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Home , 20 BC, Augustus of Prima Porta, Temple of Mars Ultor, Villa of Livia

Open University Department of Classical Studies

Resources for A-Level Classical Civilisation

Imperial Image

Prescribed Sources: Study Notes 2

Prima Porta Propertius Elegies 3.4 (War and Peace) Propertius Elegies 3.11 (Woman’s Power) Propertius Elegies 3.12 (Chaste and Faithful Galla) Propertius Elegies 4.6. (The Temple of Palatine Apollo) Metamorphoses 15.745-870 Life of The Coin: Octavian/Restorer of laws and rights Coin: Augustus/Comet Coin: Augustus/Gaius and Lucius Caesar

Imperial Image Augustus of (Statue)

Context: : What?: Statue of Augustus. • Decoration includes a depiction of the return of When?: c. 20 BC. the Parthian standards. Where?: Found at of at Prima Porta. • Crassus lost these legionary standards to the Material: Marble (may have been a copy of a bronze statue Parthians in 53 BC. 40,000 Roman soldiers were set up elsewhere in ). killed. Height: 2.08 metres. • negotiated the return of the standards in 20 BC. • The return of the standards was presented as Parthia submitting to Roman control, but Parthia remained an independent state.

Stance/Posture: At the Feet: • Standing statue of a male. • Adjacent to the right leg is a riding a • The figure appears young and athletic. dolphin. • Musculature is defined in the arms, legs and • This addition gave stability to the statue. breastplate. • The dolphin recalls ’ birth from the sea. • The pose and weight distribution echoes the • Venus was the mother of Aeneas, an ancestor of Doryphoros statue type, an embodiment of the Julian clan. physical perfection. • Cupid was the son of Venus. • The right hand is raised as if the figure is • The dolphin may also recall the naval victory at addressing a crowd or troops (adlocutio). Actium. • The left arm is positioned as if holding a pole (perhaps a spear or staff or standard). • The statue would originally have been painted. Dress: Breastplate - Centre: • Cuirass and tunic. • A Parthian (with beard & trousers) returns a • Cloak wrapped around the waist. legionary standard to another figure who holds • Bare feet (usually reserved for depictions of gods out arms to receive it. and heroes) - perhaps suggesting that Augustus • The recipient could be Tiberius, a general or was more than a mere mortal. Ultor. • Or does statue post-date Augustus’ death? • The recipient wears a Phrygian cap – a hint perhaps at Trojan ancestry. • The scene of the return of the standards is flanked by figures who are personifications of Rome’s allies and conquered provinces.

Breastplate – Top: Breastplate – Bottom: • The shoulder straps each have an inward facing • Bottom left – Apollo (Augustus’ patron god) sphinx. rides a griffon. • Beneath the straps is a representation of the • Bottom centre – a woman holding a cornucopia, heavens. could be the goddess Pax, more likely Mother • A central figure pulls a cloth to represent the Earth. skies. • Bottom right – Diana (so opposite her brother • The sun god in chariot, Dawn with a water jug for Apollo) riding her favourite animal, a deer. morning dew, and the moon goddess () - holding a torch - are also represented. Message: Themes: • Strong military leader. Imperator - military leadership. • Diplomatic peace. Pater Patriae – authority father figure. • Divinely sanctioned rule. Divine – ancestry & favoured by gods. Peace - stability, prosperity, diplomacy

Imperial Image Propertius Elegies 3.4 War and Peace

Context: Parthia: What?: A poem anticipating Roman military success • Crassus lost the legionary standards to the and a triumph. Parthians in 53 BC. 40,000 Roman soldiers When?: 20 BC. were killed. Who?: Propertius (c.50-15 BC). Little is known of • had planned a campaign the life of Sextus Propertius. He was probably from against Parthia. Umbria (), of a reasonably wealthy family, and • 22-20 BC Augustus also considered action was well-educated. Propertius wrote four books of again the Parthians. elegies. The majority of the poems focus on love, but • In 20 BC Tiberius negotiated the return of Propertius’ patron, Maecenas, seems to have the standards. encouraged him to write, on occasion, about • The return of the standards was presented as Augustus & politics. Parthia submitting to Roman control, but Parthia remained an independent state.

Summary: Message: Caesar (Augustus) is plotting war and will bring the • Praise and admiration for Augustus & Parthians under Roman power, and avenge Crassus. planned military exploits. The poet prays that the day will come when he’ll see • A positive result for Rome if wrongs are all the booty and prisoners displayed in a triumphal avenged. parade, while watching with his girlfriend. • Propertius is being patriotic, yet on his own May Venus bless Augustus, but it’s enough for terms. Propertius to cheer others on. • He remains a poet and a lover, who will watch rather than participate, write rather than fight. • More of a playboy than a soldier, but someone who benefits from the peace that war brings. Glossary: Glossary (continued): • ‘Euphrates’ – river in . • ‘let it be eternal’ – suggesting long life for • ‘Ausonian’ – poetic name for Italy Augustus & descendants, and hinting at • ‘Mars’ – god of war. divinity. • ‘Sacred Vesta’ – goddess of hearth & home. • ‘Venus’ – goddess of love, prosperity, • ‘booty’, ‘horses’, ‘cheers’ ‘captive’, victory (the Julian clan claimed descent ‘weapons’ – these were all features of a from Venus). triumph or victory parade. • ‘Aeneas’ line’ – claiming descent from the • ‘names of captured cities’ – placards which founder of Rome. listed battles and/or the cities that had been • ‘Sacred Way’ – the , went from captured could be displayed as part of a the to the Forum, and was triumph. part of the traditional route of the Roman • ‘trousered’ – Parthians wore trousers unlike triumph. Romans Techniques/devices: Themes: • ‘our god’ – claiming divinity for Augustus, Imperator – strong military leadership; success in something Augustus would have been wary war. of doing himself. Divinity – hints at Augustus’ divine connections, and • ‘rich India’- exaggeration. Augustus was notes ancestry (Aeneas). not planning war in India, but it was the place beyond Parthia. • ‘pearl bearing ocean’ - emphasises the wealth of faraway places. • ‘go, get going’, ‘Go’, ‘Set sail’ – use of commands (imperatives). • ‘Parthia’s trophies will get to know’ – personification of trophies. Imperial Image Propertius Elegies 3.11. Woman’s Power

Context: Actium: What?:Poem referencing women’s power, , • Naval battle off the coast of Greece. and Roman victory. • 02 September, 31 BC. When?: c. 23 BC. • Octavian, with general Agrippa, defeated Who?: Propertius (c.50-15 BC). Little is known of navy of Antony & Cleopatra. the life of Sextus Propertius. He was probably from • Antony & Cleopatra fled to Alexandria. Umbria (Italy), of a reasonably wealthy family, and • Both eventually committed suicide. was well-educated. Propertius wrote four books of elegies. The majority of the poems focus on love, but Propertius’ patron, Maecenas, seems to have encouraged him to write about, on occasion, Augustus & politics. Summary: Purpose/Message: Propertius has been enslaved by love for a woman. • Propertius praises Augustus’ victory, He is powerless & compares himself to Jason, making Cleopatra a powerful opponent, and Achilles and Hercules, and the women that they fell not naming Antony. for. But Propertius need not just think of heroes, • Note the strong language associated with since love for Cleopatra had threatened Rome. Cleopatra – ‘whore’, ‘incestuous’, ‘foul’. Dangerous Egypt is then contrasted with a glorious Cleopatra is ‘othered’ – she was not just a Rome. Actium was a great victory and now all woman, but foreign and barbaric. sailors must fear the might of Caesar (Augustus). • Yet the poem starts with the idea that Propertius is under a woman’s power, just as Antony was under Cleopatra’s power. So is Propertius sympathising with Antony? Glossary: Glossary (continued): • ‘witch of Colchis’ – Medea, helped Jason • ‘Naples’ – In 50 BC Pompey fell seriously (son of Aeson) capture the Golden Fleece. ill in Naples. Propertius implies it would • ‘Penthesilea’ – Amazon queen, who have been better for Pompey to have died assisted Troy in the Trojan war; Achilles then, or submitted to Julius Caesar, rather killed her, but fell in love on removing her than be murdered in Egypt. helmet. • ‘Canopus’ – Egyptian town. • ‘Danaan’ - Greek. • ‘Philip ‘– Philip of Macedon from whom • ‘Omphale’ – Lydian queen to whom Cleopatra claimed descent. Hercules was enslaved for a year. • ‘Tarquin the Proud’ – tyrannical king of • ‘Semiramis ‘– legendary queen of Assyria, early Rome. she was said to have restored Babylon, • ‘You fled..’ – Cleopatra ordered her troops giving it a new city wall, & built a palace in to withdraw at Actium. Bactra. • ‘Curtius’, ‘Decius’, ‘Horatius’, ‘Corvus’ – • ‘obscene husband’ – Antony, who was in a all famed heroes of Rome’s past. bigamous marriage. • ‘Scipio’s ships’, ‘Camillus’ standards’, • ‘Alexandria’, ‘Memphis’ – Egyptian cities. ‘Bosphorus’, ‘Hannibal’, ‘Syphax’, • Pompey’s three triumphs – Pompey was ‘Pyrrhus’ – Propertius lists other great famed for celebrating three triumphs. He Roman victories, gains and booty, but these was killed in Egypt (48 BC). hardly compare to one day at Actium. Techniques/Devices: Themes: • ‘Why do you wonder..?’, ‘Why should I Imperator - war, strong military leadership. seize..?’, ‘Where are Scipio’s…?’ – a series Actium – key victory, long remembered and praised. of rhetorical questions. • ‘break the yoke…’ – metaphor. • ‘sailor…soldier’ – analogy. • ‘Jupiter/Anubis’; ‘/Nile’; ‘trumpet/sistrum’; ‘Liburnian (type of boat) prow/poled barge;’ ‘mosquito nets/Tarpeian rock’ – a series of contrasts between Rome and Egypt.

Imperial Image Propertius Elegies 3.12 Chaste and faithful Galla

Context: Parthia: What?: Poem exploring military absence, and wifely • Crassus lost the legionary standards to the devotion. Parthians in 53 BC. 40,000 Roman soldiers When?: 20 BC. were killed. Who?: Propertius (c.50-15 BC). Little is known of • 22-20 BC Augustus also considered action the life of Sextus Propertius. He was probably from again the Parthians. Umbria (Italy), of a reasonably wealthy family, and • In 20 BC Tiberius negotiated the return of was well-educated. Propertius wrote four books of the standards. elegies. The majority of the poems focus on love, but • Poem dates to year of negotiations, Propertius’ patron, Maecenas, seems to have presumably prior to the settlement. encouraged him to write about, on occasion, • The return of the standards was presented as Augustus & politics. Parthia submitting to Roman control, but Parthia remained an independent state. Summary: Glossary: Postumus how can you leave your wife to go off on • ‘Postumus, how could you..?’ - direct campaign? You’re chasing spoils and neglecting a address, rhetorical question. faithful wife. She will pine away for you and worry • ‘Araxes’ – river in Parthia. about you dying. • ‘Medes’ – ancient people/race connected to Yet she stays loyal. While you’re away acting like Parthia. Ulysses/Odysseus, Galla will be more faithful than • ‘You …will drink/she …will pine’ - a Penelope. contrast between Postumus and Galla. • ‘Ulysses’ - Odysseus. • ‘Cicones’, ‘Polyphemos’, ‘Circe’, ‘Scylla’, ‘Charybdis’, ‘Lampetie’, ‘Calypso’, ‘Sirens’ – all references to characters and events in Homer’s Odyssey, and thus the challenges and temptations (and slow journey) that kept Odysseus apart from Penelope. • ‘Penelope’ – famed for her loyalty and faithfulness.

Message: Themes: • Suggests negative aspects of Augustan War - conflict, military challenges, threats to Rome. military campaigns - risk to life, anxious Family – chastity, loyalty, virtue. relatives. • Some soldiers never return, and for what benefit? – only booty and greed. • Love is more important than war. • Could be seen as condemning soldiers – ‘may all you greedy ones perish’. • But Postumus is compared to Ulysses – so is he a hero after all? • And Galla is a model wife.

Imperial Image Propertius Elegies 4.6. The Temple of Palatine Apollo

Context: Apollo: What?: Poem glorifying temple of Apollo and the • God favoured by Augustus. . • Temple of Apollo opened in 28 BC on When?: c. 16 BC. Written to coincide with the , adjacent to Augustus’ home. Actian Games – held in Nikopolis, city founded near • Actian Games honoured Apollo. Held every site of the Battle of Actium. four years, the games included athletic Who?: Propertius (c.50-15 BC). Little is known of contests, musical competitions, horse the life of Sextus Propertius. He was probably from racing, and mock sea battles. Umbria (Italy), of a reasonably wealthy family, and was well-educated. Propertius wrote four books of elegies. The majority of the poems focus on love, but Propertius’ patron, Maecenas, seems to have encouraged him to write about Augustus & politics on occasion. Summary: Message: The poem begins with a sacrifice at the Temple of • Augustus’ strong ties to Apollo. Apollo & evokes the muse Calliope. It then retells • Augustus is favoured by the gods. the story of the Battle of Actium – with the Romans • Augustus is a successful military leader. supported by the gods. Apollo appears and speaks to • Celebrates peace. Augustus, praising him and declaring allegiance. • Antony not named, but Cleopatra is not With Apollo’s help the battle is won. Having sung such a powerful enemy as in Elegy 3.11. enough of war, the poem returns to festivities and the • Note reference to Bacchus – is this an benefits of peace. oblique reference to Antony? Glossary: Glossary (continued): • ‘Philetas ‘– Greek poet & scholar; • ‘Alba Longa’ – city founded by Aeneas on contrasting Greek and Roman symbols of the site of Rome. greatness. • ‘Centaurs ‘– half man, half horse; barbaric • ‘heifer’, ‘incense’, ‘flute’, ‘altars’ – note all creatures said to have been painted on the aspects of sacrificial ritual. Antony and Cleopatra’s ships. • ‘laurel ‘– used to sprinkle water in sacrifice, • ‘laurelled hand ‘– symbol of religious but also a symbol of military victory. sacrifice. • ‘Calliope ‘– muse of epic (not elegiac) • ‘Jugurtha’ – defeated by Marius (105 BC) poetry. Is Propertius trying to elevate his & paraded in triumph; implication that poem? Jugurtha was a more worthy opponent • ‘Phoebus’ – Apollo. because he was a man. • ‘Weight of pine’ – ships. • ‘lyre’, ‘white robes’, ‘roses’, ‘saffron’ – • ‘Fortune’ – personification. imagery of celebration. • ‘Trojan Quirinus’– . • ‘Bacchus’ – Antony’s patron god. Is this a • ‘Nereus’ - son of Earth and Sea. reminder of civil war? Or that Augustus has • ‘Delos ‘– Apollo’s island of birth. reunited the gods? • ‘Agamemnon’ – During the Trojan War, • ‘Sycambri’ – German tribe which tried to Apollo caused a plague in the Greek invade Roman in 16 BC. (Dorian) camp because Agamemnon • ‘Cephean Meroe’ – Ethiopian king who condemned a prophetess to death. tried to invade Roman Egypt in 22 BC. • ‘Python’ – Apollo killed a giant python at • ‘grandsons’ – Gaius & Lucius Caesar, Delphi & established his oracle there. adopted 17 BC. Themes: Imperator – strong military leader, war. Actium – famous victory. Religion – religious leadership, favoured by the gods. Peace – stability, benefits of war.

Imperial Image Ovid Metamorphoses 15.745-870

Context: Julius Caesar: What:? Extract from Book 8 of the 15 book work – • Lived 100 BC to 44 BC. Metamorphoses. An epic poem that provides a • The relationship with Julius Caesar was an narrative of myths from the creation of the world to essential aspect of Augustus’ route to the deification of Julius Caesar. The extract focuses power. on Julius Caesar. • Octavian set out to avenge the assassination When?: c. AD 8 of his adopted father, and exploited the Who?: Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18). popularity of Julius Caesar. From the Italian town of Sulmo, Ovid was born into • Julius Caesar was declared a god (42 BC). an equestrian family. He pursued poetry rather than a • As a god, Julius Caesar was beyond legal or political career. He fell from favour, and was reproach & furnished Augustus with divine exiled to the Black Sea in AD 8. connections.

Summary: Message: Caesar is a god, set among the stars, not just because • Celebrates Augustus’ relationship to a god. of his military victories but because he is the father • Implies that the reason for Caesar’s of Augustus. When Venus learned that Julius Caesar deification was Augustus. was to be killed, she was frantic & recalled the • Glosses over the details of Julius Caesar’s suffering of her favoured beings, but the other gods life; successful battles/campaigns are noted, did not listen, since Julius Caesar’s death was fated but there are no references to civil wars & to happen, and omens foretold it. Jupiter reassured dictatorship. Venus that the death would be avenged, that Caesar • Turns the assassination into a legend, by would be deified, with his descendant bringing peace placing it alongside the myth of Aeneas. and virtue, and living to a ripe old age. Venus then • The deification is prophesised by the chief carried Julius Caesar’s spirit heavenwards, shining god, thus legitimizing Augustus’ own like a star. From the heavens Julius Caesar now actions as the avenger of his ‘father’. delights in being surpassed by Augustus. So may the • The gods praise Augustus & his gods let Augustus stay on earth for a long time achievements, and assert that he too will before he too ascends to heaven. become a god. Glossary: Glossary (continued): • ‘Aesculapius’ – god of medicine, introduced • ‘Mutina’, ‘Philippi’, ‘Sicilian’, ‘Egyptian’ – to Rome in 293 BC. Augustus’ great victories; parallels the • ‘Britons’, ‘Nile’ (Egypt), ‘Numidia’, earlier listing of Julius Caesar’s campaigns. ‘Pontus’ – listing of Julius Caesar’s major • ‘Atreus’, ‘Aegeus’ & ‘Peleus’ – were all victories/campaigns. outdone by their sons. • ‘Quirinus’ – poetic allusion to Rome. • ‘Saturn’ – Augustus is compared to Jupiter • ‘Diomedes’ – Greek who fought in Trojan (Jove) who surpassed his father (Saturn). war, including against Aeneas. • ‘exalts him despite himself’ – fame makes • ‘Ancient sisters’ – the Fates. Augustus more honoured than Julius • ‘Stygian’ – the Styx was a river in the Caesar, but Augustus remains a respectful underworld. son. • ‘Atrides’ - Menelaus. Metamorphoses: Themes: Major theme of work overall is transformation and Religion – divine descent, divine favour. change. Many of the mythical metamorphoses – that Imperator – war, military success. often see beings changed into animals, trees and Peace – stability, law and order. plants - are slow and painful, and even after the Family – connections, ancestry. change something of the original is retained. So is Ovid hinting that despite Augustus’ transformation (into a peaceful, caring, father and god-like figure), the ruthless Octavian may still be present?

Imperial image Suetonius Life of Augustus

Context: Sources: What?: Biography of Augustus. Part of a collection • Unsure what information Suetonius used, of 12 biographies known as the ‘Twelve Caesars’, since most of it does not survive, and he starting with Julius Caesar and ending with rarely identifies sources. Domitian. • Suetonius would have had access to public When?: Early second century CE. documents, letters & biographies. Who?: Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c.AD 69 – c. • As well as gossip & hearsay. AD 122). Suetonius was of equestrian status, and • But main ‘facts’ were in the public domain lived and served under the emperor . – so he could not make things up. • This is Suetonius’ version and interpretation, not an objective account. Content: Tone/Message: 7 – Augustus’ name changes • Notes the changing image of Augustus, and 8 – brief summary of Augustus’ life. aspects of his legacy. 9 – the civil war. • Not writing to flatter or win favour, but still 10- Mutina. living under the system of government 11 – claims of treachery. which Augustus had effectively founded. 17 – victory over Antony & Cleopatra. • Writing from chronological distance; 100 20 – imperial campaigns. years after Augustus’ death the true nature 22 – peace & triumphs. of imperial power was known. 26 – consulships. • Is clear that Augustus ruled & kept power in 28 – sole ruler. his own hands – and that he did not restore 29 – public works. the Republic. 31- religious reforms & memorials. • Acknowledges Augustus’ military 34 – revision of laws. achievements – but notes rumours that he 53 – public manner. ran away at Mutina, and that most 56 – respect for law & customs. campaigns were not led by him. 57 – public marks of affection. • Identifies that there were civil 58 – father of country. conflicts/wars & lists them all, noting that 64 – grandchildren. Augustus’ motivation was to avenge his 65 – deaths and scandals. father. 68 – accusations of homosexuality & effeminacy. • Suggests that the moral legislation was 69 – adulteries. unpopular with the people. 70 – other vices. • Is positive on Augustus’ role in Roman 71 – reputation. religion- revision of ancient rites, restoring 95 – omens of his power. of temples etc.

• Notes that Augustus could be reasonable & humble. • Includes scandalous anecdotes, about, e.g. adultery, gambling; and familial disappointments. Themes: Imperator Religion Pater Patriae Family Morality

Imperial Image The Forum of Augustus

Context: Form: What?: A forum – an open public multi-purpose • A rectangular open space. space. • Flanked by two long porticoes, each with a When?: Began 20 BC, inaugurated 2 BC. semi-circular exedra. Where?: Rome – adjacent to the Forum of Julius • Temple to Mars Ultor at one end. Caesar, and close to Forum Romanum (the • Central courtyard had a central statue. original and ancient forum space of Rome) • A large fire wall lay behind the temple.

Temple of Mars Ultor: Porticoes: • Vowed before (42 • Supported by columns, the porticoes and BC). exedras were open to the forum, but provided • Raised on a platform. some shade and shelter. • Accessed by wide flight of steps. • The porticoes were lined with , creating • Eight columns at front and eight down gallery displays of famous Romans. the sides. • The statues included Augustus’ ancestors and • Flooring a mixture of coloured marbles. illustrious men from Rome’s history. • Contained a cult statue of Mars the • The West portico included a very large statue Avenger. of Augustus. • The latter was flanked by statues of • The West exedra had a statue of Aeneas & his Venus Genetrix and the deified Julius descendants. Caesar. So all gods connected to the • The East exedra had a statue of Romulus. Julian clan.

Centre of courtyard: Temple Use: • One central statue in the centre of the • Associated with military strategy e.g. was open forum space. where Senate met when decisions of war were • Augustus riding a chariot drawn by 4 taken. horses. • Captured arms & booty stored there. • Inscription: PATER PATRIAE • Parthian Standards put there.

Message: Themes: • Gift to the city of Rome. Divine – ancestry & favoured by gods. • Fulfilling vow and noting the defeat of Religion - religious leader, respect for the gods. Rome’s enemies. Imperator – strong military leader. • Embellishing the city. Pater Patriae – authority, father figure. • Providing an amenity. • Displaying divine connections, and honouring the gods • Celebrating Roman history (especially through the statuary) and Augustus’ place within that history.

Imperial Image Coin: Octavian/Restorer of laws and rights

Context: Princeps: What?: Aureus coin, of unknown mint. • In 28 BC Octavian was elected princeps When?: 28 BC. senatus. • Octavian also remained as consul. • In 27 BC Octavian gave up all unconstitutional powers. • Octavian giving impression that he would not hold absolute power indefinitely. Obverse: Reverse: • Head of Octavian/Augustus. • Octavian seated on a magistrate’s chair. • Octavian wears a laurel wreath – symbol of • He holds a scroll in his right hand. victory and honour (the previous year he • At his feet is a magistrate’s document box. had celebrated a triple triumph). • LEGES ET IVRA P R RESTITVIT – He • IMP CAESAR DIVI F COS VI – Imperator restored to the Roman people their laws and Caesar, son of a god, consul for the sixth rights. time. Message: Themes: • Stable military and political leadership. Leadership – political, constitutional, also military • A peace-time magistrate and politician. (Imperator). • Restorer of laws and rights of the Roman Peace – benefits of peace and stability. people. Religion – divine descent acknowledged. • Depicted as a consul undoing the unconstitutional laws of the civil wars. • Suggesting the restoration of the Republic.

Imperial Image Coin: Augustus/Comet

Context: Julius Caesar: What?: Denarius coin, from the Spanish mint. • Lived 100 BC to 44 BC. When?: c. 19-18 BC. • The relationship with Julius Caesar was an essential aspect of Augustus’ claim to rule. • Julius Caesar was declared a god (42 BC). • In 44 BC a comet had appeared during commemorative games, held a few months after Caesar’s death. • As a god, Julius Caesar was beyond reproach & furnished Augustus with divine connections.

Obverse: Reverse: • Head of Augustus. • Eight point star. • Augustus sports a laurel wreath – symbol of • Top point is ablaze – as if the tail of a victory and honour. comet. • CAESAR AVGVSTVS. • DIVVS IVLIVS – divine Iulius. Message: Themes: • Connects Augustus with Julius Caesar. Religion - connections to the gods, divine descent. • Celebrates divinity of Julius Caesar, and Leader – strong and honoured leader thus Augustus’ descent from a god. • Uses a star/comet to represent divinity rather than a portrait of a mortal man.

Imperial Image: Coin: Augustus/Gaius and Lucius Caesar

Context: Gaius and Lucius Caesar: What?: Aureus coin, from the Lyon mint. • Gaius and Lucius Caesar were Augustus’ When?: c. 2 BC – 4 AD. grandsons. • They were the children of Julia and Agrippa. • They were formally adopted by Augustus in 17 BC. • Lucius died 2 AD, Gaius in 4 AD. Obverse: Reverse: • Head of Augustus. • Standing figures of Gaius and Lucius • Augustus wears an oak wreath (civic Caesar. crown). • Each holds a spear and sword – may • CAESAR AUGVSTVS DIVI F PATER represent their military training or honours PATRIAE – Caesar Augustus, son of a god, given by Roman nobles. father of the country/state. • Between the figures a simpulum and lituus – suggesting membership of priestly colleges. • Simpulum – a ladle used for pouring libations at sacrifices. • Lituus – a crooked religious wand, used by augurs to mark out space in the sky. • AVGVSTI F COS DESIG PRINC IVVENT C L CAESARIS – Augustus’ sons, consuls designate, first among the young, Gaius and Lucius Caesar. Message: Themes: • Past, present and future – Augustus is Religion - piety to the gods, religious devotion, represented as a son (of a god), and now a divine descent. father. Leadership - stability, planning for succession. • Message of continuity and thus stability for Family - idealised relationships, family continuity. Rome. Pater Patriae – authority, father-figure. • Augustus as a father-like (pater patriae) and divinely descended leader. • Gaius and Lucius are distinguished by titles (though yet to hold office). • They, like Augustus, are ‘princeps’ (if only of the young). • Religious piety is associated with the princes.