Holocaust Memorials in Budapest, Hungary, 1987-2010: Through the Words of the Memorial Artists

CEU eTD Collection

Inpartialrequirementsofthe fulfillment Holocaust MemoHolocaust Through the the Through words of artists memorial Submitted to Central Submitted to UniversityEuropean Advisor: Second reader Second rialsBudapest, in Hungary,1987 DepartmentofHistory JessicaTaylor Budapest, Hungary Budapest,

Dr. Dr. June 2011 June MarkianProko forin ofdegree Master the ComparativeHistory : Dr. Marsha Dr. Siefert: by

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how Budapest how artists who created them created who artists , in which he uses Budapest, Hungary, as a case study study case a as Hungary, Budapest, uses he which in ,

Tim Cole‘s Cole‘s Tim

Abstract — , Hungary , the sothe iii interpret the Hungarian Holocaust, and how how and Holocaust, Hungarian the interpret

Turning the Places of Holocaust History History Holocaust of Places the Turning -

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represents the Holocaust through a through Holocaust the represents .

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allam you,To foreverI grateful. of I architect the and artists four the acknowledge to like would I finally, And Proko Markian Prof. advisor, my both acknowledge to like also would I am I this of contents the people, of group special a of expertise and support the Without

— to her I owe aher debt I owe ofthanks. to rtfl ote rfsos f E‘ Jws Suis department Studies Jewish CEU‘s of professors the to grateful — ith great enthusiasm. Through him, I was able to communicate ithenthusiasm.withhim,was to ablesome of I Through great –

45, and what 45, h alwd e to me allowed who ik, n Adá Kovács András and Wilke, ungarian to English. Our intention was to keep the personality and and personality the keep to was intention Our English. to ungarian Budapest proper. Budapest ‘ — s words as pure aspossible.as pure Weswords accomplishedbelievewe that lifelikehimforwasliberation. the after Anna Stein, Gyula Pauer, Tamás Pauer, Gyula Stein, Anna Acknowledgments

question them about their work and their personal personal their and work their about them question

iv -

— checking the meanings of words as they they as words of meanings the checking for welcoming me into their offices to to offices their into me welcoming for

e, who acted as my ―second ―second my as acted who e, Szabó, Imre Varga, Imre Szabó,

Glass House Glass

Miklos Lojko Miklos — st stages of of stages st ated to look to ated

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and and CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Appendix I Conclus 3. The memorials Holocaust the artistsand who created them history2. Oral a and 1. PracticeTheory of Memory Introduction List of Figures of ContentsTable Acknowledgments Abstract

3.5 István3.5 Mányi 3.4 Tamás Szabó Imre3.3 Varga Gyula3.2 Pauer Anna3.1 Stein Hungary1.4 since the 1980s:Changing Tides Examining1.3 Silence:Postwar America,Israel, andHungary Interpreting1.2 and Commemorating the Holocaust:Berlin,Israel, and Budapest 1.1 Memory,Collective andMemory, HolocaustMemory ion

......

...... nd methodology

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...... Table of Contents Table of ...... v

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76 75 69 63 54 41 34 29 28 26 23 19 10

iii vi iv

8 8 1 v

CEU eTD Collection

Figures 17, Figure 16: Figures 14, 15 Figure 13: Figure 12: Figure 1 Figure 10: Figure 8, 9 Figure Figure 5 Figure 4 Figure 3 Figure 2: Figure 1:

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: István Manyi : István Tamás Tamás Szabó Carl Memorial Plaque, Lutz Tamás Szabó Tamás Szabó, Tamás Szabó, Carl Memorial Lutz Tamás Szabó 1987, Budapest Raoul The Monument Second Wallenberg Imre Varga Radonoti Memorial, Imre Varga March, Forced Imre Varga, 1991, ………………………………………………………………………41 Budapest Hun Memorial the to Imre Varga Danube, the on Shoes Gyula Pauer Janos and Can Togay Crying Sky the to Anna Stein Holocaust MemorialHolocaust Center 2006, HolocaustRoma Memorial Akos Mauer Klimes HolocaustRoma Memorial, Tamás Tamás Szabó,

Budapest ……………………………………………………………………...60 Budapest

List of Figures of List

Fighting from the Right,from the Fighting Drawing, Sacrifice of Jacob, of Sacrifice Jacob, 1990,Budapest ……...... ……………45 ………………………………………………….………………..… ,

1990, , ……………………………………….54 1991, Budapest

2010, Budapest ……………………………..……….47 2010, Budapest garian Jewishgarian Martyrs vi 2005

1979 ………………………………………………….55 1979 Budapest , (ground work , 2006,Budapest ……………………………59

2006,Budapest …………………………..60 Budapest 2004, Budapest ……………………….…63 2004, Budapest

1987 …………………………………..………

, Kisvarda …………………… 55 Kisvarda, …………………… ………………………………..….34 1990 ………………………..…59 )

29 48

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This number includesThisconvertsnumberide some 100,000 JamesYoung. Edward The Nazis’Victims.TheLast Under Regent Miklós Horthy‘s conservat Miklós Horthy‘s Regent Under world. the throughout exist memorials Holocaust of Thousands 3 st of European Jewry had already been murdered. The Allied leaders were receiving receiving were leaders Allied The murdered. been already had Jewry European of st

ie te ugra Hlcut s atclry haunting particularly as Holocaust Hungarian the cites — and not the event itself event the not and

enda ators. In some places, such as Budapest, they may also reflect changing reflect also may they Budapest, as such places, some In ators. The TextureofThe Holocaust Memory: Meaning Memorialsand

– Ed. byEd. BrahamMiller.WayneRandolphL. with(Detroit: Scott State 17. rmerie

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undertook the destruction of Europe‘s last relatively intact intact relatively last Europe‘s of destruction the undertook

Introduction — — it is first necessary to frame the subject within the the within subject the frame to necessary first is it ive authoritarian regime years, the Jews of Hungary Hungary ofJews the years, iveauthoritarian regime it was only a matter oftime matter a only it was 1

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this thesis is to analyze Holocaust Holocaust analyze to is thesis this . 2

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CEU eTD Collection TimCole, JewsAlliesareas. essentiallybombing wereavoidthose would being ―human usedas shields‖. 8 History,PsychologyCulture, aboutin lived1 Jewsout of Budapest, every people. 4 Patai,Raphael. desig yellowmarkedOutbuildings with houses,a 2,681 apartmentwere city‘sof star. the 36,000 7 inposition politics. Hungarian address.The Germans,radio however,hiskidnapped ther son, 6 Holocaust.‖ 5 4 It jeopardy. in lives many savethe to attempt an in Budapest on converged foreignagents, other of number a with along Lutz, Carl diplomat Swiss the and Wallenberg Raoul diplomat Swedish yellow within deportation easy for gathered albeit intact, somewhat Budapest of community Jewish amazedwere enthusiasmthe Brahamwith their Hungarian of counterparts. that, writes againstwinwar leasttheto Jew the at Jewish remaining Europe‘s populationcontinued. destroy to quest the end, an to coming predictably was war the

On May 3, 1944, Budapest JewsOnBudapest wereMay 1944, move ordered ofdesignated theirto out into homes3, and Horthyforce as heGermanstried the altogether, to inof alludedHungary out nationwide a RandolphHistoricalBraham.AssaultL. ―Theon Mem Ibid. Yellow oty hwvr hle dprain i ery July, early in deportations halted however, Horthy, mostthebarbaricand speedydeportation a to subjected were they months, two next the During ghettos. into placed andpossessions, their all of anti theof phasefirst completed‗advisors,‘the mid months two to than less WithinMarch Germans. the even impressed that efficiency and routine police, Hungarian the and sovereignty, gendarmerie, national of symbol the providing helm, the at still Horthy With decided accomplices Hungarian their and Germans the that this of because precisely was ―It nated asnated―yellow

- tre houses starred - starred apartment houses strategicallystarred were in cityhopesthroughout thethat theplaced HolocaustCity.

East European Quarterly.European East – a, 1944 May,

civil service collaborated with the SS in the anti the in SS the with collaborated service civil 4 - 7

starred‖ houses.In starred‖ summeranthe ofestimated1944, 250,000

and ghettos ghettos and

(New York:Routledge,124.(New 2000) . (Detroit: Wayne State UniversityWayne 57 (Detroit: 1996) . State Press, —

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for Holocaust memorials erected between 1945 and 1995. 1995. and 1945 between erected memorials Holocaust for 14 Holocaust City Holocaust

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, which covered the ghettoization of Budapest Budapest of ghettoization the covered which , as its ―strategy‖ of remembrance, asking the the asking remembrance, of ―strategy‖ its as 13 . ed. ed. Shelley . Florence Hornstein,

hs mle ta at n pltc ae not are politics and art that implies This - 1990s, updating and slightly changing changing slightly and updating 1990s, egan shortly before the fall of of fall the before shortly egan , in which he uses Budapest, Budapest, uses he which in , The Snake Killer,Snake The

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Cole does Vara’s Imre that Cole acknowledge Cole, Cole, Unlike Cole, my emphasis taps into the p the into taps emphasis my Cole, Unlike inmy Therefore, Holocaust City, Image and HolocaustImage Remembrance:the Representationand - 1989 memorials, with a move away from the ―Soviet liberator‖ message of the late the of message liberator‖ ―Soviet the from away move a with memorials, 1989 , 281. , - 1990s, it is no longer so today, as the city has made has city the as today, so longer no is it 1990s,

tention herein will be to update to be willherein tention ness).‖ ongoing dialogue that often includes their work, but not their voice. My My voice. their not but work, their includes often that dialogue ongoing 227 15

otentially conflicting) priorities may determine the physical location physical the determine maypriorities conflicting) otentially

Cole also argues that they tend to pay more attention to the Soviet the to attention more pay to tend they that argues also Cole - 1980 humanity and liberation? In other words, what aspects of the the of aspects what words, other In liberation? and humanity s and beyond with the ―righteous gentile‖ message of the the of message gentile‖ ―righteous the with beyond and s 16

I contend Second WallenbergSecond Statue erspective of the memorial artists, artists, memorial the of erspective 5

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the groundwork that Cole already laid in the inthe laid Cole alreadythat groundwork the

that while this may have been true 15 years 15 beentrue have may thiswhile that

s d Remembrance:Representationand erected between 1987 between erected

— , 274. , hnig vn h Soviet the even changing - Soviet attitude is reflected reflected is attitude Soviet and continues to make to continues and “sought to reverse“sought the

so that they too too they that so

and 2010. My 2010. and — - - CEU eTD Collection 18 for criteria the reiterates as well as history, social to links their and history oral of theories the erected. were 1940s late the of memorials first the after shortly worldwide experienced silence, survivor Holocaust of aspects the someof on Iwilltouch chapter, inthis Also memory. of becomeplaces Meaning, on emphasis particular focusing books, bet difference the and monuments, andmemorials erect people examineswhy memory. It Holocaust Americaelsewhere.and of history the and memory, of practice English of body vast a by helped am I which in analysis, my of focus the are interpreter, my of help the with English in These city. their in Holocaust the commemorating for vision their heartheirstories. artists:Anna Stein prominent most Hungary‘s of some of homes and galleries, studios, the into me took research

The interviewThe withby SteinAnna wastelephone. conducted ween the two. This chapter introduces the theories of of theories the introduces chapter This two. the ween The second chapter explains the methodology I used I methodology the explains chapter second The to pertains it how and memory collective of practice and theory the reviews one Chapter about and work their about them interviewed I Nagy, Dániel interpreter, my of aid the With

hc cvr the covers which 18 , Gyula Pauer, Tamás Szabó, Imre Varga, György TamásGyula ImreVarga, Pauer, Szabó, and, MányiIstvánto Vámos,

- language secondary literature and online media sources on the theory and and theory the on sources media online and literature secondary language

hoy f ooas cmeoain ad o Hlcut plac Holocaust how and commemoration, Holocaust of theory

Holocaust commemoration in Hungary, Europe, North Europe, Hungary, in commemoration Holocaust h Txue f eoy Hlcut eoil and Memorials Holocaust Memory: of Texture The 6

in my research. It reviews a number of of number a reviews It research. my in ae Yug hog hs numerous his through Young James

terviews, transcribed into transcribed terviews, es es CEU eTD Collection debate And approachable. more topic the make as aswell debate, the dimensionanother to artists, the of byway add, research will the that hope myis It view. of point different a offer will I times, other At argument. his confirmationto critic Cole‘s on elaborate will times at which analysis, my with architect and one artists four storiesofcombine narratives, I the five within my Here, research. bulk the of mywork. in systematically used have I tools methodological the out singling memorial, each examining The third third The — I inte I

chapt rviewed no politiciansno rviewed er, titled ―Holocaust memorials and the artists who created them created who artists the and memorials ―Holocaust titled er, while this paper does not cover all the issues of the political political the of issues the all cover not does paper this while — elements ofwithinitapparent elements my are research. 7

isms, offering further further offering isms, ,‖ contains contains ,‖

CEU eTD Collection CT:2001)Praeger, 15. (Westport, 21 Historicalthe ofMnemonicSociology Practices," 20 concentrationwhere1 died camp, heMarch 16, on 19 th from just not born R. is John memory by modern Gilles, noted As memory. collective accepted politically a around framed large and by art public as Insomuch preservation. present. of purpose the for objectively events Conversely,memoryismemories past collectivetraditionscanconcernedwith and shape that the past record to attempts history that memorytheory heretwo to history. of repositories as artworks analyze to who Warburg, Aby historian art the and Bloch Marc historian German me memory,‖ of frameworks ―social and memory‖ ―collective on ideas Halbwachs‘ Maurice reintroduced Assmann Jan scholar German the after 1970s, the In recent. relatively is 1.1

JeffreyK.Olick Joyceand"Social Robbins, FromStudies:Memory Memory‘‗Collective to

mory studies exploded, particularly among French scholars. Others scholars. French amongparticularly exploded, studiesmory Siobhan Kattago, Halbwachsbyhimselfdeported Buchenwald wasvictimtheNazis aHolocaust, of the to the For Halbwachs, history and collective memory are at odds with each other. His theo His other. eachwith odds at are memory collective and historyHalbwachs, For mem of question The Memory,CollectiveHolocaust Memory, Memory and 21

n te wrs tee s ny n hsoy n a num a and history one only is there words, other In

fundamentalconce ‖

and Pierre Nora‘s ―sitesmemory PierreNora‘sand of

Ambiguous NaziThe Memory: PastGermanId Nationaland — ory is by no means a new one; its discourse in historiography, however, however, inhistoriography, discourse itsone; new meansa no byis ory

such as memorials and monuments and memorials as such 1. Theory and Practice of Memory of Practice and 1.Theory

pts that are centralmyare that pts to work:

20 8

In the interest of brevi of interest the In

e sense of a break with the past, but from an an from but past, the with break a of sense e Annual Review of Sociology Annual Review of 945. ‖. ‖.

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Halbwachs‘―social helps form national identity, it is it identity, national form helps e o cletv memories. collective of ber

using theusing ty, I h I ty, spoke of spoke ave limited myself limited ave

24.1,1998. term include the the include term entity

social memory memory social frameworks of 19

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CEU eTD Collection 39.Indiana 1997) University Press, theHalfCentury.about HolocaustAfter a Thinking 22 time, stopping forgetting, of process the blocking by remember, to will community‘s a express disputed. not simply groups, extremist few a of exception the with where, memory, places, indifferent ways different immediate people most victims as Jews the and evil as Nazis the depicts be representedthroughout narrativetends Holocaust to large,the Yet either. way same the exactly to. media the and s survivor through events the interpret who those after,‖ ―born those are pronounced more who those and th Then themselves. for speak cannot who others) million 5 and Jews million (6 victims murdered million 11 the for i.e. ―witnesses,‖ itsmakebasisthegroupversion identity. nationalother of or and past the of representations conflicting the of awareness intense

As quoted byAs Meetingsquoted ―HolocaustIlan And Avisar, Politics the ofCollective Memory,‖

Nora‘s ―site of memory‖ theory states that the purpose of memorials and monuments is to to is monuments and memorials of purpose the that states theory memory‖ of ―site Nora‘s nation or peoples, everyplace, Not of Typical

– collective memory collective were , shap

the survivors, who relay their personal experiences, experiences, personal their relay who survivors, the

ere are the perpetrators, the accomplices, the resisters, and the bystanders, bystanders, the and resisters, the accomplices, the perpetrators, the are ere ing elsewhere, such as the war front. Another viewpoint becoming more and more becoming viewpoint Another front. war the as such elsewhere,

y dniy ih ei‖ ciiis Wie h event the While activities. ―evil‖ with identify ly into different groups depending on what stories and media they ascribe ascribe they media and stories what on depending groups different into

, ,

the Holocaust the no matter how the various the how matter no

Hol s ocaust memory c memory ocaust

affected by Nazi Germany experienced the Holocaust in Holocaust the experienced Germany Nazi by affected 9

has also entered what I call the global collective collective global the call I what entered hasalso

. Similarly, the word ―Auschwitz‖ is a word word a is ―Auschwitz‖ word the Similarly, .

Ed. byEd. Alvin Rosenfeld (Bloomington: H. ontains several narratives. First, First, narratives. several ontains 22

regions interpret the event, by and and by event, the interpret regions

the globe in a similar fashion:similarin globe athe most the and aspects of the eve the of aspects effort of each group to group each of effort speak as best they can can they best as speak s

are

remembered in in remembered are the are nt

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are are it it CEU eTD Collection Representations 26 25 24 MartinKenandxvii.EvansPublishers, Berg Lunn (Oxford:1997) 23 usedinterchangeably.often are, writes:He cases many in are, ―memorial‖ and ―monument‖ however, Young, values. of set particular a for sacrificed life to refer ―memorials‖ while victory, signify writes she which in DC, Washington in Memorial Veterans Vietnam shallwe forget.‖ neverso that remember shallalwayswe that monumentsso ―Weerect wrote: memorials 1.2 but forget, ill severalalso are there history, specificity the remember to will meaningsin―unsuffusedwith visits theand them.‖our significance to created hi of sites writes such remember, to Young, will the Without camps. concentration former at found memorials the present. the and past the th him, For immaterial. the materializing and

Martin Evans, and KenMartinand"Preface," Evans, Lunn, Marita Sturken, ―TheSturken,Marita Wall,Screen,Theandthe Vietnam Image: the Veterans Memorial,‖ byAs quoted Cole,Tim Young,

mrcn r cii Atu Dno i hs oft his in Danko, Arthur critic art American Cole, Like Interpreting and CommemoratingInterpreting and Holocaust:Berlin, the Israel, and Budapest . Furthermore, Furthermore, . Texture of Meaning,Textureof to mato I discovered in my research that the city of Budapest continues to demonstrate a demonstrate to continues Budapest of city the that research my in discovered I , No. 35,Special No. Monumental 118 , Issue: 1991) Histories (Summer, nipulate or downplaysatisfy or nipulate past to politicalthe other goals. opposes

foreign 23 while

tr b tesle wud tews bed no h landscape, the into blend otherwise would themselves by story Image and Remembrance: Representation and the Representationand and Image Remembrance:

Sometimes a site of memory is linked with a site of history, such as as such history, of site a with linked is memory of site a Sometimes drawing a line between the two, arguing instead that the terms terms the that instead arguing two, the between line a drawing 25

119.

sites of memory in several instances correspond with the sites of of sites the with correspond instances several in memory of sites - Jew its forget to will a alongside Holocaust the of heroes Marita Sturken echoes that sentimentin SturkenMaritaessayechoes 1991 thethat her about placed memorials, suggestingamemorials, placed

War and Memory in the Twentieththe Memoryin and War Century e place of memory is a complex interplay between interplay complex a is memory of place e 10

, synonymous, that the two terms can be, and and be, can terms two the that synonymous, , - utd itnto bten monuments between distinction quoted determination

that "monuments" tend to to tend "monuments" that ,

and build memorials build and

Holocaust 24

not ne not

- 142. cessarily to cessarilyto , Ed. ,

. 272. .

James

and and ish CEU eTD Collection Architecture 29 England:Macmillian,3. 2009) memorials.erroneouslylabeledas Holocaust Shult, Tanja victims;commemorate Holocaust words,inthe monumentsWallenberg havebeen other 28 27 themselves they as memory, vicarious on heavily so rely to have not did thesis this in featured horrificdetailsevent. of the exper an of out meaning finding post the of artists second, And fashion. any in redemptive be not must work the First, demonstrated. message. overriding the see to closely look must one works, commemorative such In (loss). War Cold the i who Wallenberg, Raoul as such figure a commemorating in particularly terms, two the between blurring ais there suggests, Young as recognize, do I Though word. fitting most the be to seems in the referencing art is of question work public the unless ―memorial,‖ term the use thesis, this in will, I Budapest, of s acknowledged as both a hero in the Hungarian Holocaust (victory over evil), and a victim of of victim a and evil), over (victory Holocaust Hungarian the in hero a both as acknowledged s

James Young. TanjaWallenbearguesthat Schult Young, The task of an artist commemorating the Holocaust is part is Holocaust the commemorating artist an of task The spaces public within commemorated is it how and Holocaust Hungarian the with dealing In to intrinsic nothing be may there functions, both perform markershistorical can mathat object same the as Insofar prime. their before fallen leadersmemorialize and birth nation‘s memorialize a canobelisk an loss; tragicto ones, loved lost memorialsfor justas markedvictories. have Amonum past canstatue bea site mourning a as used be also can tombstone) (the monument traditional The - Holocaust generation must ethically represent the experience of the memory the experienceof the represent Holocaustethicallymust generation 28 Texture of Memory,Texture of

(New Haven:(New 2000) YaleUniversity Press, AtMemory'sEdge:After

keseithermonumentathem memorial.aor 29 so

As we shall see in the next chapter, aAs chapter, incouplenext shallseewe the -

3. called ―righteous gentile,‖ in which case, the term ―monument‖ ―monument‖ term the case, which in gentile,‖ ―righteous called

ec te nvr knew never they ience rg monumentsman‘s honor meantthe rg not deedsareto and - ImagesofHolocaustin the Contemporary and Art 11

9. AFacesHero’s Many

through imagining vicariously the the vicariously imagining through icularly complex, as Young has has Young as complex, icularly 27

ent to heroism and a memorialheroism toanda ent

of the memorialthe artists (Hampshire, - act; this entails entails thisact; CEU eTD Collection 31 30 movingcementandin station.the direction the of memori the Broniatowski, Karol artist Polish of creation The Auschwitz. to Berlin from deported forcibly were who those wall straight long a where 17, Platform of entrance memorialsyearsEuropeaninhave around a beenconstructed recent theme of absence. alone.‖ destructionand terror ofmemory the on concentrate not and behind desig memorial appropriate ―an that argues Young regard, existed have would progen unborn their of theaswell asperished, who inventors and scientists, but Holocaust; at looking Germany, When Argentina. and Houston York, New in memorials as such tragedy, human place the and Naturally, world. the much of and Europe imagination into still their work. plays e xperienced aspects of the event themselves. Even so, a degree of deep reflection and and reflection deep of degree a so, Even themselves. event the of aspects xperienced

JamesYoung Berel―SecondLang, In 1995, German artist Horst Hoheisel proposed proposed Hoheisel Horst artist German 1995, In outside exists 1991, in erected example, One W e all know the Holocaust had (and is still having) a wide a having) still is (and had Holocaust the know all e

a perpetrator perpetrator a s

people fled to to fled people , AtMem , n must one —

lived, worked, grown, thrived grown, worked, lived, - y Site,‖ country, one naturally onecountry, . Philosopher Berel Lang notes that it is important to recognize what what recognize to important is it that notes Lang Berel Philosopher . ory’sEdge ae no account into take al makes the absent visible with hollow human figures set within the the within set figures human hollow with visible absent the makes al

Image and Remembrance: Representation and the HolocaustRemembrance:the Representationand and Image –

th ose ,198.

places

memorials differ between the places people fled from fled people places the between differmemorials

h ls o culture of loss the outside outside consider 12

— , unfulfilled potential inherent potentialunfulfilled a curious idea for a Holocaust memorial in memorial Holocaust a for idea curious a the at Station, Train Grunewald Berlin‘s the event the about 15 feet tall feet 15 about had the Holocaust not occurred not Holocaust the had s

the incredible losses of life of losses incredible the n will acknowledge the void left left void the acknowledge will n s, — -

reaching resonance throughout throughout resonance reaching but commemorat but h wies mscas artists, musicians, writers, the ,

acts as a monument to monument a as acts 31

To that end, many end, that To

inthe ing taken

the the 30

absence absence In this this In ,26. major major in the the in

CEU eTD Collection http://habitusmag.com/2011/01/2684/a 32 ironically one memorial, the to direction the point city the signposts throughout situated of abundance an Additionally, commemorated. being are who clear very it makes memorial the of title the Yet symbols. Jewish Jewish people. the against committed atrocities Nazi the about more learn can people where center, informat Holocaust a exists ground Below park. city a visiting if as there gathering people memorial the cement of slabs oversized with cityscape, bustling otherwise the in graveyard grassless and grey a as appears the of proximity in estate, less entry winning the expoundson t with interview published a In felt. and seen both be could absence whose something formeritssite over Gate, Brandenburg the up blow Berlin:

―AHoheisel,‖Conversation with Horst

The monument has attracted a number of criticisms, one of which is that it contains no no contains it that is which of one criticisms, of number a attracted has monument The However, sacrifice. to dear too far proved gate the rejected; was submission his Naturally, [even] not It‘s nothing. It‘s architecture? some destroy metaphorequal tothe crime. to it is what murdered, million six Compared reunification?with the after right especially symbol, national their of loss the stand Germans th discussto has It perpetrators. the with inworld.notcouldtherememberingmillionjustbeaboutIt victims. thetohas In deal six it Germany memorial otherHolocaust anydifferentthan be hadto memorialGermany in Holocaust the thatfelt I shocking. Completed in 2005, the memori inthe 2005, Completed shocking.

he idea:he appeared, on a recent visit, to be fully embraced by the local community, with with community, local the by embraced fully be to visit, recent a on appeared, ,

shape — . The idea was to destroy something deeply embedded in the national identity, national inthe embedded destroy somethingdeeply idea to was The .

Peter Eisenman‘s Peter

d as d

coffins and tombstones. Though appropriately devoid of celebration, celebration, of devoid appropriately Though tombstones. and coffins rnebr Gate Brandenburg

- Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe of Jews Murdered the to Memorial conversation grind i grind e German role in the event. So the question was: Would the the Wouldwas: question the So event. the in role German e Habitus: A Diaspora Journal. A Habitus: al covers a full city block (4.7 acres) on prime real primereal acres)on (4.7 block fullcity a covers al 13 ts stone into dust into stone ts — Te memorial The .

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and ossig f ,1 stelae 2,711 of consisting then then Jan. 13, 2011.Jan. 13, rd es f Europe of Jews ered

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a CEU eTD Collection 34 Jewsonly,‖ 33 Forest Martyrs’ formed newly the in planted were trees million 6 to amount eventually would what of first the 1954, in Fund ismanner.hereKeysense the ofvictims.ofabsence the conspicuous a in so doing and past, its facing clearly is city capital Germany‘s memorial. one 20 entire the for apologizing is country the or city the if as feeling visitor the leaving 1945,‖ after dictatorship ―totalitarian the during specif group targeted. each were they naming why explaining by Holocaust the of groups victim the all of memory some name to Chinese, and Japanese, Spanish, Italian, French, English, German, vi the from street Witnesse il mentally the invalids, Romani, center. information the in represented is Nazis the of group victim other no that is criticism Another incidentally

ctims of the Holocaust. And at the And at Holocaust. the of ctims See AppendixforSee Englishthein version itsI entirety. MatthewmemorialSchofield. ―In Berlin,hasHolocaust its critics;t object Some Israel on the other hand remembers life with life. In coope In life. with life remembers hand other the on Israel throughout recognized not are groups victim other say to not is that But 33

s. There were, as widely known widely as were, There

, The PhiladelphiaInquirer.The

er ilrs omr WI underground WWII former Hitler‘s near S Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe of Jews Murdered the to Memorial ae f sal Lctd n pe Glle n dbe a lvn memorial‖, ―living a dubbed and Galilee Upper in Located Israel. of tate now

otis . mlin p million 4.5 contains

l, Soviet prisoners of war, sexual minorities, and Jehovah‘s Jehovah‘s and minorities, sexual war, of prisoners Soviet l, 34 Neue Wache Neue

A , numerous victim groups in addition to Jews, includ Jews, to addition in groups victim numerous , th May 11, 2005. A03. May2005. 11, lso

century b century it , ine trees, one for each adult who perished in the the in perished who adult each for one trees, ine

14 honors the victims of WWI and those those and WWI of victims the honors

memorial, placards in a variety of languages variety of a inmemorial, placards y lumping so many categories of victims into into victims of categories many so lumping y

ukr hr h cmitd suicide. committed he where bunker

is a memorial for the homosexual homosexual the for memorial a is ration with the Jewish National National Jewish the with ration Berlin o its focusitso on — . Across the the Across . ically and and ically oo the honor lives lost ing —

CEU eTD Collection 40 famed 39 protectorate. beenit not restrictions. forHad events landtheof theWWII, haveremainedwould Britas a immigration Britishthe continuingmandate, withgovernment‘s throughout though strict purchasedfirst50 the 38 masstherepresent murdermillionof Europe‘s6 Jews. po animalThetermsacrifice. became known EuropeaninamongJews 19 the 37 36 beenongoingprojectan planting 35 of array vast returninghistoricthe to camps the of liberation the and death, mass wire, barbed fighters, stone two of Fire of Scroll in evidenced partially is This history. year 5,000 into it fits that event single a as destruction of sites in madesacrificesforinof theexistence the allowed other. one the Undeniably again once where remembering perished. who eachchildfor millioncypress 1 and Holocaust,

Young, Young, monumentThewasdesigned Nathanalso who Rapoport, designedbysculptor Polish the the Theactuallydream 19 inofJewishlatea state began the Thederivesterm holocaust from AncientGreek, originally―burntthein meaning offering,‖ as Young, Thenumberof inJewish is children Holocaust 1.5million. forestkilled the hasThe about gromsatrocities.Holocaust, 1960s, other Inandthe spelled withcame uppercase an H, to As a country with lawscountryofAsarequiringofficialthecommemoration with tend Europe in memorials Where WarsawMonument Ghetto Texture of MemoryTextureof Texture of MemoryTextureof Hlcut memory Holocaust ,

JewishFundNational , on the one hand, one the on , - memorials and monuments far too extensive to discuss within the scope of this this of scope the within discuss to extensive too far monuments and memorials bas depicting scrolls carved monument,

h Jws pol cn ot hs memory this root can people Jewish the — parcelsin,landthen,ofOttoman motherlandit.cultivating and Israel integrates the Holocaust within Holocaust the integrates Israel 39

erected on the forest‘s highest hill in 1971. inhill highest forest‘s the on erected , 219 , 219 ,

and Europe in lost victims the 37 over over lastsixthe decades. , unveiled inin, Warsaw 1948. - -

, http://support.jnf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=history. , 241. 241. s ihl etie wt te omto o Ire, o the for Israel, of formation the with entwined tightly is

to reflect the annihilation and absence of Jews of absence and annihilation the reflect to

- eif edrns f ooas imagery Holocaust of renderings relief 15

- ruled Palestine, with landruledwithPalestine,acquisition and th

- century.Zionists In1903, 35 la longu la

, 38 two is here symbolism The

on the other, a return to a land a to return a other, the on with

Holocaust in — e duree e 40

a The monument consistsmonument The a th longside portrayals of of portrayals longside

century to describe centuryto itrc homeland. historic

, , Israel possessesa of Jewish history, history, Jewish of —

— the 26 the especially especially resistance resistance ish - - fold: foot

CEU eTD Collection 6 42 countryside―Galacian‖ofthe Jews‖Patai, elitecountrywiththe had whom advantageous interestedhoweverHorthy thecliquemembers only financialinwas Jewishsavingthe the of 41 guiltneglectsand that one history, of whitewashing a been has result The discourse. anti and distinction no with official the Hungarians, of prism communist fascism the fighting through history viewing of decades four from partly least at stem occupied months. three Hungarian million a half than more killing swiftly, missionso murderous their been have not would Germans the government, Hungarian the of participation many i quite and same time the at while, atrocities Nazi of victimsthe rememberingitself with concerns (monuments) depict some equally, remembered heroes and Martyrs are: noting worth concepts the however, speaking, Generally thesis. n line with several other countries in East Central Europe, seems to avoid facing the fact that fact the facing avoid to seems Europe, Central East in countries other several with line n -

9. http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2008/toth_erzse 9. Erzsébet FanniErzsébet Tóth, Patai ―Hungarianhavethe couldthat mostwritesgovernment saved Hungarianof the Commemoration in Budapest is different from that that from different is Budapest in Commemoration citizens citizens - eii sniet ol hle t frhr me ti attd it h saes offi state‘s the into attitude this embed further to helped only sentiments Semitic itm f h Nz regime. Nazi the of victim , sending , the 41

n ugr wr prertr themselves perpetrators were Hungary in I . Yet today, from a visitor‘s perspective, Hungary positions itself as a as itself positions Hungary perspective, visitor‘s a from today, Yet a nationala awarenessof as as sed f non of nstead

to specific perpetrators or specific victim groups. Pre groups. victimspecific or specificperpetrators to Walking the JewishWalkingthe Past? communis overarching

- t eih ugras atcptn i the in participating Hungarians Jewish es f loss of sense a take on history had been fascists were killing anti killing were fascists been had history on take 42 message,―never again.‖

h reaso The responsibility. The JewsHungary,The of bet.pdf. relations, andrid opportunityto welcomedthe the 16

(Budapest: Central (Budapest: University) European s o ti ogig icneto o history of misconception ongoing this for ns

(memorials)

eln n Israel and Berlin .

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CEU eTD Collection 43 the Pátzay‘s Pál with country‘srule.communist H city‘s the for precedent a set specificity, and add, the of the not is here remembered is what clear it makes message plaque‘s 1945. January 18 on walls ghetto the down broke Army Soviet liberating Hung stood. once largeformerghetto the of gate where Synagogue, one Street Dohánythe wall exterior of an distancelocateda inofcenter town outsidefewthe where cansee areas them. are memorials Holocaust inscription. its in victims as Jews the names specifically latter the and victims, Jewish and perpetrators Nazi of depictions shows side Buda the on Wall Memorial the or and

Cole, Until 1986, the last public attempt to commemorate any aspect of the Holocaust was in 1949, 1949, in was Holocaust the of aspect anycommemorate to attempt publiclast the 1986, Until One of the earliest examples o earliest ofOnethe specificity, Jewish amemorials lacked that Coleobserved yearsago, 15 some research hisIn those few that did were located within Jewish spaces, such as the Dohány Street Synagogue Street Dohány the as such spaces, Jewish withinlocated were did that few those arian, it reads: it arian,

ghetto and its victims, but the liberation of the ghetto and the Soviet liberators. Soviet the and ghetto the ofliberation the but victims, its and ghetto Kozma h Sve Memorial Soviet The

HolocaustCity, my

research will eventually show, that the generic language, lacking any Jewish Jewish any lacking language, generic the that show, eventually will research Street Jewish Cemetery. His research, however, however, research, His Cemetery. Jewish Street

erected in 1947 in Ujpest, or the or Ujpest, in 1947 in erected , both erected before communist rule was in full control of the state. The former The state. the ofcontrol full inrulewas communist before erected both ,

In the Fascist period one of the gates to Budapest ghetto stood here. The The here. stood ghetto Budapest to gates the of one period Fascist the In Snake Killer, Snake

226. mostly hidden out of sight of out hidden mostly

plaque was placed here within months of the 1945 liberation. In In liberation. 1945 the of months within here placed was plaque

fanti Cole‘s remembering Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallen Raoul diplomat Swedish remembering - fascist inspired Holocaust memorials is found in Pest, on inPest, foundmemorials is Holocaust inspired fascist

olocaust memorials that would last far last would memorialsthat olocaust ruet n ―hidden on argument 17

Brick Factory Memorial St Memorial Factory Brick

still holds up holds still fails - ness,‖ that many of the city‘s city‘s the of many that ness,‖ ,

though: both memorials are are memorials both though: to mention the mention to constr uction and existence existence and uction Cole writes that the that writes Cole one

erected in 1945 1945 in erected longer than longer berg. It It berg. Deportation Deportation 43

I would I stood

the the CEU eTD Collection 45 44 an making of cost the to contributed they Instead, premises. its of front in remain monument company, Israeli an by owned now was factory [pharmaceutical] ―the Dent, writes twist,‖ further a ―In Park. Istvan St. Budapest‘s Wall the was company pharmaceutical disease. De in factory the pharmaceutical the at years later some it ofreappeared When himself.Wallenberg disappearanceof symbolic became Park Istvan St. from disappearance postwar statue‘s the that writes Fis Annie pianist, classical Hungarian the by performed concert a from raised funds with Committee, Memorial Wallenberg Budapest fact BobBritish writer 9 1949, April of hours morning early the In houses. safe of number a established had others and month a than less

Cole. Dent,Bob , torn The of crushing the of victim been a was had Memorial Wallenberg statue first Hungary‘s this thebrief, real,period but coalition postwar of government. Arguably days. that early fact its in the still Moscow time, witruling, the of same power scandal absolute the 1949 the internationalof spring At an War. of Cold something commissioned,evenerected, designatedanddatebeen itsofficial a unveiling, for byindicatesthat the looming become the now of by undertones had Budapest of from case Thedisappeared political. clearly were reasons The

enberg, municipalauthorities enberg, approved by local authorities before the formal Soviet takeover, and commissioned by the the by commissioned and takeover, Soviet formal the before authorities local by approved on

45 HolocaustCity.

the But after 1989, 1989, after But -

Every Statue Tells aTellsEvery Statue Story down very very brecen, the statue the brecen, day of its official unveiling, Sovi unveiling, official its of day Dent writes,Dent in St. Istv St. in statue

233. — a nude bronze figure battling a sn a battling figure bronze nude a

n Park, located in a 13 a in located Park, n with

— sans the swastikas the sans

and

Original Raoul Wallenberg Raoul Original which was, equally was, which ulc acknowledg public

cher, cher, others pushed to have it restored restored ithave to pushed others (Budapest: Európa, 2009)(Budapest:281.Európa, and 18

a donation from the Metropolitan Council Metropolitan the from donation a

Rol Wallenberg] [Raoul — et authorities ordered the statue taken down. down. taken statue the ordered authorities et th became a symbol of medical science over over science medical of symbol a became

District neighborhood where Wallenberg where neighborhood District understanda ment – orien

ake covered in swastikas in covered ake that the statue statue the that ted, Hungarian Workers‘ Party was Party Workers‘ Hungarian ted, statue intended to commemorate to intended statue 44

bly quite pleased to have the the have to pleased quite bly

h Seih ilmt who diplomat Swedish the to

its original location in in locationoriginalits at

the Debrecen Debrecen the — was . Cole Cole ,

th in h ,

CEU eTD Collection 49 9.(emphasis 1998) mine). 48 CT:Bergin (Westport, &175. Garvey, 1995) 47 46 fighting morevocal,back,happen. not and passively Holocaust theto allowing longnation‘s strength emphasized deeply which was it way the destro about but life, old their about only not silent, be and identity new a adopt to constrained often were Survivors inhabitants…. heroic its and nation redemptive the of concept Shoah the of aftermath immediate In remember.‖ JacobAmerican Climowrites anthropologist about survivors thetheirandsilent experiences were ge Examining1.3 PostwarAmerica,HungaryIsrael, Silence: and government imposedsilence tha of years 40 the review first to necessary is it decades, two last the in Budapest 1999].‖ serpent Pátzay‘s of copy exact

Dominick LaCapra. Ibid. TeskiMarea C. JacobClimo, andeds., J. Dent. Holocaust silence was a phenomenon experienced worldwide. "For many years after the war, war, manythe yearsafter worldwide."For experienced phenomenon a silence was Holocaust of memorials Holocaust and artists the at looking toward move to begins thesis this As e o devastated.― or yed

46 Every Statue Tells aTellsEvery Statue Story.

It isneith It noting that worth - established pioneers to accuse pioneersto established itr ad eoy fe Auschwitz, after Memory and History t preceded andbetween1948 1989. t period, this

History and Memory after HistoryMemoryafter Auschwitzand 48

Moreover, the Moreover,

– fighting figure, which was duly unveiled in St. Istvan Park [in [in Park Istvan St. in unveiled duly was which figure, fighting — 283 was typified by denial and resistance, as Israelis forged a a forged Israelis as resistance, and denial by typified was er the er original copynor swastikasthe the had restored. contributed to an atmosphere that at times led some of the the of some led times at that atmosphere an to contributed - 284. The LabyrinthEthnogrMemory: of

nes Irei ainls drn te al years early the during nationalism Israeli intense

the recently arrived European arrived recently the

. 47 19

Even in Israel, there was not such a keen ―willsuch to keen a not in was Israel,Eventhere

neral public did not knowit,‖ much not neralpublicabout did oiik aar writes LaCapra Dominick

(London: Cornell(London: University Press,

sur vivors of not being not vivors of 49 aphic Journeysaphic

ht ― that

the the

— - CEU eTD Collection http://www.dianawang.net/Argsurviv.html.Accessed May2011. 25, 53 52 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150890.Accessed 2 May25, SuppressedAuthor.‖ inMemoryand World:Exile,Diaspora: Amnesic anand of Holocaust, Returnthe the 51 50 America.She continues, happen that writingsurvivor, ofHolocaust adaughter Wangthe her In experienceArgentina,as Dianarecalls and themselves, amongst only but it, about speak catastrophes. fact in did group survivors that forgetting, mean or not does individual silence that argues other Climo However, and war, genocides, to linked inherently stress, Climo,survivorsEurope. immigrated childwhoU.S.,writes athe of Holocaust to that, world the throughout survivors Holocaust affected

DianaWang,Survivors―Silence Holocaust Speech, and Argentina.‖ In Ibid. ErikaintoBourguignon, ―Bringing Family Past Present: thethe N Ibid. It wo It notlive liketheirJews, childrenwould beprotected. did they if that believingactivities, Jewish in involved getor participate tonot choseOthers religion. Holocaus life.askinghadinManycrisis overcomefaith, during was Godto survivors ―Wherea themselves, the community in way same the in involved been had Europe in Jew every Not group. homogeneous or theJews, noteto that important is It Holocaust. the after live to went survivors wherever found be also can Argentina in experiences differentThese their put to people forge most desireto the that writes BourguignonErika Anthropologist of inability the also was it But children. the humiliationwords.wasIt into too soon. protect to desire a was a spoke evernever or barelyrarely wasparents Even mentioned.It children. to not certainly and Holocaust the about openly speak not] did [People silence,‖ ―survivors‘ as to referred sometimes phenomenon, this reasons, of variety a For after

ed in Germany might be repeated in the predominately Catholic continent of South South of continent Catholic predominately the in repeated be might Germany in ed uld not be until the late 1950s late the until be not uld

her Polish mother immigrated in 1947, she hid her Jewish identity for fear that what that fear for identity Jewish her hid she 1947, in immigrated mother Polish her t?‖ Some of them, not being able to find an adequate answer, distanced themselves from from themselves distanced answer, adequate an find to able being not them, of Some t?‖

Anthropological QuarterlyAnthropological

— 50

with the publication of publication the with

almost never to their children their to never almost 20 , Vol.No. 1pp.63 2005),, (Winter, 78, before and after the Holocaust, were not a monolithic werea not Holocaust, theandafter before bout their experiences to their children. Some say it it say Some children. their to experiences their bout

— in cluding 011. 011.

Anne Frank’s Diary, Diary, Frank’s Anne h U. the arratives of Holocaust, arrativesExile,Holocaust, of t is a form of post ofform ais t

S, South America, and and America, South S, ,

or the outsideworld. the or -

88. - traumatic and later, and 52 51

CEU eTD Collection 56 55 2011. Accessed June2, semitism/europe of 54 learnnot birthfarintoJewishyears.of their until their they adult were g ais result The happen again. could event similar feara for children, their from origins Jewish their hid survivors many that fact, in much So subject. taboo identity. Jewish erase and genocide traditions 1948 interviews survivors.videotaped ofHolocaust 52,000 the contains which Institute, Foundation Shoah USC the for Spielberg, Steven director Project Film Survivors being first the interviews, videotaped and writing memory with preoccupation arti to languagelack the abusedwho bychildren memories (experienced repressed shockandsyndrome of idea the together link to beginning were therapists trauma ‗80s, the by and, survivors Israel in silencewi trial Eichmann Adolf the surrounding attention media the with 1962, in

Ibid. Patai, TobyAxelrod, Holocaust‖ (AprilHolocaust‖ 20 6, the By In Hungary, under Communist rule, survivor silence took on an added dimension. From From dimension. added an on took silence survivor rule, Communist under Hungary, In - 58, 58, uae iln acts) violent culate

The Jews of Hungary, JewsThe of — — h govern the thin general societygeneralbegan thin

which, according to Patai, resulted in a in resulted Patai, to according which, 90, itras were historians 1970s, vn esrn te ulcto o bos suis ad rils n h Jewish the on articles and studies, books, of publication the censoring even - remembers ― Europe remembers EichmannhowEurope changed trialTV and perceptions

et ae t ifcl fr Jews for difficult it made ment

n 99 t ae ad ae a rjc dvlpd y h Am the by developed project a later and Yale, at 1979 in 11) http://haitiholocaustsurvivors.wordpress.com/anti 11) 55 ,

- to explain the survivors silence of the Holocaust. Thus began a a began Thus Holocaust. the of silence survivors the explain to Indeed, survivors considered the horrific events of the Holocaust a Holocaust the of events horrific the considered survivors Indeed, how

620. - eichmann

taking to break.to

a sharp interest in hearing the stories of Holocaust Holocaust of stories the hearing in interest sharp a - trial 54

- and

wish, - tv to -

changed openly identify with their religion and and religion their with identify openly

even among Jews, to forget the past past the forget to Jews, among even eneration of European of eneration - perceptions 56

- of - - holocaust/. holocaust/. The Holocaust Holocaust The - Jews who did did who Jews rcn film erican — that the the that shell shell CEU eTD Collection forces occupyingfromPatai, war: Soviet the heimmediately hadin Hungary.Instead, allowe 59 murderersthat, the them denied we bookWheneverpick wethe up relatives memoriesfriends,ofJewsPshaytsk,willour grave. theand serve substitute ofas a also memorialsymbolicforwards―Theas]:[withsuch which tombstones book immortalizethe will graves,eveninter,memowithout without to these corpses ancientmostaccordingthe to ofJewishFora media: Memorialpaper. murdered on words people memorialbooks came inglass,to Holocaust, not steel the or stone, ofwar: 58 57 dictatorial the under control full took Communists Hungarian the when 1948, of winter 1948. to 1945 from place in was government coalition temporary a while war. the following question things,‖butit, at she ―Nowpeopleexplains. no this about did.‖onetalk time, a not was ―There parents. her to even not saw, she what about anyone to spoke never and starving,‖ and dying, killed, were ―peoplewho imagesof graphic perusedthe parents on.‖ went life And on. so and Auschwitz,‘ in was ‗I Mauthausen,‘or in was ‗I saidwas they all did, they back,when and come it,‖ was that and 1945, of February time accumulated from her shield not could parents her that says 29),

At closethewar setof Maynotupthe 1945, onStalin Communist 9, to elected rule Youn Anna AprilStein,Interview,2011. 21, oee, h tpc ut ae been have must topic the However, the designed who artist Hungarian the 75, Stein, Anna — a aeydsusdwt hr M fte od e i aet n itrwr ild in killed were sister and parents his me told father ―My her. with discussed rarely was

ofc i Pc, oeie rud 96 titled 1946, around sometime Pecs, in office ‘ Iniconoclastickeeping withbookish, theof Jewish first―memorials‖ theside tradition, g writesg memorialthatwere come firstofformsonethe books to ofcommemorationout bt h tpc f h Jws genocide Jewish the of topic the but , — remembered both the liesrememberedboth the destructionand Jewish of European communities

T ee a a re sae f ulc n piae ooas c Holocaust private and public of spate brief a was here

57 : Young, Young,

She recalls, however, seeing a book lying on a table in her her in table a on lying book a seeing however, recalls, She willfeelstanding are to next eventheir we grave, because, she relates. ―Nobody talked about it. People slowly began to to began slowlyPeople it. about talked ―Nobody relates. she Texture of MemoryTextureof

n h frfot o sm, f o many not if some, for forefront the in The Jews of Hungary JewsThe of 22 d Hungary to setup coalition aHungary d withgovernment to

— but in narrative.but — s h Hlcut a rfre t a the at to referred was Holocaust the as

n Tanú a Ön h Jws mmre se h she memories Jewish the rial books books oftenservecame rial as to Crying to the Sky Sky the to Crying , 7. ,

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That changed in the in changed That 58 memorial (see page page (see memorial

ommemoration

immediately about these these about ad already already ad — CEU eTD Collection 63 62 61 60 again experi Hungary While ―thaw‖. the called 1980s: Hungary since1.4 Changingthe Tides literature. p Jewish of traces all eliminating non and Jews between line the blur to sought party the end, that to society; socialist anti persecuting ―fascists included methods regime‘s ―Jewishness‖The killingwithin but them. killthe Jews, muchthe aimingso to Pa prompts Justice.‖ of Ministry the of concurrence effect impri apprehended, authority the 1956, in dissolution its Until formed. was force, police secret Soviet the of extension an essentially window, includingfilmsselectiona of plays and that brief this during published were articles and pamphlets books, debate.‖ of public number of a center Indeed very the ―in it, puts Patai as was, genocide Jewish the 1948, until self the Rákosi, Mátyás of leadership

Ibid,615 Patai, Ibid,614 Ibid. After Stalin‘s death in 1953, the Soviet Union and its states experienced what has come to be to come has experiencedwhat its states Union and Soviet the 1953, in deathAfter Stalin‘s the takeover, Communist the With

, shortly after the Revolution of ‘56, of Revolution the after shortly

te fntoe a state as functioned ―they The Jews of Hungary JewsThe of replacing 63 – – tai to contrast it with the state the withit contrast to tai 618. 615.

explicit mentions of anti of mentions explicit

- fascists‖. The Communist goal, after all, was to create a just, classless, classless, just, a create to was all, after goal, Communist The fascists‖. , 599. ,

resence in Hungary‘s history, economy, culture, art, music, and music,and art, culture, economy, history, Hungary‘s in resence - otold errs bde, ih h kolde wr, and work, knowledge, the with bodies, terrorist controlled

- rcamd get Hungarian ―great proclaimed Államvédelmi Hatóság Államvédelmi

oe, n true tosns f iies s that so citizens, of thousands tortured and soned, - 62 sanctioned mass murder of the previous regime, as not as regime, previous the murderof mass sanctioned enced this for a short time, the Soviet grip tightened grip Soviet the time, short a for this enced then

It is this atmosphere of state of atmosphere this is It touched upontouchedHolocaust the - Semitism in historical acco historical in Semitism

23 again again

loosened in the 1960s, as the government government the as 1960s, the in loosened (the State Protection Authority), Authority), Protection State (the

ui o Stalin.‖ of pupil . unts with unts 61 - sanctioned silence that that silence sanctioned

the concept of concept the 60 - es by Jews

u up But ,

CEU eTD Collection 65 PraegerandPublishers, RichardWalsh 1990)J. 5,87. York: (New 64 of tens of during lives Jews the of savingthousands with credited is who Wallenberg, Raoul diplomat Swedish the area way the of the in found is Budapest Budapest of Martyrs in change this of evidence first The Europe. throughout Eastern commemoration and Holocaust Central of wave‖ ―second the thesis, this of purpose the for be the overwhelminglyin communismappearsto 1989, the that overstated. country the on effect the bloc, Soviet the of countries issues. policy foreign and cultural, economic, political, social, of range broad a across effect democratizing reform a introduced boldly Gorbachev 1987, By reform‖. ―radical to acceleration‖ ―economic from moving focus transparency. government commonly reform liberalizing a through thinking‖ ―new introduced he 1985, In Union. Soviet the of Party Communist the of Secretary life,and Jewish on effect little had this Still, goods. exporting through economy its stimulate to sought

Ibid. Daniel Papp, S. The loosening of governmental control during the 1980s, followed by the sudden collapse of of collapse sudden the byfollowed 1980s, the during control governmental of loosening The General became Gorbachev Mikhail after shortly 1980s, the in stir to began change Real

the perceptionthe history.of Holocaust

of the Danube‘s west bank in 1986. It was followed in 1987 with a memorial to memorialto a with 1987 infollowed was It 1986. in bank west Danube‘s the of huh ugr aray a be ejyn mr fedm ta ms ot most than freedoms more enjoying been had already Hungary Though Glasnost, Perestroika,Glasnost, Socialistthe and C

known as known memorial 64 h Hnain ooas bfr dspern Jnay 7 1945 17, January disappearing before Holocaust Hungarian the

nsotodr i ies nraigyge mr aia,wt his with radical, more grew increasingly ideas his order, short In

— perestroika a replica of a of replica a

referred to as to referred

(―restructuring‖), which together with together which (―restructuring‖),

Holocaust memorial in Austria memorialin Holocaust 24

thrust glasnost ommunity

that ushered in what I have usheredin I termed that what

(―openness‖), which promoted promoted which (―openness‖),

, Ed. CharlesEd. , Bukowski eom md cno be cannot made reforms — erected erected glasnost in an out inout an , had a a had , her , a

CEU eTD Collection research Three Chapter the in covered be followedwill that others the and monument this ofstory The Soviets. the of prisoner political .

immediately following immediately 25

the next chapter on how on chapter next the I carried out t out carried I he CEU eTD Collection the artists and their interviews, I spent most of my research time in the field, visiting each each visiting field, the in time inmemorialmonument person. Holocaust and research my of most spent I interviews, their and artists the 2007) Books, 66 seeideas overcomemanifested in to someofpublicBudapest‘s spaces. to had they challenges of sort what and plaques, their on went that verbiage the over control wer memory of sites the of some learnedthat I words, their Through unfortunate. been has now untilwhich past, inthe listenedto properly been not have voices their Clearly, listened. and questions the asked merely I cases, easie made was researcher a as job my regard, this In before. questions these beenasked not had Many commemoration.Holocaust to relatesit how and work their and lives, their about talk and up, open background, the from out come to eager subjects sourceselsewhere.When information,with combined other of infill they history. gapsof the Furthermore, ones‖. imagined or received from memories disentangletrue ―to evidence, other against tested interviews through Union Soviet former the in survivors gulags book record. accurate an as seen typically

OrlandoFiges, h Wiprr: rvt Lf i Life Private Whisperers: The For the purpose of data collecti data of purpose the For p most the for found, I thesis, this for conducted I interviews the of course the In are which memoirs, than reliable more are interviews historians, social many For

128. interviewees can provide information, observations, and opinions unavailable unavailable opinions and observations, information, provide can interviewees The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’sWhisperers:Russiain The Life Private

2. Oral history and methodology and history 2. Oral

e actually selected by them, that none of them had complete complete had them of none that them, by selected actually e U Sai’ Russia, Stalin’s n ng and analysis to augment the information I gained from gained I information the augment to analysis and ng nlike books, writes Orlando Figes Orlando writes books, nlike With the intention of updating Tim Cole‘s research research Withintention Cole‘s Timofupdating the 26

which surveys everyday family life of of life family everyday surveys which ytercmimn: n many in commitment: their by r — (New York:(New people can be questioned and and questioned be can people

— who wrote the 2007 the wrote who Metropolitan art, my art,

CEU eTD Collection the history it is attempting to commemorate?ishistorythe itattempting to And 1. memorialmonument: and Holocau of wo vandalism? the has and commemorate, to groups in gather candles, wreaths, doesit speak language,plainly or it intendedhistoryisdirectlycommemorate?theand about to 4. ―righteousgentiles,‖resisters, the victims?or the 2. 5. 5. Language: on o View of Point Location And And ial, o i te memorial the is how finally, st memorials up to 1999, I asked the following set of questions while visiting each each visiting while questions of set following the asked I 1999, to up memorials st

: Is it visible? And if not, why not? Is the site of the memorial/monument relevant to to relevant memorial/monument the of site the Is not? why not, ifAnd visible? it Is :

Does the accompanying verbiage shy away from the facts with vague and p and vague with facts the from away shy verbiage accompanying the Does : What aspect of the Holocaust does the work remember: the liberators, the liberators, the remember: work the does Holocaust the of aspect What :

sd y h community? the by used 27 finally, is itisfinally,accessible?

Do people leave flowers, flowers, leave people Do

rk been the subject of of subject the been rk assive assive

CEU eTD Collection 68 67 many but Holocaust vicarious ones. t of out slightly falls entry last The none. have who those to progressing Holocaust the of memories personal strongest the have who artists the with begin pages following The rule. communist born Szabó, Tamás generation. long any form to young too inair.stenchthe of death still could he said he where 1960s, the in camp death the visit himto Auschwitz,prompting in murdered friends were childhood his of two learnedthat he that 1945 in Union Soviet the from returned he when only was It Stalingrad. over flying officer per experiencedbut Worldyoun Second se,terrors War theof Varga, the Holocaust, asnot a Imre sculptor Another, children. young of eyes the through Holocaust Hungarian the of aspects pos the of description the fit technically not did artists commemoration Budapest‘s of several that learned lives. inner their shaped has it how by but history its by much so ―postmemory‖. calls Hirsch Marianne what and past,‖ ―vicarious a calls Young what media, the and stories survivor event, the know cameto who artists byimagined memorialsare Holocaust newerTypically,

James A. Young. A.JamesYoung. Hirsch,―TheMarianne, ofGenerationPostme he line up, features the architecture of István Manyi, who has no personal memories of the the of memories personal no has who Manyi, István of architecture the features up, line he One of the surprising facts I learned in my research was the age of several of the artists. the of several of age the was research my in learned I facts surprising the of One 3. The Holocaust memorials and the artists who created them created who artists the and memorials Holocaust The 3. mmr gnrto. w o them of Two generation. tmemory At At Memory’sEdge.

Furthermore, as no as Furthermore,

not through personal experience, but through the powerful memories of of memories powerfulthe through but experience, personalthrough not István Manyi was born during the era, in 1943, but he would have been hehavebeen but wouldin bornera, during the 1943, ManyiIstvánwas - term memories, so by this virtue, he falls in with the postmemory postmemory the with in falls he virtue, this by so memories, term

in 1952, is the youngest artist in group, born and raised under under raised and born group, in artist youngest the is 1952, in

ted by Young, artists come to know their subjects not subjects their know to come artists Young, by ted 28 mory,‖ —

na ti ad yl Pauer Gyula and Stein Anna PoeticsToday see ash on the ground and smell the the smell and ground the on ash see 68 were ―born after,‖ those who those after,‖ ―born were

2008 Vol. 29: 103 Vol.29: 2008 Through the interviews, the Through — experienced experienced

- 128. g air air g

I CEU eTD Collection h the ground, the into tiles last the lays she raised As hand sky. one the above, to heavens forcefully the to cry a delivering angel messenger a angel, blue a of per government no is there 1990, in day particular this October on But authorities. local the of attention the drawn have doubt no would past Da the near sidewalk hand 77 of first the cement to begins and ground the to crouches Photographcourtesy of 1 Fig. Sky the (1990) Cryingto 3.1 fect. With each new tile Stein lays into the ground, an image begins to take shape, the image the shape, take to begins image an ground, the into lays Stein tile new eachWith fect.

Anna Anna Stein Crying to the Sky the to Crying It was the perfect moment. W moment. perfect the was It

nube River. This sight, on any other day in Hungary in day other any on sight, This River. nube theartist. , Anna Stein, 1990, Budapest (next to Margaret Bridge, Pest sid Pest Bridge, Margaret to (nextBudapest 1990, Stein, Anna ,

ith two body guards body two ith 29 —

hc i wa md ti dy o irresistibly so day this made what is which

standing by to protect her, Anna Stein Stein Anna her, protect to by standing - painted ceramic tiles into a into tiles ceramic painted and ‘ s recent communist communist recent s - ane wrs in words painted e), ceram e),

ic tiles. tiles. ic CEU eTD Collection circulatinglocal amongcity theshut artists that the plansto wasvery It art. beactivesincedayscommunistcontinuesthe today, althoughare and to rumors 70 infroman 69 on.‖ so and woman, religious a by mother my priest, a by hidden was father ―My places. different in explains she Stein,‖ family the for passports purchased father her Although nuns.‖ by hidden was I where country, the to went familymy that, ―After Danube. the by lived who couple elderly an by later then grandmother, her for cook a as worked who woman as herself Stein re she when autumn 1990, city the to art her of work original an donate to sought the during Hungary left who city the overseeing with charged organization local a Gallery, Budapest the with working been had she 1986, since years, four previous the For yet.‖ evenelections not inpower, one no ―There was later. years 21 Stein, changing,‖ recalls Arrow the whoof becamevictims ― readable: made are mosaic minted freshly this of Hungarian

TheGalleryBudapest is governmenta Unlessall inferencesotherwisenoted, and Anna into Stein quotes section this are

‘ s proposed project. sproposed Born in 1936, Stein has personal memories of the Holocaust in Budapest, referring to to referring Budapest, in Holocaust the of memories personal has Stein 1936, in Born because it, against anything say could one no when time the] was ―[This - a idn hl. Te ebr o hr meit fml wr take were family immediate her of members The child.‖ hidden ―a person interviewAnnaartist: personthe Stein,Interview, with —

all of the members of her immediate family hid, initially together and then then andinitially together hid, familyimmediate her of members the of all

ceived a call from the Gallery, had there been any real movement with with movement real beenany hadthere Gallery, from the calla ceived

‘ 56 Revolution and made a life for herself as an artist in Paris, Paris, in artist an as herself for life a made and Revolution 56 - Cross Terror in the winter1944 the Terrorin of - sponsored sponsored organizationoverseethat — ‘ 30 s pu s ―We had ―We

blic works of art of works blic —

to change our names; I was not Anna not was I names; our change to

ooas eoil u o until not But memorial. Holocaust a Gallerysoon. down In memory of those Hungarians Hungarians those of memory In April - . 45.” 70

Stein, a Budapest native Budapest a Stein, 21, 201 21, 69

the city‘sthe public

n in first by a a by first in n the power was was power the derived

CEU eTD Collection into exterior ofbuilding.the a She recalls a at seen be to mosaic the intended originally north the beside memorial around thethe for 1944 in 4 her of beginning the was That Danube,thousandswhere ofJews wi enjoy too, they, that considering upset, be would she why understand forgotten.‖just died, are they Mauthausen,who people these all andwine to m of ―One camps. death Nazi the of one oflocation the as infamous now Mauthausen, of town the to tourists pointing signa spotted Stein Austria, through passed theyAs Budapest. to Paris from y uncles was killed there,‖ she says. ―And I thought I ―And says. she there,‖ killed was uncles y the to belongs street the because tomb, a publicandwill never beprivatized. like ground, the on memorial the put should we that Bud of architect The buildings? the owns question:Who the was privatized.That maybehavewouldbecome changeover]the [with but theywere walls space, publicall the 1989,] available no were aft Andthere walls. time this at but building], a [of wall a on it put to was thought first My memorialthe Today, andyouAnd talk.‖ did.I So let ―Okay, me, told She something. make wanted to I her told I Pecs. of museum the of director the to close very was I Pecs. to went I [Later,]memorial.‖ said AndI now?‖ suddenly, do we can what but ―Yes, husband, my asked I then, Right that. about talkednobody time,] the [At crea to determined She

the Arrow Cross Arrow the - end of the Margaret Bridge (on the exterior of Pest‘s Mari Jászai Square). Stein Stein Square). Jászai Mari Pest‘s of exterior the (on Bridge Margaret the of end er the changeover, there was a problem about who actually owns the walls. [Before walls. theownsproblemactually who about a waschangeover,there the er had been had

unveilingceremony. has become a lesser a become has te a Holocaust memorial while traveling by car with her husband her with car by traveling while memorial Holocaust a te -

year wait. wait. year I preparedI design, a and they agreed. —

put into power, a huge turnout of people and media gathered gathered media and people of turnout huge a power, into put ,

just likejust them ―I must do something, I mustdo I mustdosomething, ―I

the challenge she encountered with that idea:challenge the encounteredwith that she Finally, on Finally,

height slightly above eye level, embedded upright upright embedded level, eye above slightly height 31 -

known fixtureknown — also perished. also Stein continues, October 15 October — my God! my ‘ s go. I go. s of the city‘s 5th District, located District, 5th city‘s the of

‘ th — something myself. I will make a makea will myself.Isomething ll give you a name in Budapest, in name a you give ll

, 1990, on the same day that that day same the on 1990, , people are taking beer and and beer taking are people H ne and beer by the the by beer and ne er husband did not husband er did apest suggested suggested apest

CEU eTD Collection completionforscheduled in2011.August, 2‘reveal ofabout coveringdebrismosaic. Stein‘sConstruction Margrit is the Bridge around view ablemyitatwhen to city workers, reque it―protect‖during bricks 3 to a 71 Gallery:members Budapest ofthe 1 in had she conversation a describes she memorial, the in Jewish as victims located. is it where path pedestrian small t to only God.isHecrying, aquestioning notis tearful‗Whereto is heout, angel; God?‘‖ crying cove to made were ―They Stein. says angel,‖ protecting a of wings the has ―He out. crying and sky the toward pointing byGallery.suggested SheBudapest the explains: a in it place to battle At memorialtimethethe ofwriting,under thissheet a of plastic covered pilewas aand of logic,that I but agree withit. be Toc Jewishnota is Hungarians. killing were Hungarians citizens. Hungarian by killed were who citizensHungarian were Jews Thenationality…. Hungarian the from out people these takes all were people th These say you religion.if becauseimportant very a is That is Hungarians. killed Hungariansit Hungarian. nationality; a not is Jewish least, not but last And Jews. onl not Danube, the on killed were who people other were not there did because outsidethey memorial ―Jewish‖one,] a [For make reasons. to want two were There ―Jew‖. word the use to me want not did They found a family. father‘s my Manypeople of relatives many were so And that. like killed were grandparents My that. see can people many where happened, killings thewhere it put wantto I ―No, them, told Isynagogue. a in it put me to they told first At u bcue f t paeet n h gon,te two the ground, the on placement its of because But features fresco, Mesopotamian a of style inthe created mosaic, The the win did she memorial, her embed to which in wall a receive not did Stein Though he occasional pedestrian, jogger or bicyclist who happens to be traversing along the the along traversing be to happens who bicyclist or jogger pedestrian, occasional he placeby themany whereDanube peoplecan seeit. —

uncles and aunts. I said it must be there [at the river] where it happened. then itwhere We river]the [at mustbethere itsaidI unclesandaunts.

public space rather than within a ―Jewish space,‖ as was originally originally was as space,‖ ―Jewish a within than rather space public r and protect. But it was a tremendous thing that happened here. He is He here. happened that thing tremendous a was it But protect. and r y Jews. There were the Roma, the Resistance, and people who were hiding hiding were who people and Resistance, the Roma, the were There Jews. y

- yearBridge.constructionproject and wasMargrit on around I

When asked about why she chose not to identify the identifythe to not chose she why about asked When it there.‖ People were killed along the Danube, we know we Danube, the along killed were People there.‖ it st, removedst, brickstheto plastic andcovering 32

itizenship; itisreligiona

- dimensional memorial is visible visible is memorial dimensional There is a conflict with conflict a is There a blue a 990 with one of the the of one with 990 .

- winged angel angel winged

e Jews, it it Jews, e CEU eTD Collection dialoguewiththe that beg And Nyilas? the were Who question: the raised doubt no sphere public the in 1990 in memorial anti and memory fascists Holocaust actors: modeled two a only of acknowledging years 40 from breaks that verbiage and site, significant historically a within placement its with commemoration, Holocaust city‘s the in breakthrough nothing was memorial Stein‘s 1990, In created. was memorial the which in times the communism Change sympathizers. and Romani, Jews, Hungarian as victims fascist recog not did that history a in embedded firmly was memory collective whose one Europe, Eastern therefore, ‗Jewthe post and Soviet the both ―in that argues He victims. Hungarian as identification the with replaced and fascism,‖ of ―victims as to referred being from moved had memory 1989 the wherebymemory, nationalizesthe memorial the on language the that argues Cole However, logic. city‘s the with agrees she says she end Crying to the Sky the to Crying nize or name the fascist perpetrators as German Nazis and Hungarian and Nazis German as perpetrators fascist the name or nize Cole and Central 1990‘s of milieu the consider must one Yet sound. are arguments Both the in but issue, complicated a is memorial her on wording the that acknowledges Stein

— is right to recognize and point out the nationalizing language of the Holocaust on on Holocaust the of language nationalizing the out point and recognize to right is may happenmindsmay fast.However, suddenly. so rarely change ishness‘ of the victimsishness‘the hasinof beendownplayed deniedcity‘sand the streets.‖ memorial, however, at the same time we must consider the context of the the of context the consider must we time same the at however, memorial, an. an.

victims of the Holocaust in the immediate post immediate inthe Holocaust the of victims

- fascists. The The fascists. sudden presence of Stein‘s Stein‘s of presence sudden –

such as the collapse of of collapse the as such

Nyilas, - Soviet periods, periods, Soviet

or the anti the or less than a a than less

- - CEU eTD Collection avant underground Hungarian the in peers his among popular became he 80s, and 70s, 60s, duringthe but officials,government with him unpopular havemade may creative realm aut by noticed was it before days it?‖ wherewasknowwhen wrote I The work I you do but this, reading are you because are you where know ―I as sayings wry such included Budapest. of outskirts the on field open an into the Danube on Shoes (2005) 3.2

GyulaPauer In 1978, 1978, In at the age of 37, 37, of age the at

Photographby JessicaTaylor (5 Budapest 2005, Togay, Can 2 Fig.

Shoes on the Danube the on Shoes Gyula horities and torn down. Pauer‘s unorthodox pursuits in the the in pursuits unorthodox Pauer‘s down. torn and horities

Pauer staked about 50 protest signs of varying heights heights varying of signs protest 50 about staked Pauer — 34 called

, - The Tudzin. Gyula Pauer and Janos Janos and Pauer Gyula th

itit, at iron. cast District), ProtestingForest slogans were his own invention, which which invention, own his were slogans

— stood for afor mere stood three - garde, even garde, CEU eTD Collection 73 infroman 72 beforejust daya lasted experiment This riverbank. the of edge the at arranged shoes of pairs several from get might als but look, would it how see to this did They building. Parliament search to 2005 January severa that placeterror bank took the on Danubeofthe the reflect should memorial d Jews the toward directed hatred the express to wanted really heif that János hisfilmdirector Hungariancapture, friend, to he wanted event the a create 2004, 16, April on passed already anniversary the With competition a about hear to waited He Europe. h been had artists other and that explains He Pauer. says intdabbling A German term madeAbyterminfamousGerman describeNaziideology, racialused to "inferiorpeople". Unlessall inferencesotherwisenoted, and Gyula into quotes thi Pauer l pairs of shoes acquired from a film studio, he and Togay set out to Danubetheout film fromheset studio, Togay andla ofacquired shoes pairs ih Togay With around all from news of lot a Europe.That heard I young, was I though Even story. the me told parents my three only was I happened, this When it. into them shot they the of members 1945, ….In the shoot soldiers Basicallynowhere inEurope hadtragedy haswhere a like daylightthat, in broad peopl how of story The

memorialsubmission,forwithout withcompetition. Whileaspect a or of pondering what - person interviewGyula artist: personthePauer, Interview, with May2011. 2, o costume filmo designand ‘ ‘

s allrememberI it.about sgeto, ae sy h ke isaty ht e atd o o With do. to wanted he what instantly knew he says Pauer suggestion, s

someone at at someone

for the right spot to create a prototype memorial prototype a create to spot right the for so the - called belövetés in 2003, with the 60 the with in 2003,

aig that earing Shoes on the Danube the on Shoes

‗ Nyilas untermensh the , the Hungarian term to describe the pro describethe to term Hungarian the , - making for a time.afor making M

party escorted so many Jewish people to the Danube where Danube the to people Jewish many so escorted party

inistry new Holocaust Holocaust new

’ . 73 35 .

of Culture of That in Budapest in th

anniversary of the Holocaust approaching, Holocaust the of anniversary memorial came about is an interesting one, one, interesting an is about came memorial ‘ s how the idea [for the memorial] came about about came memorial] the [for idea the how s Pauer decided to take it upon himself to to himself upon it take decidedto Pauer 72

memorials would be placed all over over all placed be would memorials

called Pauer to ask what he was up to to wasaskheup what to called Pauer

, but an announcement never came. never announcement an but ,

years old. I was born in 1941, and 1941, in born was I old. years o to to o

uring the Holocaust, the the Holocaust, the uring — ssectionare Can Togay, commented commented Togay, Can test what test they found it near the the near it found they - Nazi Arrow Cross Arrow Nazi

reaction they they reaction derived one day in in dayone e see could

he he CEU eTD Collection FerencGyurcsany,‖ inwin finances electio order to the mountingdeficitcurb Hungary'sbudget laterinadmit, 2006 September, 74 full ideahisdescribehow cameto fruition: of consideration 61 the for ready makepermission memorial.the to the city materials thefor of out it wascall, It ministrythen,invitedduringthat submit Pauer the toreview.for histhat proposal forward.‖ move andin advance could plan I that like so look would it what find out to wanted ―I Pauer says permit,‖ the for apply to go I before that them told ―I paper. of rolllarge a on pencil re and arranging there, down —

At the beenjustastime,Ferenchad prime elected Gyurcsány . But for Pauer, he was delighted just the same: ‖ same: thejust delighted was he Pauer, for But . and all they wanted to know was ―how much?‖ Curiously enough, s enough, Curiously much?‖ ―how was know to wanted they all and Pauer says he wanted to position the shoes to reflect a panic situation. He imagined a a imagined He situation. panic a reflect to shoes the position to wanted he says Pauer orthinkwas40 50 it people in least, group.aat manyThat‘s how shoesout. put I made they where river, the to time a 60 ofgroup a escort menarmedcould4 or 3 guessedthat Weriver. the at diedhave survivors to went to known those to relatedwere church….I who families the wentto the We stories. their to listened and from houses, got we facts are These Danube. the into them shot they and river the to her with stayinghad she people the and Salkaházi They took savingJewish chil pla memorial a found We documents. no are of research howabout many peoplewereinto shot Danube….Youthe can who tell people of cannot number We the exactly pairs. you 60 to increased it then shoes, of pairs 8 or 6 with started thing whole The it would be that period of intime,so very short complete project a the wasasked Pauer to liked they saying letter a him sent ministry the plans, his submitted Pauer after Shortly

st a memorial was an impromptu act on the part of the city. Pauer goes on to to on goes Pauer city. the of part the on act impromptu an was memorial a

niesr o te ooas o Arl 4 20, hc idcts ht the that indicates which 2005, 14, April on Holocaust the of anniversary BBC News, BBC

his dren from the water, drenwater, fromand hadvisitthethen frommembersa sheof the

own expenses own -

arrangi — Sept. 19,2006.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5360116.stm Sept. afterinitiating series a hikesofand tax spending cuts to public ns of that same nsofyear.that ng shoes all day, tracing outlines around each shoe with a a with shoe each around outlines tracing day, all shoes ng

In a way, it was like I madelikeitwasInway,mea I theman giveoffer.‖ — ,

with the agreement that he wouldbywith agreementthat bethe reimbursed the that the government had liedhad government thestate ofthethat publicabout them step out step them

were shot into the river, nobody can…. I was doing a lot a doing was I can…. nobody river, the into shot were 36

q ue about a nun named Sára Salkaházi. She was was She Salkaházi. Sára named nun a about ue I didn I Gabriel Partos. ―Profile: GabrielPartos.

ftersosbfr hyso hm in….I them shot they before shoes their of ‘ t even think that they would give me me give would they that eventhink t

minister. Gyurcsány minister. would ays Pauer, Pauer, ays ‘ t find t out because there ;

e wen we

he - Nyilas

80 people at peopleat 80 had to pay to had t to their their to t 74

Party. Party.

CEU eTD Collection inbe but there. peopletheyThey them, not are gone.‖ are inkindpublicInBudapest Pauersphere. the messagememorials,absence,common Holocaust a first inof theme itsmore yet recent ofthe livingreplacedbyare we infinished society now. thethat The memorial, sends however, the canmean wouldIt also societyhadthethat havebeen, Holocaus the living,allegoricintoofbreathingsmoke transformedandin humans being ash crematorium. the hasit,itsphilosophical; narrative.too, placein that issays Heprocess theHolocaust the longerexistedandreplacedwith ForPauer, rendition. awas metamorphosis thisis somewhat ironliquidessentially originaldisintegrated thematerial so shoe,original thenothe that of castingblock thenand po 75 Pauer, says memorial and, the to music set even someone letters; and emails numerous received has Pauer then, Since says. he there,‖ killed were who relatives their remembering were ―They of generations memories two combines Pauer history, of imagination keen a with memory vague that being people seeing of memories childhood first a also is he time, same the at Yet artist. postmemory ruste were effect.‖ they and war, the after river the of out lifted were that shells of condition the saw I bullets. old the like just ―It‘s says. he effect,‖ dramatic a has it riverbank.the of edge the to shoved being resist, to tried who person a maybe and river, face the to made were water. below frigid the with scene

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— . Kádár, the head of Hungary‘s ruling party, since his term of office as ambassador was was ambassador as office of term his since party, ruling Hungary‘s of head the Kádár, informedSalgo Varga ―certain a words, Dent‘s in was, property public to monument the move to decision The owns a numberownsa ofsto ―When I started working on it,‖ says Varga, ―I was called to the City Council, and told told and Council, City the to called was ―I Varga, says it,‖ on working started I ―When ag sae i h hd h mny h wud ae h sau. h nx dy Varga day, next The statue. the make would he money, the had he if stated Varga where the American International High School is located, 9 milesin 9 located, isawaywhere Nagykovácsi. Americanthe InternationalSchool High

ving a private lunch set up by the Swedish ambassador, Bengt Lundborg. His guests His Lundborg. Bengt ambassador, Swedish the by up set lunch private a ving

‘s name came up in conversation a conversation in up came name ‘s n te mrcn masdr Salgo ambassador American the and .

Tee ee vn ok st po te ecn, Vra eal, s ta people that ―so recalls, Varga fencing,‖ the on up set hooks even were ―There

t in the city.‖ Even when he approached his friend György Aczél, the the Aczél, György friend his approached he when Even city.‖ the in t Banken AB (SEB), the (SEB), AB Banken ne minesnefurnishedfor thus graniteandmonument. the―I the

that the followingthat the afternoon

ican Embassy to design a statue, to be partially funded by funded partiallybe to statue, a design to Embassy ican nd Salgo challenged Varga to create a monument a create to Varga challenged Salgo nd 50

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CEU eTD Collection 100 99 Cole, 1945.‖ wasmonument spotthe 98 2002). ―forinterviewsthis personalsubsequenthisandsee thein ImreVargaexperiences, Árpási,with likewise,―keepit to offDent, leaves footnote record.‖ ato much corroborated ofstory,ofversionDent‘showeverthe minor differences, withand request a 97 Jewsstars thatthe mo warmer duringthe monument the revival. and peace symbolizes park surrounding the Harangozó, Márta writer Hungarian friend, longtime Varga‘s demonstrat was as accomplishment, easyan not was War Cold the of years final these during space public of kind any in monument the place to permission history. Holocaust than rather War Cold in meaning Wallenberg‘sabandoned where Pest in operations his of bulk the conducted Harvey Accordingitwas―byto [that] forRosenfeld, site sheerchosen coincidence, the the Cole suggests that itis Colesuggests―clearthat wassite]Ibid, more than [the fortuitous.‖ simply 235. Dent, Dent,

Márta Harangozó, ― MártaHarangozó,

Co movederected.its It wasstatue presentlocation to withinhours. 48 the have to agreement an in resulted dayfollowing the A Council Municipal the at statute. meeting Wallenberg the of whereabouts the know to demanding all officials, various a cal Hungarytelephone with bombardedoffer was to [Varga] evening like That Wallenberg… would of statue he gift parting a as that mention to Budapest. happened he inwhich Wallenberg of statue of course athe during visit, farewell his paid dulySalgo] ambassador [American afternoon was there whether ask was would Kádár someone include, would program doubt, no which, at conference, the press a involve certainly would it that what … told apparently Asking Stockholm. visit to invitation himpresentwit to Kádár withmet [Lundborg] following day, the morningof end. an to coming Every Statue Tells aTellsEvery Statue Story e writes le HolocaustCity 100 were required to wear required were to

that the final location in Buda is far from where the Swedish diplomat diplomat Swedish the where from far is Buda in location final the that In that vein, one vein, that In The WorldImreVargaThe of

whereWallenberg‘s foundStudebaker inwasFebruary abandoned cran po‖ em t hv ufle. s t un ot … out turns it As unfolded. have to seems ―plot‖ certain A , 235. ,

Studebaker . 282.(Note: Varga, interviewin. recorded a April2011, on 22,

nths of the year, which may or may not signify the color of of color signifythe not may or may which year, the of nths might reflect on reflect might under Nazithe regime.

was discovered, was adn t adding , 51 , ‖

11. 99

It is worth noting, however, that receiving receiving that however, noting, worth is It the bed of yellow poppies that surround that poppies yellow of bed the hat the monument is located at th at located is monument the hat hisversion storyofthe statingthat 98

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CEU eTD Collection PresidentStockholm researcherSchult,a Gorbachev‘s that writesat University offic Tanja because interesting is This Holocaust. the in operations his than rather War Cold the in o city that indicates location the that suggests Cole operations. his conducted diplomat Swedish the where from removed be memorialcommemorating.is to supposed the explainswhat that plaque no containsit that is memorial this with criticismonlyThe theatre. area. walkwaygravesitesnextthe to thecourtyard. their wayonrear to the as visible tourist a is which Europe, itself, of attractioninunto languages. providesand tours numerous guided all in synagogue largest the within located touris is a it of as somewhat attraction, become has memorial The ―martyrs‖. as to referred the still though are even victims space, Jewish private within location its of fact the of virtue by standpoint m the protects it as delicate its and monument choice, wise a is gate the secure a behind location the leaves, of silver individual 4,000 with structure, value the Considering spaces. public from seen be can Dohá the within spacein is private located (1991)

While it is not located in a site of history, it is situated in front of front in situated is it history, of site a in located not is it While n fnly the finally, And The the for said be can same the of Much memorial: each summarize briefly To — hc i stae coe o hr Wlebr‘ aadnd a ws discovered was car abandoned Wallenberg‘s where to close situated is which Radnóti Martyrs onument from possible vandalism. The perspective is clearly from a Jewish Jewish a from clearly is perspective The vandalism. possible from onument fficials were more interested in highlighting the Wallenberg‘s disappearance disappearance Wallenberg‘s the highlighting in interested more were fficials

eoilo Adas i vsbe cesbe ad oae i high a in located and accessible, visible, is Andrassy on memorial memorial, and is often overlooked by visitors as they pass through the the through pass they as visitors by overlooked often is and memorial, Seco d au Wallenberg Raoul nd

Forced March March Forced The Memorial to the Hungarian Jewish Martyrs Martyrs Jewish Hungarian the to Memorial The 52

ny Street synagogue. Though it is not public, it public,it not is itsynagogue.Though nyStreet monument. As Cole noted, it is indeed far far indeed is it noted, Cole As monument. memorial, though it is not quite a quite not is it though memorial,

Radnóti e in Moscow inMoscow e s namesake ‘s - traffic traffic — s t CEU eTD Collection 101 moreisvisiblemoreis evidenceUntilkno site. simply this available, cannot somethingwe a in it showcasing about enthusiastic not were officials city and remote, was it because chosen may railroad building for used with foundation a [create to had ―I foundation. soggy a for making that to allusion any of ―free was it as fate.‖ Wallenberg‘s long as monument the erect to permission Varga gave

Tanja Shult, the spot was not ideally suited for suited ideally not was spot the have been chosen by an inbyhavebeenchosenan A

Hero’s Many FacesHero’s Many 101

According to Varga, the location was sheer coincidence, though he admitshe coincidence,though sheer waslocation Varga, the Accordingto tracks, otherwise it would sink,‖ he says. This indicates that the site the that indicates This says. he sink,‖ would it otherwise tracks,

dividual with an agenda and certain ties, or itcouldjust havebeen or ties, agendacertaindividualanand with (Hampshire,England:159. 2009) Macmillian,

a monument. He says th says He monument. a 53

e site e ] wood planks, like the kind kind the like planks, wood ]

was saturated with water, water, with saturated was

CEU eTD Collection

St Dob that realized Holocaust….[They] the with do to nothing had it that and representative, not was it that deemed jury the ―However, artist. the says there,‖ lived had Lutz Carl because location o corner a for other the and Buda, Swiss the commemorating ImagesJessicaTaylorby Fig.9 Fig.8 Holocaust Memorial (2006) Roma Memorial Carl Lutz 3.4

TamásSzabó

Carl MemorialLutz Carl MemorialLutz reet could be a better location.‖ For the first location, Szabó had created a three a created had Szabó location, first the For location.‖ better a be could reet n 90 we Tamás when 1990, In

(1991) - Tudzin. , (close TamásSzabó

ilmt al uz he Lutz, Carl diplomat -

up), up),

zb etrd h cmeiin o ein monument a design to competition the entered Szabó Tamás Tamás Szabó

Db tet n h Jws Qatr ―hy ikd h first the picked ―They Quarter. Jewish the in Street Dob n ,1991,Budapest District XI

, 1991,Budapest , District bronzeXII, andgold plate. 54

submitted two plans: one for a location in in location a for one plans: two submitted I, bronze I, andgoldplate.

- figure

CEU eTD Collection Jews 103 infroman 102 didn didn―I internationalpassports. a find to complicated too far be would it realized he but cloth, the Lutz on survivors the on names the allinscribe Carl to was idea original like salvation, the is cloth The ground. the on lying figure the for idea the Germans had I the that, From because passports. Palestine the Palestine, accepted to passports of groups out handing was Lutz ―Carl Szabó. caused whichSzabó, artists to drop other accordingout the to c ofthe problem, special a presented firewall empty an of existence the second, the for but monument,

Theo Theo Tschuy. Unlessall inferencesotherwisenoted, andin Tamás to Szabó this quotes are section ‘ . 2000. 2000. . t want to get involvedwantget to isnamet whoseon andiswith name there on whose not there.‖ ―That courtesyofthe artist. Fig. - person interviewImreInterview,artist: personthe Varga, with May 2011 3, 10 ( ‘ GrandRapids: Eerdmans s when the godly idea hit me to sculpt a savior, which was an angel to me,‖ says says me,‖ to angel an was which savior, a sculpt to me hit idea godly the when s :Drawing D angerous Diplomacy: The Story of Carl Lutz, Rescuer of 62,000HungarianCarl Lutz, StoryRescuerof The of Diplomacy: angerous

, , TamásSzabó

‘ t want to leave anyone off the list,‖ says the 59 the says list,‖ theoff leave anyone to want t d it h 62,000 the list nd , , 1979.Image ) .

103

Jewish people that Lutz saved with his his with saved Lutz that people Jewish artist. bronze 1987,Szabó, Kisvárda,Hungary, Fig. 11

. Image courtesy. of the : SacrificeofIsaac

savior to drop a cloth to the to cloth a drop to savior ompetition. ‘ psprs‖ Szabó passports.‖ s - . year

, , Tamás 102

- old artist. ―I artist. old

derived

‘ s CEU eTD Collection 104 ―People says. she opportunities,‖ of lack a was ―There communism. the just not was it that adds you were things two these ―Obviously, combined exactly. not says Szabó but communism, under living years.‖ 20 almost up wastied I feltthat I then, ―Back Szabó reflect than Of more all. at none on practically is him, relies for which, heresearch, something ―instinct,‖ to up it chalks Szabó unclear; is significance The leg. a of part or torso the on as such skin, of patches random revealing gauze, of dressing a monument.CarlButthefor idea the fromLutz backevenfurther1979 goes to did.‖ drawing a I ―That Szabó. says sacrificed,‖ being from Isaac save to angel an sent God ―The when other. about the is sculpture than stature in smaller figure, third a is image this toward Kneeling parted. t hand one message, divine a on meditating figure another of shoulder the on grip firm its by only supported heavens, the from flying angel an features memorial, a not is which Isaac, called 1987, in created Szabó statue a to resemblance striking a bears ground. monument the on figure prostrate a to cloth long a dropping

Thecity forofBasel, 24 Switzerland the paid ng.‖ One senses he may, in fact, be a little nostalgic for the old regime. By his side, his wife wife his side, his By regime. old the for nostalgiclittle a be fact, in may, he senses One ng.‖ ‘

s when I first I swhen and From Szabó From 24 a featuresmonument Lutz CarlThe –

h cmuim n wa I et esnly‖ e xlis ―That explains. he personally,‖ felt I what and communism the oae i te ugra cutyie f Kisvárda of countryside Hungarian the in located ‘ s personal struggles. ―That was how I felt; it was basically my instinct,‖ he says. says. he instinct,‖ my basically was it felt; I how was ―That struggles. personal s

It is tempting to assume this feeling that he and others felt was the result of of result the was felt others and he that feeling this assume to tempting is It ‘

used the concept of the savior; it was the predecessor of the angel that I used used I that angel ofthe itwaspredecessor the savior; ofthe concept usedthe s earliest rendition of the ―savior,‖ the human figures are shown wr shown are figures human the ―savior,‖ the of rendition earliest s

;

everyone felt like they were tied down. We felt that way for for way that felt We down. tied were they likefelt everyone — the biblical Abraham biblical the - ightly clenched, the other open, fingers slightly slightly fingers open, other the clenched, ightly carat, gold carat, 56 - carat goldcarat monument.on plate the

the tightly wrapped figures, they mainly they figures, wrapped tightly the - plated angel flying out of the wa the of flyingout angel plated — 104 who stands tall, eyes closed as if if as closed eyes tall, stands who .

By no small coincidence, the the coincidence, small no By h th The ree - figure composition, composition, figure ‘ s when we were were we when s

arfc of Sacrifice apped in apped ll and lland

CEU eTD Collection 106 105 Buda o the why to as research my in information sheltered. were Jews of thousands of tens authority, Swiss under where, Street Vadasz 29 at factory glass a including houses,‖ ―safe 72 5 the in conducted 7 the in operationshis monum the glasses. sans Lutz, Carl of that is angel the of face the that recognize may one closely, looks one would it what see could I that flying so angel, sculptthe to ground liethe on had I to it. sculpt to was going I how problem was original ―But the Szabó. says waswelding,‖ the part ―The demarcation. difficult line of ridofthe Hewelded site, intheand,trucked hispiecesfromat ground. the studio t the to connected figure the and hand, its from dropping cloth the wall, the to connected angel doing was ―I says. he bird,‖ a like wall the from out flying angel bronze a situation, typical a not is ―It era.‖communistduringthe it meaning; every in down tied were Cole, Americanwar, Duringthe themaintained LegationSw was under — something new.‖ The problem was how to connect the statue the connect to how was problem The new.‖ something ic te monument the Since technical. was project Lutz Carl the with overcome to challenge biggest the Szabó, For ent

had been suddenly rejected. However, in terms of erecting a memorial in an actual ―site ―site actual an in memorial a erecting of terms in However, rejected. suddenly been had Image and Remembrance,and Image ‘ s location, that it lacks site specificity. As noted by Tim Cole, Lutz did not conduct not did Lutz Cole, Tim by noted As specificity. site lacks it that location, s th

District, out of the American Legation (now (now Legation American the of out District, th

District, where the Jewish Quarter is located. His rescue operations were were operations His rescue located. is Quarter Jewish the where District,

‘ s unveiling in 1991, a number of critics have commented on the the on commented have critics of number a 1991, in unveiling s

look like when it was viewed from the ground below.‖ Indeed, if Indeed, below.‖ ground the from viewed was it when like look

272 ‘ s the so the s - 287. 106 - iia location riginal

called frosting on frosting called Due to temporal constraints, I found very little little very found I constraints, temporal to Due 57

— al Lutz Carl

the cake that it happened to be to happened it that cake the the American Embassy American the issprotection. ‘ s three separate parts: the parts: separate three s he pieces together to get hetogether pieces to ‘ fre rsdne in residence former s

105 ), and and ), CEU eTD Collection 109 6 108 mysticalmedievalhistory,in suchJewishofasthe that Italy. ghetto Venice, ghettoizationth untilmanywereoccupation duringandformsthereWWII, German the eventhen, smaller of 107 1944. in ‗ those of specificity―Jewish Cole In Jewish. vastly were Holocaust Hungarian the by affected and targeted t on verbiage insell commoditizedto image order area.‖ ofthe the Toth In memories. own their about publicly talk kosher as such enterprises, Jewish both internationalassta localwellwho up visitors, area restaurants) openedthe to asJews, of addition the as well (as synagogue main the around T state. the Dohány the around Budapest Jewish historical the topic, argued convincingly As 1989. after the including entities, memorialcan be that memory,‖oflocationmorehavemade sense. wouldreminded Indeed, asathat are weby Young, those thousands of Nazi of thousands those - 9. Cole, ErzsébetFanniTóth, is It noting aroundworth areathe that

http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2008/toth_erzsebet.pdf . And although the Carl Lutz memorial is now firmly planted within this Jewish space, the the space, Jewish this within firmly planted now memorialis Lutz Carl the although And various of part the on desire a been have may location of change the for possibility One ‘ Image and Remembrance,and Image ‖ 109 t sget ta nwy rce monuments erected newly that suggests oth

The monument does, however, reference Judaism with a quote from the Talmud, Talmud, the from quote a with Judaism reference however, does, monument The city the with keeping in is plaque he roughout the city, not just here.justThe city, isroughout waynot implythe termthe today to seemsused a

Street synagogue, initiated by religious organizations, the civil society, and and society, civil the organizations, religious by initiated synagogue, Street placedanywherehaslittle City C City Walking the JewishWalkingthe Past? - persecuted saved through the leadership of a of leadership the through saved persecuted ‗ saved ouncil, to create a mythical ―Jewish space‖ in the immediate years immediate the in space‖ ―Jewish mythical a create to ouncil,

‘ 272

by Lutz in 1944 is suppressed in a text which text a in issuppressed in 1944 Lutz by

by Erzsébet by - 107 287. gradually transformed into a ―sacred Jewish space‖ space‖ Jewish ―sacred a into transformed gradually

Dohány 58

meaning.

(Budapest: Central (Budapest: University)2008. European

Fanni ‘ ‘ s words, ―the public urban space [was] thus thus [was] space urban public ―the words, s s staunch policy of not mentioning that those those that mentioning not of policy staunch s

108

street synagoguecalled street was not ―ghetto‖ a

Tóth in her 2008 masters thesis on the the on thesis masters 2008 her in Tóth

— uh s h Cr Lt monument Lutz Carl the as such

Swiss counsel, Carl Lutz, Lutz, Carl counsel, Swiss

speaks only of of only speaks ‘ wrs the words, s rted rted to — CEU eTD Collection erectedin Budapest‘sDistrict, 3rd 1945. suchHolocaust,the asthe payto dea the respect 111 110 ― left. the from andman two ground, woundedthe on location.for Budathe Calledsubmitted Street Vadasz on factory theopening the of commissionedto bronze.Bothimages by Jessica Tay Fig.13: Fig.12: makebeto monumattempt an the rustic a on Hebrew world.‖ whole the saving as acts person wall the on another and Hungarian, in ground the on one

In the JewishInthe signify placedare has stonesgravesites visitor tradition,ona to come that to inThiswasalso used quote

n nte aprn atmt o orc te city the correct to attempt apparent another In Carl MemorialLutzCarl plaque FightingfromRight the ‘ From the right, the From

create a wallcreatea basfeaturing plaquea Glass House House Glass

tombstone added in July 1997, without the consent of the artist, in what may what in artist, the of consent the without 1997, July in added tombstone

d. Larger stonesLarger d. symbolizelarge duringhavecomelostgroups ofto people As, ihn h gley s h three the is gallery the within Also, . Holocaust Memorial Stone HolocaustMemorial ,

TamásSzabó Schindler’sList. ‘

memorial room in 2006, aforemen 2006, the inmemorialroom lor , that could mean the Right the meancould that ent more―Jewish‖. ent TamásSzabó - Tudzin.

other figures, one fighting from the right, the other helping other fightingfromfigures,onethe right, other the Fighting from the Right fromthe Fighting

, , 1990, Budapest: 110

, 2006 , h isrpin s lo ncie i Egih and English in inscribed also is inscription The 59

, - 111 Budapest:

relief of his larger Carl Lutz monument,for Lutz largerhisCarlrelief of locatedat OldtheFactory Brickin

in English: ―Who saves the life of one one of life the saves ―Who English: in - Glass House Glass Memorial Gallery Party,‖ says Szabó. ―That inspiration ―That Szabó. says Party,‖ ‘ s historical memory, Szabó was was Szabó memory, historical s Glass HouseGlass Memorial Gallery , the small bronze statue depicts ,statue smallbronzethe - iue opsto ta Szabó that composition figure tioned location oflocationthe tioned

, bronze. , , glass glass

CEU eTD Collection HungarianresearcherCultureatfor andwasinstrumental Institute Art fundersin bringing all the 112 Fo Rights Civil Roma Foundation, Romedia from contributions some with Art, and Culture of Institute Hungarian the and Gallery Funded Bridge. Petőfi the northof just inPark, Nehru city the of edge Fig.16 Fig.15: bronze,goldleaf. Fig. hero. Lutz Carl the represents two, other the as just cloth of drapes in swaddled left, the to figure the w Those page. the on down pointed I closed eyes with and Bible, the openedup me I when cameto ere the first two words that I saw, I that words two first the ere

AgnesVice Daroczi, of President Phralipe Indepen 1 4:

Roma HolocaustRoma Memorial

Also in 2006, Szabó created the created Szabó 2006, in Also Roma HolRoma Roma HolocaustRoma Memorial

ocaustMemorial

(groundwork , (interior), Tamás Szabó Tamás undation, and the Romaversitas Foundation, Romaversitas the and undation, jobbróltámadnak Roma Holocaust Roma TamásSzabó ), , 2006,Budapest, , blackmarble, bronze,gold leaf.

Akos MauerAkos Klimes 60

dent Roma minorityOrganizationdent and (―attack from the right‖). In this depiction, depiction, this In right‖). the from (―attack , 2006,Budapest , Park),(Nehru marble, memor

ial, located on the southernmost southernmost the on located ial, ,

2006, primarily by the Budapest Budapest the by primarily

Budapest,bronze inlay. 112

the memorial the

CEU eTD Collection EuropeanJews,became part inacountryof the and became theyculture which settled. many 113 theirbeforejustpleas anniversaryuntil was 60th approaching.the Holocaust of the 2003, writingpeti campaign, monument.for together groupAccordingtheher,a ofHungarian to monument,itcaserepresents Carl ofthe Lutz purity spirit. of the In royalty.indicate would another yet purity; is says,he viewpoint, One somethingdifferent. for Indeed,thi Gypsy culture.‖ the within significant very is gold though, thing, another ―But Szabó. says burning,‖ isinside figure that crematorium], the of fire the represents people of lot a ―Yes, any. to commit to reluctant is he and interpretation, to him ledto researchth zero andinstinct pure it was how explains Szabó way. itcertain a hits sun thewhen gold shiny revealing in, filter to light allows structure the of top the plexiglass small ofvariety a through seen granite black fighting died who resisters the commemorates Szabo prefers to useprefersSzabo termthe―Gypsy‖logic ―Roma,‖histo over beingculture the containsthat branches,variousnot withare Romania.dialects, that allindigenousto likeThey, the As with many of Szabó many of with As whichiscompletely Thegold.gold inside therepresents sculpture heatand fire. figur a put to mind to came idea Thesculpture. a within sculpture a do to came idea the when That‘s outside? and inside visiblefrom bewould that sculpture makea I can Howtriangle. it‘ssoundsunbelievable but It later. meaning its out found I mindand to came It instinct. an was triangle The triangle. black the ofsignificancethe knowdidnot I thestar. was which twotriangles, was it peopleJewishthe TheGypsies interpretingin Holocaust Romaperspectivemanner:thethisof the —

conta the thousands killed within the Roma camp at Auschwitz at camp Roma the within killed thousands the 113

ins a gold figure inside looking up toward the heavens. The figure can be can figure The heavens. the toward up looking inside figure gold a ins during the Second World War had to wearthe samesym hadto SecondWorldWar during the ti oning f oning or a Holocausta memorial. or politicalofNonehearthe would parties ‘ s works, the meaning behind the form and materials leaves much leavesmaterials form and the behindmeaning the works, s T .

true. And that‘s when I started thinking about what I could put in the inthe put couldwhatI aboutthinking whenstarted I And that‘s true. s artist, gold carries many meanings. For each person, it meansit each For goldmeanings. person, many carries sartist, e olw three hollow he

windows shaped as flames of fire. Clear plexiglass on on plexiglass Clear fire. of flames as shaped windows ‘ s one interpretation, and I thought that, too, that the the that too, that, thought I and interpretation, one s 61

- ie structure sided

- — Romanis began a letter beganRomanisa an austere prism made of of made prism austere an - efd walls leafed bol, a black triangle. For For blacktriangle. a bol, - Birkenau, as well as as well as Birkenau,

say that [the gold [the that say

that sparkle sparkle that

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at at

CEU eTD Collection t so itmainlylocals.seeing are zone, tourist trafficked highly of outside but Danube, the of banks the on visible is spray was it occasion separate a On t of corner A vandalism. inscriptionthe reads: b done was work inscription ground the on languages The Holocaust. the in murdered were commemorate theirown placeitseveralto community occasionsgathering onas hasa used ie h city the Like l generated has memorial The y artist Akos artist y ‘ In the memory of the Romavictimsmemorythe Holocaust.the of the In of s other Holocaust memorials, the Roma memorial is not impervious to to impervious not is memorial Roma the memorials, Holocaust other s he prism was struck with a crowbar, permanently damaging the granite. granite. the permanentlydamaging crowbar, a with struck was prismhe

Mauer - painted with graffiti, which has been removed. The location The removed. been has which graffiti, with painted ittle interest from the public and media, however the Roma Roma the however media, and public the from interest ittle

Klimes — 62 is in Hungarian, Roma, and English. In English, English, In English. and Roma, Hungarian, in is

— whose embedding embedding whose ,

hose who CEU eTD Collection Holocaust Memorial Center (2004)Memorial Holocaust answered, h ―Gehry with stay will city the of memories what him asked and visit that on down Gehry hunted had reporter a Manyi, to According 2006. Budapest to visit ―secret‖ a paid Gehry des the on feedback aloud readpoems the inmemorialofMiklós Radnóti Center‘s the garden. som in involved getting oftenhere, visitor frequent ais he as task, easy an such been not has that Manyi,for But together. grounds the walkhewe ittellsusas livecan life,‖ itsso own his work hishand take off of proud clearlyis (HMC), ImagesJessicaTaylorby Fig.19 Fig.18: limestone, glass, steel. Fig.17: IstvánMányi 3.5 Holocaust MemorialHolocaust Center Holo e atk i a ite name little a in partake We Center Museum Holocaust Budapest‘s behind mind architectural the Manyi, István Holocaust MemorialHolocaust Center caust Memorialcaust Center e of the Center‘s cultural events, such as the evening last summer where guests guests where summer last evening the as such events, cultural Center‘s the of e

the view from Gellert Hill, the city at night, and Pava Street [where the the [where Street Pava and night, at city the Hill, Gellert from view the

g, ad hn e evs no h soy f hn eert aciet Frank architect celebrity when of story the into delves he then and ign,‖

- Tudzin.

the stone, steel stone, the

(exterior)

(memorialgarden) (stairwellinmemorial

- dropping; he tells me ―Peter Eisenman had very positive positive very had Eisenman ―Peter me tells he dropping;

, and glass com glass and , 63

garden), plex he designed. ―An architect has to to has architect ―An designed. he plex IstvánManyi

, 2004, Budapest; 2004, , m h longes the im

t. t. CEU eTD Collection 114 Jewish its and Holocaust Hungarian victimhood. the of whole the to speak to enough specific not was location the words, other g rather self in albeit the history, to Holocaust of ―points site museum this upon the drawing situate conscious to place a as ghetto Pest former the selecting that M as was, Synagogue Rumbach the when 2001, in even Yet, accessible. easily more been have would attractions. the located been had Center the and 7 the in Synagogue Rumbach dilapidated the moreif useful ithavebeenwould historical locationno exithat significance, is has thehowever, that it know even not do city the to visitors most and accessible, 9 city‘s the in Imre Nobel including intellectuals, various from fire under come the has project 2004, 14, April on opening grand international the beyond well to 2001 in development Center‘ssynagogue,hemovedtears. wasto sawManyiGehry byis time thesays located].‖ Memorialthat Center

Cole, anyi puts it, ―only a verbal plan,‖ even that location came under (mild) attack. Cole wrote wrote Cole attack. (mild) under came location that even plan,‖ verbal a ―only it, puts anyi Kertesz, and noted Holocaust historian, Randolph Braham. Critics say the Center‘s location Center‘s the Criticssay Braham. Holocaust historian,Randolph noted andKertesz, True, had the Center been located there, as had originally been proposed a decade ago, it it ago, decade a proposed been originally had as there, located been Center the had True, e Not Holocaust City,

veryone, however veryone, th

District appears purposely removed from the center of town, that it is not easily not is it that town, of center the from removed purposelyappears District

— 246. the site of a former liberated ghetto as opposed to a liquidated one liquidated a to opposed as ghetto liberated former a of site the

, has been has , e i poiiy o h ct‘ ohr high other city‘s the to proximity in re,

as moved with the Center. From its earliest stages of of stages earliest its From Center. the with moved as

th 64

District‘s Jewish Quarter had been refurbished refurbished been had Quarter Jewish District‘s

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TheJewishin Quarter A and in Prague smallgallery ed at the former the at ed Today, the facility acts as both museum and education center, where more than 10,000 10,000 than more where center, education and museum both as acts facility the Today, that step big a is It here. picture bigger the missing be to seem critics the Indeed, hashowever,questionthet somepoint, At — iutd n rgo o Erp wee oe onre ae tl nt addressi not still are countries some where Europe of region a in situated - Central Europe to present the Holocaust in a comprehensive manner, replete with a a with replete manner, comprehensive a in Holocaust the present to Europe Central ―it is not central‖ and ―it is not historically significant‖ and ―the Rumbach Rumbach ―the and significant‖ historically not is ―it and central‖ not is ―it de on it; they actually built it, though it took nearly took it though it, built actually theyit; on de 115 —

took steps to erect a Holocaust Memorial Center in the first place. And they they And place. first the in Center Memorial Holocaust a erect to steps took

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Brick Factory, an even further even an Factory, Brick even even 65 2004

o be asked: If not in the center of town and not not and inof town center not the beIf asked: o ugse ta te etr hud ae been have should Center the that suggested

ustria were technically first, buttechnicallyfirst,were neither ustria is

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teachers

in the school system school the in — he city‘s various ghettos. After the war, survivors returned to returned survivors war, the After ghettos. various city‘s he the synagogue could no longer support itself support longer no could synagogue the

important. 66

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h cmlx saoig eid t h fre synagogue former the it behind shadowing complex, the hear — which is contem is which ituttered in four 67

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itit wih a be md eiet ih h arvl o nw 21 new of arrivals the with evident made been has which District,

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hen a government stops protecting its citizens. In that regard, it has an eye on ithas regard, eyeon an protecting Inits that stops citizens. hen government a e there was nothing, there is now something. Furthermore, it is located in located is it Furthermore, something. now is there nothing, was there e th - 68 Semitism and other racial other hatred. and Semitism

district will become a bustling section of town, town, of section bustling a become will district n collaborators and

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who killed nearly a million million a nearly killed who r and has left it alone. And And alone. it left has and r st

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experience firsthand, yet are attempting to c to attempting are yet firsthand, experience not also did they subjects artiststhe know to come the artists ―postmemory‖ how with into glimpse a interviews provided my instance, For memory. of politics the beyond went expos was I testimonies, oral their Through monuments. what under and exists, it why circumstances. know must one exists; something that know to enough Hungarian the of specificity tru In Romaniexisted. conditions these why part, inleast at know, and to wanted I Holocaust, Jewish the address not does that language vague use or inaccessible, hidden, were memorials new these if out pointing merely than ―hidden the were concerns main His Center. Memorial Holocaust the including memorials, public new several vi still were HungarianJewishthe Martyrs, the Memor Holocaust of Places into History Holocaust of Places the Cole‘s in discussed memorials four included research My sphere. public city‘s the proper private the within located are works the of Two commemoration. Holocaust of wave second city‘s the a to restricted Holocaust, Hungarian the For the answers to these questions, I turned to the artists who created the memorials and and memorials the created who artists the to turned I questions, these to answers the For research his in posed Cole that arguments the if know to wanting project this entered I on focused I paper, this In Sky, Sky, Tamás be ic hsrsac i h mid the in research his Since able.

Szabó - ty of the Dohány Street Synagogue.Thelocated within remaining ty sevenStreet Dohányof are the ness‖ of the city‘s memorials, and their lack of Jewish specificity. Mo specificity. Jewish of lack their and memorials, city‘s the of ness‖ ‘s Carl Lutz monument on Dob Street, and Imre Varga‘s Imre and Street, Dob on monument Lutz Carl ‘s

9 art 9 and hisand istic works in Budapest that remember various aspects of of aspects various remember that Budapest in works istic Conclusion Second Raoul Wallenberg Raoul Second

specific time period, from 1987 from period, specific time 69 ommemorate in their works. For me, exploring exploring me, For works. their in ommemorate

- 1990s and early 2000s, the city has added added has city the 2000s, early and 1990s

ed to a much wider perspective that that perspective wider much a to ed monument. y :

Anna Stein‘s Anna

to 2010, what I call I what 2010, to

Memorial to Memorial th, it is not not is it th, Crying to to Crying Turning Turning re re CEU eTD Collection Interpretation 116

James E. Young.James E. maker by coined term Memorial and war; the after Danube the from pulled bullets rusted of quality the to reflect to iron used monument Pauer Wallenberg; his in Sweden from imported marble red t experiencevicariously. had who she, Even happening. that know to come were to had militia, Cross Arrow the they by Danube the at murdered grandparents as events the of center the at placed closely more was interviewed, I artists the all of out who, Stein Anna is profound more even fuse then and testimonies, survivor and research historical with bystander, memories childhood his combined example, for Pauer, Gyula hand. first events the experienced as level, some on who, something of aspect small a even monumentalHolo asthe represent to attempting the with when left am that I impression work, their on Reflecting degrees. various in it experienced and era pro did sources my However, statements. broad make to hard is it group, sample small a such with Naturally next. the to frommemory learningbestowed how isingeneration basicallyonethisexercise an was topic I also learned how much thought the artists put in choosing their materials. Varga used used Varga materials. their choosing in put artists the thought much how learned also I . 116 d that together through the use of ―memory of use the through together that d

. (Indianapolis: . 173. UniversityIndiana 1988) press, These are some of the materials th materials the of some are These

Writingand Rewriting NarrativeHolocaust:Consequences the the and of ae Young James Szabó

caust, a measureacaust, memoryvicariousplay into ofthose for comes even

used gold leaf to reflect the quality of fire in his in fire of quality the reflect to leaf gold used

vide some insight, as three of the artists were alive during the the during alive were artists the of three as insight, some vide ,

eern i pr t te aeil ocs f h monument the of forces material the to part in referring 70

at make up Budapest‘s ―texture of memory of ―texture Budapest‘s up make at - activity‖, i.e., imagination. But perhaps But imagination. i.e., activity‖,

h Seih ilmt Raoul diplomat Swedish the Roma Holocaust Holocaust Roma , ‖ wo

a CEU eTD Collection 117

Rog those traveling to the region to learn more about more learn to region the to traveling those existence into wishthem who those appease to enough visible just are locations the that suspects One here. memory of site a deciding very a still neg of lot is a is there that surmises one cities) reason, this For topic. emotional European most with (as Budapest in group. memory another Holocaust by Clearly, later vandalized be to only remember, and together come on to for citizens place gathering a as used be can memorial same the where Budapest, in commemoration Holocaust with case the is Such living. the amongst still them of many involved, actors several are there when particularly fresh, relatively still are that memories collective with case the not certainly is this But anymore. them notice people few present slideslikeofoffwaterdrops offthem oilcloth.‖ an attention made somehow are attract they to time same precisely the indeed at seen, yet be attention; to order in erected doubt no are They invisible. so quite is that world the in nothing is ―there Musil, Robert novelist of words the In unnoticed. memori monumentsand most certain,be To meaning. their about deeplymore think to them stimulate memorials,perhaps and the of awareness people‘senhance can it asvaluable, narrativ Holocaust the of aspects meaningful, less no yet subtle, more the where eyes, their through work their see to able now am I explanations, their Through me. on impression deepest the s abstract the behind meanings ers Brubakerers Musil‘s observation may be true with most memorials that are so far removed from the the from removed far so are that memorials most with true be may observation Musil‘s their of interpretations offered also artists The ae eeld I esnly eiv ta ti eeet f y eerh s h most the is research my of element this that believe personally I revealed. are e

, NationalistinPoliticsEveryday a Ethnicity and Transylvanian Town

hapes. It is the results of this unintended outcome that has left left has that outcome unintended this of results isthe It hapes. 71 —

mainly survivors and their relatives, as well as as well asrelatives, their andsurvivors mainly

their Jewish heritage. But at the same time time same the at But heritage. Jewish their 117

work

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four decades, the official history of the Second World War was essentially distilled down to to down distilled essentially was War World Second the of history official the decades, four ensuing the Over unveiled. publicly be to scheduled was it day the monument Wallenberg Holocaust public all that coincidence small no cam commemoration is It former. the on effect an had has invariably latter The memory. War Cold city‘s the from it separate cannot one Budapest, in investigationFurtherit.agendabehind inis recommended area. this 7 2 far selectinga it, of none hear would council city the in 1987, But 1949. in down torn and erected was monument Wallenberg first the where spot same the in ambassador, American former NicolasSalgoM. the client, his and Varga previously that city site the original research, the my overruled in shown was As rejected. was location visible more Asmentioned sitesp were Jewish the two Quarter. in monument Lutz Carl locationthe of the discovered beregarding to yet bureaucracyscenes low in them locating or memorials, intent of accusation sweeping the from city the redeems part, in least place pr a maythisbe changing. that perceive I Although, identity. national of source a become to not as so enough hidden th nd

District instead District District rather than on Buda Hill, where Carl Lutz lived, appears to have a political political a have to appears lived, Lutz Carl where Hill, Buda on than rather District Contemplating this iss this Contemplating of location the approve to has ultimately city the while that learned I artists, the Through oposed site of memory, it does not always get involved with choosing the site in the first first the in site the choosing with involved alwaysget not does it memory, of site oposed — in some instances, the sites were chosen by the artist or another organization. This, at This, organization.another or artist the by chosen were sites the instances, somein , hadthefor chosen, . The decision to erect the Carl Lutz monument in the Jewish space of the the of space Jewish inthe monument Lutz Carl the erect to decision The . t a arp hl i 14, ih h rmvl f the of removal the with 1949, in halt abrupt an to e

ue, I have concluded that when one questions Holocaust memory Holocaust questions one when that concluded have I ue, - traffic areas. However, there is still a lot of behind of lot a still is there However, areas. traffic Se cond RaoulWallenbergcond 72

roposed, yetmore historically roposed, the relevant,

monument in St. inmonument St. -

removed site in the city‘s city‘s the in siteremoved

ionally ―hiding‖ the the ―hiding‖ ionally Pál Pátzay‘s Pátzay‘s Pál Istv á n

Park, Park, - the - CEU eTD Collection

h Hlcut ti ct i cnitnl dmntaig n nrae wl t remember. to will increased an demonstrating consistently is city this Holocaust, the c the way the debate may people while that me to indicates This memorials. Martyrs. th how yearshistorysomethe was presented ago. 20 of reversal complete almost an in background, the into back far falling liberators Soviet the r actors foreign the with erasure, Soviet of example striking most the is this me, To Lutz. Carl and Wallenberg Raoul diplomats foreign as gentiles‖ ―righteous such monuments memorialsInto andHolocaustobserve commemoration,now weof risepast. the Sov its to had once it connection any erase to campaign aggressive an on embarks city the remembersHungarian the Holocaust. HolocaustMemorial, Roma ― and fascists‖ ―evil of marketplace, free the of includedthatformer both andNazi survivors.Jewishcollaborators and RomaniHolocaust society a homogenizing of goal government‘s the served ―victims‖ and ―martyrs,‖ fascists,‖ as euphemisms such with them replacing and Holocaust Hungarian the from Romani, anti liberators, g main two em were funded by outside organizations, like Varga‘s like organizations, outside by funded were em Another finding involved the actual financing of the memorials. I had supposed many of of many supposed had I memorials. the of financing actual the involved finding Another Sovietthe note that interestingis to It Nevertheless,

Not so. Iwaslearn pleasantly Not financedcity to surprisedthemany of Budapest of the op: anti roups: - fascist victims, and so on. Removing the Jewish specificity, as well as the the as well as specificity, Jewish the Removing on. so and victims, fascist since 1989, when 1989, since anti -

acss ihig fascism, fighting fascists including Holocaust commemoration, Holocaust including - suchvaguereferenceshave c fascist ‖ heroes and heroes ‖

communism felland communism

- inspired language of the Holocaust persists even as evenas persists Holocaust the languageof inspired 73

victims

acss iln anti killing fascists

still continues. still the city opened its opened city the ome to characterize waythe to city omethe Memorial to the Hungarian Jewish Jewish Hungarian the to Memorial

the Soviet the

- ising to the fore, and fore, the to ising Notwithstanding the the Notwithstanding acss anti fascists, - elf up to the ideas ideas the to up elf ins pired language pired ity remembers remembers ity -

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Holocaust memory. Holocaust top revisitthis to indeed prejudices. social other and racism rejects that one world, wider the of attitudes the by influenced are Hungarians more many believe to like would I own, their generation younger the of some and mindsets, old and ways old their to cling Hungarians some that evident is it While history. herelessons thewill have taught posit a here is it is, matter the of fact the some, for ideal be not may location its Though Europe. Eastern and Central of all in kind its of facility first Memori Holocaust the of addition the by evidenced as happening, is mid sinceevolutionthe gradual and long hasbeenacommemoration Holocaust The formation of the European Union has helped to create a more global perspective of of perspective global more a create to helped has Union European the of formation The

ic again in icagain

anot have ive futureeffect generations.on her 15 years to witnessto years 15 her

adap 74

t ed —

these old ideas in a vicarious memory of of memory vicarious a in ideas old these and people are visiting it. One hopes that that hopes One it. visiting are people and

additional turns in Budapest‘s inBudapest‘s turns additional al Center in 2004 in Center al It would be interesting be would It

- 1980s. But it it But 1980s. — the the

CEU eTD Collection resisted totalitariandictator honor memoryWethe menpersecutedandmurderedwomenwereof andthe who because they allpreferred honor die to againstwho than rather act their conscience. Wewomenthe remember and victimswereremember who all innocent. metthose oftheirtyranny death, and though dieWepeoplethe becausehad remember whopolitical to of religious Wetheir or convictions. infirmity.sickness or We all remember murdered.Wewere wereremember who allkilled ofthose becausetheirhomosexuality, origin, Wemillionsmurdered.thewere remember JewsrememberSinti the of who Romawho and expulsion.captivity through and WeinnocentWars.lostlivesrememberwho the intheir of resultaswar a homeland, their lostpersecutedwere andwho lives.whokilled remember Wetheir ininthose World action the honor meWethe isTheNeueWacheplacethe commemorate we where victims the andofwar tyranny. Completethe wording on

morysuffered war.Wepeoples of thewho through remember theircitizens ship1945. after NeueWacheMemorial men who sacrificedlivesin mentheirdespoticwho resistance We rule.to

who were lifewhosemurdered,right to who wasdenied. Appendix I Appendix

in in Berlin:

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Axelrod, Avisar Assmann,Jan ― toCompanionPhilosophyHistoryHistoriography, the of and A Secondarysources: Imre. (Artist), Varga, In Vamos Szabó, Stein, Setiewicz Pauer, Manyi,(Arc Istvan. Daroczi, Cole,scholar),emailTim. May (Holocaust message author. 2011. to 5, Primarysources: A Conversation with Horst Hoheisel, AConversationHorst with

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Halbwachs,Maurice. al,Frojimovics,Kinga,et Finkelstein,Norman G. Figes, Evans, ― Dent, Cole,Tim. Cole,Tim. Peter.Carrier, GalleryBudapest Braham,RandolphL. Bourguignon, Politicalin and Moral PerspectiveBitburg Gerrits,André. Demonstrationcalledagains

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Selling the Holocaust: How History is Bought, Packaged, and Sold HowPackaged,Holocaust:and Bought, the SellingHistory is HolocaustCity Every Statue Tells aTellsEvery Statue Story

Erika an NationalHolocaustand MonumentsMemoryCultures France in and .

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The AssaultMemory:Historical The on NationalistsHungarian and East Quarterly.European - The Ho The 88.http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150890.Accessed May 25,

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War and Memory in the Memoryin Twentiethand War Century Anthropological QuarterlyAnthropological

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Papp, Olick Pierre. Nora, Pierre. ―EntreNora, memoirehistoire,‖ et Lang, LaCapra Hungary:Kovács,András. 2010. Hungary1945. Since Si Kattago, JewishFundNational Image ― Hirsch,Marianne. Hirsch Harangozó, Partos Holocaust memorial vandalized,Holocaust ,

, Daniel S. Berel , Jeffrey and Remembrance:the Representationand Holocaust Bloomington: IndianaBloomington: Holocaust 1998. Press, (accessedApril2011). 24, http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Hungary/Hungary_ EasternEurope. CT: 2001.Praeger, Westport, University2003. Press, Hornstein,Florenceand IndianaJacobowitz Bloomington:Lazar. Moshe http://www.budapestsun.com/news/47971. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40259386 WilsonWoodrowScholars,for InternationalCenter (N http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5360116.stm Bukowskiand J. 1998. 24.1, to Historicalthe Sociology ofMnemonic Practices, Gabriel. Edward. Edward. ,

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