Rewiring the Text: Adaptation and Translation in the Digital Heterogossia. Richard Berger. A thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Philosophy Doctorate. March 2005. Bournemouth University. Rewiring the Text: Abstract. This dissertation is concerned with adaptation, in the context of new emerging digital media platforms. The project proposes that new media has allowed for the creation of a universal digital heteroglossia; a heteroglossia that contains the plurality of the unstable utterances of cinema, radio, television, the web and computer games. This has allowed for the process of adaptation to become more instantaneous in the simultaneous deployment of narratives across the digital heteroglossia. Therefore, the process of adaptation is far more dialogical, with previous variants of narratives being ‘rewired’ and gaining an ‘afterlife’ through adaptation, and through the creation of new variants and versions. The Internet has allowed for adaptation to move into a participatory mode, where fanfic writers fill in ‘gaps’ left by the creators of televisual and filmic texts. Videogames, based on pre-existing or co-existing texts, mean that players can experience moments of supreme and non-permanent adaptation themselves. This thesis suggests that this participation has democratised adaptation, and has fundamentally altered the nature of ‘traditional’ adaptation. The thesis concludes that, due to a digital heteroglossia, ‘traditional’ adaptation will decline, as the process becomes more plural and instantaneous. With previous variants of narratives being summoned back into life - due to adaptation, remaking and refashioning - it is increasingly unlikely that ‘fidelity’ strategies of adaptation will continue to be the dominant discourse, as all variants of narratives begin to exist in a dialogical plurality with one another; a mutual exchange of fluctuating source and target texts, cross-referenced through intertextuality and assembling a collage of influences. Rewiring the Text - Contents: Abstract: ii. Acknowledgements: vi. Dedication: vii. Author’s Declaration: viii. Introduction: The End of Adaptation? 1. Methodology. 15. Rationale. 19. Part I: Sourcing the Text. 22. Chapter 1.1: Comparative Approaches. 23. Trainspotting. 32. Trainspotting: Textual Afterlife. 37. The English Patient. 40. The English Patient: Textual Afterlife. 44. Film as Source: The Tie-in. 47. Film as Source: The Remake. 50. Chapter 1.2: New Texts, New Voices. 62. The Changing Nature of Authorship. 62. The Auteur Theory. 68. Death of the Author. 72. Heteroglossia, Utterance and the Intertext. 77. Franz Kafka and Orson Welles. 83. New Media, New Authors. 87. Towards Transmedia. 90. Part II: The Digital Heteroglossia. 95. Chapter 2.1: The Emerging Digital Heteroglossia. 96. Introduction. 96. Pre-history. 102. Convergence and Remediation. 107. Adaptation, Disruption and the Digital Heteroglossia 112. Chapter 2.2: Framing the Subversive. 118. Television, the Web and Celebrity. 118. Tabloids, Television and Celebrity. 120. The Web and Celebrity. 124. Adaptation and the ‘Democratic Genre.’ 133. Convergence and Remediation revisited. 141. VCR revisited. 146. Towards instantaneous adaptation? 149. Part III: Parallel Texts. 153. Chapter 3.1: Parallel and Hypermediate Texts. 154. Introduction. 154. Screening Superman. 160. Superman: From text to screen. 161. Superman on Film. 165. Superman on television and the origins of Smallville. 167. Smallville: The Hypermediate text. 169. Interactive Television revisited. 176. Chapter 3.2: iMP, The Matrix and Transmedia. 183. The BBC and Interactive Television. 183. Medium Specific Adaptation. 187. The BBC and the Graf Report. 193. The BBC’s Interactive Media Player. 203. Videogame adaptation. 206. The Matrix: The Transmedia Text. 215. Conclusion: The End of Adaptation. 225. The Future. 226. The End of Temporality. 228. Adaptation as Participation. 230. New Adaptation. 231. New Adaptation Studies 232. Bibliography. 235. Novels, Novelisations and Screenplays. 249. Filmography. 251. Videogames. 256. Television Series. 258 Websites. 259. Appendix A: Trainspotting paperback sales. 260. Appendix B: The English Patient paperback sales. 261. Appendix C: Time Warner companies. 263. Appendix D: Interview with Jonathan Carter (BBC). 267. Appendix E: Interview with Matt Walton (BBC). 270. Rewiring the Text – Acknowledgements: Firstly to John Ellis for getting me started and helping to focus my ideas, and foremost to David Gauntlett for his support, helpful insights, good nature and for sticking with me through the long haul and putting up with my whinging. To my supportive colleagues at the Bournemouth Media School, particularly Stephen Bell, Robin Chater, Fiona Cownie, Sheila Daubeney, Stephen Deutsch, Joe Flitham, John Foster, Maike Helmers, Tracy Hixson, Dan Hogan, Matt Holland, Andrew Ireland, Katrina King, Jan Lewis, Marian Mayer, Chris Pullen, Tristan Tull, Peter Legge, Jim Pope, Jan Johnson-Smith, Joe Tunmer, Jonathan Wardle and Chris Wensley. To Jonathan Carter, Jon Cuthill, Alun Newman and Matt Walton at the BBC, for their time and patience. Sincere thanks and appreciation to Lucy Mazdon at the University of Southampton for help in the early stages of this project, and Bronwen Thomas at the Bournemouth Media School, and Sheenagh Pugh, at the University of Wales, for their invaluable suggestions in the later stages of writing this thesis. Special thanks to the singer, songwriter, playwright and scholar Mick Ryan, who I have had the privilege of being taught by, and later working with and who pointed out both the path I now find myself on and E. M. Forster’s Aspects of the Novel. I am really sorry about the Lord of the Rings chapter though. Finally, to assorted friends, loved-ones and hangers-on, without whose constant badgering for me to go out with them, this thesis would have been finished a long time ago, namely Owen Bailey, Dale and Ailsa Ballard, Sarah Berger, Matt Bowler, Ian and Vicky Brosch, Jane Cooper, Nick Cutts, Dover, John Edwards, Jason & Sally Field, Matt Grace, Giles Gwinett, Go Mark, Ashar Hamilton, Jim & Sue Muir, Tim Oliver, Steve Parry, Dan Scully and Justin Williamson. Any errors which remain however, are entirely my own. Rewiring the Text – Dedication: In memory of my parents, John and Valerie, whose infectious and combined love of literature and cinema has in part, resulted in this thesis. Rewiring Adaptation- Author’s Declaration: Name of Candidate: Richard John Berger. Award for which work is submitted: Philosophy Doctorate. 1. Statement of any advanced studies undertaken in connection with the programme of research. N/A. 2. Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards. I declare that while registered as a candidate for the university’s research award, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for an award of any other academic of professional institution. 3. Material submitted for another award. N/A. 4. Declaration. I hereby declare that this thesis is all my own work. Signature of candidate. Date: Introduction: The End of Adaptation? “Since the early days of its cinematic production Hollywood has adapted, copied, plagiarised, and been inspired by other works” (Mazdon, 2000: 2). In 2005 two prequels to William Friedkin’s 1973 horror film, The Exorcist were released on DVD. Exorcist: The Beginning (Harlin, 2004) had been exhibited in cinemas the previous year, but Dominion: Prequel to The Exorcist (Schrader, 2005) had not, being a ‘straight to video’ release. However, Schrader’s film had in fact been made first, with an unhappy studio recalling cast and crew for Harlin’s re-shoot and a final cut that incorporated scenes from Schrader’s version. The poor commercial and critical reception of Exorcist: The Beginning led to the eventual release of Schrader’s version on DVD. This also coincided with a re-issue of the original Exorcist, as well as William Peter Blatty’s source novel and its sequel, Legion, previously adapted and filmed by Blatty himself as Exorcist III in 1990. Blatty’s book was in part based on the diaries of a priest, Father Raymond J. Bishop, in turn the source material for a, “well-researched potboiler entitled Possessed” (Kermode, 1997: 11). Film fans posting comments on the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com) admitted confusion: by - pythontounge (Sat Apr 29 2006 09:00:29 ) ok ive seen the 3 exorsist [sic] films in the past plus "E’3" [Exorcist III] on sky lastnight since id seen "E’ the begining" [Exorcist: The Beginning] last week now i learn there is another exorsist [sic] film with the same actor playing young father merin in both films can anyone tell me how all the films fit in to a credable [sic] time line excuding "E’2" [Exorcist II: The Heretic] whitch [sic] doesent [sic] deserve the right to be in the series i also thought in "E’ the beginning" was quite credible as it shows merrin having a relationship with a doctor woman then loosing her but at the same time renouncing his faith it also set up the origional ragan possession [sic] film up so is DOMINION [Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist] a sequel to beginning[?] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0449086/board/nest/42137005 This example shows how new versions of pre-existing texts can cause bemusement in some audiences expecting a logical contribution to previous chronological events. It also shows how previous versions, and source material can be ‘rewired’ and can be brought back into cultural transmission, due to the appearance of new versions, subsequently gaining an ‘afterlife’. Indeed, new digital acquisition and exhibition technologies can ‘frame’ several versions of a narrative, hence pythontounge’s understandable confusion from seeing an array of Exorcist texts exhibited on his/her Sky television platform. In addition, 2005’s Batman Begins (Nolan) also seemed to be a prequel to Batman (Burton, 1989) ending at the suggested appearance of The Joker. However, Nolan’s film retold Bruce Wayne’s origins, having his parents killed by Joe Chill – therefore being ‘faithful’ to Frank Miller’s Dark Knight Returns (1986) comic book – instead of Jack Napier/The Joker as in Burton’s version.