Gardner's Art Through the Ages

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Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 13e Chapter 10 The Roman Empire

Tuesday, October 9, 12 The Roman Empire A single government ruled First time in history Millions of people of different races, religions, languages, and cultures: Britons and Gauls, Greeks and Egyptians, Africans and Syrians, Jews and Christians. Roman monuments of art and architecture are the most numerous of all the remains of ancient civilization. In Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, Roman temples and basilicas serve as modern churches. The concrete vaults of ancient Roman buildings form the cores of modern houses, stores, restaurants, factories, and museums.

The center of the Roman Empire was the city on the Tiber River that, according to legend, Romulus and his twin brother Remus founded on April 21, 753 BCE. Rome then consisted only of small huts clustered together on hill overlooking marshland. In the Archaic period, Rome was essentially an Etruscan city, both politically and culturally.

Roman amphitheaters Held bullﬁghts, sporting events, operas, and now, rock concerts.

Concepts of law and government, languages, and the calendar are still alive in Rome today.

Art was used primarily for propaganda, to make the leaders appear better off than they actually were Tuesday, October 9, 12 An Outline of Roman History

MONARCHY ( 753– 509 BCE) Latin and Etruscan kings ruled Rome from the city’s founding by Romulus and Remus until the revolt against Tarquinius Superbus ( exact dates of rule unreliable).

Tuesday, October 9, 12 An Outline of Roman History

MONARCHY ( 753– 509 BCE) Latin and Etruscan kings ruled Rome from the city’s founding by Romulus and Remus until the revolt against Tarquinius Superbus ( exact dates of rule unreliable).

Tuesday, October 9, 12 An Outline of Roman History

MONARCHY ( 753– 509 BCE) Latin and Etruscan kings ruled Rome from the city’s founding by Romulus and Remus until the revolt against Tarquinius Superbus ( exact dates of rule unreliable).

REPUBLIC ( 509– 27 BCE) The Roman Republic lasted from the expulsion of Tarquinius Super-bus until the bestowing of the title of Augustus on Octavian, the grand- nephew of Julius Caesar and victor over Mark Antony in the civil war that ended the Republic. Some major ﬁgures were Marcellus, b. 268(?), d. 208 BCE, consul Marius, b. 157, d. 86 BCE, consul Sulla, b. 138, d. 79 BCE, consul and dictator Pompey, b. 106, d. 48 BCE, consul Julius Caesar, b. 100, d. 44 BCE, consul and dictator Mark Antony, b. 83, d. 30 BCE, consul Tuesday, October 9, 12 EARLY EMPIRE ( 27 BCE– 96 CE) The Early Empire began with the rule of Augustus and his Julio- Claudian successors and continued until the end of the Flavian dy-nasty. Selected emperors and their dates of rule ( with names of the most inﬂuential empresses in parentheses) were Augustus ( Livia), r. 27 BCE– 14 CE Tiberius, r. 14– 37 Caligula, r. 37– 41 Claudius ( Agrippina the Younger), r. 41– 54 Nero, r. 54– 68 Vespasian, r. 69– 79 Titus, r. 79– 81 Domitian, r. 81– 96

HIGH EMPIRE ( 96– 192 CE) The High Empire began with the rule of Nerva and the Spanish emperors, Trajan and Hadrian, and ended with the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty. The emperors ( and empresses) of this period were Nerva, r. 96– 98 Trajan ( Plotina), r. 98– 117 Hadrian ( Sabina), r. 117– 138 Antoninus Pius ( Faustina the Elder), r. 138– 161 Marcus Aurelius ( Faustina the Younger), r. 161– 180 Lucius Verus, coemperor with Marcus Aurelius, r. 161– 169 Commodus, r. 180– 192

LATE EMPIRE ( 193– 337 CE) The Late Empire began with the Severan dynasty and included the so- called soldier emperors of the third century, the tetrarchs, and Constantine, the ﬁrst Christian emperor. Selected emperors ( and empresses) were Septimius Severus ( Julia Domna), r. 193– 211 Caracalla ( Plautilla), r. 211– 217 Severus Alexander, r. 222– 235 Trajan Decius, r. 249– 251 Trebonianus Gallus, r. 251– 253 Diocletian, r. 284– 305 Constantine I, r. 306– 337 EARLY EMPIRE (27 BCE– 96 CE) The Early Empire began with the rule of Augustus and his Julio- Claudian successors and continued until the end of the Flavian dy-nasty. Selected emperors and their dates of rule ( with names of the most inﬂuential empresses in parentheses) were Augustus (Livia), r. 27 BCE– 14 CE Tiberius, r. 14– 37 Caligula, r. 37– 41 Nero, r. 54– 68 Vespasian, r. 69– 79 Titus, r. 79– 81 Domitian, r. 81– 96

Tuesday, October 9, 12 EARLY EMPIRE ( 27 BCE– 96 CE) The Early Empire began with the rule of Augustus and his Julio- Claudian successors and continued until the end of the Flavian dy-nasty. Selected emperors and their dates of rule ( with names of the most inﬂuential empresses in parentheses) were Augustus ( Livia), r. 27 BCE– 14 CE Tiberius, r. 14– 37 Caligula, r. 37– 41 Claudius ( Agrippina the Younger), r. 41– 54 Nero, r. 54– 68 Vespasian, r. 69– 79 Titus, r. 79– 81 Domitian, r. 81– 96

HIGH EMPIRE ( 96– 192 CE) The High Empire began with the rule of Nerva and the Spanish emperors, Trajan and Hadrian, and ended with the last emperor of the Antonine dynasty.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Pompeii was an ancient Roman city Buried by a volcanic eruption. 2000 years later, archaeologists uncovered the city. The people in ancient Pompeii did not have a chance to escape. When archaeologists dug out the city they found bread still in the ovens that had been baking that day. From this, archaeologists have been able to learn a lot about the people of this time 10.1 The Republic (509-27 B.C.)

Tuesday, October 9, 12 REPUBLIC In 509 BCE Romans overthrew Tarquinius Superbus last of Rome’s Etruscan kings established a constitutional government.

The new Roman Republic put power mainly in a senate (, “ a council of elders,” senior citizens) in two elected consuls. All leaders came originally from wealthy landowners later also came from the plebeian (lower social class) class of small farmers, merchants, and freed slaves.

The descendants of Romulus conquered Rome’s neighbors one by one: the Etruscans and the Gauls to the north the Samnites and the Greeks to the south. Roman Architectural Innovations

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Architecture 211 BCE turning point for Rome and for Roman art.

Marcellus conqueror of the wealthy Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse brought back to Rome the usual spoils of war— arms and armor, gold and silver coins also brought back the city’s craze for Greek works of art

As Roman expansion grew, they saw more and more Greek art and architecture Greece became a Roman province in 146 BCE Figure 10-2 Model of the city of Rome during the early fourth century CE. Museo della Civiltà Romana. 1) Temple of Portunus,, 2) Circus Maximus. 3) Palatine Hill, 4) Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 5) Pantheon, 6) Column of Trajan, 7) Forum of Trajan, 8) Markets of Trajan, 9) Forum of Julius Ceasar, 10) Forum of Augustus, 11) Forum Romanum, 12) Basilica Nova, 13) Arch of Titus, 14) Temple of Venus and Roma, 15) Arch of Constantine, 16) Colossus of Nero, 17) Colosseum.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 By the time of Constantine The city of Rome was packed with temples, forums, triumphal arches, theaters, baths, racetracks, aqueducts, markets, private homes, and apartment houses.

Figure 10-2 Model of the city of Rome during the early fourth century CE. Museo della Civiltà Romana. 1) Temple of Portunus 2) Circus Maximus 3) Palatine Hill 4) Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 5) Pantheon 6) Column of Trajan 7) Forum of Trajan 8) Markets of Trajan 9) Forum of Julius Ceasar 10) Forum of Augustus 11) Forum Romanum 12) Basilica Nova 13) Arch of Titus 14) Temple of Venus and Roma 15) Arch of Constantine 16) Colossus of Nero 17) Colosseum. Figure 10-3 Temple of Portunus (Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”), Rome, Italy, ca. 75 BCE.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 TEMPLE OF PORTUNUS, ROME Temple on the east bank of the Tiber Known as the Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Eclectic combination of Etruscan and Greek ideas.

Pseudoperipteral Building with free standing columns in the front The columns along the sides are engaged in the walls of the building. Ionic columns

Dedicated to Portunus Roman god of harbors. Etruscan with a high podium and a ﬂight of steps only at the front. Free-standing columns are only on the porch. Built of stone, originally covered with stucco to imitate Greek marble. Columns are Ionic ﬂutes and bases Matching Ionic frieze. Figure 10-4 Temple of Vesta (?), Tivoli, Italy, early first century BCE.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 TEMPLE OF VESTA, TIVOLI The Romans’ create of a typeof temple not known in Etruscan architecture — round, or tholos, temple.

At Tivoli (ancient Tibur) dramatic site overlooking a deep canyon. The temple is circular in plan Standard for shrines of Vesta (the goddess of the hearth and household) Has travertine Corinthian columns. The frieze is carved with garlands held up by ox heads. The high podium can onlybe reached only by a narrow stairway leading to the cella door. Built the cella with a new Roman invention: concrete. Figure 10-5 Restored view of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy, late second century BCE (John Burge).

Tuesday, October 9, 12 SANCTUARY OF FORTUNA, PALESTRINA Built in the late second century BCE. Most impressive and innovative use of concrete during the Republic was in the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia Goddess of good fortune. Used concrete barrel vaults for terraces, ramps, shops, and porticos spread out over several levels. A tholos temple was on the top of it all. Growing dominance of Rome in the world. Barrel Vault

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Roman Concrete Construction Romans developed concrete construction Revolutionized architectural design. Made from a recipe of lime, volcanic sand, water, and small stones (caementa - cement). Builders placed the mixture in wooden frames and left it to dry. When the concrete hardened, they removed the wooden molds Lots of strength, but was very rough. Often covered the rough concrete with stucco or with marble facing. Took a lot of work, but actually cost less than using solid stone

Barrel Vaults Also called the tunnel vault Extension of a simple arch.

Stone arches had some disadvantages. If a single block of stone comes loose, the whole vault may collapse. Stone barrel vaults can be lit only by light coming from the end of the tunnel.

Using concrete Windows can be added at any point.

Whether made of stone or concrete, barrel vaults require buttressing so that they do not push outwards. Groin Vault

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Groin Vaults formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Appear lighter than the barrel vault Needs less buttressing. The barrel vault’s push outward is along the entire length of the supporting wall. The groin vault’s push, is concentrated along the groins, the lines where two barrel vaults meet Buttressing is needed only where the groins meet the vault’s vertical supports, usually columns. Tuesday, October 9, 12 Groin Vaults formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. Appear lighter than the barrel vault Needs less buttressing. The barrel vault’s push outward is along the entire length of the supporting wall. The groin vault’s push, is concentrated along the groins, the lines where two barrel vaults meet Buttressing is needed only where the groins meet the vault’s vertical supports, usually columns. Hemispherical Domes

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Hemispherical Domes Used concrete to construct hemispherical (1/2 a sphere) domes Usually rested on concrete cylinders (called drums)

Stone domes, like stone vaults, cannot have windows without possibly collapsing.

Concrete domes can be opened up Sometimes have an oculus (“eye”) Allows light in Sculpture and Republican Naturalism

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Sculpture Nearly all the builders of Republican temples and sanctuaries were men from old and distinguished families. Often were generals who used what they took from wars to pay for public works. They kept (images) of their ancestors in wooden cupboards in their homes Paraded them at the funerals of their relatives. Portraiture was one way the higher class showed that it was better than everyone else. Figure 10-7 Head of an old man, from Osimo, mid-first century BCE. Marble, life-size. Palazzo del Municipio, Osimo.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 VERISM (Realism, Naturalism) Portraits were almost always men (some women) of old age. Veristic (superrealistic) portraits The sculptor of this head recorded every detail of the old man’s face. These patricians (aristocrats) did not ask sculptors to make them appear more ideal or more noble than they were. They requested brutally realistic images This was the tradition of household images.

The man here is a patrician (aristocat) from Osimo. Dont know who he is Could be trying to make a statement about personality serious, experienced, determined, loyal to family and state.

Romans believed the head alone was enough to make a portrait. 10-7A Man with portrait busts of his ancestors, from Rome, late first century BCE. Marble, 5’ 5” high. Musei Capitolini–Centro Montemartini, Rome.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Figure 10-8 Portrait of a Roman general, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble, 6’ 2” high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 TIVOLI GENERAL Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable Portraits were always full length. portrait of a general Based on idealized Greek statues of heroes and athletes The man’s head is very realistic. Odd combination is typical of Republican art. Heads and bodies that didn’t go together were made together

General found at Tivoli. Cuirass (leather breastplate) at his side Serves as a prop for the heavy marble statue Emblem of his rank. The general does not appear as he would in life. Old man’s head on a young man’s body Art for Former Slaves

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Freed slaves wanted to become part of Roman society Commissioned funeral work that that stressed their new social status as freed slaves The work for former slaves did not adhere to the classical rules of illustration established by Greek art Figure 10-9 Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome(?), Italy, ca. 30 BCE. Marble, approx. 2’ 1 1/2” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 NONELITE PORTRAITURE Slaves and former slaves could not possess any family portraits Under Roman law, their parents and grandparents were property not people Roman freedmen (freed slaves) often placed reliefs showing themselves and their former owners on the facades of their tombs. The portraits and inscriptions celebrated their freedom and new status as citizens.

Art for Former Slaves Slavery was common in Rome. Researchers estimate that Italy had two million slaves Roughly one slave for every three citizens. The very rich might own hundreds of slaves All but the very poor owned slaves Owning slaves was so much part of Roman society When slaves were freed by their masters, they would become slave owners.

Some slaves gained freedom incredible service. Others were freed in their masters’ wills. Most slaves died as slaves in service to their original or new owners. Figure 10-9 Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome(?), Italy, ca. 30 BCE. Marble, approx. 2’ 1 1/2” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Stone reliefs were regularly made on the front of their tombs. One of these reliefs depicts three people, all named Gessius. At the left is Gessia Fausta, at the right Gessius Primus. Both are the freed slaves of Publius Gessius, the free citizen in the center, shown wearing a general’s cuirass (piece of armor) shown in the Republican veristic (naturalistic) fashion.

As slaves this couple had no legal standing. They were the property of Publius Gessius. After they were freed, they became people by law.

This carving shows their new status as legal members of Roman society Also shows their gratitude to Publius Gessius for granting them that status. Figure 10-9 Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome(?), Italy, ca. 30 BCE. Marble, approx. 2’ 1 1/2” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 The two former slaves use their owner’s name We don’t know if they are sister and brother or wife and husband.

The inscriptions on the relief explicitly state that the monument was paid for with funds from the will of Gessius Primus Work was directed by Gessia Fausta Only survivor of the three. Depicts the living and the dead side by side Figure 10-10 Relief with funerary procession, from Amiternum, Italy, second half of first century BCE. Limestone, 2’ 2” high. Museo Nazionale d’Abruzzo, L’Aquila.

Tuesday, October 9, 12 Procession of mourners and musicians In honor of a dead freedman Deceased’s wife and children. Has figures standing on floating ground lines. The sculptor ignored the rules of Classical art. The deceased is laid out on a bier (movable frame) Canopy as a backdrop Like the figures on Greek Geometric vases.

The dead man props himself up as if still alive. This may be an efﬁgy (model of a person) like the ﬁgures on the lids of Etruscan sarcophagi May not be the dead man himself.

The artist placed the ﬁgures wherever they ﬁt As long as they were visible. Tuesday, October 9, 12 Gaius Julius Caesar (13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) Roman general Wrote Latin prose.

In 60 BC Caesar entered into a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey dominated Roman politics for several years. Attempted to gain power through populist (the will of the people) tactics were opposed within the Roman Senate by the conservative elite

Conquered Gaul by 51 BC extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Became the first Roman general to cross both Built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain. Unmatched military power.

Crassus dies in 53 BC, which gives Caesar even more power Standoff between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar is ordered by the senate to stand trial in Rome for various charges Caesar marched from Gaul to Italy with his men, crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC. Started a civil war from which he emerged as the leader of the Roman world.