The Etruscans 8th to the 5th century B.C (900/700-500 B.C)

Triclinium – formal dining room

Interior of the Tomb of the Triclinium, from the , , , ca. 480–470 BCE Italy in Etruscan times

Important sites: Tarquinia Villanova Brief History

• The Etruscans occupied the region to the north of , in what is today known as (Central). • The Romans (still considered a tribe, yet the Empire it would become) were first a subject people of the Etruscans and later their conquerors. • The Etruscan culture was well-developed and advanced but distinctively different from the cultures of the other peoples in the region. This distinctive difference immediately led to the question of “where did the Etruscans originate?” Where did the Etruscans originate?

• Some held that the Etruscans came from Lydia, a kingdom of western Anatolia (or modern day Turkey). • In the 19th c, it was discovered that most of the languages of Europe belonged to one big language family called Indo- European but Etruscan was not one of them. – The is unique in the ancient Greco- Roman world. There are no known parent languages to Etruscan, nor are there any modern descendants. As Romans took control, Latin became the dominant language. – We have no surviving histories or literature in Etruscan. Science vs. Art

• The American Journal of Human • : 900-700 BC. Genetics reports finding 11 A culture of Northern Italy, they lineages of human mitochondrial were first identified by their DNA in Tuscany that occur in the cemeteries. They practiced Near East. cremation and buried the ashes • Mitochondrial DNA of cattle in of their dead in pottery urns of Tuscany were tested and were distinctive double-cone shape. genetically related to breeds of • These funerary practices appear cattle in the Near East. to be a part of the Urnfield culture (1350-750 BC) of central - • What these two studies indicate is eastern Europe which arrived in that there were some Near Northern Italy at the beginning of Eastern sources for the Etruscans the first millennium B.C. • The Villanovan Culture was influenced and displaced by the cultures of the Greeks and later the Etruscans

So the answer is – we don’t know! Evidence, both scientific and artistic, show a mix of cultures. Early

Fibula (pin) with Orientalizing lions, from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri, Italy, ca. 650– 640 BCE

Double-flute player, detail of a mural painting in the , Tarquinia, Italy, ca. 480-470 BCE Model of a typical sixth-century BCE Etruscan temple, as described by Vitruvius How does this temple differ from Greek temples? How does it differ from Roman temples? Etruscans would cremate bodies and then put the Sculpture ashes in life-size coffins. Sarcophagus with reclining couple, from Cerveteri, Italy, ca. 520 BCE.

The hair texture, the physical features allude to the Ancient Near East; the column on the coffin alludes to the Greeks. Etruscan Women • In both Greece and early Rome, respectable women were confined to the house; mixed-sex socializing did not occur. • The freedom of women within was misunderstood by Greeks & Romans as implying their sexual availability. • Also worth noting is that a number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form "X son of (father) and (mother)", indicating the importance of the mother's side of the family, unlike the Hegoso Stele.

520 BCE vs. 400 BCE (Etruscan left, Greek right) Necropolis

• Modern knowledge of Etruscan daily life is largely dependent on the numerous decorative details and finds from tombs. • The painted tombs of the aristocracy, as well as more simple ones, are extraordinary evidence of what objects cannot show: daily life, ceremonies and mythology as well as artistic abilities. • Two main sites: Cerveteri & Tarquinia Note the similarity to Greek tholos tombs CERVETERI

Tumuli (burial mound) in the Banditaccia necropolis, Cerveteri, Italy, seventh to second centuries BCE Plan of the Tomb of the Shields and Chairs, and interior view, Cerveteri, Italy, second half of the sixth century BCE

The plans of these tombs typically resembled wealthy houses of the time, which were not different for Romans than Etruscans. Here is another contrast with the Greeks who built stone temples but not tombs. The Etruscans built temples from wood and brick and tombs from stone. Interior of the Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri, Italy, third century BCE.

Objects include: weapons and domestic and religious items. Stools, mirrors, drinking cups, pitchers, and knives effectively suggest a domestic context. The tomb was a symbolic home for the afterlife Classical and Roman Etruscan Art

Capitoline Wolf, from Rome, Italy, ca. 500–480 BCE

Traditionally regarded as a symbol of Rome from ancient times Body of a lioness, with a tail that ends in a snake's head, the head of a goat is on her back at the center of her spine

Chimera of Arezzo, from Arezzo, Italy, first half of fourth century BCE

Inscribed on its right foreleg is an inscription believed to read TINSCVIL, showing that the was a votive object dedicated to the supreme Etruscan god of day, Tin or Tinia. Porta Marzia (Gate of ), , Italy, second century BCE This was an entry point into the city – defensive architecture once again. Aule Metele (Arringatore), from , near Lake Trasimeno, Italy, early first century BCE

Portrait of an orator.

Aule Metele wears the toga and boots of a Roman magistrate, but his name is Etruscan, as are those of his father and mother, included in inscriptions on his hem.

Most likely produced at about the time that Roman power and dominance over the Etruscans became total….. The Romans

Aquila – eagle – symbol of Roman legion (army soldier) SPQR – Senatus Populusque Romanesque The Roman World Roman History

• Rome was founded April 21, 753 BCE • 2 periods to Roman history: – Republic : 509-27 BCE – Empire: 27 BCE – 476 AD & (27 BCE – 1453 AD). The was a "multicultural" entity, stretching from Mesopotamia in the east to in the west, and from North Africa in the south to Britain in the north • During the Republic, the Romans developed a special interest in and taste for Greek art which continued through out the Empire. • Architecture, Engineering, City Planning: – Major Roman innovations: concrete, arch, dome, amphitheater – Column shafts are one piece (instead of stacked drums) – Temple architecture shows a blending of Etruscan and Greek features, and emphasizes the front of the building – Roman city planning: square plan with 2 main avenues that cross, 4 gates Roman Society

• Patricians and Plebeians were • Slaves were foreigners. the classes of free residents in – Roman slavery was not based . on race; they were prisoners of – The patricians were a war, sailors captured and sold hereditary aristocracy. by pirates, or individuals – The plebeians were peasants, bought outside Roman laborers, merchants, and territory. residents of Italian states • Women were not regarded as absorbed by Rome. equal to men before the law. – They received only a basic education, and were subject to the authority of a man. • Soldiers - The Roman Empire was created and controlled by its soldiers. – At the core of the army were its legions. Model of the city of Rome during the early 4th century CE 2) Circus Maximus. 3) Palatine Hill, 5) Pantheon, 6) Column of Trajan, 7) Forum of Trajan 10) Forum of , 11) Forum Romanum, 12) Basilica Nova, 13) Arch of Titus, 15) Arch of Constantine, 17) Colosseum. 22 Roman Religion

In Latin, religio means “something that binds.”

• State Worship – Romans had a set of public gods, such as Jupiter and Mars. State worship was much more formal: colleges of priests paid tribute to these gods on behalf of Rome itself.

• Cult worship:

– Each god needed an image – usually a statue or relief in stone or bronze – and an altar or temple at which to offer the prayers and sacrifices. – Approval from the gods did not depend on a person’s behavior, but on perfectly accurate observance of religious rituals. Roman Religion

• Judaism in Ancient Rome

Communities of Jews existed in cities throughout the Roman Empire for centuries. Written records tell us of brutal treatment in Alexandria and a revolt in Judaea led to the destruction of the temple

• Rise of Christianity

New religion is established in the 1st c AD. Jesus’ message of eternal life and hope was spread across the empire by missionaries such as Paul.

Christians and Jews in Rome (and the larger Empire) suffered persecution; Christianity eventually conquers Rome itself. Roman architecture is based on Greek Temples principles, however, the Romans deviated quite a bit and allowed for more freedom in shape and size.

Temple of Vesta (?), Tivoli, Italy, early first century BCE

Temple of (Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”), Rome, Italy, ca. 75 BCE Sculpture and Republican Verism

Verism is the emphasizing of realistic elements, such as scars or wrinkles, and was used in Roman portraiture. It can also be described as “veristic”. This is the total opposite of the Greeks who idealized all figures.

Look at how this sculpture differs from Greek sculpture below. Both sculptures depict an elder male.

Head of an old man, from Osimo, mid-first century BCE Ancestry and gens in the Roman world.

Figures shown bust-length (cut off at the base of the chest) follow in the Etruscan tradition.

Gens - refers to a family, individuals who shared the same name and claimed descent from a common ancestor. - important to social structure as an individual's social standing depended on the gens to which he belonged.

Man with portrait busts of his ancestors, from Rome, late first century BCE Describe this sculpture.

Veristic face, idealized body – and they don’t match! But it is a great example of how the Romans used Greek art as their starting point.

Portrait of a Roman general, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE Art for Former Slaves

Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome(?), Italy, ca. 30 BCE

• Freed slaves aspired to assimilate into Roman society • Commissioned funerary work reflected the elevation of their social status as freed slaves • Unlike works commissioned by aristocrats, the work for former slaves did not strictly adhere to the classical rules of illustration established by Greek art Men of Rome

Denarius with portrait of , 44 BCE. Head of Pompey the Great, mid-first-century Silver CE copy from the Via Salaria, Rome, Italy, of a portrait of ca. 55–50 BCE Two rulers of the , depicted in the veristic style The Greeks always made their theaters in the shape of a half moon. The Romans always made their theaters in the round. Amphitheater means two theaters – the Romans just put two theaters together and made a larger space.

Brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater, wall painting from House I,3,23, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60–79 CE. Restored view and plan of a typical Roman house of the Late Republic and Early Empire First Style

There are 4 styles of wall painting that were used to decorate the inside of homes. The best surviving examples come from homes in Pompeii, a city that was covered in lava and ash following the eruption of Vesuvius in 79AD. The heat preserved wall paintings, and life in general, which has helped us reconstruct life in the Roman era.

Also called Masonry Style; ca. 200–60 B.C, depicts different kinds of stone paneling, particularly marble of various colors and types, on painted plaster .

First Style wall painting in the Samnite House, , Italy, late second century BCE. ca. 80-15 B.C., artists imitated architectural forms purely by pictorial means Second Style

Dionysiac mystery frieze, Second Style wall paintings in Room 5 of the Villa of the Mysteries, mpeii, Italy, ca. 60–50 BCE. Second Style wall paintings (general view left, and detail of tholos right) from cubiculum M of the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, Italy, ca. 50–40 BCE.

Cubiculum - A small room, especially a bedroom, typically those small rooms found on the upper floor of a Roman house Gardenscape, Second Style wall painting, from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta, Italy, ca. 30–20 BCE – Pure landscape. Third Style

ca. 20 B.C.– 20 A.D.; A single monochrome background—such as red, black, or white— with elaborate architectural and vegetal details. Small figural and landscape scenes appear in the center of the wall as a part of, not the dominant element

Detail of a Third Style wall painting, from cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus, Boscotrecase, Italy, ca. 10 BCE ca. 20–79 A.D, revives large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas, while retaining Fourth Style the architectural details of the Third Style. Also, a textile like quality dominates and tendrils seem to connect all the elements

Fourth Style wall paintings in Room 78 of the Domus Aurea (Golden House) of , Rome, Italy, 64–68 CE. Fourth Style wall paintings in the Ixion Room (triclinium P) of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 70–79 CE. Notice the Greek influence! It is never lost on Roman artists. Wall Mosaics and Amphitrite, wall mosaic in the dining room (triclinium) of the House of Neptune and Amphitrite, Herculaneum, Italy, ca. 62–79 CE Portrait Painting Do you notice the continue use of verism?

Portrait of a husband and wife, wall painting Woman with stylus and writing tablet, from a from House VII,2,6, Pompeii, Italy, house in Insula Occidentale VI, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 70–79 CE ca. 55–70 CE Pax Romana, Augustus & the Empire

• Pax Romana: meaning “the peace of Rome”, lasted from in 27 BC – 180 AD, lasting 207 years. (aka Pax Augusta) • It was a long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire – inhabitants of conquered lands were not automatically considered Roman citizens but they were subject to Roman laws and paid Roman taxes. Some of these paid for public utilities, like roads and waterworks – While local inhabitants behaved themselves and paid their taxes, they were allowed to continue with their local customs and religions, as long as these did not directly violate or compromise Roman law.

• Augustus is the first emperor of the Roman Empire. The Republic ended with the death of Julius Caesar. Roman

Etruscan Classical Greek

Portrait of Augustus, early 1st c

Aule Metele, early 1st c. Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), Roman marble copy, original ca. 450 BC Ara Pacis Augustae Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE

Altar of Augustan Peace Female personification (Tellus?), panel from the east facade of the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE The central figure is Tellus, or Mother Earth, the two children on her lap are interpreted as the nephews/heirs to Augustus

To Tellus’ right is a representation of the beneficial earth, to the right is a representation of the sea winds. Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south frieze of the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE

Meant to make a political and artistic statement. The procession is located on both sides of the exterior, therefore, it is one single procession with the figures walking toward the western (main) entrance of the Ara Pacis Colosseum Began under , it was completed under Titus.

Façade has 4 bands with large arches on the lower 3 levels. Ornamental Greek orders frame the arches from the ground up: (Tuscan), Ionic, Corinthian. Greek: columns Roman: arches

Held 50,000 spectators, took roughly 8 years to build. And they could flood the stage for mock naval battles – with ships and all! Aerial view of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome, Italy, ca. 70–80 CE The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi

2013 Verism in the Empire

Portrait bust of a Flavian woman, from Rome, Italy, ca. 90 CE Portrait of Vespasian, ca. 75–79 CE Idealized beauty through fashion (vs. goddess). Use Receding hair lines, aging/leathery skin a drill (not chisel) to create the corkscrew curls. Modeled on Classical Greek sculptures, the ruler’s portrait depicts him as a never aging son Idealized Portraits of a god. It also shows the emperor in armor in his role as general.

Women were often depicted as Greek goddesses but also wore the latest hair coiffures.

How can this be considered role playing??

Is this verism?

Portrait bust of Livia, from Arsinoe, Egypt, early 1st c CE

Portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta, Italy, early 1st c CE copy of a bronze original of ca. 20 BCE Triumphal arch – made to commemorate Roman victories, buildings of roads and bridges, etc.

Engaged (attached) columns; dedicatory inscription on the attic (top rectangular shape) honoring the god Titus, son of the god Vespasian.

Roman emperors were deified after death. Those who suffered damnatio memeriae (condemnation of memory) had statues torn down and names erased from public monuments.

Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE Spoils of Jerusalem, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE

Roman soldiers carrying the spoils of war. Trying to create the illusion of movement. Sculptors are no longer working in low relief style of Ara Pacis but prefer high relief. Titus Victory Valor

Honor

Triumph of Titus, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.

Transforms the relief from a record of Titus’s victory into a celebration of imperial virtues.

Allegorical - symbolic work: a work in which the characters and events are to be understood as representing other things and symbolically expressing a spiritual, moral, or political meaning High Empire 96-192 AD; the Roman Empire reaches its greatest geographic extent and the height of its power. Trajan

• First non-Italian to rule Rome; he was from modern day Spain • Imperial armies expanded Roman territories, government took a more active role in social programs and the people’s welfare • He was so popular he was given the title Optimus (the best), a nickname he shared with Jupiter. • In Late Antiquity, all measures for success were based on Augustus & Trajan. – New emperors hoped to be “luckier than Augustus, better than Trajan” The center of civic life in all Roman towns was the forum (public square). It was usually located in the city center.

This is where citizens conducted daily commerce and held festivities. Secular and religious structures are found within a forum. The most noteworthy structure was usually the basilica, a public building.

1 . 2 4 FORUM OF TRAJAN 5

APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) forum Column of Trajan Has a continuous spiral frieze, the 1st in history

Depicts Trajan’s successful campaigns against the Dacians (Romanians)

Typical subjects: Trajan addressing his troops, sacrificing to the gods

Recorded the general character of the campaign.

Column of Trajan, and detail, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE Arch of Trajan

How does it differ from the Arch of Titus?

Arch of Trajan, , Italy, ca. 114–118 CE Hadrian

• Hadrian was also a Spaniard • Greatly admired Greek culture and travelled extensively in the Greek East. • Connoisseur and lover of art, he is known for building Hadrian’s Wall, Pantheon and his villa

at Tivoli. Portrait bust of Hadrian, from Rome, ca. 117- 120 CE. Hadrian often had himself depicted as a mature Greek male with a beard. Pantheon

Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118 – 125 CE

Restored cutaway view

Revolutionary technique: 1.) concrete cylinder covered by a hemispherical dome. 2.) coffers (sunken decorative panels) lessened the dome’s weight

Dome was symbolic of the heavens, rising 142 ft. Each coffer likely had a gilded-bronze rosette, enhancing the symbolism of the heavens.

Interior of the Pantheon Outside of Rome (the city)

Model of an insulae, Ostia, Italy, second century CE

The average Roman lived in apartment houses (insulae) with shops on the floor.

Unlike the houses of Pompeii, the insulae had small courtyards, windows that faced noisy streets, and people cooked in the hallways. Neptune and creatures of the sea, detail of a floor mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, ca. 140 CE

Ceiling and mural paintings, room 4, Insula of the Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early 3rd c. CE

Insulae tended to have modest mosaic floors and painted walls and ceilings. Notice the technique is not as good – this is because these are objects found in the homes of the average Roman Isola Dell’ Sacra, Ostia

Funerary relief of a vegetable vendor, second half of second century CE Communal tombs were decorated with the activities of middle-class merchants and professional people. Representative of daily Childbirth Scene, first century CE life & their professions.

Meant to convey majesty and authority.

Retains imperial iconography. Marcus Aurelius is much larger than any normal human would be in relation to his horse.

Hand is raised as a greeting and an offer of clemency.

** Notice the beard, following in the tradition of Hadrian**

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE Changes in Roman art & society….

• Verism moves beyond showing realism and distinctive images; it also includes character, thoughts, soul, etc. – Major turning point in the history of . Marks the beginning of the end of Classical art’s domination in the Greco-Roman world. • Romans begin to favor burial over cremation. – This may reflect the influence of Christianity &/or Eastern religions, whose followers believed in an afterlife for the human body. – This led to a demand for sarcophagi (vs. urns) Funerary Practices

• Greek mythology was the most common subject depicted on sarcophagi – Mythologies were a favorite – Greek heroes/heroines were given portrait features by the late 2nd /early 3rd c CE – These private patrons were following the model of imperial portraiture, where emperors often depicted themselves as gods or heroes

• Sarcophagi were produced in several regional centers. – Western sarcophagi were decorated only in the front – Eastern sarcophagi were decorated on all 4 sides Foreign mythologies prove a vibrant export market existed.

Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes, ca. 140–150 CE. Orestes (center) slays his mother and her lover to avenge the death of his father, Agamemnon. He then takes refuge at Apollo’s sanctuary at Delphi.

Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman, from Rapolla, near Melfi, Italy, ca. 165–170 CE. Syncretism – Egyptian funerary practices were combined with Roman elements. The portrait and clothing are Roman, however, mummification continued to be unique to Egypt. Also notice the Mummy portrait of a priest of Serapis, from Egyptian gods Hawara (Faiyum), Egypt, ca.140–160 depicted on the coffin still. Faiyum Mummy Portraits

Mummy of Artemidorus, from Hawara, Egypt, ca. 100–120 The Late Empire Baths were like modern Plan of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212– 216 CE. 1) natatio, 2) frigidarium, 3) tepidarium, day spas – but much 4) caldarium, 5) palaestra larger! These were for higher ranking men only. Rooms included pools set to different temperatures, mud baths, gym equipment, and sports fields.

It was decorated with famous sculptures as well. A copy of the Weary Herakles was displayed here. Diocletian & the Tetrarchs

• The general turned emperor , Diocletian, broke up rule of the empire among three others besides himself, when he established the tetrarchy (rule by four) in 293. • There was to be an Augustus and a Caesar of the West and an Augustus and a Caesar of the East. – Think of it as: Augustus = President, Caesar – Vice President • The tetrarchy survived until 313, but the division of the empire into East and Western halves continued, eventually developing into the Latin West & Byzantine East LOOK AND UNDERSTAND THIS MAP! IT IS CRUCIAL AS WE PROGRESS TO THE NEXT TWO LESSONS! This represents the ideology of the tetrarchy – rule by 4 – all men equal. Notice they all look the same and are embracing. It is a political statement. Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca. 305 CE • Constantine was an Augustus. He invaded Italy in 312, and eventually took Constantine control of the entire empire, ending the tetrarchy. Constantine attributed his victory to the Christian god. • In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, ending the persecution of Christians within the empire. • In 324 Constantine is sole ruler of the Empire and he founded his New Rome on the site of Byzantium at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and called it Constantinople. (look at the map) • In 325 at the Council of Nicaea he made Christianity an official religion of the Roman Empire, and the Roman state religion began to decline. • Constantinople was consecrated in 330, and Constantine himself baptized on his deathbed in 337.

Many scholars begin the with these events. Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE Arch of Constantine Distribution of largess, detail of the north frieze of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE

Depicts Constantine himself, distributing wealth to the citizenry of Rome. Restored cutaway view of the Basilica Nova, A colossal image of Constantine was to go into Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE ( by John Burge). apse—the round room pushed out at one •walls and floors were finished in marble and end—of the great basilica, on the Roman stucco. Forum. It would have presided as a •ceilings of the vaults were coffered. commanding presence in the great hall where •fenestrated groin vaults his imperial business was enacted, the way a Roman god’s image presided over its temple COMPARE + CONTRAST

Look at how much Constantine's image changes here in a matter of 7 years. Notice the dates.

The coin on the left dates to when he Medallion (right), ca. 315 CE Coin with portraits of Constantine, 307 CE was part of the tetrarchy, the •As unchallenged Augustus of the West, he is shown realistically (30 yrs old) •Made to look older, like the Tetrarchs (he was one on the •Dual nature: Imperator (commander in really in his early 20’s) right is him as chief) dressed in armor & shield; holds the •Generalized portrait with accompanying sole ruler of cross crowned by an orb (global power) inscription identifying Constantine as Caesar the Roman Empire & it •On the crest of his helmet is the includes a monogram chi (X) rho (P) iota (I) = Christos Christian symbol on his helmet! And now onto the Age of Faith!

Time periods will be divided by location and style but Christianity is the main subject of art. You’ll start with Late Antiquity when Christian art is developed, then shift to Byzantine art which is based in the East. Lastly you move to Europe (in the west) and progress through Medieval, and Baroque art.