Ngā Pā Harakeke O Ngati Porou: a Lived Experience of Whānau

NGĀ PĀ HARAKEKE O NGATI POROU: A LIVED EXPERIENCE OF WHĀNAU BY TAINGUNGURU WHANGAPIRITA WALKER A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2013 DEDICATION For my grandmother, mother and sister Kua ngaro ki te pō E kore e mimiti te aroha ii Abstract Māori live within a post-colonial society, and were subjected to colonisation, warfare, land loss and urbanisation. These policies changed Māori from an agrarian society into an industrialised society within the cities. The impact on whānau of this included the separation from traditional lands, marae, hapu, iwi and the support of other whānau members. Māori living in cities were then categorised as urban Māori, which does not sit comfortably with participants in this study, who reject this term. This thesis explores, with Ngati Porou participants, their lived experience of whānau. The views of three age cohorts are canvassed in order to identify whether their understandings of whānau differ. These three cohorts were divided as follows: 65 years and over; 35–64 and 21–34. A total of thirty-eight participants were interviewed. They spoke passionately about who they were, where they came from and why they valued whānau. This is a qualitative research project, which utilises both Western and a Māori/tribal worldview. It was of importance to ensure that the data retained the Māori messages and the essence of the kōrero. A whakapapa and whānau sampling method was used to identify hapu and whānau. Face-to-face interviews were conducted, using a „snowball‟ technique. Some of the issues explored included who participants counted as members of whānau, the various whānau types identified by the literature (kaupapa whānau, whaamere, family, virtual whānau, new whānau, statistical whānau and whānau ora) and whether the „whānau mantra‟ is a „myth‟. Participants were asked for their views on the roles within whānau, what strengthens and divides whānau and whānau leadership. Other topics explored were the role of whāngai within whānau, cross-cultural relationships, maintaining whakapapa links, urbanisation and the impact of policies on whānau. Recently, government has begun to use whānau within policies in ways that differ from the lived experience of whānau. Academics have also used the metaphor of whānau in an attempt to explain some of the contemporary groupings of Māori, such as kapa haka activities. The pakeke cohort, most of whom lived within the tribal area, were totally involved with whānau, hapu and iwi. The middle cohort, most of whom were employed, iii were involved with whānau and marae when required. They cared for both mokopuna and aging parents. There were other qualities they valued in addition to whakapapa. The youngest cohort, some of whom were young parents, were passionate about being members of whānau. Because many of them had been born away from the tribal area, they felt the need to traverse the lands where their tīpuna had lived, worked and played in order for the whakapapa to become real. This thesis has identified that whakapapa is of the utmost importance to the participants‟ understanding of whānau, and that this shapes their lived experience. iv Acknowledgements He mihi tēnei ki ā rātau mā, iho mai o rātau whakaaro rangatira. Kua ngaro tetahi o ngā kōka ki te pō. Moe mai i roto i ngā pāpāringa ō te Atua. My sincere thanks to all those who gave so willingly and generously of their knowledge. Since the thesis began, one of the pakeke has passed away. Sleep peacefully within the arms of God. This thesis was made possible through the efforts and kindness of many people. My thanks to my supervisors, who have been supportive and patient. They are Professors Richard Hill (Stout Research Centre for New Zealand Studies) and Kevin Dew (School of Social and Cultural Studies) of Victoria University of Wellington. A very special thanks to Dr Jenny Neale, Health Services Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, for her unfailing encouragement, support and wisdom. Early on, Professor Jackie Cumming, also of the Health Services Research Centre, was instrumental in acquiring funding and providing support for the development of the thesis. Thanks are also extended to Professor Lydia Wevers (Head of School, Stout Research Centre for New Zealand Studies) for her support. I was fortunate that Dr Ginny Sullivan was able to provide her excellent knowledge and skills in the editing and preparation this thesis for examination. The Māori Advisory Group, consisting of Amster Reedy, Maaka Tibble, Terry Ehau and Dame Iritana Tawhiwhirangi have been invaluable and patient when I bug them for answers to specific Māori questions. They are all of Ngati Porou descent, as this worldview was necessary for the thesis. I would also like to thank Jo Hodge and Freddie Jefferd from Disability Support Services at Victoria University of Wellington, who have ensured that resources were available to assist me. Thanks also to the Faculty of Postgraduate Research, and in particular Dr Laurie Bauer and Tara Fisher for the generosity shown me. Dr Winifred Bauer of Te Kawa a Māui, Victoria University, kindly provided articles that were very helpful. Thanks to Raewyn Good, who sadly left us two years ago. You shall never be forgotten. Thanks to my good friends, Tania Rangiheuea, Sue Buckley, Pam Ormsby and Christina v Horide whose loyalty and support have been unwavering and valued. My thanks also to Grace Russell, who has been a patient little gem, and is aptly named. Deborah Levy from the Stout Research Centre has also provided valuable backup, along with my daughter, Ana Maea Whangapirita and Heneriata Paenga. This thesis would not have been possible without the financial assistance of many organisations. To them I owe a debt of gratitude. They include The Health Research Council of New Zealand; Victoria University Scholarship/Assistantship; Social Policy Evaluation and Research; Philippa and Morvyn Williams Scholarship; Pro-Vice Chancellor (Māori) Victoria University of Wellington Discretionary Fund; Ministry of Health; Lottery Health Research PhD Scholarships; Ngā Pae o te Māramatanga; Māori Education Trust; and the Victoria University of Wellington Submission Scholarship. vi Contents List of Illustrations xii Chapter One. Introduction 1 Personal, Tribal and Scholastic Background 1 Conclusion 9 Chapter Two. Literature Review 13 Introduction 13 Whakapapa: The Core of Whānau 14 The Meaning and Typology of Whānau 18 Whanaungatanga 19 Turangawaewae 20 Arriving at Meanings of Whānau 28 How Relationships Define Whānau 29 The Social Structure of Whānau: Whānau, Hapu, Iwi 31 Complexions of Whānau 33 Cross-cultural Relationships 33 Whāngai 35 Functions, Roles, Responsibility, Leadership 37 The Role of Elders or Kaumātua 38 Leadership 39 When Whānau is Whānau: Resilience and Challenges 41 The Challenges of Urbanisation 41 The Impact of Urbanisation 44 Whakapapa in an Urban Setting: Resilience and Values 46 Whānau Constructs: An Outsider Version of Whānau 48 Kaupapa Whānau 48 Whaamere 50 Family 50 New Whānau 52 Virtual and Statistical Whānau 53 Whānau Ora 53 Policy and the Whānau Worldview 55 Māori Attempts at Policy 58 The Cultural Bias of the State 58 Redressing the State’s Cultural Bias 62 Conclusion 62 Chapter Three. Methodology 65 Te Tāhuhu o te Ao Māori 67 Insider Research 69 Whānau Support 71 Whakapapa Selection of Whānau Members as Participants 71 Interviews 76 vii Analysis 78 Working Between Two Worlds 79 The Use of the Macron 80 Ethics 80 Conclusion 81 Chapter Four. Ngati Porou, 65 Years and Older: The Pakeke 83 Introduction 83 The Core of Whānau: Whakapapa 84 The Meaning and Typology of Whānau 85 The Social Structure of Whānau: Whānau, Hapu, Iwi 89 Complexions of Whānau 90 Cross-cultural Relationships 90 Step-parenting 91 Whāngai 92 Functions, Roles, Responsibility, Leadership 95 Role of the Pakeke 96 Te Reo 98 Leadership 99 Rights and Responsibilities 100 When Whānau is Whānau: Resilience and Challenges 101 Maintaining Links to Whakapapa 101 Urban Māori 103 Whānau Constructs: An Outsider Version of Whānau 105 Kaupapa Whānau 106 Whaamere 106 Family 107 New Whānau 108 Virtual Whānau 109 Statistical Whānau 110 Whānau Ora 111 Policy and the Whānau Worldview 112 When Meaning is Lost 112 Meaninglessness and Policy-making 114 Conclusion 116 Chapter Five. Ngati Porou Aged 35–64: “The Middle Ages” 119 Introduction 119 One Umbilical Cord – Whakapapa 120 Whakapapa and Beyond Whakapapa: Kin and Non-kin 120 Whakapapa and Beyond Whakapapa: Those Who Have Passed On 123 The Meaning and Typology of Whānau 125 Whanaungatanga 125 The Warmth of Connectedness 127 The Attributes of Whānau 128 The Social Structure of Whānau: Individual, Whānau, Hapu, Iwi, 130 viii Turangawaewae Complexions of Whānau 134 Cross-cultural Whānau 134 Whāngai 137 Inheritance of Land by Whāngai: Two Bites of the Cherry? 139 Functions, Roles, Responsibility, Leadership 141 Whānau Roles 141 Rights and Responsibilities 143 Leadership 147 When Whānau is Whānau: Resilience and Challenges 149 Well-functioning Whānau and Whānau Divisions 149 Maintaining the Whakapapa Links 151 Whānau in Contemporary New Zealand 153 Urban Māori 155 Whānau Constructs: An Outsider Version of Whānau 157 Kaupapa Whānau 157 Whaamere 158 Family 158 New Whānau 159 Virtual Whānau 160 Statistical Whānau 161 Whānau Ora 161 Policy and Whānau Worldview 162 When Meaning is Lost 162 Meaninglessness and Policy-making 163 Conclusion 165 Chapter Six. Ngati Porou

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