ROMAN EMPIRE Overview

Monarchy and Republic 753-27 BCE High Empire 96-192ce

● Republican architects mix Hellenistic and Etruscan Features ● Trajan extends the Empire and builds a new forum in Rome ● Republican sculptors depict patricians in super realistic portraits ● Hadrian builds the Pantheon ● Republican painters decorate walls in the first and second styles ● Domination of the classical style erodes under the Antonines

Augustus 27BCE-14CE Late Empire 192-337 ce

● Augustan artists and architects revive the Classical Style ● Late Antique style takes root under the Severans ● Augustan painters introduce the 3rd style of pompeian painting ● Portraits of soldier emperors reveal the insecurity of the age ● Constantine founds a new Rome at Constantinople Julio-Claudians and Flavians 14-96 CE

● Neronian and Flavian architects realize the full potential of Concrete ● Neronian painters develop the 4th style of Pompeian wall painting

Rome

● Roman empire had millions of people within its borders of many races, religions, languages, and cultures. Rome is an ancient approximation to the modern world in this regard ● Citizen and non citizen culture, Rome required labor, slaves, and soldiers to fuel it’s expanse, Soldiers over time became non citizens just by the sheer numbers of necessity Rome

● Many roman temples and basilicas have an afterlife as churches and mosques today. ● Concrete made the Roman scale of conquest possible, making large roads, apartment buildings, amphitheatres, aqueducts ● Ancient Rome lives on in western civilization today, concepts of law and government, languages, Latin, is the basis of Italian, French, and Spanish. ● You could trace the urban world’s appearance in the modern world to Rome’ s most important invention, Concrete, The Romans used Volcanic Ash and Lime. (the powder, not the fruit.) ● Rome city was founded on the Tiber river and started as a city state in the same way Egyptian, Greek, and Mesopotamian City States did. It expanded past the scale of any other empire and lasted 1000 years. Republic (Rome)

● In 509 BCE Romans overthrew Tarquinius Superbus the last of the Etruscan Kings, and established a constitutional government. ● Rome Founded a Senate, (Latin, A council of Elders), Rome would mostly be governed by this assembly in good times, ● Under extraordinary circumstances, when the senate broke down, a dictator could be appointed for a limited time and only for a specific purpose ● All leaders came from the patrician class of wealthy land owners, who made dedicated their lives to Roman State service ● Plebeians were the commoners, and were not Roman Citizens, this became a problem. Republic (Rome)

● Plebs vs Patricians. ○ This became a very large problem because Romans did not care about money, wealth was a spoil of Power and Honor. ○ Plebs could become wealthy through innovation and commerce. ○ This inequality could be said destabilized the empire by the Late empire period, with the rise of other religions that competed with traditional pantheon of gods. Causing the Civil Wars of Late Empire of 306-398 CE. This inequality can parallel today with income/wealth inequality of the 21st century. ○ https://youtu.be/6Xa9T2OMzmw ○ Republic (Rome)

● In 211 BCE, Marcellus the conqueror of the Sicilian Greek City of Syracuse, brought back Greek art along with the usual spoils of war, This started the craze of Greek inspired sculpture, Painting, and Architecture ● Romans Developed an insatiable taste for Greek Antiques, Rome melded Greek and Etruscan traditions together for their own style ● Republic Architecture

Temple of Portunus, Rome, 75 BCE

Mixing of Greek Columns, Entablature, Frieze components, with Etruscan Plan/Layout.

Etruscan, Staircase, Deep porch, enter from one direction. Republic Architecture

● Temple of Vesta, Tivoli, Italy 100 BCE ● Love of Greek antiquity Architecture brought the Tholos or round temple to Rome. ● Travertine Marble, Corinthian Columns ● Romans did not make this all out of stone, they used concrete fill with brick and veneer. Republic Architecture

Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy.

● Largest, Most impressive use of concrete in the Republic era, ● For the goddess of good fortune ● Had many terraces, multiple tiers, with a tholos on top. ● Republic Architecture https://youtu.be/UYtIFM1ek_M https://youtu.be/lND7_c6my30

● Barrel Vaults, An extension of a simple arch, concrete fill walls for buttresses, Concrete fill walls provided the ability to add windows at any point in the tunnel. ● Groin Vaults(Cross) vault is formed by the intersection of two Barrel vaults at right angles, they were lighter and needed less buttressing. being suported by more arches. ● Hemispherical Domes Largest dome space in the ancient world, Use of concrete made these much larger than Mycenaean corbeled stone counterparts, Oculus (EYE LATIN) at top provided illumination in the dome interior. Roman Ancestor Portraits Patrician Order

Man with Portrait busts of his ancestors, Rome Italy 100 BCE

Patricians were separated by the Plebeians by their family wealth and ancestry. Iconography of their ancestors was prevalent in sculpture and painting. Proof they were citizens and important.

Story of Marius, a renowned Republican General, who lacked a long genealogy. His patrician colleagues in the Senate mocked him as a man with no imagines (portrait masks), he said, his battle scars were his imagines, the proof of his nobility. This class distinction and hyper intense quest for nobility was the driving force of Rome. Patrician Imagines (Portrait Masks)

Polybius, 200BCE

For whenever one of the leading men dies… they place a likeness of the dead man in the most public part of the house, keeping it in a small wooden shrine. The likeness is a mask especially made for a close resemblance… And whenever a leading member of the family dies, they introduce wax masks into the funeral procession, putting them on men who seem most like them in height and as regards the rest of their general appearance… It is not easy for an ambitious and high minded young man to see a finer spectacle than this. For who would not be won over at the sight of all the masks together of those men who had been extolled for virtue as if they were alive and breathing.” Patrician Imagines (Portrait Masks)

● Portraiture was a way that Patricians celebrated and extended their power in Roman Society. ● Verism/Veristic (superrealism) ● These likenesses were reserved for elders who held power in the Republic ● The patricians requested not an idealized likeness, rather veristic portraits that captured the detailed likeness, a true memorial of the person. ● Imagine the heads a person had in their portrait room projected the power of the living generation. ● Think of the Bush Family, Clinton Family today. A divide between Political and Commercial power. This dynamic is as old as the Roman Empire ● https://youtu.be/yFY7n-UxMQE ● Patrician Imagines (Portrait Masks)

Portrait of a Roman general, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Trivoli Italy 75 BCE.

● The Osimo Head, (Previous slide) Illustrated the roman’s belief that the head was enough (bust) to capture the likeness ● Ancient Greeks believed the whole body was necessary. ● A mixture of heads veristic along with bodies that were idealized greek like were placed in juxtaposition ● This happened in referencing greek art. ● https://youtu.be/T0fq3XFfxrY ● Veristic Portraits

Pompey the Great, ca 55-50 BCE Veristic Portraits

Julius Caesar Julius Caesar

● 1st Century BCE The roman desire to advertise the distinguished ancestry led to the placement of portraits of illustrious forebearers on Republican minted coins. ● No Roman even considered this (Pompey the great didn’t and he compared himself to alexander the great.) ● 44BCE Julius Caesar did this shortly before his assassination on the ides of march, featured his portrait and his new title of DICTATOR PERPETUO (dictator for life). ● Denarius was the standard roman silver coin, the term penny drives from this name. ● Caesar’s aging face and receding hairline coincides with the Veristic tradition ● Placing the likeness of a living person on a coin violated all norms of Republican convention. ● https://youtu.be/oPf27gAup9U ● Pompeii /Architecture Amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy 70 BCE

● Pompeii was a city that August 24, 79 Ce Mount Vesuvius erupted and were buried in volcanic ash, most of the city’s residents along with other towns in the area died and were buried in hot ash. ● Emperor Titus (79-81ce) was seen as not favored by the gods between this event and the fire of Rome 80ce, which lasted 3 days and nights. Titus used the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater (later known as the Colosseum) to garner support with the citizenry. 100 days of gladiatorial contest games were staged with the most famous battle between Verus and Priscus, where both men fought so well that they were both awarded wooden swords and their freedoms. ● Titus was blood thirsty. Story has Verus being used at a party where he had to fight a surprise duel. Then titus ordered the death of the loser in front of bloodthirsty wealth patricians. Verus was a slave, who worked 10 months at a rock quarry before picking a fight with Priscus to garner attention of a gladiator training school. Pompeii /Architecture

Amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy 70 BCE

"As Priscus and Verus each drew out the contest and the struggle between the pair long stood equal, shouts loud and often sought discharge for the combatants. But Titus obeyed his own law (the law was that the bout go on without shield until a finger be raised). What he could do, he did, often giving dishes and presents. But an end to the even strife was found: equal they fought, equal they yielded. To both Titus sent wooden swords and to both palms. Thus valor and skill had their reward. This has happened under no prince but you, Titus: two fought and both won." Pompeii /Architecture Amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy 70 BCE

● Quinctius Valgus and Marcus Porcius, used thier own funds to build a large amphitheater, the earliest known, it could seat 20,000 spectators more than the entire population of the town ● Amphitheater means double theater, resembles two greek theaters together forming a circle or ellipse ● Greeks performed plays in their theaters ● Romans Staged bloody Gladiatorial contests in theirs ● Mock Naval battles later in the Colosseum ● Exotic animals were found, captured, and trained by animal tamers to attack, mutilate, and eat people as part of the performance. Lions, tigers, etc were skittish in front of large crowds, if they didn't do their job, it would mean the execution of the animal tamer in front of the mob. The Story of Verus and Priscus freedom began in the day with a failed animal battle and the execution of the tamer. Pompeii /Architecture Amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy 70 BCE

● Concrete made this construction possible of a consistent elliptical rise, making the seating rows ● Shallow concrete barrel vaults form a giant retaining wall holding up the earthen mound and concrete seating ● Arena is latin for sand, used for soaking up the blood of the wounded and killed ● However of note, it was a misnomer that all gladiators died, 90 percent of those fought and lost were spared their lives. They were expensive to train, and there were gladiator clubs, like football clubs, where the better ones were pricier than the worse ones, they were bought and sold and traded. Much like professional sports today. Think of a cross between a pop star doing a private performance and Lebron James or Steph Curry. Patrician Women in relaxed social constraints either widowers or divorced would regularly pay large sums of money to bed famous gladiators. They were the Pop stars of the time. Famous, but not powerful Amphitheater

Brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater, wall painting from house, Pompeii, Italy 60 ce.

● found in one of Pompeii’s houses records a brawl that occurred in the amphitheater during a gladiatorial contest ● The fighting between the Pompeians and the Nucerians left many wounded and led to the closing of the amphitheater for a decade. ● Scene depict ceiling canopy and double staircase ● Pompeii Architecture

Atrium of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy. 62 CE

● One of the best preserved houses at Pompeii, rebuilt by the italian excavators ● Impluvium center of the atrium ● roof opening ● the peristyle garden outside ● Owned by Aulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva, who were freedmen making their fortune as merchants ● Plebeians made money by this time but were not stately like the patrician class. It was said to truly be wealthy in the empire one had to afford an army. Roman House

The house played a role in societal rituals,

● individuals were bound to others in a patron client relationship, where a better educated, wealthier, more powerful patronus would protect the interests of a cliens. ● The size of a patron’s clientele was on measure of his standing in society. ● https://youtu.be/gDiqKUzSeZM ● Painting

First Style wall painting in the fauces of the Samnite House, Herculaneum, Italy 100 bce

● Buon fresco, True frescos, these were paintings applied to wet plaster. ● August Mau (1840-1909) was a german art historian who turned attention to the painting in compositional styles, dividing them into 4 pompeian styles ● This was an important contribution in studying roman frescos and is used to this day Painting

First Style wall painting in the fauces of the Samnite House, Herculaneum, Italy 100 bce

● First style was used by a decorator to imitate costly marble panels using painted stucco relief ● like today using cost effective materials, laminates, to make something look like an exotic/expensive material ● Second Style

Dionysiac mystery frieze, second style wall painting in the room of the villa of the mysteries, pompeii, ca 50 ce.

● The painters aim was not to replicate a extravagant surface, rather it was to dissolve a room’s confining walls and replace them with the illusion of an imaginary 3-D World ● Dionysiac mystery frieze was used to celebrate in private the rites of the greek god Dionysus/Bacchus. a religious cult of the time ● Scene is on a shallow ledge. which human and divine actors move around the room. Second style

Gardenscape, Second Style, Villa of Livia,Primaporta, Italy 30 BCE

● Villa of the emperor Augustus’s third wife Livia. ● Barrel Vaulted Room, painters decorated all four walls with a gardenscape ● Architectural detail is the fence surrounding the garden ● The painter employed atmospheric perspective which the illusion of depth is achieved by the increasingly blurred appearance of objects in the distance Third Style

Villa of Agrippa Postumus, boscotrecase, Italy 10 BCE

● Painters Adorned the walls with delicate linear fantasies sketched on Predominantly monochromatic backgrounds ● Thin Stately columns supporting a feather light canopy/pediment ● A tiny floating landscape is in the center ● Noted opponent of this style was vitruvius, famed augustan architect/critic. ● “Ten books on architecture” ● Fourth Style

Ixion Room, House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy 70 CE

● Taste for illusion returned ● crowded and complex multicolor composition. ● Fragmented architectural representation ● Like the second with color, but fragmented. Wall mosaics

Neptune and Amphitrite, wall mosaic in the summer triclinium Herculaneum, Italy 79 CE

Would decorate walls the same as fresco paintings using small rocks/stones. Private Portraits

Portrait of a husband and wife, wall paining from House VII Pompeii, Italy 70 CE

● Portrait scenes of the homeowners were commissioned by patrons. ● Formed part of a 4th style Fresco ● Scroll and stylus suggest the fine education of those depicted even if the people were minimally educated or illiterate. ● Wealthy today decorate using books bought by the foot in the same manner as wall frescos in rome. Still life painting

Still life with Peaches, detail of a fourth style wall painting Herculaneum Italy 62 CE

● Shadows, highlights on fruit ● Glass is depicted as transparent. ● This is unprecedented and there are very few examples of roman still life paintings, and none after until the 17th century dutch vanitas paintings Early Empire

Portrait of Augustus as General, 1st century ce.

● Julius Caesar was murdered during the ides of march 44 BCE. ● Civil war ensued between factions supporting Mark Antony and Octavian. ● Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra alliance and became master of the Mediterranean world at 32 years old ● The rule of elders Senate came to an end after a 500 year run ● He was proclaimed a god at death, though he never referred to himself as a god, he said he was the son of one. ● His portraiture retained a persistent youthfulness (like egypt) like a god emperor. ● This sculpture was made at the end of his life Early Empire Portraiture

Portrait bust of Livia, from Arsinoe, Egypt early first century ce.

● Powerful women had the same treatment. Such as Livia, Wife of Octavian (Augustus) ● Blemish free, never aging, reminiscent of greek and egyptian sculpture ● Livia was 87 when this bust was produced. ● Her hair would change thru the time, but her face would stay the same ● Early Empire

Ara Pacis Augustae (altar of the augustan peace), Rome, Italy 13-9 BCE

● Monument celebrating the emporer’s most significant achievement, the establishment of peace. Rome had been in turmoil since Julius Caesar civil war with Pompey. ● When Augustus came to rule, peace and stability had been in Rome for his entire reign. 17 years. ● This peace allowed Rome to build very large public works projects ● https://youtu.be/kiMNT18c4Ko ● Early Empire

Female Personification, panel on the east facade of the ara pacis, Rome 13- 9 bce

● On Livia’s birthday in 9 Bce the senate dedicated the Ara Pacis Augustae (altar of the Pax Augusta (augustan peace) celebrating the lasting peace ● Figurative reliefs adorn the altar marble precinct walls. Four panels on east and west depict selected mythological subjects ● Aeneas son of venus making a sacrifice, Augustus claimed lineage to Aeneas ● Early Empire

Procession of the imperial family detail south frieze Ara Pacis, Rome 13-9bce

● Processions of the imperial family and important dignitaries appear on the long north and south sides. ● Roman procession is different than greek procession ● Greek processions/parthenon example anonymous figures act out an event that recurred every four years, the frieze stands for all panathenaic festival processions ● Ara Pacis depicts a specific event the inaugural ceremony of 13bce the date construction began.. Specific dates and history. Early Empire

Procession of the imperial family detail south frieze Ara Pacis, Rome 13-9bce

● Children were presented because of a concern that birth rates would drop among roman nobility ● Augustus enacted a series of laws designed to promote marriage, marital fidelity, and raising children ● Portrayal of men with their families on the altar of peace served as an moral example ● The emperor used relief sculpture to further political and social agendas Early Empire (Augustus)

Forum of Augustus

● Most ambitious project of Emperor Augustus, Form of Augustus built next to the forum of Julius Caesar ● The temples and porticos were of white marble from Carrara ● marble had to be imported at great cost from outside Italian peninsula ● Augustus found marble which led to a famous boast in history that Augustus Found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. ● Used classical athens, Caryatids copied from the acropolis were used. ● Early Empire

Maison Carree, Nimes France 1-10CE

● The Forum of Augustus is in ruins today, but historians belive that the same stone masons were employed for the square house in Nimes Fance ● Best example of augustan classicisn in architecture as written by Vitruvius 10 books on Architecture ● Vitruvius was and architecture architect and critic who set a lot of standards of early empire classical architecture

Early Empire

Pont du Gard, Nimes France ca 16 CE

● Civil projects, an aqueduct carrying large volumes of water from a source outside the city into the city. brick layed vaulted arches are able to span a wide river/hills to bring clean water to an urban area. ● This aqueduct provided 100 gallons a day per inhabitant of Nimes from a water source 30 miles away from the city. ● https://youtu.be/zQqtiwIq9gw ● Early Empire

Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy 50 CE

● The demand for water in the city sprung large many aqueduct projects in rome ● Porta Maggiore was a gate that sat at a point between two of rome’s water lines converged ● Porta Maggiore differed from early roman and greek architecture by using rustic looking blocks, (Not smooth) ● Early Empire

Nero’s Golden House

● Nero enacted a new building code requiring greater fireproofing after a fire destroyed large sections of rome. ● More concrete was used instead of wood. ● Concrete became more widespread and more opportunities for Roman Architects to explore the possibilities opened up by the still new building material ● The fire enabled nero to construct a new palace on a huge confiscated plot of fire ravaged land ● Fourth style frescoes adorned many of the walls ● Central octagonal hall is a dome that modulates from a octagon to a hemispherical roof with oculus. ● Early Empire

Flavian Amphitheater, (Colosseum) 70-80CE

● Project Devised by Father Vespasian and son Titus ● Flavian was a family name, Nero ended the reign of the Julio-claudian dynasty, Vespasian was a new emperor from the flavian family dynasty of rulers, with Titus, and Domitian. ● The Flavian Dynasty ruled for 25 years. ● Early Empire

Flavian Amphitheater, (Colosseum) 70-80CE

● The largest civil project completed by the Flavian dynasty was the Colosseum ● Most recognizable building of all ancient rome ● It was built on land that was confiscated by nero, bringing it back to the people, a political gesture. ● The name Colosseum takes its name from the location beside the Colossus of Nero ● Concrete made this project possible ● Used for gladitoral contests, animal fights, and mock naval battles, archaeologists proved the drainage system responsible for filling and draining the floor with water. Early empire https://youtu.be/xaSbYIeqGWg Flavian Portraiture

Portrait of Vespasian Marble 75 CE

● Aided by political reasons Vespasian wished to distance himself from the extravagance of Nero’s reign with simple portraiture, returning to the veristic tradition of sculpture ● Gone were the Augustan/Nero sculptures showing the emperor as godlike and eternally youthful ● Of note: Vespasian was a career soldier that came to power, was simpler and less patrican ● Flavian Sculpture

Portrait bust of a Flavian woman, Rome 90 Ce

● In republican rome only the elders were deemed important to record ● This return to Flavian verism that coincided with notions of beauty, like this woman wearing her hair in the style of the time ● The hair was modeled using a drill instead of a chisel, a new technique developed during this period Early Empire

Arch of Titus, Rome 81 CE

● Domitian erected a massive arch for his brother Titus who ruled rome for two years died 81 CE ● Triumphal arch has long history in Roman art and architecture ● Usually celebrated military victories, as well as domestic successes like the completion of roads, aqueducts, or other civil engineering projects ● The capitals are not greek, known as composite columns combining ionic and corinthian columns together as a roman mutation/invention ● https://youtu.be/2Pz_p8Tf24g ● ● ARCH OF TITUS ARCH OF TITUS High Empire

Timgad Algeria, Founded 100CE

● The roman empire reached the height of its power during the High Empire Period, 2nd century CE. ● Emprors of the Period Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Commodus ● Pax Romana was unpresedented within the boundaries of the empire despite pressure from the Berbers of Africa, the Germanic tribes of europe, the Parthians and the Persians in Asia Minor. ● https://youtu.be/a9OwBbKD0eQ ● High Empire

Timgad Algeria, Founded 100CE

● Emperor Domitian was like Nero in extravagance, the godlike power dynamic returned, he was addressed as dominus et deus (lord and god), ● Domitian was assassinated in 96 ce after making the senate angry with the crazy extravagance.. Romans didn't really tolerate the emperor grabbing too much power. It's a theme Julius Caesar in the republic period and Nero in the early empire period, Augustus did it but brought peace and was good as a executive. ● Nerva took over after Domitian but died after 16months, he picked Trajan as replacement before death. ● High Empire

Timgad Algeria, Founded 100CE

● Trajan was born in spain, the first non italian to rule rome. ● Under Trajan, more distant areas were brought under roman rule ● Imperial government took on ever greater responsibility for its people’s welfare ● farsighted social programs ● Trajan and Augustus are the yardsticks of successful emperors. ● felicior Augusto, melior Traiano (luckier than Augustus, better than Trajan. High Empire

Timgad Algeria, Founded 100CE

● Timgad was a new colony for army veterans ● Effort to push control on three continents ● Roman engineers laid the city out with remarkable precision ● Castrum layout (Roman military encampment) ● Unlike Rome and Pompeii which were sprawling, unplanned cities, Timgad showed a tight constraint of urban planning. ● It shows through aerial and satellite the city was a great success, it attracted colonists to break out of the original plan and grew seven times the original size around the orignal plan. High Empire

Forum of Trajan

● Trajan completed several major public works projects in Rome. ● He remodeled Circus Maximus ● https://youtu.be/aksOAH7dYsQ ● A bath house that was constructed on the site of Nero’s golden house ● Forum of Trajan, Double the size of Forum of Augustus In honor of victories of the Dacians in present day romania ● Spoils of war paid for this complex ● High Empire

Forum of Trajan

● Arch of Trajan, this was the front gate of the Forum of Trajan Complex, Honoring both the completion of the Forum project, and the military defeat of the Dacians ● https://youtu.be/y-IAOPxkNWo ● High Empire

Column of Trajan

● 128 feet tall ● Originally a nude of trajan was placed on top, the statue of St. Peter was placed in the 16th century. ● Served as the tombstone marker of Emperor Trajan ● A spiral register frieze is going the length up the column ● Commemoration of his expansion of the empire and military endeavors High Empire

Column of Trajan Detail. High Empire

Markets of Trajan, 100-112 CE

● Markets housed shops and administration offices ● Concrete made the massive multi tiers complex possible ● Apollodorus of Damascus is possibly the most famous of Rome’s architects and was a master of new building material, concrete, as well as stone/timber construction methods ● Stacked Groin vaults made the excess interior space possible ● https://youtu.be/z83guai4S68 ● High Empire

Markets of Trajan, 100-112 CE

Bust of Hadrian

● Hadrian was Trajan’s chosen successor ● Hadrian and Trajan were not born in rome rather were from spain, this time showed the transition of the empire being run by non romans. ● Hadrian was a lover and scholar of Greek sculpture and culture ● Trajan became emperor at 41 and ruled for 20 years. His sculptures follow a greek tradition, and as Augustus and Livia, he is depicted as always being a man in his 40’s ● closely resembles Kresilas portrait of Pericles High Empire

Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118-125CE

● Hadrian began work on the Pantheon which was a temple to all the gods. ● Became the most well preserved of Roman buildings of antiquity ● Dedicated the building to Marcus Agrippa, who had erected the previous pantheon ● This building displays the mastery of concrete, as this was the largest domed structure of the ancient world ● https://youtu.be/KaY8zqYfQI0 ● High Empire

Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118-125CE

Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, Italy 125-128CE

● Hadrian was an ameteur architect ● He became involved in the development of of his country villa he owned at Tivoli. ● One of the projects there was the construction of a pool and artificial grotto, called the Canopus and Serapeum ● https://youtu.be/Nu_6X04EGHk ● High Empire

AL-Khazneh, Petra, Jordan 2nd Century CE

● https://youtu.be/KOH3SVth0WU ● Example of “Roman Baroque Architecture” because of its similarities of 17th century Baroque architecture ● Tomb nicknamed Al-Khazneh (treasury) ● carved into the rockface. ● Tholos at the top, uses greek architectural vocabulary rearranged to create something Roman. High Empire

Model of an insula, 2nd century Italy

● Most common building for city planning during 2nd century Rome. ● Ground floor had shops, above as many as 4 floors of apartments ● Many were large and had frescos adorning the inside walls, these didn’t have the lgiht of earlier private domus. ● Instead of peristyles, insulae had narrow light wells or small courtyards in the center. ● Apartment windows faced the noisy street. ● Residents cooked food in the hallways. ● Only deluxe apartments had private toilets. Others shared toilets often on a different floor. ● https://youtu.be/o210B6c1Ha0 ● High Empire

Model of an insula, 2nd century Italy

Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus

● 138 CE, Hadrian adopted 51 year old Antoninus Pius, and required him to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, ensuring peaceful transitions of power in the empire. ● Two sides depicting the emperor and empress rising to the heavens. ● Columns were grave markers ● High Empire

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

● https://youtu.be/D4nK5uXuPXM ● Larger than life ● Super human appearance in comparison to other emperor portraits ● originally a cowering figure would be begging for mercy under the horses raised hoof ● This portrait survived melting down in medieval period because it was mistaken for emperor Constantine who was the first emperor who brought christianity to rome High Empire

Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman, 165-170 CE

● Eastern, greek style Sarcophagus found at Rapolla, in southern italy but manufactured in Asia Minor/Turkey ● Figures portrayed Venus, Helen of Troy. ● Carries on the tradition of Etruscan Sarcophagi High Empire

Mummy portrait of a priest of Serapis, Egypt Encaustic on Wood

ENCAUSTIC. Painting with molten wax. https://youtu.be/kYOQTUW-jW0 High Empire

Funeral portrait High Empire

Mummy of Artemidorus

● Rome reduced Egypt to a province in Emperor Augustus time, but during that time assimilated the conventions of burial and mummification. Late Empire

Painted portrait of Septimius Severus and his family, Egypt 200 CE

● The Severans, a family that rose to power after commodus death, African born general became master of the roman world. He rose to power after a bloody civil war ● The Severans kept peace and power for 50 years afterward ● Painted in Tempera (pigments and egg yolk) ● Showing similarity to Marcus Aurelius, Hair, Beard in attempt to project continuity ● Late Empire

Bust of Caracalla Marble Berlin

● Caracalla appears heroic and a baldric across chest, a belt strap for sword or other equipment ● Hair suggests a new style of grooming ● Brow is a new convention suggesting personality of energy and strength, along with suspicion/danger, he was murdered in the 6th year of his rule by an assassin ● Assassination would be common in the 3rd century CE. It was a turbulent time in roman politics ● Late Empire

Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya 203 CE https://youtu.be/jH0hNz0JnA4

● Lepcis Magna was in modern day libya and was the hometown of the Severan family ● Severans constructed a new harbor, new forum, basilica, arch, and other monuments. Late Empire

Carcalla bust.

● Severans were active builders in the capital of Rome. ● Late Empire

The baths of Carcalla, Rome Italy 212- 216 BCE https://youtu.be/pjLiQdI0U9I

● Bathing and recreational complexes were a hallmark of ancient rome ● Complex heated systems for hot rooms, and cold rooms, (caldarium, Frigidarium) ● an estimated 1600 bathers at a time could enjoy the baths ● https://youtu.be/q-32UWMCrtE ● Late Empire

The baths of Carcalla, Rome Italy 212- 216 BCE https://youtu.be/pjLiQdI0U9I

Portrait bust of Trajan Decius 249- 251CE

● Sculptors had tremendous projects during this period ● mint produced coins at large rates to pay troops with coinage stamped with the emperor’s likeness and not with his predecessor, a rival (civil war) ● Each new ruler of this period setup sculptures of their likeness to assert authority ● Portraiture is depicting worried expressions, similar to middle kingdom egypt, politically very unstable Late Empire

Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus Rome 251-253 CE

● Larger than Life sculpture ● Trebonianus only ruled for 2 years, stabbed to death ● showing heroic nude pose, similar to Trajan sculpture, (we did not see, was attached to the column of Trajan) ● Had the body of a wrestler, chunky, large legs, rather than the athletic, graceful greek style sculptures ● Projecting an image of brute force rather than harmony.. an attribute of politics of the time Late Empire

Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon 3rd century CE.

● Ignored every rule of classical design a hallmark of Roman Baroque ● scalloped edges, columns were a rare 5 sided corinthian column with pentagonal bases, an arch within the pediment. It was mixing around architectural forms and making new ones. ● Late Empire

Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon 3rd century CE.

Portraits of the four tetrarchs from constantinople, 300 CE

● Diocletian was proclaimed as emperor, decided to establish a tetrarchy, or a rule by 4 kings. ● Ruled for 25 years as 4 kings until Diocletian retired in 305 CE ● WIthout Diocletian, the 3 other kings fell back into civil war. ● This period saw the roman empire split into eastern and western halves, Western Empire was based in Rome while the eastern half was based in Syracuse, then Constantinople, as the Byzantine Empire lasting until 1453 CE Late Empire

Restored view of the palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia 298-306 CE

● The civil war between the three other kings lasted 20 years ● Constantine I became emperor ● Invaded italy in 312 CE he defeated and killed Maxentius and took control of the capital ● Constantine attributed the victory he had to a dream and vision brought to him by god to place crosses on the shields of his soldiers, he won, he later proclaimed the edict of Milan, granting Christianity an official Roman Religion and ending the persecution of Christians Late Empire

Arch of Constantine 312-315 CE

● the Senate erected a triple archway to commemorate Constantine the Great’s defeat of Maxentius. ● This arch was the largest built in rome since the end of the Severan dynasty ● Used Arches of Trajan and Hadrian as examples and used a lot of the same architectural devices ● Late Empire

Colossus of Constantine, 315-330 CE, Head is 8ft tall.

● His official portraits broke with tetrarchic tradition as well as those of the soldier emperors. ● https://youtu.be/MuD06cnjtAM ● Late Empire

Basilica Nova, Rome Italy 306-312 CE

● Constantine’s gigantic portrait sat in the western apse of the Basilica Nova, a massive christian church ● Lighting system was similar to clerestory lighting. Late Empire

Interior of the Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany 4th century CE.

● Constantine built a large basilica audience hall at his palace complex at the imperial city seat in Modern Germany ● Open wall plan, with clerestory arch lighting, concrete with brick facing, timber roof. ● Late Empire

Coins with portraits of Constantine 315 CE

● In this portrait he is rejecting the appearance of tetrarchic 4 king portraits of elder statesmen, He is young, he is uncontested as ruler. Showing yet another convention change in using visual art in aiding the politics of a ruler.