Syria’s Kurds This book is a decisive contribution to the study of Kurdish history in Syria since the Mandatory period (1920–1946) up to the present. Avoiding an essentialist approach, Jordi Tejel provides fine, complex and some- times paradoxical analysis of the articulation between tribal, local, regional, and national identities, on one hand, and the formation of a Kurdish minority aware- ness vis-à-vis the consolidation of Arab nationalism in Syria, on the other hand. Using unpublished material, in particular concerning the Mandatory period (French records and Kurdish newspapers) and social movement theory, Tejel analyses the reasons behind the Syrian “exception” within the Kurdish political sphere. In spite of the exclusion of Kurdishness from the public sphere, especially since 1963, Kurds of Syria have avoided a direct confrontation with the central power, most Kurds opting for a strategy of ‘dissimulation’, cultivating internally the forms of identity that challenge the official ideology. The book explores the dynamics leading to the consolidation of Kurdish minority awareness in contem- porary Syria; an ongoing process that could take the form of radicalization or even violence. While the book offers a rigorous conceptual approach, the ethnographic mate- rial makes it a compelling read. It will not only appeal to scholars and students of the Middle East, but to those interested in history, ethnic conflicts, nationalism, social movement theories, and many other related issues. Jordi Tejel is a Ph.D. in History (University of Fribourg, Switzerland) and Sociology (Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales-EHESS, Paris). He is currently a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the EHESS, Paris. His research interests focus on nationalism in the Middle East, with a particular interest in Kurdish mobilizations in the interwar period. He is the author of several books and arti- cles, including Le mouvement kurde de Turquie en exil. Continuités et disconti- nuitées du nationalisme kurde sous le mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (1925–1946). Routledge Advances in Middle East and Islamic Studies 1 Iraqi Kurdistan 9 The Arab Diaspora Political development and emergent Voices of an anguished scream democracy Zahia Smail Salhi and Ian Richard Gareth R. V. Stansfield Netton 2 Egypt in the Twenty-First Century 10 Gender and Self in Islam Challenges for development Etin Anwar Edited by M. Riad El-Ghonemy 11 Nietzsche and Islam 3 The Christian–Muslim Frontier Roy Jackson A zone of contact, conflict or cooperation 12 The Baha’is of Iran Mario Apostolov Socio-historical studies Dominic Parvis Brookshaw and 4 The Islamic World-System Seena B. Fazel A study in polity–market interaction Masudul Alam Choudhury 13 Egypt’s Culture Wars 5 Regional Security in the Politics and practice Middle East Samia Mehrez A critical perspective Pinar Bilgin 14 Islam and Human Rights in Practice 6 Political Thought in Islam Perspectives across the ummah A study in intellectual boundaries Edited by Shahram Akbarzadeh and Nelly Lahoud Benjamin MacQueen 7 Turkey’s Kurds 15 Family in the Middle East A theoretical analysis of the PKK and Ideational change in Egypt, Abdullah Ocalan Iran and Tunisia Ali Kemal Özcan Edited by Kathryn M. Yount and Hoda Rashad 8 Beyond the Arab Disease New perspectives in politics and 16 Syria’s Kurds culture History, politics and society Riad Nourallah Jordi Tejel Syria’s Kurds History, politics and society Jordi Tejel Translated from the French by Emily Welle and Jane Welle First published 2009 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2009 Jordi Tejel All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Tejel, Jordi Syria’s Kurds: history, politics and society/Jordi Tejel. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Kurds—Syria—History—20th century. 2. Kurds—Civil rights—Syria. 3. Syria—Ethnic relations. 4. Nationalism—Syria. I. Title. DS94.8.K8T452 2008 956.91′00491597—dc22 2008008013 ISBN 0-203-89211-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–42440–2 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–203–89211–9 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–42440–0 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–89211–4 (ebk) Contents Acknowledgements vii A note on transliteration ix List of abbreviations xi Frontispiece map 1: Kurdish enclaves in northern Syria xiii Frontispiece map 2: Areas inhabited by Kurds xiv Introduction 1 1 The Kurds during the French Mandate 8 Kurdish populations under the French Mandate 8 The mandate system and the birth of the Syrian state 13 The Mandate and “colonial expertise” 15 The Kurdish cultural movement in Syria and Lebanon 21 Fragmentation of the Kurdish community: politics in Jazira 27 2 Syria in transition, 1946–63 38 Minorities under suspicion 40 Searching for new political horizons 42 The triumph of Arab nationalism and the United Arab Republic 47 3 The Ba‘athist system and the Kurds 53 Ba‘athism: an exception in Arab nationalism? 54 The years of ideological purity (1963–70) 59 The years of exploitation (1970–2000) 62 4 The Kurdish issue and its transnational dimension 69 The emergence of Hafiz al-As‘ad’s game 71 The fall of Saddam Husayn and the collapse of Syrian strategy 79 vi Contents 5 The Kurdish response and its margins: “dissimulation” of a hidden conflict 82 The Kurdish parties at the margins of the legal system 85 Kurdish identity at the margins of official Islam 95 The defense of Kurdish culture 102 6 The Qamishli revolt, 2004: the marker of a new era for the Kurds in Syria 108 The events preceding the Kurdish upheaval 110 The Qamishli revolt 114 Toward a radicalization of ethnic divisions? 126 Conclusion 133 Appendix 139 Notes 141 Bibliography 169 Index 182 Acknowledgements After having studied Kurdish nationalism in Syria during the French Mandatory period (1920–46) I was interested in extending my reflection on strategies of inte- gration utilized by “minorities” in new states and the shifting of collective iden- tities in the former Ottoman territories up to the present. This book is the result of my attempt to examine these issues in the context of contemporary Syria. I am indebted to Hamit Bozarslan who took the time to read and comment on all parts of the manuscript during its preparation. Nadine Méouchy and Elizabeth Picard shared with me their intellectual wisdom, thus helping me to formulate my own approach on the subject of Kurds in Syria. Conversations with Myriam Ababsa, Seda Altug, Julie Gauthier, Sirwan Hajji Husayn, Siamend Hajo, Paulo G. Pinto, Eva Savelsberg, and Stefan Winter also contributed to the development of the hypotheses presented herein. Between 2001 and 2007 I undertook research for this book in Syria, Iraq, Britain, France, Germany, and Switzerland, and I wish to thank those who facilitated my research in these places. In particular, I would like to extend my gratitude to those Kurds who consented to be inter- viewed, though sometimes under difficult circumstances. It was a pleasure working with the Routledge staff. In particular, Natalja Mortensen, editorial assistant, was an enthusiastic supporter from the very start and saw the work through the various stages of production. Finally, Emily Welle and Jane Welle have showed a great understanding, thanks to which they endeav- ored to translate and polish my long French sentences. I thank all of the above mentioned for their invaluable contribution and assis- tance. I alone am responsible for any and all flaws that remain. One of the maps contained in this book has previously appeared in other sources. I would like to thank the editors of Peter Lang for granting me permis- sion to draw from • Le mouvement kurde en exil. Continuités et discontinuités du nationalisme kurde sous le mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (1925–46). Map 1. Kurdish enclaves in Northern Syria, page 36. Copyright © Peter Lang, Bern, 2007. A note on transliteration With as much consistency as possible, I have used the system of transliteration adopted by the International Journal of Middle East Studies for Arabic. Diacritics have been reduced to a minimum. The article “al-” has been omitted from last names belonging to Kurds from Turkey exiled in Syria during 1920–1930s. The Kurdish alphabet established by Jaladat Badirkhan in 1932 has been used in some cases in order to make certain well-known Kurdish names understandable. Abbreviations AIR Air Ministry, National Archives, Kew, London CADN Archives diplomatiques, Nantes, France CO Colonial Office, National Archives, Kew, London FO Foreign Office, National Archives, Kew, London FONDS RONDOT Institut kurde de Paris, Paris MAE Ministère des affaires étrangères, Paris SAULCHOIR Archives dominicaines, Paris SHAT Service historique de l’armée de terre, Vincennes, France Frontispiece map 1 Kurdish enclaves in northern Syria Frontispiece map 2 Areas inhabited by Kurds Introduction The Syrian Kurds are rarely featured in the media. This is also true of academic research dedicated to Syria, even research on the Kurdish question. Most works concentrate on the Kurdish regions of Turkey, Iraq, and to a lesser degree, Iran.1 This is not only true for a specific period.