans. John Norton [Teyoninhokarawen] (London, 1805). Shelfmarks: 217.a.25; 1110.d.16. I24. [Mohawk]. Eleazar Williams, Good News to the Iroquois Nation. A tract, on Man’s primitive Rectitude, his fall, and his recovery through Jesus Christ (Burlington, Vt., 1813). Shelfmark: 4379.b.2.(5.). I25. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. John.] The Gospel according to Saint John (Nene Karighyoston tsinihorighhoten ne Saint John), trans. J. Norton (New York, 1818). Shelfmark: 1108.b.24. I26. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Luke.] The Gospel according to Saint Luke (Ne tsinihhoweyea- nenda-ohn orighwa do geaty, roghyadon royadado geaghty, Saint Luke), trans. H. A. Hill (New York, 1827). Shelfmark: 1108.b.25. I27. [Seneca]. [Bible. NT. Luke.] The Gospel according to Saint Luke (Ne Hoiwiyosdosheh noyohdadogehdih ne Saint Luke), trans. T. S. Harris (New York, 1829). Shelfmark: 1108.b.23. I28. [Mohawk]. [Hymnals.] A Collection of hymns for the use of the Native Christians of the Mohawk language (Ne Karoronh ne teyerighwaghkwatha…), trans. H. A. Hill (New York, 1829). Shelfmark: 3435.bb.36. I29. [Mohawk]. [Hymnals.] A Collection of hymns in the Mohawk language (Ne Karoron ne Teyerihwahkwatha kanyengehaga kaweanondahkon ronadenhaonh ji Tekaristohraragon korahkowahne tkentyohkawyen), by the New-England Corporation (Toronto, 1830). Shelfmark: 3433.ee.65.

21 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

I30. [Huron]. Pierre Joseph Marie Chaumonot, ‘Grammar of the Huron language, by a missionary of the Village of Huron Indians at Lorette, near Quebec’, trans. John Wilkie, Transactions of the Literary & Historical Society of Quebec, ii (1831), pp. 94- 198. Shelfmark: Ac.8560. I31. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Luke.] The Gospel of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, according to Saint Luke (Ne Raorihwadogenhti ne Shongwayaner Yesus Keristus, jenihorihoten ne Royatadogenhti Luke), trans. A. Hill, corrected by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1833). Shelfmark: 1568/9173. I32. [Susquehannock]. Thomas Campanius Holm, ‘Description of the Province of New Sweden’, trans. Peter S. du Ponceau, Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs, iii (1832), pp. 1-166. Shelfmark: Ac.8430. Also issued separately: (Philadelphia, 1834). Shelfmark: 1304.l.6. I33. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Acts.] The Acts of the Apostles (Ne ne Jinihodiyeren ne Rodiyatadogenhti), trans. H. A. Hill, with corrections by William Hess & John A. Wilkes (New York, 1835). Shelfmark: 1108.b.27(1). I34. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Romans.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle, to the Romans (Ne ne shagohyatonni Paul ne Royatadogenhti Jinonkadih ne Romans), trans. H. A. Hill, with corrections by William Hess & John A. Wilkes (New York, 1835). Shelfmark: 1108.b.27(2). I35. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Galatians.] The Epistle of Paul, the Apostle, to the Galatians (Ne ne shagohyatonni Paul ne Royatadogenhti jinonkadih ne Galatians), trans. H. A. Hill, with corrections by William Hess & John A. Wilkes (New York, 1835). Shelfmark: 1108.b.38(1). I36. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Ephesians.] The Epistle of Paul, the Apostle, to the Ephesians (Ne ne shagohyatonni Paul ne Royatadogenhti jinonkadih ne Ephesians), trans. H. A. Hill, with corrections by William Hess & John A. Wilkes (New York, 1835). Shelfmark: 1108.b.38(2). I37. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Corinthians.] Ne Tyotyerenhtonh Kahyatonhsera ne Paul ne Royatadogenhti Shagohyatonni jinonka ne Corinthians (The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.29. I38. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Philippians.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Philippians (Ne yehohyaton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Philippians), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30(1.). I39. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Colossians.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Colossians (Ne yehohyaton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Colossians), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30(2.). I40. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Thessalonians.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians (Ne tyotyerenhton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Thessalonians), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30(3.). I41. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to Timothy.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy (Ne ne tyotyerenhton ne royatadogenhti Paul yehohyatonni ne Timothy), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30.(4.). I42. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to Titus.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Titus (Ne yehohyaton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Titus), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30(5). I43. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to Philemon.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Philemon (Ne yehohyaton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Philemon), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.30(6).

22 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

I44. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Paul to the Hebrews.] The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews (Ne yehohyaton ne royatadogenhti Paul jinonka ne Hebrews), trans. William Hess, with corrections by John A. Wilkes (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(1). I45. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Matthew.] The Gospel of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ according to Saint Matthew (Ne Raorihwadogenhti ne Shongwaganer Yesus Keristus, jinihorihoten ne Royalatogenhti Matthew), trans. A. Hill (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.37. I46. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Revelations.] Ne ne Revelation konwayats [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York, 1836). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(8). I47. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. John.] Ne orighwadogenhty ne jinityawea-onh ne Royatadogenhty ne John (Gospel of Saint John), trans. H. A. Hill? & John A. Wilkes? (New York, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.28 [imperfect]. I48. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Letter of James.] Ne yehhonwaghyadonnyh ne James [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(2). I49. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. 1st & 2nd Letters of Peter.] Ne tyutyerenghdonh yehhonwaghyadonnyh orighwakwekonh ne Kwiter [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(3). I50. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. 1st Letter of John.] Ne tyutyadonghseratyerenghdonh rayadakwe- niyu ne Janyh [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(4). I51. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. 2nd Letter of John.] Ne ne tekaghyadonghserakehhadont ne Janyh [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(5). I52. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. 3rd Letter of John.] Ne aghsenhhadont nikaghuadonghseakeh ne Janyh [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(6). I53. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Letter of Jude.] Ne rayadakwe-niyu yehhonwaghyadonnyh ne Jude [trans. H. A. Hill & John A. Wilkes.] (New York?, 1836?). Shelfmark: 1108.b.31(7). I54. [Seneca]. Asher Wright, Diuhsáwahgwa¯h Gayádo_shaˇh¯ . Gó_wa_ha_¯ s Goyádo_¯h Sgaˇóyadih Do_wˇan´andenyo_ (An Elementary reading book in the language of the Seneca Indians) (Boston, Mass., 1836). Shelfmark: 12910.aaa.39. I55. [Oneida]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] A Prayer Book, in the language of the Six Nations of Indians, containing the Morning and Evening Service… in the Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal Church, compiled from various translations… by the Rev. Solomon Davis (New York, 1837). Shelfmark: 3407.b.53. I56. [Mohawk]. [Bible. OT. Isaiah.] Ne Kaghyadonghsera ne royadadokenghdy ne Isaiah, trans. William Hess (New York, 1839). Shelfmark: 3070.a.40. I57. [Mohawk]. [Bible. OT. Psalms.] A Collections of Psalms and Hymns in the Mohawk language… (Ne Karoron ne Teyerihwahkwatha kanyengehaga kaweanondahkon yayak hi ononhwenjageh raonawenk…), by the New-England Corporation (Hamilton, Ont., 1839). Shelfmark: 3434.aaaa.5. I58. [Seneca]. Ne Jagu¯h’nigo’˘a Ges’gwatha¯h (The Mental Elevator), i, nos. 1-19 (Buffalo Creek; Cattaraugus Reservation, 1841-50). Shelfmark not yet allocated. I59. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] Ne Kaghyadouhsera ne Yoedereanayeadagwha… (The Book of Common Prayer, according to the use of the Church of England), trans. Rev. Abraham Nelles… The Collects… trans. by John Hill (Hamilton, Ont., 1842). Shelfmark: 3409.f.5. I60. [Mohawk]. Joseph Marcoux, Ionterio aienstao ka ne Kario iioston teieiasontha, Kahnao akeha (Poissy, France, 1842). Shelfmark: 3506.c.64. I61. [Miscellaneous]. Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois (Rochester, NY, 1851). Shelfmark: 9603.e.26. I62. [Mohawk]. Sose Tharonhiakanere [Joseph Marcoux], Kaiatonsera Ionterennaientako a ne Teieiasontha ne Taiakoso ateten tsi Iakorio iioston Kahnao ake Tiakoshon (Montreal, 1852). Shelfmark: C.33.e.14.

23 eBLJ 2008, Article 2 Early Northern Iroquoian Language Books in the British Library

I63. [Mohawk]. Jean André Cuoq, Kaiatonsera Ionteo ienstako a (Montreal, 1857). Shelfmark: C.33.e.13. I64. [Onondaga]. A French-Onondaga dictionary, from a manuscript of the seventeenth century, ed. John Gilmary Shea (New York, 1860). Shelfmark: 12906.f.32(1). I65. [Mohawk]. N. O. [Jean André Cuoq], Études philologiques sur quelques langues sauvages de l’Amérique (Montreal, 1866). Shelfmark: 12923.ee.5. I66. [Mohawk]. [Liturgy. Anglican.] The Book of Common Prayer, according to the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, trans. Rev. Eleazar Williams. Rev. edn. (New York, 1867). Shelfmark: 3406.aaa.40. I67. [Mohawk]. Jean André Cuoq, Jugement erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur les langues sauvages. 2nd edn. (Montreal, 1869). Shelfmarks: 12902.ee.8; 12902.f.33. I68. [Huron]. Diego de Ledesma, ‘Doctrine Chrestienne’, trans. Jean de Brébeuf, in Samuel de Champlain, Œuvres de Champlain, ed. C.-H. Laverdière (Quebec City, 1870). Shelfmark: 10470.i.9[vol. 5]. I69. [Seneca]. John Wentworth Sanborn, Legends, customs and social life of the Seneca Indians, of Western New York (Gowanda, N.Y., 1878). Shelfmark: 10413.c.11. I70. [Mohawk]. [Bible. NT. Gospels.] Neh nase tsi shoko atako en ne Sonko aianer Iesos- Keristos (The Holy Gospels. Translated from the Authorized English version into the Iroquois Indian dialect), trans. Joseph Onasakenrat (Montreal, 1880). Shelfmarks: 3068.aa.13; 3070.aaa.10. I71. [Mohawk]. Jean André Cuoq, Lexique de la langue iroquoise, avec notes et appendices (Montreal, 1882). Shelfmark: 12910.e.23; 12910.e.25. I72. [Miscellaneous]. Horatio Hale (ed.), The Iroquois book of rites (Philadelphia, 1883). Shelfmark: 2398.e.3[vol.2]. I73. [Onondaga]. David Zeisberger, Zeisberger’s Indian dictionary. English, German, Iroquois the Onondaga and Algonquin the Delaware. Printed from the original manuscript in Harvard College Library, ed. Eben Norton Horsford (Cambridge, Mass., 1887). Shelfmark: 2272.h.7. I74. [Onondaga]. David Zeisberger, ‘Essay of an Onondaga Grammar, or A short introduction to learn Onondaga al. Maqua Tongue’, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, xi (1887), pp. 442-53; xii (1888), pp. 65-75, 233-39, 325-40. Shelfmark: Ac.8430/6. Also issued separately: (Philadelphia, 1888). Shelfmark: 12910.dd.34. I75. [Mohawk]. G. Forbes, Iakentasetatha Kahnawakeha tsini Kahawis nonwa ioserate 1899 roson Thonikonhrathe (Almanach iroquois pour l’année 1899) (Montreal, 1898). Shelfmark: P.P.2539.w. I76. [Mohawk]. G. Forbes, Iakentasetatha Kahnawakeha tsini Kahawis nonwa ioserate 1900 roson Thonikonhrathe (Almanach iroquois 1901. Troisiême Année) (Montreal, 1900). Shelfmark: P.P.2539.w.

24 eBLJ 2008, Article 2