Survival Strategies, Ghettoization and the Persecution of Jews In

CEU eTD Collection Survival Strategies, Ghettoization and the Persecution of Jews in Budapest, 1944 Budapest, in Jews Central Central University, European of History Department Master’s Thesis Master’s Second reader: Markian Prokopovych, Ph. D. Supervisor: Professor Michael L. Miller Máté RigóMáté 2009 CEU eTD Collection patience and while support Iwasworking on this project. related discussions.discussed my ideas about the topic of this thesis in 2008, and whoFinally, was always open to I would first I with whom Ferenc Laczó to grateful am years. Iespecially past the throughout like to thank inspiration of sources thoseas continuous served have discussions asour aswell his classes very close to me I am forthankful to Professor Balázs Trencsényi who first suggestedtheir that Iapply CEU; to study. of this served asabackbone archivalsources that tothose my attention directed Nagy with whomIcould many issues tomy discuss related topic,andthesis who access many documents I analyzed in the thesis. Iam immensely grateful to Ágnes Budapest City Archives in ways,numerous andit was through his help that Icould in Budapest. Holocaust aboutwrite the my to plan supporting for initially and years, pastthree the to thank Professor Gábor Gyáni for the numerous inspiring consultations throughout like forthcomingforyear. Iwould the academicandthroughout being supportive and his versionProkopovych for to apreviousand comments suggestions study of this preliminary for thisstudies thesis. Iam my grateful to secondMarkian readerDr. Professor Miller also commented extensively on several seminar papers that served as year; the over research my andencouraged work supervised L. Miller who Michael accomplishment of this thesis possible. First of all, I owe deep gratitude to Professor I wish to express my gratitude to the academic community of CEU for making the I am I am András thankful to Lugosi providedwho professional inassistance the Acknowledgements i CEU eTD Collection segments of Budapest Jewry, due to the distinct nature of the Holocaust in Budapest. of Holocaust the nature distinct the to Jewry, due of Budapest segments on a personal,family in akey level factor and bureaucratic was large survival the of is contestingneeds, that serve It inpolicies ways. Nazi argued different their though antisemiticmakeargue that both it contested Jews andGentiles by policies to trying influenced the outcome of this relationship and the action of people. that Moreover,factor I most-pervasive and only the not was it interactions, social Gentile – Jewish on effect detrimental a had discourse official antisemitic highly the that fact despite survival strategies,themselves the Iarguethat investigation tothe personal of the worldviewreflect time the of press antisemitic rabidly the did extent what to and life everyday ofin regulations antisemitic the were effective How occupation? German the after everydaystrategies people? of resistancemobilize“Jews” – theirget resources to beyond these Didpersonal regulations? make By a difference relyingpopulation.did What survival depend onandhowdid city –especially dwellers or was the fate primarilyof Budapest capital’s the characterizing survival of strategies the –affected Allied bombings Jewry sealed and Jews the of persecution subsequent and asthediscrimination Nazis,aswell local on sourcesbrought about by thatthe occupation Through Budapestthe experienceinvestigate of 1944 I how the extreme situation – of thelend city by German forces and the putsch of the Abstract ii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 111 Bibliography ...... 104 Conclusion 97 .... 5.3 Strategies of Survival inWarsaw: aDissimilar Parallel the Budapest Case to 79 ...... 5.2 Strategies of Survival in 1944: Budapest, Memoirthe Writers’ Perspective 5.1 Strategies of Survival in 57 the Budapest Yellow Star Houses...... 57 5.Personal Strategies ...... of Survival 38 3. Shaping the Ghetto in Budapest...... 22 4. Institutionalized ...... Antisemitism 15 2. TheNonexistentGhetto: Jewish Residential in Patterns Budapest, 1875-1935..... 8 ...... Approaches Theoretical Historiography: and Holocaust Ghettoization,Alltagsgeschichte 1. 1 Introduction...... Survival Strategies, andthe Ghettoization Persecution ofJews in Budapest, 1944 iii CEU eTD Collection Lévai Jen Lévai Karsai László,Holokauszt, (Budapest:Pannonica, 2001). Boulder-Columbia University Press,1994), Tim Cole, the Jewsthe failing oneby one. separate to attempts severalprevious with within city, the ghetto a Jewish establish German occupation country the of almostiton took March 19,1944, ninemonth to service – could use the city space unrestrictedly till the spring of 1944. Even after the calledlabor who werenot up for –especially those unfinished.The Jewsof Budapest of remained Jewishoccupiedthe wheretheliquidation population bytheGermans majorcity was only European the this can be as as evenmore exceptional, seen almost halfmillion provincial withincitizens sixweeks.The Budapest case, however, by an efficiencyunforeseen with regards tothedeportation andsubsequent gassingof yetitwas characterized of war, the in history the late asitcame significantly Europe, Szita Szabolcs, Introduction 1 Randolph L. Braham, Randolph Germanoccupation: The administrators should have proclaimed the partial, and laterbreakdown total, This better part of Hungarian officialdom strove to maintain legal order …even in the application of application the in …even order legal maintain to strove officialdom of Hungarian part better This members to follow. However, in some areas…more would have been called for, especially after the anti-Jewish laws and under the circumstances this was certainly the best course of action for their for ofaction course best the certainly was this circumstances the under and laws anti-Jewish of the political, moral and jurisdictional legitimacy of state authority, and they should have acted The Hungarian Holocaust is often remembered as a unique case within Hitler’s Ę , A pesti gettó csodálatos megmenekülésének hiteles története A zsidók üldöztetése Budapesten The Politics of Genocide, The Holocaust in Hungary 1 (Budapest: MagyarAuschwitz Alapítvány,1994); Holocaust City (New York: Routledge, 2003); (Budapest:Officina, 1946); , Volume 2, (New York: accordingly. István Bibó 1 CEU eTD Collection 3 policy. 2 “Jewish” on effect had adetrimental discourse official antisemitic thehighly factthat the despite lend investigation tothe themselves personal survivalstrategies,of Iarguethat that sources on primarily Byrelying people? everyday of worldview the time reflect regulations in everyday life and to what extent did the rabidly antisemitic press of antisemitic effective werethe the How occupation? German the after “Jews” sealed was fate or the of Budapest makeadifference the of strategies resistance personal togetbeyond Did “Jews”mobilize regulations? their these especially – resources how didon city capital’sanddwellers – What did population. survivaldepend the Jews Alliedbombingscharacterizing of strategies –changed the and the survival putsch of the local Nazis, as well as the discriminationthe and forces and German by subsequent city the of persecution occupation by the about of brought – situation essence of the Holocaust, I put this assumption into question. What ifquestion. thesepolicies What into I putthis assumption theHolocaust, essence of the grasp can historian a – municipalities and ministries quisling local or SS the and municipal werepolicies so effective thatsimply studying ordinances –issued by Jews. thousand hundred morea than for of itsurvival yetbecame a space City”, became a “Holocaust how anddemonstrate why – contrary Budapest Tim to labeling recent Cole’s never – segments of Budapest Jewry. Through the micro analysis of these personal strategies I on a personal,family in akey level factor and bureaucratic was large survival the of is contestingneeds, that serve It inpolicies ways. Nazi argued different their though makeit to bytrying policies antisemitic both contested Jews I argue that and Gentiles influenced that theoutcome success relationshipthis of andthe of survival. Moreover, Cole: racial antisemitic to subjected to those I refer when marks quotation in “Jewish” and “Jew” use I Holocaust City, Through the Budapest experience of 1944 I investigate how investigate the extreme I Through of Budapestexperience the 1944 2 -Gentile social interactions, it was not the only and most-pervasive factor it only the was not most-pervasive and interactions, social -Gentile 3 Rather than starting out from the assumption that Nazi, Arrow Cross Arrow Nazi, that assumption the from out starting than Rather 220. 2 CEU eTD Collection Boulder-Columbia University Press, 1994), 1122-1123. 5 (Jerusalem :Gefen, 2007). resistance and rescue: the underground Zionist youth movement inHungary during World War II, Gur, David see resistance Jewish open on publication a Onrecent memoirs. other with along thesis the in isanalyzed papers fake with Holocaust the survived who alawyer 2000) Canongate, policies. Due to the of anti-Jewish radicalization the slowed down successfully they can be that argued landslide defeat of the no doubts aboutnoitsdoubts solve desire to Jewish the Hungarian question andfor good, once 15 astrongly pro-German, government quisling seizedin power Hungary, left which October In Jewry. capital’s the of survival the for be essential to proved contestations Second World War and the rapid advance of Sovietnetworks and class. Army, of time, specificities based social onvarious population space, persecuted differently, the affected antisemitism official these of burden the and measures antisemitic that argue I Namely months policies. discriminatory of effect and extent the understanding of dimensions of level meaninga local processes acquiredof on new opens Holocaust the up majority. the of interests the served barely they as regulations inhuman these beyond get to loopholes many were there and interactions, level onthe Jewish-Gentile of materialized never a whole “Jews” as the discriminate to desire official the say here that to positions. Suffice two the between cleavages significant the reveals press antisemitic anti-Jewish faced city the with performanceon of the the population Focusing both dwellers? measures only acquired their meaning through beingcontested outand/orby carried city and the desires of dejewification experts as well as the 4 inestablishment of 1944 and Decembermany of Budapestghetto the slaughter the stopfinal couldthe not tussle as bureaucratic of contestations well the policies Randolph L. Braham, Randolph The memoir of Tivadar Soros ( Soros of Tivadar memoir The While the few open acts of resistance and the abundant small-scale 4 Throughout the thesis, I argue that studying how the top-down the how studying that argue I thesis, the Throughout The Politics of Genocide, The Holocaust in Hungary Maskerado: dancing around death in Nazi Hungary Wehrmacht at the Eastern Front of the , Volume 2, (New York: , Edinburgh : , Edinburgh Brothers for Brothers 5 , it , 3 CEU eTD Collection represented. the different foreshadowed however,majority era Jews, subsequent ghettoization Budapest of the of that the NyilasThe killing andandthousands death-marching of the and physical restriction (Arrow Cross)not open government’sabout was itspolicy – massacres the intentions concealing of policy Nazi official the with line –in though to murderaccession or hand over toHungarian power Jewry to the Nazis. 6 soas apparent to definethe “the ghetto”, define of concept the itis to case, essential and When Central Europe. contextualize trying the uniqueness to of Budapest the East in Jewry urban ghettoize to plans contesting or facilitating ineither instrumental Cross takeover. Arrow the policies until implementation slowed inthe of bureaucracies, down which turn Nazi overlapping of I call a network what of creating unintendedhadfact the in consequence Germans the with this cooperation enough, in case,paradoxically that Budapest the gendarmes and the local municipalities as well as the Jewish organs. Iargue, however, could havebeenslowed by down a massnon-cooperation of Hungarian the which process the without and instrumental, wasespecially authorities Hungarian still holds for truth deportationthe of provincial Jewry have existed between the Germans and the various administrative bodies in Hungary – which nocriticismcooperation should onthe1944Budapestsituation –according to extermination before Red the Army Budapestin reached January 1945. István Bibó’s than mass Jewry havefacedfate would in ghettoized Poland: asimilar the 1941-1944 Budapest mid-October, beforevarious tofacilitate ghettoization reluctance actors of Bibó, 168-169. Overlapping German and local bureaucracies and centers of were local of and and Overlappingpower bureaucracies centers German That said it can be presumed with almost certainty that had it not been for the 6 , where the complicity of complicity , where the 4 CEU eTD Collection different contexts, their outcome followed different trajectories. different followed their outcome contexts, different survival developed inboth citiesis itas outlined in 5.3,yetchapter dueto the ghettoization, my thesis is not intended to be the assiduous reconstruction of existence, so a clear-cut differentiation remains elusive. differentiation a clear-cut so existence, important to highlight thatmost ghettoes united more functions throughout their a set itis While of to localities, labeled “ghetto”. commonly each corresponds type as whichfunctions, differentAxis-ruled Europe, are though denote all them of formations “ghetto”.had within of Idiscerndifferent types urban of three a which Amsterdam both likefor cities and instance,between Kovno, differences existed, that during the last period of last of the during period the had existence six-week only case, whereGhetto a short-lived the Budapest to the institutions itvariety Budapest thatweresimply and alien developed one, ghetto of a large itwas established, to the a housed Jewry as opposed of regional segment Ghetto Warsaw the common Once form ground. a ghettoes both of establishment belated the only and similarities, outnumber differences the that mentioned be must it however, Warsaw, of terms in Even ghetto. metropolitan the (iii) as label I which formation, ghetto of athirdtype Budapest andWarsawrepresented in Both 1939-1940. ghetto Warsaw on the debates the of example is the one Budapest the to similar case Fuenfbrunnen in Luxemburg –can be distinguished from transitghettoes. The most in like or Holland – Westerbork camps transitBased urban criterion, on the andregions. countries several from often Jewry and re-distribute concentrate time to orlonger of for ashorter period (ii)established were ghettoes camps.death Transit to local deportations beforeJewry eventual concentrated territories that and Soviet Though building on leadthe of Gutman and Cole inthestudy of urban First (i) “ghetto” can denote the large assembly centers in Polish occupied the centers large assembly the can denote “ghetto” (i) First Drittes Reich . Despite that, many similar strategies of strategies many similar that, . Despite 5 CEU eTD Collection relationships between and within the Jewish and non-Jewish population of the city. the of population non-Jewish and Jewish the within and between relationships social everyday changed ghetto Budapest the of establishment and shape the around changes constant the how analyze I ghettoization, Budapest of history administrative the on concentrated monograph Cole’s While ghettoization. Nazi with connection inpopulation a city influence,obey could bureaucraticand override measuresin local through casestudy the scholarship,of Idemonstrate Budapest how Holocaust Ghetto. On the Budapest the of contrary establishment the to leading policies ministerial and municipal to this top-down perspective characterizing the majority of the space in which they they spacein out. the were carried which also crucial as itis demonstrated personal that strategies were highlyinfluenced by are turn spatial the on and history urban Theories on framework. as atheoretical on from microhistory perspectivethe of andAlltagsgeschichte thatIam primarily relying documentation as well whichhaveyet contemporary not press, been investigated qualitative analysis of individual memoirs,petitions, oral history interviews, trial of livedwhothose in in Budapest periodthe under scrutiny. This iswhy to the I turn and various rights to the city in 1944, and how it was intended to legitimatehow the it to was intended in to and city the rights various 1944,and antisemitism instrumentalizedwas in various papers achieveright-wing to benefits how is analyzed it 4 chapter In implementation. their influenced policies ghettoization contemporary press and the petitions to the city council, Ialso analyze how contesting memoirs, the Through by Jewshouse neutral states. protected was intended to which Ghetto, calledand so International the Ghetto Pest of the establishment belated the ledto that main steps the 3summarizes while chapter certificates, marriage and aswell as birth sources statistical basedon period interwar the to century Chapter 2 outlines the residential patterns of Budapest Jewry from from Chapter 2outlineslate 19 residential the patterns BudapestJewry the of I primarily rely on sources which reveal individual strategies and experiences th 6 CEU eTD Collection case Jewish-Gentilebring parallelshostility to cooperation witnessed intheBudapest and view of personal survival Through examiningbriefly strategies. I the Warsawghetto, memoirs of from investigate two this, buildingmanager. point the I to Inaddition success of strategies heavily survival depended on residents’the the with relations former thethat analysis,I demonstrate trialsmanagers.building Throughthis of buildingrely buildings, thecommittee 1945vettingcertain apartment managerof I on Gentile andthe tenants Jewish between relationships of microcosm the reconstruct the success of survival strategies like factors concerns, genderdid andother ageinfluence and antisemitism financial on a local scale,extentwhatanalyze 5I to in chapter tothis,As Jews. acounterpart of discrimination in yellow star houses. In order to 7 CEU eTD Collection Approaches 1. Ghettoization,Alltagsgeschichte andHolocaust Historiography: Theoretical of the Hungarian Holocaust) Hungarian the of 7 Cole’s of Tim in hold case the not oftentimes in overlooked national respective the historiographies. This definitely does of their worksmany mainly American Israeli researchers, and “Western”, of centre of attention the – being less accessible to local audiences – are barely known or deputy Head of the Academy’s Institute of aswell. of History, Pók Attila Academy’sthe deputy Head of Institute Hungarian historians in2008,with takingseveral sides,amongparties them the among controversy major a stirring to contributed has – Gyáni Gábor by canonization historians from the international Holocaust scholarship despite the unrivaled the despite scholarship Holocaust international the from historians near completehistoriography, absenceHolocaust tothe of Hungarian pointed and backwardness of focusedHungarian-language Gyáni of onthetheoretical Gábor basis intheoretical history Holocaust writing of decades.The pasttwo the argument underlying the was theme a common that out pointed be can it book, Cole’s Tim ghettoization. history the of ofAlltagsgeschichtehow thecanbeofusewhenwriting and microhistory approach tothis describe hismonograph. Ialso scholarship Connected of through analysis the issues of Holocaust the Ibriefly theoretical-conceptual andmethodology, the describe isbook on making the in my Budapestghetto of the itsconnected to both thesis topic Pók Attila, “Én, mi és ti. A magyarországi Holokauszt kutatásáról,” (I, we and you. On the research While the history of the Holocaust in East and Central Europe tends to be in Without venturing to highlight the full scope of the debate centered around debate fullthe highlight scopeof the venturing to Without Kommentár , no. 5(2008):, no. 84-88. HolocaustCity which – through its Hungarian which– through 7 As Cole’s 8 CEU eTD Collection 9 Hungary. as Colebringfresh managed into to insights scholarship Holocaustthe in on the 1990s,servedasacounterexample in Budapest early of the ghettoization the research topic. their of popularity arca,” (Modernism and Ghetto. The Two faces of Budapest) faces Two The Ghetto. and (Modernism arca,” Holocaust) 8 along a sciences inthesocial hetrend with general sincethe argues 1990s, that only orders from Berlin changed the course of events. and normalization, wanted authorities local in general that hand other the on contends, He influencing andfuture mostof decisivethe establishment ghettoes. the the factors aslocal were isadequate, processes widespread nogeneralization Accordingthis, to Christopher Browningghettoes. argued forahistorico-morphological approach to intentionalist-functionalist paradigm through examining case studies of ghettoization, supersedebe seemed the failing. Trying to to only ghettoes whenthe came extermination born. shifttowards The was master Holocaust of plan the before any finalthe solution; as a proof of itthis can be arguedthatghettoes were installed even As opposed to this, functionalists argue that ghettoes were implementedpogroms. apart ghetto fromthrough or camps concentration in extermination final their and Jews the of discrimination legal andeconomic the between step anecessary constituted it of finalextermination the Jews,and leadingthe inevitably ghettoization to was Friedman, like intentionalists to According misleading. and insufficient Holocaust and the “historical-morphological” Browningapproach Christopher of on the to ghettoization,both paradigm approach intentionalist-functionalist the asheregards Tim Cole, Tim GáborGyáni, “Helyünk a Holokauszt történetírásában,” (Our Place in the Historiography of the Cole’s take on the ghettoization refutes these paradigmsmentioned above, and The main methodological innovation of book Cole’s is his geographical Holocaust City Kommentár , no. 3 (2008): 13-23.Gábor Gyáni,“Modernizmus és Gettó. Budapest két , 31-34. 8 For Gyáni, Tim Cole, an English historian who came to BUKSZ 9 , no. 4(2005): 316-320. 9 CEU eTD Collection Geographers, 1971).9. 12 judenfrei city the of remainder making the means of beit a can and/or presence’), (‘Jewish place in particular one in together city the ‘Jews’ all the means of “agathering was making of ghetto the space,asthe through of power exercise the or territoriality, Holocaust”. the of implementation inthe territoriality of place central the of asareminder acts also Holocaust ghettoization. arguesin Cole ina recentstudy published the spatiality afactor shouldas bethemain framework of studyingtheoretical 11 Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 81. 10 references areSoja’s in 1971and1985articles only to regard this draw many not on onthe keytexts the of in“spatial historiography turn” (his historiography by introducing the spatial dimension as an heanalytical category, does envisioned the spatial restructuring of Budapestthe population in 1944. politicians Cross Arrow and Nazi as well as officials ministry and municipal how at look a close is which essentially his investigation, of as a backbone serves presences” Gunn’s definition, who argued that it an space asan argued that denotes Gunn’s of understanding definition, who time of primary research, the writing and the publication of the book. several must between haveelapsed the years might by factthat This the beexplained in insocial space investigation). echo interest asaleadingcomponent scientific the Edward W. Soja Tim Cole. Tim Tim Cole, Ghettoization. In Even though Cole’s volume clearly opened a new chapter in Holocaust chapter new a opened clearly volume Cole’s though Even In terms of the spatial turn, on which this study builds on as well, I use Simon (‘Jewishabsence’)”. edited by Dan Stone that “[S]tressing the physicality of ghettoization the of physicality the “[S]tressing that by Dan Stone edited Holocaust City. The Making of a Jewish Ghetto , The Political Organization of Space 10 According to Cole, the mostimportant aspect of ghettoization is its The Historiography of the Holocaust. 11 This spatial duality of “Jewish absences” and “Jewish and absences” “Jewish of duality Thisspatial (Washington, Association of American (New York: Routledge. 2003), 37. ed. Dan Stone (New York: Historiography of the Historiography of 12 , which pre- only 10 CEU eTD Collection successfully out of official ghettoization in Budapest – as well as all over Hitler’s over all as well – as in Budapest ghettoization official of out successfully remained Jews of a large number that testify many sources that fact the from Aside meant reshaping literally “ghettoization the quite of lines”. city alongthe segregated madeBuda was effectively – whenminded Cole who successof the discussing city –concludesthat officials critically otherwise the partof the facts on for takingwords to leads occasionally does not mean the Nazi officials but rather the Budapest city bureaucrats. It the Holocaust from the perspective of the perpetrators, though in from though perpetrators, the Holocaust of the perspective the writing of tradition the continue to seems book his policies, ghettoization of outcome use people to city interests. the and their totheirspace according strategies own implement their measures. Moreover, I of by shiftstructures city hadwhen facewith to officials Budapest Jewry,which trying to the focus from the officials to everyday 1944bylookinginvestigate Ialso residential the pre-history carried out, at of spatial policies on were 1944 andregardsBudapestasaplottingboard which different outcome of these strategies.focus On theon contrarythedeveloped strategies and networks helpedthat its survival in 1944, whereby mostly I toapartment Cole’s treatise, whichbuilding only looks at as a spatial entity that partially determined the argued by chapter 3aswell. argued bychapter analysis informative isin only a when providedput context byits is asitown past, spatial that contends Gunn andhistory, time on emphasis supersede the“modern” geographymust “postmodern” characterizingWhile the thisto shift that Soja argues andcultural processes”. social “as ameansof understanding category analytical 15 14 Aldershot, 2001). 9. Contested Terrains in the Western City since 1850 13 Cole, 173, 220. Ibid. 11. in place” and ofspace histories changing turn: spatial “The Gunn, Simon While Cole argues that Budapest residents as actors clearlyBudapest residents influenced the as that While actors Cole argues 14 This look at isaclosethesis how Budapest population “judenfrei” ed. Simon Gunn and Robert J. Morris (Ashgate: . At another instance heinstance arguesthat . Atanother Identities in Space, Holocaust City this 11 15 13 CEU eTD Collection underpinning, the Alltagsgeschichtetradition of seems beto important for my thesis, a ghetto in not Budapest, to its presence. erecting difficulty of the to testifies actually emergence since their houses, – asghetto yellow-starbe“non-Jewish” houses foundamidst – to buildings dispersed apartment the labels Cole when misleading is it why is This countries. neighboring many beingin established only very phase last the German of asopposed occupation, to ghettoes with actual the survive Nazi period, the managed to Jewish population large a andwhere massdeportations which never experienced and Europe Central Eastern the end of his book), and indeed, the Hungarian capital was the only major city in more on the possibility of transgressing these policies. these transgressing of possibility the on more concentrate have hadto he would by Cole, more seriously wastaken local population – Europe either false with documents,mixedmarriages in or hiding, if the agency of 16 city” Holocaust a typical not was “Budapest admitthat does City informal style. The most holdtimes he to seems on too tightly his striking pre-establishedto andsomewhat concepts example At of developments. and local processes thisto sensitive be less to yethe tends Holocaust, is the title of the book, experience as well, of which Cole displays awareness throughout his book. influencedhuman variousforms of the measureshighly theoutcome anti-Jewish of of spatiality the factthat the story, despite inhis analyzed not and mentioned briefly are only in massacres sufferingBudapest contemporary the and ghettoization, Ibid. 220 , which is not an adequate term to grasp the Budapest experience of of experience Cole grasp 1944. Budapest an the not term to adequate , whichis Besides the historiography on the Holocaust, in terms of in Besides the thehistoriography Holocaust, terms a theoretical of on Cole successfully imbeds the Budapest story in the central of innarratives the theBudapeststory central imbeds the Cole successfully history focusing from bureaucraticof Stemming onthe of approach this 16 (though only towards only (though Holocaust 12 CEU eTD Collection 1 (2003): 147-156. Alltagggeschichte) of perspectives The surface. of the charm the and power for lust (Materialism, studying everyday life. As BergersonAndrew Stuart defined the term: Eigensinn of concept The regime. Nazi the under people of experience everyday voice the as this approach writingof social history was primarily reconstructandapplied to 18 Hildesheim 17 structures andstructures within formsthe of domination. Herrschaft, account. into andagency reconstructionthe experience of everyday should bebasedboth on takingdomination Asis argues, Bergerson acceptance. domination basedonwidespread that describes latter the power, andforced the open denotes former the (domination): while of notion weberian the on builds Alltagsgeschichte individualby step system,butstep on the (Ausbrüche) individualagainst reconstructing of the needs. forown their use them yet structures – even aboutof illegitimately their to (Herrschaft), domination ability – decisionsindividualsEigensinnAlf Lüdtke outthatnot alsopointed about is thedeep changing and acts as well as their socio-historical contexts. Alf Lüdtke, Andrew Stewart Bergerson, life its everyday requirequality. Both normalcy function properly.to retribution.the From perspective,this both eigensinn andherrschaft daily give from itself shield to innocent or fool the plays than and authorities, powerful such. as intended as or not if had inadvance acts been yet and world outcome planned that the on impact its of aware too is all it Self-deceptive, intentionality. conscious self- willful, of sense historical classic the in be agency never can [Eigensinn] is of special importance here, as it serves as an underlying notion of (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,2004), 266. by denoting free willoftheindividual in larger the with connection Anyagiság,hatalom-vágy és a felszín varázsa. Az Alltagsgeschichteperspektíváiról Ordinary Germans in Extraordinary Times, The Nazi Revolution in Eigensinn Eigensinn 18 Attention is not primarily centered on the outbursts the on centered primarily not is Attention is a , thus,was mostly studied inconnection with slave’s trope Macht it tweaks the nose of more of nose the it tweaks (power) and Herrschaft 17 Aetas 13 CEU eTD Collection 19 – Geschichte von innen”) approach of understanding andwriting history. looking at the larger processes, and emphasized the bottom up (“Geschichte von unten down from from be history which understood essentially can that top the questioned microhistory, of casestudies the interpret to tools enlightening as served Ausnahme”) (“normale exception” “representative or Normal”) (“ungewöhnlich average” like bearing only Seemingly “exceptional local significance. concepts paradoxical findings their tointerpret as did retreat not microhistorians isbe bridged, that yetto individual tobealogicaland macrocases seems problem of the of gap representation individualsnetworks which through follow personalstrategies. the leap While to the social the on centered more is it domination, of forms to individual the of relationship among is more theindividual, others) focused andon instead of emphasizing the microhistory byCarlo(as represented Ginzburg, Natalie andRobert Darnton Davis American and Italian themostly Alltagsgeschichte, of approach sister futile. The studyingthus manifestations the outright of political resistance wouldhave been regime,insignificantresistance there out, wasonlyagainstthe pointed and sporadic in asBroszat which, Naziperiod, focus onthe studies Alltagsgeschichte the most of of structures over the individual to a certain extent; the main raison for this is that Jürgen Schlumbohm, “Mikrotörténelem – makrotörténelem” “Mikrotörténelem Schlumbohm, Jürgen As opposed microhistory,to As opposed acknowledges Alltagsgeschichte domination the Aetas 4 (2000): 139-146. 19 14 CEU eTD Collection venturing into a historical investigation. attempts of space byvariouscity month authorities inwithin eight 1944,without Jewish the of patterns residential the population. on introduction historical brief a with be combined to All andPest aswellonthesurvival downtown applied needsstrategies byits residents the more so,19 as opposed in late residential the patterns Jewish the of investigation the without begrasped fully to many citiesthe designation of yellow star houses, the restriction of Jewish shopping time – cannot in Poland of Jews, concentration and faced relocation –the authorities the that problems of the where in muchinI argue Jews that of Budapest, caseof be persecution legitimated, the the a distinctively spatial approach in spatial approach a distinctively being acommon among ground urban historians. Tim instance, for Cole, whoapplied 2. TheNonexistent Ghetto: Jewish ResidentialPatterns 1875-193 inBudapest, construction of homosexualLondon, 1917-1967”, in Gunn andMorris, 165-186. Morris,and 117-133.; Matt Houlbrok, “Forwhose convenience? Gay guides, cognitive maps and the imposing and resisting alien identities in Chapeltown, Leeds, during the twentieth century,” inGunn other: ofthe zone “The Farrar, Max 82-99; Morris, on Gunn and in Louis War, St. Civil American town: the eveof the a frontier in boundaries “Racial Mooney, Burlinson Barbara instance for volume, 20 reconciliated or be combined can approaches “spatial” and “historical” that contends Gunn final analysis the In processes”. cultural and a movementfrom historicalthe tothegeographical as a means understandingto social ‘time’, andthus of implies that as against category asananalytical ‘space’ of concept importance of the the emphasized analysis…has for contemporary primacy space of As a proof of this see the recent urban historical studies published in his and Robert J. Morris’s th and early 20 While theoretically every approach (historical, spatial, historical-spatial) can historical-spatial) spatial, (historical, every approach While theoretically As the first chapter highlighted it briefly, Simon highlightedAs “thebriefly, itGunn argued firstthe chapter that Simon th century; in sum, the spatial approach of focusing on the ghetto area focusing ontheghetto of inapproach spatial the sum, century; Holocaust City , focused on manipulationthe 20 , yet this view is far from 15 CEU eTD Collection 23 times since 1870,surpassing 100,000 four years before Lawthe of Reception. increased from 75% while59% to numbers theirabsolute increasedtwoand ahalf nationality Jews of (“nemzetiség”) Hungarian numberof 1891the 1881and between decade within the clearthat becomes it Thirring decades.From the throughout rapidity formerly unseen a at magyarization accomplishing asagroup documented carefully was which of denomination, Jewsareligious as adherents grouped 1894, which also contained data back to 1870. backto contained data 1894, whichalso 1900,andlastaround at in interwar period. the end first,atthe 19 instages: the of in Budapest different three patterns following chapter. husbandseparated and wife, child andparentfrom asanalyzedeach other, inthe regulations discriminative cases many in and exception, the than rule the more inhomogenous group and1944. Mixed apartment neighborhoods buildings were contemporary clusterinantisemitic as press,Jewsdidnot neighborhoods a any in echoed thestereotypes Despite far from clear-cut. was urban planning antisemitic the within the “Jews” of “place” the thus residentially, more dispersed nationalism, the bilingual the nationalism, and desired perspective of the city, which prompts for wariness on the historian’s part. imagined according statisticians’ politicians’ and the data to andgathered grouped ghettoes were established – Lodz, Warsaw, Lviv for instance Lviv for Warsaw,were established –Lodz, ghettoes 22 (Bloomington :Indiana University Press, 1982). Penguin Books, 1991);Yisrael Gutman, 21 Ibid, 55. Thiring, Gusztáv (Ed.). Lapides, Robert and Adelson Alan See Based on contemporary statistics, I analyze the traditional Jewish residential Jewish traditional the analyze I statistics, Based on contemporary The first comprehensive statistics on Budapest population was published in published onpopulation was statistics The firstcomprehensive Budapest Presenting a seemingly “objective” and highly professional piece, Thirring piece, professional highly and “objective” seemingly a Presenting BudapestSzékesf Statistisches JahrbuchStatistisches The Jews ofWarsaw, 1939-1943 : ghetto, underground, revolt Lodz ghetto: inside a community under siege Ę város Statisztikai Évkönyve. 22 of andof Thirring represented Gustav Assembled in the spirit of Magyar of spirit in the Assembled Iévf. Budapest: Grill, 1894. 21 –,Budapest Jewry was th century, than (New York : 23 16 CEU eTD Collection Jewish 25 Israelite community, 1875. Birth registry Neologof the community. Israelite 1863,1875, 1898; Birth registry Orthodoxof the http://www.bparchiv.hu/magyar/kiadvany/bpn/08/komarik.html Jews did not or could notsettle evenly in every part of the city. but in Pest, Reforms Josephinian the since settlement Jewish of boundaries residential from religiouslive aswell city proper Jewsto off previousmixture administrative pressureon of desire to live close to the synagogue. There were no – official – districts VI and VII, around the synagogue built in the 1850s. thearound synagogue builtdistricts VIandVII, inner of areas timethe within at wasaheavy clustering thatthere certificates birth marriage and of analysis on based the certainty almost beitwith presumed can inJews even VIVII throughout hadanalmost 1870s the and ratio 1890s, districts and blur salience the of religious-ethnic enclaveswithin While city.the table that 1shows effectively statistician could the neighborhoods, different various often comprised forboundaries only point theBudapestJewry, which on bypresenting district data as isin within This andhomogenized. downplayed particularities acase city the were and religious national was that of this consequence unintended city.Catholic The Accordingappearwas expected Budapestthis, to to asaprimarily Hungarian and 24 Frojimovics Kinga, Géza Komoróczy et alt., “Király utca: The Old-Old JewishQuarter of Pest”. Komárik Dénes, “A Dohány utcai zsinagóga építése,” in (Budapest:Városháza, 1999) , 67-88. Budapesti Negyed 25 , no. 2,(1995) 24 This stems from a 17 CEU eTD Collection they were almost outnumbered the period, throughout single indistrict every majority a comprised Though Catholics by other community. small very initially an within although religionsincrease, two-and-a-half-time in many of the K Pest suburb class working increase wasthe for this showcase side districts in comprisedJewish 1891.The1871, while of population the 4,6% 7,8% residents Jewish neighboring by1891,whilein – Ferencváros – District thepopulation IX increase in wasahundred percent there Józsefváros, In Catholic. overwhelmingly Jewish inpopulation previous those generation Jews Budapest whodecided on settling in districts. these indication both previousof settlementand popularity continuing among first- is and1880s,which an between 1870s be“core” districts the in steady seems these to Jewish population of rate The period. intheinterwar residential primarily became which Budapestindustrial neighborhoods, Jewry thelessurbanized only – and and elegant– largelybuilt builtfor Lipótváros by entrepreneurs andof wealthier the the included which concentration, of newer area a beregarded entire V can District districts. the of population the of one-third exceed significantly not did ratio their yet city justwalls, off former the settlement, Jewish in of presence traditional areas Statisztikai Évkönyve Table 1.Denominations in Budapest, 1870-1891. Source: Thirring Gusztáv, (Óbuda) III. VII. VI. V. IV. District One less predictable change within these three decades was the increase in decades the increase within was Onethree change these lesspredictable have amassive denomination” of “Israelite the of those tables In the Thirring, 73% 1870 Catholic 78% 55% 55% 53% (Budapest: Grill 1896) 55. 69% 1881 77% 54% 54% 54% 67% 1891 74% 51% 52% 54% 9,2% 1870 Reformed 4,2% 2,8% 2,8% 4,7% 5,1% 4,5% 4,7% 4,7% 9% 1881 Vorstädte 5,2% 6,4% 5,2% 5,5% 9,4% 1891 15,9% 35,8% 35,8% 34% 7,4% 1870 Israelite which previously were Ę bánya, which registered a registered bánya, which 14,9% 35% 35,1% 33% 11,3% 1881 Budapest Székes-f 14,5% 35,8% 35,3% 32% 13,5% 1891 Ę város 18 CEU eTD Collection 27 CEU Press, 2002) Gyáni Gábor, Gyáni (Princeton, N.J. :Princeton University Press,1998), 3-43. while more Jews lived in district VII as a generation before. V), (district in Lipótváros decrease is asignificant there III). Interestingly, (district in ratio there Iand while decreasedslightly indistricts II, their Óbuda percentage working classes. working withinsocially groups different one building, rangingfrom upper middlethe the to house design in house, whichwas Budapesttenementto of the away plannedas was mixed in terms of religious denominations. stems This from Berlin-typethe almostlived never inhomogenous apartment buildings, and buildingalmost every specificity JewsduringBudapest persecution the of of in1944.Inotherwords:Jews apartmentthe building, which importantwas arguably– an historically – rooted of level the on concentration meant never almost districts and neighborhoods certain and theperiod, in population within werethe districts these Buda. Jewish in increase no almost with 80%, around steadily was Catholics of number with a strong Jewish population. There was only one part of the city where the 26 settle the1860s. till allowed to exceptionally Jews were only an increased(districtIV), area where Jewish indowntown importantly population professions. free-market and entrepreneurial inthe concentration Jewish of view in especially Frojimovics Kinga, Géza Komoróczy et alt. 1999. Ibid. Hanák Péter, It is important to add, however, that the concentration of Jewish population in population Jewish of concentration the that however, add, to important is It In 1910, only slight changes occurred as compared to the 1890s.Most tothe ascompared changes occurred In 1910,only slight Parlor and kitchen: housing anddomestic culture inBudapest, 1870-1940 The garden and the workshop: essays on the cultural history of Vienna and Budapest 26 These social differences often correlated with religious differences, 27 Jews almost doubled (Budapest: 19 CEU eTD Collection District I. District revolutions.Horthy-regime,of asasupporter 1918-19 the by the – time the at association –apopular Jews andBudapest scapegoating of Budapest. in concentrated became Jewry country’s the of half (1920) almost Treaty, Trianon position Jews withinBudapest of First, Hungary.within Hungary the after rump Statisztikai Hivatal statisztikai évkönyve, area which did not become part of the designated Ghetto in 1944. While in the become Ghetto 1944. designated of the area whichdidnot part – is, VII that the of district in parts outlying the concentration side,largest with a Pest by liveditis of onthe Jewry interwartable 3.90% city’s the demonstrated as period, Table 2.The ofratio JewishPopulaton inBudapest (1910).Source: Gusztáv Thirring, 28 Székesf Table 3.Ratio of Jewishdenomination Budapest, in 1935.Source: Illyefalvy Lajos, Budapest SUM PEST X. District IX. District District VIII. District VII. VI. District V. District IV. District BUDA XI. District District III. District II. III VII VI V IV District cf. Ujvári Péter: Ę The end of The end “GreatWar”changesthe of signified in great demographic the In terms In terms Jewish of residential little however, distribution, had changed inthe város Statisztikai Évkönyve. (Budapest: Közp. Stat. Hiv. 1936),48. Catholic 28 Thisvisible more presence andclustered was combined with a 54,9 62,5 76,5 46,4 52,8 Zsidó Lexikon Zsidó Reformed 10,8 7.2 19.4 (201, 069) 22.6 (181, 437) 4.4 10.3 20.0 40.6 25.5 34.2 18.6 8.0 (19,632) 5.8 8.8 10.2 8,4 8,8 8,5 , (Budapest,, 1929), 158. 8 Israelite 28,9 17,2 10,8 38,5 32,5 (Budapest: Grill, 1904), 55. A F Ę városi 20 CEU eTD Collection http://www.bparchiv.hu/magyar/kiadvany/bpn/20_21/lacko.html mostly Jewish middle class population. class middle Jewish mostly neighborhoodÚjlipótváros in built district, the 1920sandthe out 1930s,housing from 34,2%period which28,9% to for developmentcan beaccounted of the there was a significant25,5%(1935), from to inTerézváros 32,5%(1910) ofJewry percentage decreased increase in the district V Jewish population within this time 29 moving tens of thousands of non-Jews and Jews alike. entailed Ghetto the andlater houses yellowstar of establishment the iswhy city. This the interwar period, yet by this time the majority of Jewry lived in other parts of the Jewishrooted inconcentration innerparts the of district which VII, still inpersisted outline of Jewish residential patternsapartmentbuilding, for prompted and sociallypopulations. heterogeneous Asin the Budapest has shown, there was a historically level on the anyclass-basedclustering prevented house tenementthe Budapestthe of comprised only one-fifth of the total Jews ineven Pest that factthe to due waspartially This buildings. population. of apartment the In additionlevel micro in the nor to that,neighborhoods, or districts the Jewish in homogenous floor materialized plan of concentrationturn of theto inJewish they in wasnohistoricalhouses and1944,there antecedent could a Jewish Ghetto Budapest. population onWhile the Pest on side a macroof the city, level this neitherthere was a historically rooted Lackó Miklós, “A két világháború között,” világháború két “A Miklós, Lackó In itsum,can be when arguedthat struggledtoestablishauthorities Jewish Budapesti Negyed 29 , no. 2-3,, no. 1998. 21 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1994), 1. circumstances, differences between historical epochs and cultures…Antisemitism is cultures…Antisemitism and epochs historical between differences circumstances, generalized history:throughout “There is clearly in a danger using in antisemitism [an]… overly meandidnot same the theconcept that he butstresses also context historical a certain way, in originated antisemitism that extendingWystrich contends also Robert hatred” “longest as the it to all times and places regardless of specific Jewish” social interactions were portrayed, constructed and skewed in andskewed wereportrayed, constructed Jewish” social interactions papers? these “Jewry” persecuted the –“non- “Jewsish” and how antisemitic papersdepicted different how out finding in primarily am I 5.1. in chapter demonstrated is it time, as atthe andGentiles of Jews interactions certain influenced pressarguably the in antisemitism This filed. were chapter) following in the be analyzed (to council city the to petitions in which context the and themes antisemitic common the contextualize in to in order and asapparentgovernmental Nyilas publications, antisemitic discourse the map I chapter, this In physically. population “Jewish” country’s the threatened a state-supported racial1944, –after policy that yearsappeared of – privileging under The Official Press “Jews”in andthe Budapest, 1944 4. Institutionalized Antisemitism 30 of time.” Jewsheld population the at the bypart inintroduced Germany endthe at of 1870stodescribethe the negative attitude toward Jacob Katz, Gradually occupation the after by of Hungary in German the troops March 19, Starting with definitions, Jacob Katz noted that “the term anti-Semitism was anti-Semitism term “the that noted Katz Jacob definitions, with Starting From Prejudice toDestruction, Antisemitism 1870-1933 30 When discussing antisemitism discussing When (Cambridge: Harvard 22 CEU eTD Collection policy, Iuse the term Jewishin quotation marks to suggest the artificiality of racial policies. Jewish Ghetto 32 remained unchanged all throughout its over manifestations centuries.”the not 31 vulgar drawings and cartoons as well. On the other hand andcontained many high brow less itthewas “Jewish the and Question”, devoted to officially supported discourse on“Jews” halfalmost Auchwitz-Birkenau Jews million to –hadastronginfluence on the issuedordinances inthe spring –among andsummer1944 of them deportation the of antisemitic press; besides press; antisemitic in supported officially the how“the Jew” wasdepicted I analyze ghettoized? the and didhow view ghettoization it measures, and antisemitic the with press satisfied extremewas the is right extent –is to what mainquestion Intézet) necessary. My MagyarKutató of JewishQuestion the (Zsidókérdést Institute Hungarian Research like of examination papers the German the takeover, followinggrasp the andby changeaboutbrought inantisemitic to chapters, discourse understand the languageof and committeepetitions files vetting analyzed in the changed both its meaning andits force. I start out from the assumption that in order to residential – Antisemitismsituation. institutionalized literally ingot 1944,which could influence position when theirthemselves trying to most political-social – of all while all of them were fiercely antisemitic to asimilarextent, to antisemitic fiercely while all them were of Magyarság subsidized daily, the Following a practice in scholarship (see for instance Tim Cole, Tim instance for (see inscholarship a practice Following Robert Wystrich, a natural, metahistorical essence anatural,metahistorical ametaphysical has whose phenomenon or Based on the assumptions cited above, I argue that the numerous antisemitic numerous the I argue that above, cited theassumptions Based on Interestingly, not their extent of radicalism differentiated the three papers: three the differentiated of radicalism theirextent not Interestingly, , (New York: Routledge, 2003),when referring tothose subject toracially discriminatory (Hungarians). Antisemitism, the Longest Hatred Longest the Antisemitism, Esti Újság Esti A Harc A (Evening Post) as well as another right wing paper, (The Fight) I rely on the popular, government- 32 , which also impacted, which also“Jews” ways the (London: Mandarin, 1992), xvi-xvii. A Harc – Holocaust City,The Making ofa Magyarság the official paper of the A Harc was entirely and the and 31 Esti 23 CEU eTD Collection antisemitism. themselves, and became the passive by-standers of events. of by-standers andbecame passive the themselves, worldview antisemitic the adopt not and did hassle unnecessary Jewsasan the antisemitic many from persecution the agenda, benefitof regarded state-supported the readership and parts of city the population was influenced by antisemitism andtried to argue that neither extreme of two the poles seem convincing: of while parts their chapter 5) as well as files(see committee vetting memoirs, of analysis the on Based oral sentiments? people’s history interviews theeveryday littleof reflected that time the of press the on propaganda state-imposed and petitions (see shared a “cultural by code” was it population, majority the andtowhatextentthe of a chapters 4 and 5), I why it is extremely hard to discern to what extent the papers reflected antisemitism a state-supported discriminatory as policy in the Hungary of 1930s the and 1940s.Thisis was antisemitism that namely term: the applied first Volkov which to context German late-19 the between however, main difference, is a There – Gentile relations. Jewish to unrelated seemingly in ice were city –that the of or distribution the shortage food like – issues in explaining even time, the of journalism wing in right practice wasacommon papersanalyzed,According tothe reasoning antisemitic declined.” parties of antisemitic fortunes political the as even society permeated antisemitism space. Theutility of ‘cultural the laycode’ as an inanalytic concept how showing interpretation, antisemitism as a “cultural code” is “a cultural way markingof political what Shulamith Volkov termed a “cultural code”. In Helmuth Walser Smith’s Újság Budapestr 33 Besides sources analyzed in chapter 4 and 5 see “Anka naplója – feljegyzések a háborús feljegyzések – naplója 5 see“Anka 4 and chapter in analyzed sources Besides was more tailored to middle class expectations of propriety and The analysis of these papers reveals that antisemitism was used similarly to Ę l” (Anka’s Diary: Notes from Wartime Budapest) in Budapesti Negyed 33 , no. 3,2002, 5-216. salonfähig th century 24 CEU eTD Collection that the formerly noisy – that is cosmopolitan and Jewish – neighborhood radiated a radiated neighborhood Jewish– is and cosmopolitan –that noisy theformerly that lap and on yellow with their stars sweeping are streets the former bankdirectors that “Snapshots from the calmed down Új-Lipótváros”. from down calmed the “Snapshots Jewish self-defense. Jewish non- of lines the along narratives antisemitic their framed they Consequently, rights. political their of loss and property their of confiscation the after even “non-Jews” “Jews” they that whichtreat asa still hadmore than unified group, financial power policy. state legitimate discriminative servedto caricatures and articles Budapest), 34 broadcast. quality, some and families hadfive of them, they which tolistenused totheLondon wereof superior radios the author, the According to “Jewishradios”. of 50,000 confiscation the reported itan nextarticle to Jewry”,the while against fight defensive “Self- wasentitled articles the of One Jewishquestion. the with articles inconnection in man” “Jewish the and“Jewish woman” of depicting andtrace the main papers characteristics I these to “Jew”of according the discern I anthropology the Moreover, ordinances. discriminative the relations during inJewish –non-Jewish on press andhowthe depicted commented papers, the apparent in apparent was published in a June13article aswell that Lipótváros 35 “50,000 zsidó rádiót vettét a bíróság Budapesten” (50,000 Jewish radios were confiscated in “Pillanatképek a megcsendesedett Új-Lipótvárosból,” (Snapshots from the calmed down Új- down calmed the from (Snapshots Új-Lipótvárosból,” a megcsendesedett “Pillanatképek I am primarily interested in analyzing how the persecuted “Jews” “Jews” were persecuted in howthe analyzing interested I am primarily This paradox of the deprived and discriminated but still powerful “Jew” is “Jew” powerful still but discriminated and deprived the of paradox This Similarly to other days, on May 13,1944 on days, Similarly other to is “Jewishquestion” the on reporting thepapers in all A approach common Magyarság Esti Újság Esti 34 , May 13, 1944. ), 1944, June 13. June ), 1944, A Harc A * 35 Esti Újság The article stereotypically noted The stereotypically article , and I analyze how antisemitic Magyarság published a series of series published a , with the title of 25 CEU eTD Collection it is highly unlikely that the lord major of Budapest, who isit lord major requested Budapest,necessary the highly thatthe of unlikely 11.a.m.between and1p.m. bureaucratic system view of In complicated the of 1944, exactly followed and writer thesuggestions limitedof letter the “Jewish”shopping initiative to curb the rights of asapopularitcan case, “letter” paperconjured bottom-up up the be the that presumed Jewry, as when regulation came the marketaccesshalls to m., “Christians” 11a. after after theirshopping. did this In out in late May, they “Jews” writers”have suggested should that only “Letter “Jewish” customers. their for goods certain halls retained market in the vendors “Christian” assome customers “Christian” demandedof by written editor protection –that “non-Jews” the to the antisemitic terms. In May 9, the paper published an article – allegedly based onletters shortage in food vieweda groupof “Christian” the that the was stressed population conflicts after the yellow star regulations were enforced. In regulations wereenforced. theyellow after star conflicts “non-Jewish” – as“Jewish” in were well addressed conflicts often shops – daily enemy in “Jew”.the According to the papers – and to testimonies in post-war trials as Újság articles tothe According in appearingin with regulations. connection antisemitic benefits. days are refused beto served, as Jews had reserved the instock advance for their own icebuy in to certain only wanted who Gentiles contrary, Onthe apartments. to their ordered ice every single day according to connection with the ice supply: while Jews, wholived there longer and could afford it, for catered than recently the in moved in problem The population. Gentile arose better Jewsare status, despite inferior their that fact the over indignation expresses still article of the author handthe other On the character. “normal” and more orderly and The similar motive of Gentile self defense against the “Jews” washighlighted the against self of motive defense Gentile The similar Magyarság , the yellow star made the majority population reveal real the reveal population made majority the star yellow , the Magyarság , and the suppliers deliveredit up Esti Újság Esti , for instance, it instance, , for Esti 26 CEU eTD Collection investigation needed to examine the Jewish abuses in milk provisions) ofdesire Christian consumers: Jews shouldbe incapacitated to buy up food before Christians, dire with publishing aggressively andcartoons. drawings with antisemitic aggressively publishing analyses historical pseudo-scientific combined weekly the –, Question Jewish the of antisemitic treatise on Istóczy as well as the head of the Hungarian Research Institute Edited byZoltán Bosnyák school of –aformer elementary and author teacher an “Jews”present of 1944. in toradical change during the status the was alsocommitted it “Jewry”, and of the acts “mischievous” past portray the to devoted was completely from from end May to andeachissuethe pages, with 1944, of eight of consisted December to Asopposed hadstarted. already Jewry provincial of deportation the élelmiszereket a keresztények el 37 mid-May after the almost total discrimination of “Jews” was a shopping time) in ed. Karsai and Benoschofsky, and of Jewish Karsai ed. in time) shopping (Restriction korláttozása” való szakára meghatározott anap bevárlásának zsidók “A Benoschofsky (Budapest:Ilona MIOK, 1960), 123-124. incan on theircapitalize still “richness” acquired “liberal the period”. together”, they have access to vital information earlier than the Christians, while “keeping theythrough andthat Christians, off than better still “Jews” are theme that a common is it and discriminations legal the after even power considerable having with restricting the shopping time of Jews inmarkets) in idejének szabályozása ügyében” (Request of Budapestthe majorto the interior minister inconnection milk for quite awhile”. “Christian” babiesonly while amount, get atiny even “have Christians not seen adult milkliters every two while of day, “Jewish”familygets a certain that complained for thefollowing “Jews” alike restrictions. “non-Jews” prepare and manipulateofficial usedtoexpress, paperwas not popularbut andsentiments, to to legislation from ministry the was influenced by popular initiative, thus in this case 36 “Keresztény fogyasztók kívánsága: Akadályozzák meg, hogy a zsidók felvásárolják az “Budapest f “Budapest The major, vulgarly antisemitic paper of the time, the of paper antisemitic vulgarly major, The Another “letter”, allegedly written by aNagymez allegedly written “letter”, Another Ę polgármesterének felterjesztése a belügyminiszterhez a zsidók piaci bevásárlási piaci azsidók belügyminiszterhez a felterjesztése polgármesterének 37 Other articles in articles Other Ę l, Szigorú vizsgálatot a zsidók tejellátási visszaélélsei ügyében” Vádirata nácizmus ellen Esti Újság Esti Vádirat anácizmus ellen A Harc A also portray “Jews” as still “Jews” as portray also Esti Újság , 1960,127-128. fait accompli fait was only launched in launched only was Ę utca “Christian” utca 36 , May 9, 1944. ed. Elek Karsai and Karsai Elek ed. A Harc A Esti Újság and when appeared (The , it , 27 CEU eTD Collection officialsuppress thereality behindGerman the concentration policy soas to camps, the to adherence the be can this for reasons The “Jews”. the of annihilation physical the to a reference find one can issue single any in Not general. in antisemitism of nature ideologically chaotic the which alsocharacterizes “Jews”, and Hungarians other contributorsto other to this “is final the of parting “Jews” ways” the andof “Hungarians”. Bosnyák and solution only andthe by“Jews”, illnesscaused befrom this cured society has to that newly minority”arrived whichhad debauchedindigenous the population. Heargues foreign, “Jews”area morals andblood race, of “interms as of “Hungarians”: the hisviews. on in it articles toother andIconnect his “Jews” in editorial, the editorial in the issue. first In following,the I briefly analyze howBosnyák portrayed is paper’s view summarizedby Jewishon the question opening Zoltán Bosnyák’s was adopted to interpret worldview which “non-Jews”, and “Jews” fightbetween as aconstant history Hungarianhuman history and the Naziview, the time.articlesthat in publishedportrayed the to Similarly paper the present war efforts as well. The 1944, Question. and to censorship, only init 1944, haveconform appeared to its did to not journalisticprevious tradition so it could freely echo the Arrow Cross view of the Jewish a few articles and pictures being republished by the end of endby the being year. of andthe a few republished pictures articles 38 Bosnyák Zoltán, Bosnyák According to Bosnyák, the pure discrimination of the “Jews” cannot be goal the the“Jews”cannot of Bosnyák, purediscrimination the According to What is clear is that despite the heavily deteriorated position of the “Jews” in “Jews” positionthe of heavily deteriorated the is despite is that Whatclear A Harc A still demonized them as the arch enemy that was to be feared even at Istóczy Gy A Harc A Ę]Ę élete és küzdelmei are not explicit about how they imagine this separation of (Budapest: Könyv- és Lapkiadó Rt., 1940) A Harc A , which elaborate 38 Given that it that Given 28 CEU eTD Collection Marxism and thus generated hostility among social groups. Moreover, theydestroyed Moreover, social hostility among groups. Marxism generated thus and to frequent“coffee breaks”andnot being committed towork (see picture 1.). are prone “Jews” how is emphasized it than, even but work, physical meaning “real”, internment doing camps in the “Jews” wealthy which portrayed articles appeared genuinely a as Jews the portrays Bosnyák characteristics. similar share and united stand they Figure 1. “Jews” in the internment camp. severe the deserve “Jews” why proving on centered much very is it and antisemitism and “Jews”in notthere, suggested that arerooted in Europe Hungary,general. or which Palestine, to immigration Jewish on published were articles occasional year, of the course the During Mandatory Palestine. to “Jews” the of expatriation the – neverhand,influenced possibility excludedthe of by Bosnyák – partially Istóczy (Hebrew University Press, Jerusalem 1992.), Dedicated to MosheCarmilly-Weinberger onHis Eightieth Birthday in Engineers” ofthe Case The Professions: 41 not to provoke wider international condemnation and internal unrest. internal and condemnation international wider provoke to not 40 Press, 1995. 684-685. Documentary History. 39 On the concept of “schaffendes-raffendes” see Maria M. Kovacs, “Interwar Anti-Semitism in the in Anti-Semitism “Interwar Kovacs, M. see Maria of “schaffendes-raffendes” concept Onthe Heinrich Himmler. “A Secret Speech on the Jewish Question” in Question” Jewish on the Speech “A Secret Himmler. Heinrich A Harc The main accusations of Bosnyák against Hungarian “Jewry” is that it implanted it isthat “Jewry” Hungarian against of Bosnyák The main accusations He addresses “Jews” in third person singular (“a zsidó”), which suggests that in“Jews” singular(“azsidó”), He addresses third person The rest of Bosnyák’s article unites several themes and elements of modern , May 15, 1944. raffendes ed. , exploitive and not as a Paul Mendes-Flohr Paul 40 Jewsthe Hungarian in Economy, 1760-1945.Studies and Jehuda Reinharz schaffendes even after their harshest discrimination. harshest their after even endure demonicand eternal, which as characteristics “Jewish” he portrays be never reconciled, “Hungarians” can and “Jews” that argument measures of his 1944. Corroborating . New York: Oxford University Oxford York: . New The Jew thein Modern World: A , edited by Michel K. Silber , productive race. 39 On the other the On 41 Several 29 CEU eTD Collection attacking yellow star man”), 44 Rémhírterjesztéssel szervezett suttogó propagandájával lelki z beszabadult zsidóság zárt egységben, teljes hittel ellenségeink oldalára állt és az ésaz állt oldalára ellenségeink hittel teljes egységben, zárt zsidóság beszabadult 43 telítette…irodalommá avatta kultúréletünkben alegsilányabb pornográfiát”. haladás nevébenegész kultúréletünket alantas, ösztönéletre spekuláló gondolatokkal a “Jew” was reluctant totake off hishat upon entering a restaurant, thus offending the how described from most necessary. It them of restaurants restrictionsthe the banning Figure 2. A Harc, May 1944 made sexuality singlethe important most question. and form pornography” of basest the asliterature it“greeted and desires” instinctual modernity,“it Jewry] [the filled Hungarian with lowlyculture speculatingthoughts to Hungarians by scaremongering on Hungarians byscaremongeringsituation on the of war. the our ranks” of taking the side of “our arch enemies” and of producing spiritual chaos in his time only “Jews”to sneaked intothe “whospecifically refers –accuses that one positions, orwhen it did, they had toserve “Jewish” interests. His final – argument itfollowed a “racial policy letof counter-selection” didnot and Hungarianstoleading identified while itself –slandered as“Hungarian” home nameabroad, country’s the at argues that “Jews” had corrupted Hungarian culture, as in Hungarian nameof the “Jews”culture, had argues that corrupted implicit critique ofpsychoanalysis as a“Jewish” scientific paradigm as well. Bosnyák it essentially he rootlesswith superficial –and topped culture an and“Jews” produce which to according the“Jews” – of critique cultural Wagnerian the adopted also Bosnyák lelkiséget”). amagyar (“szétrombolta spirituality” Hungarian “indigenous 42 “‘A pofájába vágtam az öklömmel’:A támadó sárgacsillagos” (“’I smashed him in the face’: The “Vádoljuk a zsidóságot azzal is, hogy ebben a háborúban, amely a mi élet-halál harcunk is, a közénk a is, harcunk élet-halál mi a amely a háborúban, ebben hogy is, azzal a zsidóságot “Vádoljuk Bosnyák Zoltán, “Vádirat azsidóság ellen!,” 10 “Christian” population. dangerous tothe –as spatially physically wearing and restricted period, th issue, the author arguedissue, that theauthor insolencethe of the “Jews”made A Harc As opposed to the antisemitic cartoons of Dualist of antisemiticthe cartoons to the As opposed A Harc A , June , June 26, 1944. described “Jewish” men – at this time yellow-star time this –at men “Jewish” described A Harc A 44 In an article that appeared in June the appeared that In an article , June 10, 1944. 1-2. Cf., June10,1944.1-2. “Akorszellem és a Ħ 42 rzavart igyekezett felkelteni” Ibid. 2. By this, “Jewry” Bythis, – that proudly 43 Ę érdekeiket szolgálta. érdekeiket Zeitgeist and 30 CEU eTD Collection 46 again…you’re sacked, right? And than where will youfind such an elegant position?” my son visits you at night and … behaves a little oddly…and you slap him in theface do me alittle favor”, while on the right it reads “Should Iget to know again that when inscription to the left scene saying that “You can get the job, sonny, but…you have to could. The caricatures above show the situation before the anti-Jewish laws, with the they whenever servants and employees “Christian” exploit sexually to position social “Jewish” menare not only as depicted powerful, butashaving usedtheir dominant 3. Figure and a alsocorrupts younger soldierby talking tohim in a“Jewish” way. isChristian, upaninnocent star fable, a“Jew”markedwith beating conjureda yellow In this sárgacsillagos”). támadó az öklömmel’:A vágtam man” pofájába star (“‘A issue subsequent with titlethe “’I smashed of himin face’:the attacking yellow The in a appeared that article in an explicit more made is drawing The “Christians”. over socially,cease theirnot tovindicate they and do presumed superiority conviction of despite regulations, “Jews”physically the and both dominantsuggests that arestill picture The man. “Christian” smaller a off tell men wearing yellow-star “Jewish”, “Christian” guests. 45 „‘A pofájába vágtam az öklömmel’:A támadó sárgacsillagos”, “Zsidó kalapbotrány a Balaton-kávéházban,” A Harc A , May 1944 45 In a drawing that appeared on the same page two visibly pagetwo same the appeared on that In a drawing A Harc , June 10, 1944. 2. A Harc , June 26, 1944. 46 31 CEU eTD Collection 48 http://www.mediakutato.hu/cikk/2003_01_tavasz/02_judapesti_bulevaron/01.html expressively erotic poetry. Erd poetry. erotic expressively Gy 1991), 47-74. Kati Vörös: “Judapesti Buleváron,” Erd writer. Hungarian articles in articles secondly, the older “Jewess” as a social parasite. According to the drawings and n firstly, (“zsidó “Jewess” distinguished: the paper as “Kohn Röné”, very likely an allusion to RenéErd to very likely an allusion “Kohn Röné”, paper as threat to Hungarian males. The Jewish women is represented in the sketches of the in more dangerous ways. as the male“Jew”:even some and parasitic antisemitic drawings and articles present the “Jewess” as being similarly dangerous 47 women asbeingfrom “Jewish” exemptnegative characteristics the Jewish male, present and as a “theessentially portray Law Jew” the of Emancipation and as remaining even draconicafter measures in the 1940s. eternal, asbeing are presented however, traits, Jewish These insociety. comfortable feels too who as aninsolent, prideful parasite but either, character and asan odd period Dualist the of caricatures Panizza’s heroOscar of pipsqueak language built-upportrayed asthe orhavinganabnormal as speakinga distorted primarily is not “Jew” the modern antisemitism, of stages from early the inherited are “Jew” the of characteristics physical While several lips. lascivious and nose Ibid. Jack Zipes, Jack Ę r, and she soon made her name in the Hungarian avant-garde with pursuing an Within Within portrayal the in“Jewish” women of Whereas according to Kati Vörös the antisemitic sketches in the decades after decades inthe sketches antisemitic the Kati Vörös to according Whereas is asThe “Jewish” middle-aged andbold, man enlarged with depicted ugly, an A Harc A The Operated Jew: Two of Tales Anti-Semitism , Jewish women are over-sexualized women , Jewish Ę s was born as a sixth daughter in a poor Orthodox family near family Orthodox in apoor daughter a sixth as born s was Ę s was wavering herself between Catholicism her between s wasand Catholicism herself wavering 47 ; the “Jew” is not primarily depicted asaparvenu primarily depicted not “Jew”is; the The Operated Jew The Operated Médiakutató Ę ”, “Hebron rózsája”) as a sexual danger, as ”, “Hebron rózsája”) . (New York and London: Routledge , 3.no. (2007) (1893), or the similar “Jewish” similar orthe (1893), and A Harc A ugly, and they pose a great Ę s, Jewish-born interwar two groups can two be 48 , the violently the , 32 CEU eTD Collection is unusual not for Kohn René paintto herleg. at home: the poem claims that she already had several artificial colors on herself, soit it herleg buys paints and immediately She “leg advertises paints”. that of a billboard end not does she upbuying of When coming sight out shop, catches the the stockings. 2, 2009.from URL: 4. Figure 11, 2006. 20 szerz “Erd Ę k V.: Erotikus, katolikus (Erd Ę s René”, s A Harc A , June 1944 Magyar Zsidó Lexikon, http://mek.oszk.hu/04000/04093/html/szocikk/11269.htm; KádárJudit, “Elsüllyedt corrupts Hungarian men. Hungarian corrupts the lack of varieties that the shop-keeper can offer her, andher, she canoffer shop-keeper the that lackofvarieties the criticizing she starts shop, itto the makes she once Nevertheless the hairthis reason,on sheher for wants hairy; is very Jewess, a being René, Kohn to ugly and fat buylazy, legsa new pair of stockings afterthe that stresses cartoon the accompanied poem that antisemitic to cover getting The foreground. the into comes parasite asocial as “Jewess” the (1942)” stockings of pair a new buys René “Kohn entitled up as acartoon In to. lateunable is she end in the yet money, of help the with attractive look asto strived who women, 10“Jewish” parasitic a.m. husbands, she became an easy target asa aneasytarget became she husbands, Jewish extraction.As Erd extraction.As Jewish her to linked isclosely eroticism her that instance for claimed she herself; antisemitism and anti-Judaism of traces adopting inherited Jewishfinally tradition, in1909 converting and Kohn René becomes a representation of aged, middle Renébecomesarepresentation of the Kohn Ę s Renée, 1879-1956)”, ed. Ujváry Péter.(Budapest : S. n., 1929) Retrieved onApril 49 Ę s only had Christian lovers and lovers Christian had s only Magyar Narancs, XVIII/ 45. November femme fatal femme who 33 CEU eTD Collection May 9, 1944. “Jews”. of the exclusion since had doubled pricethe admission of note: aquite sad with however, bathhouses, ended from Jews ofeliminating results the on written article The Hungarians. among activities disruptive their pursue longer 50 Figure 5, in articles is repeated This were why there End) stands for modern urban decay Jewry that has intobrought Hungarian culture. Cigarette (Smoldering“Hamvadócigarettavég” popular thatthe song article suggests the “Jewess” in this drawing, from which a popular song of the time can beheard; the to next player a record is There erotic. highly are they that and work, not did women salaciously Thisinlap. quite stresses René’s“Jewish” again,– leaning herheadthat aged, fat woman René Erd resembling a woman a of occasion drawing on the Margharet Island beach “non-Jews”. from and discernible visible always were “Jews” that suggests Palatinus,It there. been always had it but regime, right extreme the of policy the of withresult another womanyellow star even in 1942, thus emphasizing that the segregation attempt is not only – the “Akik az idén már hiányoznak a strandról” (Those missing from the bathhouse this year”). this bathhouse the from missing (Those strandról” a már hiányoznak idén az “Akik Another, this time more sexualized representation Another, thisinKohnof timesexualized representation René more this – a itmarks“Jews” with is that cartoon particular of this feature The remarkable A Harc , July 1944 A Harc hailing that Jewish women can no can women Jewish that hailing Ę s – portrays her as a middle- s – herasa portrays 50 A HarcA , 34 CEU eTD Collection “Jewish” women neither“Jewish” appearedasugly women asconspicuously nor “Jewish”. in on which with paper, the photos the asharpcontrast imagesrepresented these While the drawings inthepaper could successfully portray women ugly,Jewish as 51 luxurious, urban andhigh from “Jewish”whoclass woman, wascompletely uprooted the whorepresented Gombaszögi, Frida actress in paper was the appearing character superseded her insignificance” Ver Erzsi Onactress “Jewish” directors. by the wereexcluded while“Hungarians” House, Opera the and in theaters instance for positions, high acquire easily could origin “Jewish” of mediocre talents this of and asaresult (“elzsidósodott”), “jewified” in got culture Hungarian “liberal” times articles, the the to according values: “Hungarian” asbeingcontrary isto influence depicted theJewish series articles, of a In “Jews”. by life cultural interwar of corruption the reveal to aimed journalists the in which múlt”), a (“Muzsikál Past” the from “Music entitled aheading with paperwasrepeatedly published the from bathhouses: out beingshut with “Jews” the „Muzsikál a múlt”, Ę , for instance, one article notes that “only her typical appearance “only Jewish her typical that notes instance, article one , for I do not only base this assumption on the article that appeared in appeared connection that article the noton assumption basethis only I do Figure 6. Article in A Harc A A Harc A , 1944. június 18. , June 1944. 51 . Similarly figure of the to “Kohn a regularlyRöné”, 35 CEU eTD Collection “Jews” could form a separate monograph, yet it is important to mention that they are hergiving anicedress. tells Jew by possibility,hadthe he could get theHungarian” that“when noother is“Jewish”, middle with agedpeddler depicted a Christian inscription girl,the while to grant the doctor sexualneededshe tells inscription the that “Nordic”, younger girl, while a is with portrayed favors in order to get the position. Inwomen are only fitfor the this kind of work”. last drawing, a servant,“the whileit under Hungarian drawingthatJewessthought reads the with aChristian isdepicted housewife class a middle possibly a middle-agedJewess, ways.different In Worked a cartoon entitled Like “They This” (“ in though physically, “Hungarian” the exploited both they how on is emphasis the “Jews”. withwas insharpyoung, contrast andmostly pictures of the well-dressed attractive The ugly drawingswas ahugebetween the photos. andthe Röné” “Kohn discrepancy since there and unattractive, “Jew”asdangerous portray the wereto their attempts journalism, the however, that how successfulpaper pursued,makesit questionable amateur The “Jews” and“non-Jews”. between fight a constant of a narrative intoit interwarreinterpret cultural life by making its “Jewish” elementvisible by and putting By this, releases. –press “Jewish” the standards to their – according sothey used the official interwar period, from the “Jewish” publications not possess insinuating pictures of “Jewish”the actors; is this why they had rely to on the daily the however, misery paradoxically, of averageHungarian.the Quite Investigating how antisemitic papers depicted “Hungarians” as opposed Investigating“Hungarians”to how antisemitic opposed papersdepicted as nose “Jewish” Stürmer-type with a characteristic, doctor aJewish this Below in together a drawing, When menand“Jewish”women “Jewish” aredepicted A Harc A ė k így így k dolgoztak”), attempted to A Harc did 36 CEU eTD Collection altogether less powerful than the“Jews”. The former power of the Jews in the “liberal and and more poor socially smaller, disadvantaged often asweaker, portrayed Figure 6, Figure majority. weaker the of mechanism a self-defense as policy was notlegitimated as an attack against evil “Jews”, but discriminative that This antisemitic demonstrated chapter opposition. “non-Jewish” – “Jewish” eternal the of lines the Jewish” readership,prompting them view theto world along as in vulgar andproviding the “non- primitive clichésto Harc A genocidal and antisemitic policies, papers like of implementation the of a time at Published journalism. antisemitic previous the from different significantly is Jewry against is portrayed asconstanteven in 1944. fight the and “Jews”, by corrupted being evade to chance no “Hungarians”had that beingso strong as era” wasportrayed In sum, I argue that the antisemitism of antisemitismthe In of 1944press the sum, Iarguethat * had a crucial role in legitimizing these policies, as well A Harc A , June 1944. Esti Újság Esti and 37 CEU eTD Collection ghettoization that reshaped their city and how did these bottom-up responses effect responses thesebottom-up did how and city reshaped their that ghettoization – “Jews”wartime Budapest “non-Jews” and – respond alike officialto the policy of of citizens the did How Budapest? metropolis as heterogeneous denominationally population of the city. Tostrategies these changing policies induced from “Jewish”the what and “non-Jewish” extent were these kind whatpoliciesin of andIalsoinvestigate between March and DecemberBudapest, 1944 enforceable in Ina socially- this chapter I analyze the Petitionssteps andthePossibility ofContesting Urban Policy in1944 of spatial3. Shaping the Ghetto in Budapest segregation of the Jewish population “Jews”. the against commitcrimes to “non-Jews” inciting in crucial been have might above analyzed papers the way this In chapter. following even “Jew” cannot be aviolationall considered itat is by – as demonstrated the the against crimes committing that conclusion the to came easily “non-Jews” certain Presumably strengthened in their hostility “Jews”the towards by reading these papers, the “Jewishquestion”. solution to papers, this wouldhave been onlyreal the explicit about wanting toslaughter “the Jews”, it can be argued that according to these neverbeing Although “Jewish” characteristics. eternal alternot the could restrictions asthe havingtheupperhandoverHungarians, the “Jew” still andwas cartoons articles the to according because primarily more discrimination, serious for prompted italso and measures “anti-Jewish” legitimized press the antisemitic that I argued 38 CEU eTD Collection worth starting out from the assumption that ghettoization in Budapest was afailed in Budapest ghettoization that from assumption out starting the worth isit that seems it bureacrats, of success the stresses that Cole’s thesis to opposed As Cole proposed. that Nazi on policies approach schematic somewhat beyond the go to strives also it yet policies, these of implementation in the factor a key was in areinvestigated that strategies, ensuingthe chapters. muchsituation forcreated developingimplementingspace and personal survival goals, highlighting in of Moreover, the uniqueness Holocaustthe Budapest. this their achieve and interests their articulate to authorities ministerial and municipal a muchfor left peculiarresidents both space andcreated which situation various Budapest of autonomy theretained aswell as front, ontheEastern achievements military forces, their devastating occupying of German limited amount the that of Europeans millions exterminated regime that a Nazi of contesting policies the for real venue no was view,there this to According Jews wassealed. faith of Budapest the Hungary, occupied Germans the once that probably influenced by myththe of Wehrmachtthe as a cutting-edge super army – as “sheep to the slaughter”,many loopholes to contest these policies. without provided which population, and“non-Jewish” “Jewish” the ofseparating difficulties any agencyit aframework provides yellowof establishmentthe of starhousesandpoints outthe and there is a general belief – 54 Ghetto. official policies? official 53 distinctions. ofthese nature constructed the emphasizing thus policies, to racial subject those to referring 52 Ibid. Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1. 225; Tim Cole: Following a practice in scholarship, I use the both Jews and non-Jews in quotation marks when (New York: Routledge), 2003. 50. Some historians argue that during the Holocaust Jews went to the death campsJews death during went tothe historiansSome arguethat Holocaust the Similarly Cole,to this paper also starts out from the assumption that city space 52 This also chapter serves chapters 4and asanintroduction to 5,as 54 . As opposed viewitseemsto this , . Asopposed Holocaust City.The Making of a Jewish 39 53 CEU eTD Collection University 2006.) Press University 57 through petitionsthrough in summerthe municipality1944, whenthe of each designated arsenal of anti-Semitic vocabularyexplains Budapest –“Jews”“non-Jews” residents –hadawhole why and alike at their disposal when 4) in chapter (analyzed papers antisemitic trying with contemporaneous Semitism topped to reshape anti- theirinterwar prevalent the my opinion cityIn before. Jews as themselves of thought 56 (Princeton, N.J. :Princeton University Press),1998. 20-21. period butarguably just 1938-1945period of legislation, the anti-Jewish whole interwar the not and parcel of waspart “cultural code” as a antisemitism termed Volkov Shulamit must one and“modernized”Budapest-based intellectual, notforget thatwhat Hungary from with caftan a converted, north-east for instancean Jew orthodox united which policies, racial of arbitrariness and artificiality the in emphasizing is right apartments available on every floor available every on apartments due patterns floorto the plan of thatmade tenements the luxuriousandmodest residential mixed by socially –wascharacterized Vienna and Paris especially capitals, 19 Hanák it through Gyánidemonstrated and from examining the stock housing late- the As materialized. completely never populations non-Jewish and of Jewish separation line, as the dividing – “non-Jewish” alongreshaping “Jewish” the at Budapest attempt 55 20 the in community and faith common of sense any experience to started Hungary in “Jews” the had station train Hungary’s provincial of out when “Jews” no longer constituted a unified, naturally visible social group in the city. in inBudapest, a period “non-Jews” as“Jews” as and whomixing ofthose counted Shulamit Volkov. Shulamit Ger Hanák Péter, Hanák th century European other uniquely– quite compared to as onwards, Budapest century Ę , Andras: 57 As Ger : this was able to form a vague community out of those who never had never who those of out community vague a form to able was this : The garden and the workshop: essays on the cultural history of Vienna and Budapest. The Jewish Criterion in Hungary. Ę pointed out boldly and controversially, only in the cattle cars rolling Germans, Jews, andAntisemites: Trials in Emancipation 55 . This was accompanied with the residential Boulder: Social Science Monographs. 2007. 51. 2007. Monographs. Science Social Boulder: th (New York: Cambridge century 56 . While he 40 CEU eTD Collection Benoschofsky (Budapest:Ilona MIOK, 1960), 89-91. days on which Jews are allowed to attend them”) in el 59 16-17. many citizens toexpress opinion this about act of city planning. whichhouse, or “Jewish” prompted asa“Christian” building Budapest apartment 58 spots. desirable most the from out May, they were restricted to “Jewish” cinemas, restaurants and bathhouses, being shut potentially hostile elements. of administration the purge to and authorities with German cooperate to expectation appointedmunicipality.independent A new lordmayor,pro-Nazi Keledy Tibor was only almost threeand faiths Jews. of capitals’ ghetto the the Budapest of the weeks shape the about 19government post-March Quisling andthe forces Nazi occupational after the the council,city the Budapest between monthsdebate of after only petitions came occupationusually tourbannot fact, bottom-up bysuch approaches characterized policy. In onright totheir is in a city uniquephenomenon quite Hungarian history,urban whichis April consciousness8, withof local residents as wellthe as the manifestation only of their desire to have a See for instance “Budapest polgármesterének határozata a zsidók által látogatható filmszínházak és filmszínházak látogatható által a zsidók határozata polgármesterének “Budapest instance for See Szita Szabolcs, Szita Ę adások kijel adások After the German occupation Budapest maintained its autonomy asan itsmaintained autonomy Budapest occupation After German the The 1944 petitions to the city council, as expressions of the civic “Jews” were obliged to wear a canary yellow star after April 5,andbyearly April after yellowstar wear acanary to obliged “Jews” were Ę lésér A zsidókA üldöztetése Budapesten Ę l” (The decree of the Budapest lord major on the designation of cinemas and of cinemas designation on the major lord Budapest ofthe decree (The l” 58 59 (Budapest: MagyarAuschwitz Alapítvány,1994) Vádiratnácizmus a ellen ed. Elek Karsai and Karsai Elek ed. 41 CEU eTD Collection 62 city: in the question” “Jewish the of solution the to space of in terms not and class of inofficials time terms municipal werethinking atthis remainingsources. Iarguethat traditionally Jewish inner parts of districts VI and VII VItraditionally ofdistricts inner and Jewish parts “Jews”concentrate inthe housing conditions to within haveworse firststep the been to likely is it that argues Cole While victims. bomb Christian for homes Jewish 500 after days of incessant Allied raids, the city forced the Jewish Council to designate their place. Despite the fact that the Despite their place. to hailedall “Jews” werebeingput that papers,that andin antisemitic several other National Jewish Research Institute set upin after Budapest Germanthe occupation – 61 9, 1944. initiative. German a not and local a was city in the patterns residential 60 hadsince thesemeasure doubled eliminating Jewsfrom bathhouses ended with pricethe a quite sadnote: of admission of results the on article males, the written “non-Jewish” corrupting women “Jewish” Cole: SeeCole, “Akik az idén már hiányoznak a strandról” (Those missing from the beach this year”). this beach the from missing (Those strandról” a már hiányoznak idén az “Akik Holocaust City It is almost sure that the first anti-“Jewish” spatial order that aimed to reshape aimed that order to spatial anti-“Jewish” firstis sure thatthe almost It inA flowmalevolentappeared of accusations Figure 1. “Those missing from the beach this year”; article in article year”; this beach the from missing “Those 1. Figure Holocaust City , 2003, 82. , 2003, 81. 60 . A Harc A detailed meticulously the fornications of detailedfornications meticulously the 62 A Harc A , this cannot be on verified , this cannot A Harc – the weekly of the , June , 1944. 61 On April OnApril 4, A Harc A , May 42 CEU eTD Collection of lostof on them Budapesthousingthe scene. their status privileged alleged so many before, theypossessed –thanthe ones rooms apartmentsjust –often worse in Whatfact is got in“their “Jews” happened that place”. the “Jews” concentrating of intention the about hypothesis Cole’s counters which homes, their to closer in apartments rooms got families many Moreover, lines. “non-Jewish” and “Jewish” likely to have been intended as a first phase of major relocations within the city not was decree alongthe April 5, so after empty homes remained “Jewish” confiscated of housing.the Largesegments workingclass intothem congestion characterizing the force homes and middle-class mostly oftheir todeprive “Jews” wanted they simply 63 explanation petitioners were turned downby samemunicipalthe withoutofficial any further Both she her that on wastaking step-mother. grounds the careof 77-year-old Éva Sarlós, aformer school teacher who wanted toreturn to her empty district Ihome and heart disease illness mental wife’s his while empty, is still apartment wouldoriginal their that mentioning require that they return. Halmos, aformer Ministry of Justice petitioned tothelordmayor clerk in May 10, Similar petition in The year-old apartment. them allocated MóricCsalogány 68 aneighboringutca to was submitted by in–,utca II whosaw district confiscatedtheir on April apartment aroom 10, and F Christian overwhelmingly in the living – couple “Jewish” an elderly to happened economic level,by “non-Jews”in wartimeprivileging the housing market. first irresolute step to show the city’s determination to solve the Jewish question on an authorities had the upper-hand over Jewish policy, who were far more irresolute than irresolute whowere farmore overJewishpolicy, had authorities upper-hand the BFL IV. 1409/c. Box 1857.IX-1621/1944. this Archives,City Budapest in the petitions preserved to the According It is alsohighly likely atthat thisfirst stage of German occupation, Hungarian 63 . More than anything else, this April 4 municipal order can be seen as the 43 Ę CEU eTD Collection underground, revolt ( Perennial. 2006.); Alan Adelson and Robert Lapides, genocidal policies wascontingentupon local processes. country. Similarly the to to Salonica,arrival Veesenmayer’s after months three Lodz,mid-June, in only came WarsawJewry and many other cities, the outcome ghettoization Budapest – of and not – segregation whileapartial German occupation, of a month the after almost came ghettoization provincial them: prompting Germans the 64 New York : Penguin Books, 1991);Yisrael Gutman, Mark Mazower: Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims and Jews. (Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1982). Press, University : Indiana (Bloomington The Jews ofWarsaw,1939-1943 : ghetto Lodz ghetto: inside a community under siege 64 (New York: Harper York: (New , 44 CEU eTD Collection 1936.) p. 173. Cole: 65 moreit asa saw municipal that officials out itcan be pointed ghettoization, implementing in role bureaucracy’s city the whitewash to aiming Without contemporary press, andpresumably limiteda only amount of it.officials knew about this planinthe to Thereisnoreference houses apartments. and dilapidated and weretooccupy andmore older the they thoroughfares, mainreside streets on close to the major railway lines of the city (see figure all “non-Jews”: them of “Jews” among live could which areas within city, within the 2). “Jews” were not allowed to ghetto seven smaller envisaged ghettoization of May9 Plan The Budapest ghetto. month after decision the on ghettoizing Jewry provincial decide to on shapethe of the Germanoccupation and one the months it two after took bureaucracy, city oversized Map based on Illyefalvy Lajos., Bp. Székesf What is particularly interesting in the case of Budapest isis interesting in caseofBudapest What particularly the the despite that Ghettoization of Dispersed Plan 2.The Figure Holocaust City, 87. Ę város Statisztikai Évkönyve. (Bp: Közp. Stat. Hiv. 65 45 CEU eTD Collection bureaucratic obstacle than as an opportunity of putting the “Jews” intheirplace “Jews” the putting of asan opportunity than obstacle bureaucratic 66 of completely reshaping the residential patterns of Budapest – even with –evenwith the Budapest of patterns residential the reshaping of completely impossibility and complexity sheer the realized levels both on officials municipal and ministry factthat tothe beattributed can in plans change the Moreover, relocation. provideto morewould preferablehousing them serve as that incentive of an this, policy makers aimed toreduce the costs of moving for the “non-Jews” and aimed By preferably houses within mainandvisiblethoroughfares. the districts, off their decrepitand old separate, into “Jews”concentrate wasto mainobjective June, the mid- in came houses “yellow-star” so-called the of designations the When building. apartment level: the on one only operate to continued it“Jewless”, and of Budapest making areas whole of impossibility The new the acknowledged plans minighettoes. Birkenau, the “Jews” of the capital continued to live as they did in March and April. Auschwitz- arrival to “Jews”werebeinggassed upon andJune, Hungarian and May in intensity utmost with on going were deportations the while that note must one however, level, aregional On days. few a within be accomplished to had moving of in process yetthe lord the major’s idea, original mid-June, according to kick-started “Jews”only concentrating the got of wholethe process endeda compromise: with institutions two the between debate the is isthat What clear events. the telescoping of difficulty the emphasizing timescale, three-month longer, much a with operated having move formerly 30days “Jewish”mayorto the into lord better, apartments, “non-Jews” fewarea to only a with take days, ghetto within the houses “Jewish” “Jews”into of relocation the imagined Jaross Andor Interior of Ministry While Cole: Holocaust City. In the meanwhile, several changes occurred to the plan of theseven of plan to the occurred changes several meanwhile, In the 95. 46 66 . CEU eTD Collection bureaucracy. state and andthe city gendarmerie forces, the Nazi occupying cooperation of were not strictly time-bound and were coming in throughout May This also and June. in throughout were coming strictly and were not time-bound the status of actual houseslatter groupsfiled inmid-Junewhen theirpetitions the belonging two Whileto those was being contested, quo. for status the who pleaded by isthose constituted third group largest, while the the plans to reshapebelong who those used advance ghettoization theirto mobility on housingthe market, the entire city second In the residential patterns. city’s of the transformation radical the envisaged can in who groups first three belonginvestigated be those the distinguished: arguments that were operationalized in petitions. Outof these petitionsthe inenvisagedidealized their Budapest investigate1944 and the antisemitic to petitioners how focus on andto perspective, racial a less from them examine probably mostthe relevant dividing line.Whatmade me revisit these is petitions to “Jews” analytical –“non-Jewish”,whichismethod inthis agood was case,this as “Jewish” separated that members,“non-Jewish” family and among spouses them. measure first wasthe This status. yellow-star house’s of their exemption for pleading petitions of hundredsImmediately of municipal flooded petitions containedofficials: the they “Jews” forpublic inJune allmajorposters newspapers16 with containing street and theirlist. the designation of their ghetto. if bombings” wasaseparate – there “terror of the out fifth columnists their housesbe ableas to sparewell “yellow-star” as not bombers would was thatAllied absurd argument somewhat Their often-surfacing, houses,the whereasChristians they could easily leave the “Jews” – Cole focuses his analysis of petitions on coalitions and contestations between contestations and coalitions on petitions of his analysis focuses Cole 2639“Jewish”The designation of altogether made housesin was Budapest well. as houses “yellow-star” of idea the press embraced right The extreme 47 CEU eTD Collection be the goal be goal the Hungarian”. of every sticked to his plan, less “Hungarians” and more “Jews” would perish, which “should possession. As a raisonthey cannot signal d’êtreto the enemy airplanes, no torches should beof allowed at “Jewish”his plan, from if possibleproducepower make-shiftso thatthey that cannot Inorder radios. Csapó concludes thatcablesbe should winded upin “Jewish”homes and theirhouses cutoff completely if the municipality the strong fear that if Jews were settled in separate apartments the remainder of of the remainder the apartments in separate if fearwere settled Jews strong the that articulated It women. 120Gentile of desire the expressed allegedly which Jánosné” of of solvingthe problem the “Jewish”of housing. existeda there which couldcertain something isin that audience sense theairin terms “Jews”confined werenot within themunicipal walls of ministry and butauthorities, capital’s the debatesover protracted –the allegation Cole’s – despite that meant 67 house becourt-martialed”. and should commanders buildings. Should they try fleeing from their apartments “the whole company of Jews of the cellars the at located airshelters red access to no have would they and air raids completely sealed off, so that they would not be being able homes to open their with the windows tenements, of floors at times top the into of “Jews” the relocate His monumental plan – which is more or less an anti-Semitic manifesto – proposed to bombings. from inwouldas itbe sparethem toconcentrated nor ghettoes Budapest, propositions to the city reservistcouncil. He argued that Jewsmajortheiridealized with Budapest helpthe municipal of Károly authorities. Csapó –a are not to beliving moved out from in the 36% Jewish district VI – served with a number of All translations mine (M.R.). A similar fear is articulated in a type-written signed as“Szabó petition in a type-written is fear A similararticulated It is clear that the “non-Jewish” lower class felt that time was ripe to create to was ripe time that felt lower class “non-Jewish” the is that It clear 67 According to him, electricity him, to According 48 CEU eTD Collection population from “the terror attacks of attacks of bandits”. the from “the terror population Jews are only needed so long thepetitioner of As “Jews”. the claims argument, thefinal (“galád üzelmeiket”) that as the war is going on sowould provide the possibility closely “non-Jews”of superviseto affairs hideous the as to protect the rest ofin it it as beadvisable, would “Jews” house in several congested with each apartment the an Having by “Jews”. the “assassination” to be subject would apartments these “Jewish” would be dreadful according to the petitioner, as those Christians occupying houses Allied bewill exposedto Moving attacks. houses into were previously that do not simply want the legal deprivation of “Jews” – articulated in the Jewish laws in Jewish the –articulated “Jews” of legal the simplydeprivation not want do appears as a pureself-defense measure in them. beyond Going these petitionerstenets, antisemitism “non-Jews”: against is plotting that agency common a with group social stereotypesmodern of antisemitism, aredemonized Jews racial asforming a unified Jewish question appearsJewry. entire the Budapest house which could essentially of Királyerd in theforest as be removed all Jews that the butsuggested dispersed ghettoization, advocate not did a spatial problem Cross popularthe Arrow and rightist opinion as well the as petitioners,previous he in current of solveagainst the in Going terms. spatial own theplan Jewish question to them. Followinginformation by submitted and housesupervisors, the moreover, he upwithcame his the petition that the airsuggested commander raidofeach block city the double-check “Jews”false –submit to municipality. data the Dr. Béla Nagy, of author the the stricthouse control of supervisors andbuildingmanagers, who–being bribedby the – – amongitproposed a more inwritten others paper, and of piece a checked inkon The common in all these quite eerie petitions on reshaping the city is the city the that on reshaping eerie petitions quite inall The common these Another highly malevolentpetition tothemunicipalityarrived in these days, Ę near Csepel village, where there are plenty barracks plenty of are wherethere village, near Csepel 49 CEU eTD Collection This happened in the case of This happenedin which the Óbuda caseof for works, an textile the petitioned employees. non-Jewish their for treatment preferential more provide to companies whole 1944-45period. resulted inhaving hundreds primeof stay Budapestapartments empty the throughout avoid such individual claims – for better formerly Jewish – housing, it even though isutca Vigadófor bomb reserved victims home –in sealed Jewish the formerly andthat – had an Érczy already apartment allowing the rest of allowing restof population remain the the to “healthy”. thus claims, no have can they which to city the from removed totally being as or living shield, of a city as some kind the therestof protect to either who canbeutilized between 1938 and 1941–butthey addressed themasinfectious, half-human pariahs, 68 filing his claim, the IX as an Three daysafter his Buda night,exchange. andheday apartment offered and all in required headquarters his presence company’s the warefforts the argued that Béla Grimm, its former tenant that had headquarters, April, early been utca since when empty company’s Vigadó had to movein the apartment “Jewish” out.former a getting for Jánospetitioned who Részvénytársaság), Érczy, the personal assistantHungarian Royal Naval Company (Magyar Királyi Folyam- és Tengerhajózási the war industry. This happened in the case of the personal assistant tothe CEO of the they could claim that their more preferable housing conditions are also the interest of petitioninga powerful through institution like– theircompany – sinceby so, doing upward mobility on Budapestthe housing Oftentimes,market. they embarked on BFL 1409/c., Box 1855, IX-1078/ 1944. The designation of The yellow-star housesdesignation alsoof provided venueslarger for The second group of petitioners tried to seize the opportunity to assure seize its the to tried to opportunity of The secondpetitioners group th Ward it of Municipality City the on rejected groundsthe that 68 . Presumably, the city officials wanted to 50 CEU eTD Collection havingnew their painted apartments and would sanitized be acostthat they not could andmoving property wasthat claim most their frequentmatter. The on that agreed city: this link an created unspoken Jews between and the Gentiles, majority of whom simplyresidents most tostay conditions, Budapest wanted they lived in wherever the housing their advance to “non-Jews” certain of efforts the and line “non-Jewish” “non-Jews” should have the right to move out and the families”: buildinga morally corrupt –aformerhouse red-light – from which building, it should be a yellow-star house as it is “unfit for the protection of the nation in the majority the“non-Jewish” despite wasthat mainargument Their elsewhere. “Jewish” better, wanted with apartments to get who “non-Jews”, cooperated “Jews” 11,where inhappened Nagydiófa utca This designated. wasnot their property them was to remain in their previous homes, that is, to petition foryellow-star status if yellow-star house yellow-star designate Apáti therejectednot requested building their did and utca petition, asa however, municipality, The apartments. better previous, their of confiscation the impliedalso it though –even hometotheira closer with workplace workers “Jewish” for scanty number the houses were designated of in that provide and Óbuda, its and manuallaborers would bemoved in. company By the this, compensateaimed to lacked privies, that intellectual andshelter, runningwater, anair-raid andtheJewish apartments these from evicted be would residents non-Jewish plan, their to According house. as ayellow-star tenement company a dilapidated additional of designation 70 Újság Esti Az 69 Ibid. BFL IV. 1409/c. 1861. kisdoboz.IX-2339/1944. Despite some extravagant petitions to reshape the city along the “Jewish” and the city along reshape the to petitions extravagant some Despite As “Jews”get hadnochance to betterhousingin 1944,the best solutionfor , 1944.21. 06. 69 . 70 . 51 CEU eTD Collection to the antisemitic wishes of the municipality and the ministry. the and municipality the of wishes antisemitic the to according city the reshaping to came it when actions with policy antisemitic support worldview of antisemitic the to contrary that argued be can it however, council, city the to arrived that petitions of amount the Considering trick”. Jewish “thenewest of arepart petitions Christian defend themselves. to have which Christians against another Jewish yet plot of werepart thatthese argued – Jewish building. building support theChristian mixed,he designationratio oftheJews of doesnotasa official who reported that one of the Jewish tenants had moved out, and due to the low an out sent municipality XI district the later days Five building. in the remaining any objections”raise “donot they who argued that Miklós út), buildingBuda apartment (96Horthy to the residents moving in. June 15,a On similar petition was filed by six residents the of a Jewish further possibility Jewish tothe tenants remaininginthebuilding,of as aswell tenantsJewish 9 the to consented they tenants Christian – 31 the of name in the amongwritten letter them their In 15. June on public, made were designations official before two even municipality medical doctorsbuilding, – stay to in put a building.Thishappened inthe case of (3Alpára district VII street) wheresubstantiate their to “Jews”wanted desire “non-Jews”by to this, shields: asphysical the Gentilein every house than not tohave one, and this partially explains the frequent references isit havemove. that is a“Jew”to unable better whymanyargued This to petitioners owners, physically are they that argued conscripted husband their with women single bear; Mr. and Mrs. Ákos Berde wrote to the It isIt no thatangerthe such aroused petitions wonder of Magyarság these papers, most Budapest residents were unwilling to unwilling were residents Budapest most papers, these , another strongly antisemitic daily claimed that claimed daily antisemitic strongly another , Esti Újság Esti , which 52 CEU eTD Collection assets remaining in Jewish apartments needs to be compiled by June 24), by June becompiled to needs apartments Jewish in remaining assets 74 anteroom), el 73 72 housing even at this time. this at even housing stood united toundermine interests Christian andthey managedseize to thebest they and Christians, than laws housing new the on informed better be to alleged were in an inongoing fashion itis thepapers further(as analyzedinchapter4):“Jews” articulated were decades theprevious of stereotypes so. Theantisemitic do having to move,havingyet about they to blamed were “Jews”forantisemites the discomforted maids former their mostly Gentiles, of sympathy the buy to money and wealth own valuables. meaningmoving their “national appeared which that property”, Jewsdestroy reported apartment front as well) their apartments, and they also offer to pay for the moving of the Gentile family. of getparts best the to in order bribe Christians yearin to one advance Jews payrents out, importantly, pointed anarticle mind. More maid’s as the outof past grievances clear to aiming thus them, for pity feel to and moving them help to bribe they whom order. public harmful tothe not Jews are stated that is itmake him petitionsinwhich Gentile, the to andtry sign “Aladár” naivety of in paperargued its1930s. The advantage June19issue Jewswantof that the totake inlate itsin masked the after a arianization Jewishrule Gentilescompany those who continue on living amidst “Jews”. livingcontinue amidst on 71 “Június 24-ig be kell fejezni a zsidó lakásokban lév lakásokban azsidó fejezni kell be 24-ig “Június Jews were forbidden to have Gentile servants and maids since May 5. See “Vérvörös karmokal See “Vérvörös 5. May since and maids servants Gentile to have forbidden were Jews “A zsidóság nagyobb része vár a költözködéssel?” vár része nagyobb zsidóság “A “A lakásfronton is megjelent régi ismer régi megjelent is lakásfronton “A Ę szobát súrol egy zsidó deln The papers, however, did not address mostThe however,Christians,eventhe not did issuethat the papers, The paper most heavily attacked petitioners to above, whowanted cited mostThe attacked heavily paper Magyarság 72 Another rampant accusation against Jews was that they used their , May 5, 1944. Esti Újság Esti Ę ” (With glaring red claws a Jewish demimonde cleans the floorof the , June 19, 1944. Ę Esti Újság sünk:Aladár,” (Our old acquaintance Aladár appears on the on appears Aladár acquaintance old (Our sünk:Aladár,” Esti Újság Ę tagged them “lakásaladár”, similarly to them “lakásaladár”, similarly tagged ingóságok leltárazását” (The inventory of inventory (The leltárazását” ingóságok , June 20, 1944. 20, , June 71 Next day another article Esti Újság , June , 23, 1944. 74 53 73 , CEU eTD Collection Interior. More than a month had passed when answer came from a low-ranking a from came answer when passed had month a than More Interior. judge authority them:July allto on the 13 they sent tothepetitions Ministerof one above, the office of theup with put the of flood policies. Examiningdiscriminatory similar to petitions the lord major washed its choice andhave thanto in didhadnoother capital the hands not well-networked relatives and claimednot were who or papers false obtain to means that the have not did who families it relatives, has no had gohiding theopportunity to inBudapestand refuge find non-Jewish among in the First World War, damaging his left arm, so he could nothave hurt anybody”. that“…mygrounds fatheris a man truly sufferedforoutstanding who homelandthe suffer for the sins of my father’s progenitors, I want to“if municipality,and Hirsch Ihave house”wroteÉva to requested that star to the she be close to my mom” on the eatyellow-justin her anddrink cry “Jew”. father “Icannot fact that terrible wasa this Christian mother andstepfather, apartfrom wassuddenly set herfamily due tothe her living with and whowaspreviously long-divorced were old parents girl, whose children to write the petitions, they willtime be moreby thelikely June to be helpeddesignations. out. A ten divided firstmoving the families mixed-marriage were for came from that accounts year- Presumably parentssufferingbrought for anddeprivation “Jewish” the population. Probably most the thought that if they prompt their Figure 3. Article in 75 BFL IV. 1409/c., 1864.kisdoboz. IX-2785/1944. The example above shows that while probably tens of thousands of “Jews” It seems, however, that morethat municipalIt seems, than orders else,these however, anything Esti Újság Esti , 1944. 75 54 CEU eTD Collection 78 77 Press, University possibility of exempting anybody from its provisions. ministry therequest official of to majorthe explained lawthe which that no provides 76 list original 1948 houses, which was a resultof a substantial deduction minorand addition to the As thenewhouses. designated, 2639houses to the opposed list originally contained major’s came onJune22thelord office original listof up with a revised designations the after aweek less than and consideration, into taken were houses yellow-star in designating made had municipality the that fallacies and mistakes the revealed in Buda were cancelled with inhigher rate a Budawerecancelled with andblocks, in larger whileproperties areascentral outlying apartment the districts and and Svábhegy villas –thevery top of city’sthe housingmarket. inthough congestedhousing, be aminority “Jews” to housedinof continued Rosehill whichto should houses.all be villas the Till asyellow-star cancelled November 1944, press accordingliveright ofthe extreme expectations the not authorities upto could See the list of final designations in Cole: RandolphR. Braham: Holocaust City Petitions, however, which were in the interest of “non-Jews” or which 76 . This amounted to a more heavy concentration of Budapest Jewry in a more Jewry the of heavyconcentration to Budapest . This amounted 1994. 371. , 164. Politics ofGenocide: theHolocaust in Hungary. Esti Újság Esti , 21.06. 1944. 77 . Inmy itopinion is remarkable quite that New York: Columbia 78 55 CEU eTD Collection 1936.) 173. 79 Jews” and other state institutionsJews” state and other The had move out. concession only made to was to the inner parts of districtislandformed in ina ghetto congested –were people ahundredthousand more than VII. At this time, no exceptionsprivileging “Jews”of with protective passes. The bulk of the city’s “Jews”, however – were made, all the on based was which út, Pozsonyi was setupalong the Ghetto International called “non- aso First, end December. the early of November and only came at “Jewish question” the this spatialsolutionto the adefinite of city’s regime. endpoint point, Evenat previous the under form, possible in leasta rudimentary at were, that contestations, legal for room no left which policy, state of be akeyobjective madeto violence was physical anti-“Jewish” time This contestations. of view of point the from interesting inCross governmentpower less mid-October, coming towhich is,however, period Map based on Illyefalvy Lajos., Bp. Székesf Figure 4. The final ghettoization plan The major change in “Jewish” residential patterns came only with Arrow with camethe only patterns in residential “Jewish” change The major Ę város Statisztikai Évkönyve. (Bp: Közp. Stat. Hiv. 79 . 56 CEU eTD Collection allow the powerful institution stay to put. sidewere setback north the to on thewalls of ghetto utca: inAkácfa the headquarters Budapestthe Metropolitan Authority Transportation which had(BSzKRt), its two persecuted memoir writers remembered the German occupation and Arrow Cross Arrow and occupation German the remembered memoir writers persecuted two how of analysis embarkon the now alike,I andGentiles” appliedby“Jew” strategies 5.1 Strategies of Survival in theBudapestYellow Star Houses 5.Personal Strategies of Survival butGhetto, also providedarticulate aground to interests.their additional moratorium a unique –till in – chance 1944 establishmentthe of the not only population contestations ofinstitutional provide did city,months the of the “Jewish” Forthe star houses. yellow of designation the of in case the especially these contestations could influence effectively policies the being implemented, place, and time of specificity the dependingon that chapter the argued throughout expressimplementtheir I desires. to of and population various Budapest the groups provided amaneuvering ground for theministry,for hall city the as asforwell the ghettoization of amatter by forcecould within authority weeks, which carry out that nature of Holocaustthe in itself Budapest manifested in the lack of any strong unfinished and unique The process. ghettoization the stagesof various during the heard voices their let to able were actors many that out pointed chapter this orders, Further elaborating survival on problemthe of different and cooperation ghettoization contest could successfully company that theBSzKRt to Similarly 57 CEU eTD Collection 1994) Szép Ern 82 Disclosure, 1995). after after establishmentthe yellow of starhousesin June 1944. of the occupation, than their choices in the weeks following the occupation, as well as time atthe I comparetheirsituation thechanging inthroughout 1944. First, situation how the respectivenetworks influencedof Szép andSoros theirsurvival strategies analyze I and chapter, the of theme organizing an as networks social on concentrate primarily I at. living were they building apartment the of level the on out played strategies different these how analyze I and survive, to chose they that strategies respective family influenced occupation, socialbackgrounds, networks and the memoira comparativetwo how lendthemselvestoinvestigate their writers analysis: I 1944 experience. lengthand The the similarity of andissuesup by themes brought the ontheir authors’ detailedmore twolonger accounts investigates and chapter present the manager, building a with inconnection pasts recent their memorialized building personality. different their as well as background religious and social their on based conditions extreme in life city on and persecution on houses, star yellow on differently accounts their construct narrators how and events same the on diverge narratives of types different why and how at look above. investigated interviews history and oral testimonies vetting committee besides narratives – 1953) 81 rule in TheBudapest. memoirs of Soros(1894Tivadar –1968) Tivadar, 80 Soros Tivadar, Soros László Rónay, “Szép Ern On Tivadar Soros’ biography and memoir see Humphrey Tomkin, “Editor’s Afterword” in Soros in Afterword” “Editor’s Tomkin, Humphrey see memoir and biography Soros’ Tivadar On While the previous showed chapter multiple how residents of an apartment Maskerado,Dancing Around Death in Nazi Hungary Ę 81 , serve survivalinvestigate vantage asathird point to strategies and survival The Smell of Humans, A Memoir of the Holocaust inHungary Maskerado, Dancing Around Death in Nazi Hungary 82 The reason to include these personal testimonies is to be able to be able is to testimonies personal these include to reason The Ę ” in Új Magyar Irodalmi Lexikon [CD-ROM] ed.László Péter, (Budapest: (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000), 211-226. (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000); (Budapest: CEU-Corvina, 80 and Ern Ę Szép(1884 58 CEU eTD Collection 84 University Press, 2006), 2. 83 in by as “happy which essentially end” narratives genre, defined the significance the narratives of the Holocaust both Ern argued that and present atypicalare significantly accounts accounts different these Moreover, population. from non-persecuted of other“non-Jewish”, with thenetworks Holocaust Shoah, or Ghetto as accountsboth asare well.and socialIt positioncan of the witnesses,be their level of education, religiosity and social based geographical on inthe significantly Budapest like events diverge Holocaust the on accounts the that reveals also narrative a common lack of the Acknowledging altogether”. neglected margins or the towards pushed either are experiences some survivors’ narratives, Holocaust negotiating hegemony inof the accepted in that, of adopting therole a universal witness,will the survivors adopt identity. But, assume secondly,they and experiences, homogenize survivors’ theyseekFirst, to survivor. demands on the two place memory collective of and role the Holocaust conceptof the “the accepted that stressed Waxman has recently testimonies, area.” expansive geographical witnessed by many different people, over a time span of several years and covering an events, different many but event one just not was “Holocaust the that stresses she Waxman’s remark applies Vania Zoë mediations experience. Holocaust of purethe interviews –asuntainted to the diversity of the Budapestdifferenttypes of narratives and sources – like diaries, memoirsoral or history experience as well from forged variousthese In accounts. notaddition,wishregard either Ido to of the when withnor of in Holocaust the universalized narrative Budapest beinga common ground a with up come to wish neither I files, committee vetting the with elements common Ibid.158. Zoë Vania Waxman, ZoëVania Though the social networks of Soros and Szép analyzed below have many have below analyzed Szép and Soros of networks social the Though Writing the Holocaust,Identity, Testimony, Representation Ę Szép’s and Tivadar Soros’ memoirs challenge the dominantchallenge memoirs Szép’s the Soros’ Tivadar and 83 Addressing scholarly the of canonization Holocaust (Oxford: Oxford (Oxford: 59 84 CEU eTD Collection carried out on the capital’s Jewry by the various by Jewry the capital’s on the carried out 2004). 2: A Digest of Published Survivor Memoirs with Study Guide and Maps English-language scholarship is quite practical. Namely that the English editions late: came relatively English the that Namely practical. quite is scholarship English-language another reason explainswhyneitherthat far of has so in them been quoted widely from missinghis are almost entirely text. sufferingaccompanied ofthe itconsequently tragedies Jewry and that Hungarian the on showing howhis family lived a relatively normal life during the persecutions; is thestress in which account, inSoros’s narrative surface Holocaust of the features narratives. mainstream Smell ofHumans not in appear canon – do of Holocaust features the paradigmatic –three camps and death the deportations nevertheless masskillings, the is addressed, experience Christian anddocuments never experienced persecution himself. hiding with wassuccessfully Soros whereas countryside the to Szép wasmarched as memoirs, both from missing is however, story, the of part this Gestapo: the and SS the other hand, after the after hand, other the On capital. in Hungarian the never occurred mass deportations lived, short whereas be which itselfof to Ghetto, establishmentthe proved a belated 1944 and witnessed Holocaust experienceof Budapest Jewry,freedom lived in October till which relative optimism and of ishumiliation distancedby either orby irony (Szép), a Robinson Crusoesque creativity (Soros). This partially stems from the peculiarity of the 85 On adigest of published Holocaust memoirs see Esther Goldberg, Besides the fact that these memoirs present atypical accounts of Holocaust, the of accounts atypical present memoirs these fact that the Besides As for physical suffering itis present in whenSzép’s account forcedthe labor , which make from itdifferentand the canonized often-quoted The Smell of Humans The Smellof 85 It comes as no surprise that neither do these paradigmatic these neither do that surprise comes asno It Nyilas takeover the most brutal violence and massacres were massacres and violence brutal most the takeover by Szép was published in 1994, though bySzépwaspublishedinthe 1994,though Nyilas militias and partially by the Holocaust Memoir Digest, Vol. 1- (London: Vallentine Mitchell, The 60 CEU eTD Collection and War asamedic when theFirstWorld came. majorto like heother writers was FerencMolnár, correspondent asafrontconscripted Theodor) Schwartz ten years after Szép in 1894. His family ran a grocery store in store in a grocery Hisran family 1894. Szép yearsten after Schwartz Theodor) circle of circle of liberal progressive the capital 18 where at heestablished soon who himself asapopular belonged poet to the Hajdúszoboszló, Debrecen and Mez changed thefamily’s isresidence, this hadwhy schooling inseveral Szép towns (in frequently who teacher, school anelementary of son the was Szép upbringing. religious particularly a had them of none and families, class middle Jewish with Englishthe translation coming only in 2000. title the with out came original Hungarian 86 19 endof the the at Hungary Interestingly, they were born some twenty milesfrom each other in Northeastern- characteristics. important most the mention to just fitness, psychological and space luck,itgood yetdepended material networks, onsocial conditions, knowledge of city a streak survivalof not Iarguethat couldwas be“maskerado” successful.Namely, yellow star house, in life a of daily in emphasisthe isonthe reconstruction caseof Szép, 1944: the while in the in Jewish depicted authors cooperation – non-Jewish Budapest howboth emphasize case of Soros,based I concentrate on the differenton why and how hisstrategies they adopted, their stories differ significantly. I whereas the Esperanto version of Soros’s Szép Ern Tivadar Soros – Tivadarmagyarizedwho Soros hisnameinborn 1936–was as (or Tivadar First, it is worth comparing the social background of Szép andbeyond reliedThough bothSzépand Soros toget on policies,tactics official Soros. Ę , Emberszag, emlékirat Emberszag, (Budapest: Keresztes, 1945). th A Hét century speakingin Hungarian century pro-assimilationist Ę túr for instance), túr though hefinally moved tothe and Nyugat Emberszag, emlékirat Maskerado groups.Not surprisingly, similarly was firstinpublished 1965, as early 1945 as as 61 86 , CEU eTD Collection 1994), 10. my belongings.” pictureswith whohadasuitcase Iwasloadeddown and ortwo, books, transients, all Palatinus. Iwasthe only permitted stay guest to until unlikeMonday for, the Hotel billeted at the were hundredGerman officers seventy March….Two and himfaceprompted German to clear“everyone had occupation: Sunday to out…on 19 in 1944hehad a inresidence prestigious the Hotel Palatinus, whichimmediately explanation by explanation provided hotel’s whom desk clerk,accordingthe to “Ibe would back many of which he could usein hourof the need. social groups ranging from the working classes tosome prominents of the aristocracy, from various alike ofJewsandGentiles had network awide lawyer Soros Tivadar Budapest-based On contrary, the came. occupation for him the when help beof could in the early 1920s, after fleeing from a Russian POW camp. front for servicevolunteering from inthe First World War, which he back came only startedThough Soros his university studies inlaw, he had tointerrupt them when had. the nine moderately despite Tivadar well-off siblings was Nyíregyháza and 88 87 in many, by andvenerated wasknown writer renowned the wife kids. Whereas and two affluent available to them in suchfinancial situation and social networks, factors influencedthat thenumber of choices an extreme situation. Szép was a bachelor,in different stages of their life cycle and inSoros terms of their social position. had an and years, by early timethe of Germanoccupationinthe were 1944,SzépandSoros Szép Ern 215. Thomkin, Ern Major differences between them were their housing and family situation, family and housing their were them between differences Major origin of communities their of similarities social and geographical the Despite Ę , Ę The Smell of Humans, A Memoir of the Holocaust in Hungary Széphad lived Pestand Islandbetween on Buda for33years:Margaret The Smell of Humans of The Smell 88 Being shocked and clueless about the future, he tried to stick to the he does not mention any close friends or allies that (Budapest: CEU-Corvina, 62 87 CEU eTD Collection 91 Books, 1979),118. left-wing journalist. among the persons who refused were a chimney various– backed lost with documents out could excuses; have claim – which they to sweep, a destitute their buy to plan the intellectualwith approached he whom friends Esperantist and andChristian a orders. issue to right no have they that lawyer Solution Final study contested later published first of in role negative on was the the Jewish Councils the aftermath of the Eichmann trial and two years after Hannah Arendt’s seminal and himself andhisfamily.Writing version theoriginal instudy hisEsperanto of 1965,in for identity a false, Christian adopt to decision makingthe before for weeks wavered he yet Council, Jewish the came from that regulations any obeying not on dead set from corps”. confidence straight quartermaster’s the family. The protagonist, narrator and of narrator author protagonist, family. The he his tocounter couldnetworks official the enforced use onhim policy and his nolongerhis acknowledged social he that secure enjoyedbeforeposition asa writer. like figurelonely Ern a how emphasized is clearly it style, detached and non-emotional the Despite home. cheerfulis the that manner ease used brutalityby the from to he evicted his which was all,it wasonly in a couple of weeks. This was not a real military occupation, he said; oh no, not at 90 89 See Chapter 3 of Hannah Arendt, Ibid. Though Soros was resolute about obtaining aboutfalse his wasresolute documentation,Though all Soros While the similar discrimination applied to Tivadar Soros, a “Jewish” lawyer, a “Jewish” Soros, Tivadar to applied discrimination similar While the 90 Eichmann in Jerusalem. A Report on the Banality of Evil Maskerado – Soros clearly –Soros condemned theBudapest a transitory passagea transitory to securesupply lines. Ę Szép was at the mercy of those power structures in Szépwas power structures mercy at the those 1944 that of on hisopinion on theJewish Council. 91 Maskerado 89 It is clear from this narrative remembers that he was Judenrat (New PenguinYork: He hadin it strict , claiming as a 63 CEU eTD Collection meals daily brought were by from upscale a different building restaurant the manager. to the house manager and friendhad buzzer a built-in Soros’ safety architect Kozma, andhidingpartner, Lajos proper ventilation, was camouflageddoor The place, asrenovation by designed activity. prominent as well as two separate residents, the establishmentof safe the ironand hidingplace comfortable a huge with openings; the manager heldhis position, and where mother-in-lawSoros’s lived as well.For the square (today Március helpful15 square)buildingwherethe and reliable building obtained falseobtained identities. documents asforwhowas blamed this, thesituation After by Sorosdaredtorequest police. the their an exchangemanager, lawyer building as his higher–successfully the defended social standing a for his help:properly.At the police, Soros, – whom the police agent did notdarethis to criticize due to is howheated isnot building the that –whocriticized author the to according of parliament his son Paulpolice aftera into getting debate with influentialan of tenant buildingthe –amember and wife Julia the wassummonedto April 1944Soros instance, early Atanotheraround deposit. grantedjobpossessposition, him notnecessary he even Soros the though did the the for he applied instance, for When, manager. building the for favors important theirhelp,being legal of as a building, andrepresentative theirhe administrator did immediatelyfamily, who handed overtheir toSoros.Hecould documents counton his and manager building a from came help main first the Interestingly, sources. for variousfamily from obtaining members, his necessary documentation the though Hungarian-Jewishyield lawyer not did immediateresults, hefinally ended up Moreover, Soros decided on making a hiding place in the very very hiding in Moreover, Esk makinga Soros decided same the on place assimilated an as Gentiles among network social wide uniquely his While 64 Ħ CEU eTD Collection established –and he nevertried engage to in againstgoing official policy. Similarly privileged the –where in Újlipótváros house star yellow a to moved he duly June in and Island International himself,for from beingafter joined atThököly hissister út Margaret evicted Szép Ghetto for Jews protected an through agent, which enabled Soros to live false under documentsin Budapest. bycountryside, foreign countriesNyíregyháza and sentwasemphasized by Soros factthat the obtained falsepapers for himself his through brother, laterGentile who identification consideredventure. inthis essential that itpapers will also majority was Gentile the of approval tacitthe least with at hiding place, such a be (insafer the for knowledgeplaces of possible hideout in as city,the well themeansas toconstruct name him ofto hideElekan operationalizable Moreover, enterprise. a Gentilesuccessful family place at inSzabó) the exchanges (in case,of this positions) rendered that requestsfor for papers or ahiding “Jews”had were necessary –but – whichmanyassimilated presence of the previous friends and acquaintances Gentile simply not that shows Soros of case The months. engage in it, and those who could successfully carry on this practice possibly for financial means, numberthe both whichall delimited “Jews” couldthose of who moment, and itwas a decision contingent upon social position, personal networks and What is clear is that intricate. more key goingthe seems to their success in more however, detail, investigated into hiding was not a decision made on the spur of the showed that we had both been avid readers of Jules Verne in our youth” in our Verne Jules of readers avid been both had we that showed arrangements “the that bunker their of establishment the on comments rightly Soros 92 Ibid. 51. Contrary Soros’ Contrary establishstrategy to his of capital hide-out social using to a is offamily withconnections the importance Gentiles, Besides networks 92 . When 65 CEU eTD Collection and represent himself inand himself memoir represent the outsider and –asaconscientious a – himself view to ceased never he though conditions, these under life his normalize anything do assure extraordinary his he and regulations to followed survival: to tried not he did and month, few first the in rule Nazi contest to strategy long-term any have to the majority Jewishthe notJews –includingtheleadersof Council – Szépdid 93 VII district than population Jewish upscale more a socially housed neighborhood Újlipótváros house lived Szép that innear theDanube themajor and parkof the sometimes backgroundssocial opposing The to survival strategies. turned and religious different from came who population crammed the why highlights also enlightening thatexplain comments and between conflicts cooperation andtenants, it social social intoabsurdity turning reality him.around embarrassed when passers-by noticed him as the “writer” who is humiliated. whenever this happened,hide hetried himself behind to hat, and his wasalways cross the street in order heHere in had út manager. to Pozsonyi enforced by building Gentile was not the to go to a barber, and he it yet also and vestibule, the in corridor stareven the wear the to itobligatory which made made larger trips in thewas allowedcity; not to wear a star. When moving itby wherehome building’s second week,andgoing every tothe out courtyard, only to Pozsonyi út, newhis to come regulationsbarber his having months, three for street the to cameout venturing not by was whenever going The tothestreet. out wayhearound got this in regulation Thököly út being discriminated:outside reality and retaining normalcy within himself was highlythe material sign of the ten by ten centimeter yellow star that he had to put up Ibid. 39. When commenting on daily life in a yellow star house, Szép serves with many with serves Szép house, star yellow in a life daily on commenting When According to his memoirs the major obstacle to this strategy of ignoring 93 voyeur of 66 CEU eTD Collection sometimes led tocomplicatedsituations: Jewish family was assignedas each elsewhere, star houses inyellow Jewish apartments similarly to congested one room, shared werealso Újlipótváros in houses hand,these other the On area. inthe clustered often by four or more of Internationalthe mostly housingGhetto, and well-to-do Jews prominent already people, which middleupper served as classinthe period, interwar a natural designation the site for and middle Jewish by the populated heavily was which neighborhood, the that wonder and highly Bauhaus-type housingexpensive, city, of mainly builtthe in the 1930s. No modern importantly, themost it Most represented chapter. analyzed intheprevious 94 When are Jews. they that he knows asasign that haveunderstood been might that joking) remark (or aninsinuating made locker-room attendant a awhile Jews; after it was banned long for after for every spa fathers aswim, in day meet their Rudas and stayed George with an familyethnic German friend inBuda.The boys would apartment, his 18-year oldbe sonpretended to aGentilewith false student documents one-room family’s a Gentile at stayed wife his bunker, in their refuge found Kozma however,beseemed and fine everything to with their while tactics: LajosSoros Ibid. 30. The designationher ex-wife”. of yellowapartment. They said head husband divorced the over heelsinlove was with star houses biginfind maid’sthe could room took notelsewhere, thatan and apartment also who husband divorced the came Finally families. their and effected friends women her of two in took she Then her. marry to Soros. intentions with in, moved had boyfriend Till mid-June,Her daughter. little her with lived there woman divorced …a recently 94 67 CEU eTD Collection After this event they decided never to set foot in the spa again. inhim,George tippedhe it community. thanked nameofthe Jewishthe religious 95 city. the same kind of experienced they where crowdedness building, Christian a designated into moved and path riskier as Jews, though they crammedyellowhouse, star andSoros Kozmacould –trusting their–took a documents move freely in the in people movedenjoyed the city While days. intoa these beingaround in Szép the who and family a whole for responsibility took who Soros, for option an not however, incarceratingplace, they themselves: byliterally this havesafely could survived was, in the food enough stored if they hand, other the On occasionally. shelter their leave and ifthebuilding manager supply didnot with food, them they havewould had to easily identified asJewsmore being risked could have bunker they remaining inthe possibly chose a riskierfrom path thanSlovakia by stayinghiding partner solved thesituation byfinding a an through recentlyroom fledaunt at a indesignated an apartment yellowhis Kozma,Lajos bunker, of the establishment the to similarly place: find another star house. near By bunker Blaha was designated Lujza as a yellowsquare. star house With in June 16,this which move,prompted themSoros to Soros, A major blow to the tactics of Soros came, however, when the building of his Maskerado , 96. 95 68 CEU eTD Collection 96 residents: antisemitic themselves, and they did notwant anything in common with the rest of the wereoften Christians old because was This persuasion. Jewish of Jews the and Christians new and – measures anti-Jewish the before converted those – Christians old between was population the within distinction main the differences, social besides noted, he As Christianity. to converted had they long how for and whether was Thököly and Pozsonyi experience,út the main between division discriminated Jews Szép,whodrew According to hissocial basedon interactions. his conclusions itplayedemphasize German role both that asignificant inoccupation, organizing survive milieuswere to the interaction in social thedifferent trying they 1944:despite light to the varied, positive and negative accounts on provided varied, on light tothe negativeby and samejanitor accounts the positive attitude of old Christiandifference: namelyJews that Szép did notlegitimate the enforcedcited racial policy, whereas the above did. Theis a crucial there Yet sarcasm. himwith around world the and regarding streets following in the story contacts avoiding by reality base mightthe from himself distance to strategy alsoSzép’s to shed Ibid. 22. chain’ been Catholicshave …We plaintively: us to turned forhusband, her with there sat over had who lady, two years. other The Jew!’ that to Bothnext sitting not ‘I’m shouting: seat, women her from up jumped wore diamond crosses a lady to mysister, next on teacher of Hungarian. Here Road…One Pozsonyi on a the Thököly Road air-raid shelterThey wouldn’t evena woman,allow their children a playpostal with those of recentemployee, converts. At would not sit everyday in antisemitism of role the on comment Soros and Szép Both This strategy of dealing with anti-Jewish policies by alienating them is similar is them alienating by policies anti-Jewish with dealing of strategy This 96 . 69 CEU eTD Collection 98 Central Europe Criterion inHungary Jew” a “morelikelooked mandarin Budapest Chinese than and a features who “Jewish” have didSoros characteristic the not to Kozma Lajos –whoaccording wife. For his fate landlord wasatthe and and their of every mercy their moment, “Jews” at be to out turned soon which family ata as subtenants new apartment In side. their “Jewish” the from coming attack every off fend to be alert to have they is why this and defenseless, are Jews” “non-not but “Jews”, that stressed that before papersanalyzed antisemitic of rhetoric the to similarly Jews, from themselves” “defend to tried “non-Jews” how stresses accusation of landlady landlady intoof farceaccusation irony: and suspected that they were Jewish.Again, it was Kozma who saved Soros by turning the landlady, by who a report on the by thepolice were hauled tenants previous the outthat it turned especially when alarger problem, wasJewishposed Soros that fact Christians. andold Gentiles antisemitic between acommon ground created have paradoxically could antisemitism had forhave in restof the littlesolidarity population, store discriminated the thus and might themselves they and treatment, preferential received have might Christians various yellow house star inhabitants in 1945 analyzed in previousthe Oldchapter: 97 Ibid. 50. On the divergence of Hungarian Jewish experience during the Shoah see Ger see Shoah the during experience Jewish ofHungarian divergence Onthe 98 – concealing the fact that he was persecuted posed no problem.Concealing the there’s there’s something abitJewish him.’ about While Szép experienced antisemitism within the JewishWhile within population, the antisemitism Szépexperienced Soros Szabó, the Szabó, was speaking: ‘You should take a good look at that Lexi [nickname of Elek (online edition), http://www.ece.ceu.hu/?q=node/61 (accessed June 1, 2009). At this point the conversation took an unexpected turn. The landlady The turn. unexpected an took conversation the point this At (Boulder: New York, 2007) as wellas Rigó Máté “A zsidó szempont,” alter ego alter 97 of Tivadar Soros], you know, Lajos. It looks to me as if Nyilas , however, they had to prove that they were not were they that prove to had they however, , Ę András, The Jewish East 70 CEU eTD Collection any previous conflicts. Moreover, Szép was lucky as temporarily one of lucky of Szépwas one temporarily house the as Moreover, any conflicts. previous “Jews”that, moved as only houseaslate in could June1944,thus not havethe they besides manager; thehouse to were affluent, whichmighthaveappealed út Pozsonyi Jews in fact the for that beaccounted building tothe managercan positive attitude the that bribing the house manager was a tool in acquiringmentions he their sympathy. antisemitism, feel directly In not the could case “Christian” of, asa Soros While Jews. memorialized as antisemites who tried to profiteer from the tribulations of “their” governmental intelligence agency. secret a Section, Defense of Hungarian the bepart must he that concluded they opinion, expert an possess to seemed who Soros “Jewish” the with situation front the his seemingly false identity. After Nyilasthe couple would spend evenings discussing great opportunity forhave landlords the to him they botherthat would not deciphering to have aroused their suspicions” their aroused have to memoirs this deliveries. While inhis hecontended deal on thatsomething “ought as and them liters offered of 20 on an futurewine, with agreement bargain price introducedmoving building, himself tothe Soros asawine tothelandlords, trader Irony and laughinginitself,however, would nothave workedon their own. When 101 100 99 Ibid. 111. Ibid. Ibid. 127. In the case of Szép and Soros as well, building managers were not were managers aswell,building Soros Szép and In thecaseof “ off. for thequestion, but instinctively felt Icould that defend myself by laughing it and smilingly repeating what the landlady had said. Iwas not entirely prepared Mater simper certa est certa simper Mater ‘It could be,’ I replied good-humoredly. We’dtell him better tohisface,’ wide opening said Lajos, that the door ‘The Latin proverb says, : the mother is always certain.” But the father never. fathermother is Butthe always: the certain.” 101 100 he felt reassured by the fact that it was such a 99 71 CEU eTD Collection celebrations and other instances of normalcy within the Warsaw Ghetto (287), or for asimilar story on on rooftop: the instance,beingand toJews.Forhe concessions decent giving condonedsunbathing as depicted is also manager building other The apartment. another at waiting residents downjotted inof privilegedfor readaloudthe shorthand, rest guest the than and (“Director V.”) leta “Jewish”friend Baron even the himandtheJews, between developed that listen to the London up manager. why position the Showing buildingthe took of the friendships Baron the broadcast and how analyze not does however, Szép, at residents. of the rest the and baron wealthy his place every and between well-educated the immediate solidarity wasan there intellectuals, and night, which the Jewish population house was the inventorsof comprised of former company owners, granted “Jews”counting the Jews whenthe they had to get back in the afternoon, and he was the oneright who of not for and baron be“Mr. K”.Thewould acertain Nazi-hater responsible baron born wearing a yellow anAustrian- them was of one responsibilities: sharing managers house two were there star to According within Gentile. anti-Nazi an be to out turned managers the building. As the regime. See for instance the episode in Ringelblum’s in episode the instance Seefor regime. Communist the and Nazi to the referring those both memoirs, and diaries ghetto in theme common a is and getting beyond discriminatory policies either by disregarding them or by trying to live a normal life 103 102 camps. concentration and in ghettoes survival on narratives several in up comes theme which circumstances, extreme the within normalcy creating While the various contexts differsignificantly as well as the seriousness of risks taken, contesting Ibid. 28. This episode shows the importance of the survival strategy by of characterized strategy survival the This showstheimportance episode beach”. likethe just at up there, was evenashower there taken out, were appeared on roof,the striped red-and-green and beach Bathingsuits umbrellas. canYou imagine whatablessing thiswas;lounge from chairs balconies Diary in which he comments on Lag b’Omer Lag on comments he which in The SmellofHumans 103 Creating the Creating 102 72 CEU eTD Collection achieving the narrator’s psychological achieving narrator’s integrity.the in wear ayellow within not roof practices the wereessential and building star the on sunbathe night, at late till reading he continue could fact that the of dignity Szép: illusion normalcy of yellowwithin house star the had akey inpreservingrole the György, 1998), 11. For resistance through to returning normalcy withinstalinist a internment camp see Faludy Roubickoca, depicting how inmates in Theresiendtadt simply disregarded banthe on smoking see Eva M socialthe applied thatin rules do his 1944, or deedsonly seem in risky retrospect? simply staying Orputting athome? did it hetakeupa differently, to according risk in hidingif he engaged in any kinds other likeof activity, shopping, taking up a job or a been Jew as safer have he would whether however, is, really question memoir.The wereallsuspiciousmarketer black asaccordinghis a thatTivadarSorostook risks to out asa being“Jew” by becominghaving false pointed passers-by papers, or building manager: chapter, Sorosbuilding manager. Corroborating files the vetting committee analyzed in previousthe also cover,emphasizes he felt under “Jew” a as even that thathe stressed yet humanism, by driven bribing character helpful the him isimportance needed. Wine was also a goodof toolbeing to charm inthe good terms with the 104 Ibid. 110. Purchasingmultipleidentified anddelivering involved thewine as risks:being went off,it could take half the day to get back”. running, walk, totheoutskirts of city the Budafok.to Andif the air-raid sirens not were streetcars if or, the streetcar, the take to hadyou itTo obtain businessand too, sohe alsohad toreceive his quota. was that going buildingaboutfoundmanager on, soon the out wine this Since the buildingmanagerin apartmenta Budapesthouse knew everything Contrary to Szép, Soros did not emphasize that the building manager was a My Happy Days in Hell We're Alive and Life Goes On: A Theresienstadt Diary (London : Andre Deutsch, c1962). 104 (New York: Holt& Company, 73 CEU eTD Collection could depend onhaving thenecessary identification at handin 1944,controlling lives while that proves This them. with trouble any into ran never he nevertheless waswrong, seal the or mistyped either they were correct: completely were not documents these of Some needed. family his money of amount necessary earned the between forgersthe and his friends who needed papers,and through this business he middleman heactedasa German occupation the after moreover, shortly needed: and documents other with helpthe of forgers andpaper laundries provided that allhe his strategy birth build identity with was upa certificates to complete and marriage days, Cross Arrow the during majority the help not did that a Schutzpass got simple While many with success.JewsSoros had chanceof crowned being asignificant of actions and strategy the in Budapest, miscommunication bureaucratic a creating Cross leaning conservative and old-stock of power (analyzed centers in 3), chapter Arrow of German, network hadanoverlapping bombedandwhich wasregularly that a bomb explosion was no big deal,in comparison”. defenselessness,our a concentration chief fear, our in and deportation to Death camp. was tribulations worst the Jews us “For bombings: frequent the by frightened be to he when wentoff,siren ceased as air-raid cease sunbathing did not the on rooftop the aswell,in who memoir Szép’s is present of risk perception altered on this scene the to before. Aparallel risks morethan totake willing were survival,chances actors of As risk the rule became than guiding rather daily lifeinfluencing exception the and helps explain how the pre-war notion of risk changed in the extreme situation of 1944. revealing, asby itishighlight this to possible coherence ofhis the actions, andit also Again, notion the rationality”“situated of described in previousthe chapteris 105 Szép, Soros’s account points to the fact that given the chaotic conditions in the city The Smell of Humans , 15. 105 74 CEU eTD Collection experience –easily putupwith foolproof papers. bureaucratic authorities levelofeducation low – with a presumably and meager 106 pass him for safeconductwerequeuing: aSwedish whichhundreds getting saved himfrom many that“ordinary” Jewshad.troubles itfacilitated Among others socialhigh time atthe shared –which represented a awell-known prestige writer, as have might Jews Hungarian well-known and prominent many that – experience out for him until rely hishope deliveranceon fameand to through this. Thispassivestrategy worked the world narrating Cross German occupation Arrow andrule subsequent implicitlyof –was to at least limited manner of cheerful for hissatirically partially– accounted that writer, a renowned and rationalityjournalist a well-known Being them. obtain to strategy passive the on relied Szép did not fade away. His his reputation paid off for him, andeven saved him from being drafted: getinWhenever Széphad to touch middle with educated, class Hungarian authorities, Ibid. 40. Forgács received me by reciting a stanza from one of my oldest poems. to be the son of the gentleman who was issuing the protective passes. This Mr there.Hehappened wegot justafter whoran others shutbefore gate the the to managing skillfully Legation, the into and villa neighboring the through writer me, motioned to me to come in on the right side. This young man led the villaseeing of and, on the fifteen out stepped later aboy about Five minutes of and mobilizedWhile toget assets hisnetworks Soros papershethe needed, before diagnosing an inflammation, and threw in a heart condition for a good seconds twenty about for myeyes examine to close me, leaned recognized There had been a call-up of Jews on 1 October. The army physician, who 106 75 CEU eTD Collection 256. 110 1964). 109 108 107 in emphasized national of the army. defeat the wishes who and nation Hungarian debased the who asaJewess policeman a an in malignantly herto “dressed mourning” letters, elderly denounced woman her stillwrite herhow students her on a tram telling and meeting acolleague After strategies till October than going into hiding or illegal, after the Nyilas takeover these takeover Nyilas the after illegal, or hiding into going than October till strategies or the practice legalforeign and embassies– theincluding governor through to petitions – means to of converting Danube. the to a population of Christiana whole apartment building, orshooting a random selection of Jews into the into hands.Jewish question their Thismanifested itself own inmassacring the denomination of solution the took and forces, military and police Hungarian asthe aswell practices were on laws, previous disregardedmilitias, different state often which through manifest average safer mainly was authority that central the into consideration take is to mid-October Nyilas YesterdayWorld of normalcyZweigian and the period of “golden the age of security” in described See Lévai Jen SeeLévai Zweig, Stefan Ibid. 41. Ibid. 4. regime. On the contrary,his sister, who wasnotwidely known intogot troubles easily. would the war be by than? where And 1. January until deferment, month three me a gave That measure. The extreme situation brought about by the Arrow Cross takeover is takeover Cross Arrow the by about brought situation extreme The 110 Ę 109 While the strategy to cooperate and to try to ameliorate one’s situation The World of Yesterday, an autobiography : The Smell of Humans The Smellof Fekete könyv amagyar zsidóság szenvedéseir Arguably the key to understand the Jewish policy of the of policy Jewish the understand to key the Arguably – is smashed to smithereens by the new social rules under the 108 107 by showing how this strategy – rooted in the (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, Ę l (Budapest:Officina, 1946), 248- Nyilas after The 76 CEU eTD Collection survival. to leads and run long the in benefit their serves obeying that thought reasonably who of orders JewishCouncilwasthe shared by majority of Budapest Jews the as well, the goodwill of the Governor on relying of “Jews”,hisstrategy from “common” discriminated sethimapart which and on the humanity longer Szépwas made Though personality no a well-known a strategies difference. of authorities as well as on the “Jews” in Budapest. many persecuted They other to and similarly networked risks, cooperated risks took and successfully foundtalking tootherpeople: asif theirlife continued undisturbed. lived Theyboth amidst and exploited and friends family, with meeting by lives, intheir those pseudo-normalcy maintaining assets they had – their on influence its daily minimize to or it, survive to ways found both but antisemitism fierce lives as much for him. Szépdiditactively, work passively byletting his fame experienced Both as possible.chances of survival in Budapest1944.Whilerelied Soros onthe help of acquaintances One buildingthe managerbe –proved to importantfactors influencing the strategies and way with of relationship the and antisemitism of doing role the networks, social situation, housing this was was – centered whichthischapter major around topics memoirs the provethat creating and “lads”, along“lads”, “Jews” “common” with in protected his 16 building on October nevertheless he gotimmediately upfor forcedrounded labor by Nyilasteenager validity. Szép himself bya mid-October till wasrelatively their protected Swedish Schutzpass, lost exemptions previous of majority the as mid-October, after fruitless itwas absolutely takeover, Nyilas made authoritiesthe andtrusting sense orders till Humans In the final analysis it can be argued that the analysis of Szép’s and Soros’s in in –apparent Budapest The Holocaust the of absurdity as well – is the rapidity of changes between paradigms: while following while paradigms: between changes of rapidity the is – aswell The Smell of The Smell th . 77 CEU eTD Collection track down track and of breaching the punish discriminatory the policies. to position the in even not were they cases in many moreover, Jewry; of deportation authorities capital in Hungarian the cities, andCentral European Eastern other to contrary could persecutionsin stems from of Holocaust namely uniqueness the Budapest, the that not and could Szép that have Soros narratives andexperiences during such different the brutallyfact the Moreover, means. various through lives their save to possibilities enough left enforcepracticedby Gentiles and Jews in the partial chaos of the approaching front, however, the massive of agenda regimesthe tofurther theirgoals. own individualistic Thismaze pursuits of antisemitic usedthe while others regulations, the “Jews”despite befriendly with and rapid ghettoization and press. AsErn antisemitic wishes rabidly the of despite of Budapest Jewry, fate decided the on that events of thatantisemitism all-encompassing1944, they also prove wasnotthe factor narratives managerialfame inand skills toassure– respectively Whileorder their survival. their testify that antisemitism played a key role in understanding the tragic Ę Szép’s and Tivadar Soros’ memoirs Szép’sand show, some Soros’ Tivadar continued Gentiles to 78 CEU eTD Collection 1994) Szép Ern 113 (Budapest:Disclosure, 1995). 112 as well as their different personality. different their as well as background religious and social their on based conditions extreme in life city on and persecution on houses, star yellow on differently accounts their construct narrators how and events same the on diverge narratives of types different why and how at look 5.2 Strategies of Survival 1944: in Budapest, the Memoir Writers’ Perspective Tivadar, 111 played out on the level of the apartment building they were living at. strategies different these how analyze I and survive, to chose they that strategies respective family influenced occupation, socialbackgrounds, networks and the memoira comparativetwo how landthemselvestoinvestigate their writers analysis: I 1944 experience. lengthand The the similarity of andissuesup by themes brought the ontheir authors’ detailedmore twolonger accounts investigates and chapter present the manager, building a with inconnection pasts recent their memorialized building rule Thememoirs inBudapest. Soros of (1894 –1968) Tivadar Cross Arrow and occupation German the remembered memoir writers persecuted two how of analysis embarkon the now alike,I andGentiles” appliedby“Jew” strategies exploited above. exploited interviews history oral and testimonies committee vetting besides narratives survival (1884 –1953) Soros Tivadar, Soros László Rónay, “Szép Ern On Tivadar Soros’ biography and memoir see Humphrey Tomkin, “Editor’s Afterword” in Soros in Afterword” “Editor’s Tomkin, Humphrey see memoir and biography Soros’ Tivadar On While the previous showed chapter multiple how residents of an apartment Further elaborating survival on problemthe of different and cooperation Maskerado,Dancing Around Death in Nazi Hungary Ę , The Smell of Humans, A Memoir of the Holocaust inHungary 112 Maskerado, Dancing Around Death in Nazi Hungary 113 serve as a third vantage point to investigate survivalto serveasathirdvantagepoint and strategies The reason to include these personal testimonies is to be able to Ę ” in Új Magyar Irodalmi Lexikon (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000), 211-226. [CD-ROM] ed.László Péter, (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000); (Budapest: CEU-Corvina, 111 and Ern Ę Szép 79 CEU eTD Collection 115 University Press, 2006), 2. 114 the in which narratives, end” “happy essentially are both as Shoah, the of accounts atypical and present of Holocaust the narratives dominant the challenge memoirs or Ghetto accounts as well. Itcan be argued that both Ern from Holocaust other aresignificantly accounts different these Moreover, population. non-persecuted “non-Jewish”, with networks social and religiosity education, of significantly based on the geographical and social position of the witnesses, their level also revealsaltogether”. neglected or margins that the the towards pushed areeither accounts experiences survivors’ some narratives, Holocaust on survivors will auniversal adopt identity. But,in eventsnegotiating the hegemony of accepted witness, the of role the adopting in like that, assume they secondly, and experiences, the Holocaustmemory place two demands on the survivor. First, they seek tohomogenize survivors’ in Budapest collective of and role the Holocaust the of concept “the accepted that stressed recently diverge Waxman testimonies, has Holocaust of canonization scholarly the Addressing over a time span of severalwas not just one eventbut many different events, witnessed by manyyears different people, and covering“Holocaust the that shestresses well when as experience Budapest of the diversity the an expansive geographical remark Vaniamediationsto applies Zoë Waxman’s experience. of pure Holocaust the area.” as untainted interviews – history ororal memoirs –likediaries, sources and narratives typesdo notwish regardeither different of In of the addition, to I various accounts. in nor with ground Holocaustthe beingforged these from Budapest a common the vetting committee files, I neither wish to come up with a universalized narrative of Ibid.158. Zoë Vania Waxman, ZoëVania Though there are many common elements between the two memoirs as well as well as memoirs two the between elements common many are there Though Writing the Holocaust,Identity, Testimony, Representation 115 Acknowledging the lack of a common narrative Ę Szép’s and Tivadar Soros’ (Oxford: Oxford (Oxford: 114 80 CEU eTD Collection himself. successfully hiding with documentsandChristian never experienced persecution was Soros whereas countryside the to marched Szép was memoirs, as both by partially this SSandisthe partof Gestapo: from the missingthe however, story, various by the Jewry capital’s the on werecarried out massacres the after hand, On the other capital. in the Hungarian never occurred mass deportations lived, whereas tobeshort proved which itself of Ghetto, the establishment 1944and October abelated witnessed Jewry, freedom experience whichlivedinrelative ofBudapest of till Holocaust the optimism This partially stemsCrusoesque and creativity (Soros). from peculiarity the significance ofhumiliation is distanced either byirony (Szép), orby a Robinson 2004). 2: A Digest of Published Survivor Memoirs with Study Guide and Maps 116 narratives. mainstream Smell ofHumans not in appear canon – do of Holocaust features the paradigmatic –three camps and death the deportations nevertheless masskillings, the is addressed, experience scholarship is quite practical. Namely that the English editions came relatively late: relatively came editions English the that Namely practical. is quite scholarship another reason explainswhyneitherthat far of has so in them been quoted widely from missinghis are almost entirely text. sufferingaccompanied ofthe itconsequently tragedies Jewry and that Hungarian the on showing howhis family lived a relatively normal life during the persecutions; is thestress in which account, inSoros’s narrative surface Holocaust of the features On adigest of published Holocaust memoirs see Esther Goldberg, As for physical suffering itis present in whenSzép’s account forcedthe labor Besides the fact that these memoirs present atypical accounts of Holocaust, the of accounts atypical present memoirs these fact that the Besides , which make from itdifferentand the canonized often-quoted 116 It comes as no surprise that neither do these paradigmatic Nyilas takeover the most brutal violence and violence brutal most the takeover Holocaust Memoir Digest, Vol. 1- (London: Vallentine Mitchell, Nyilas militias and militias The 81 CEU eTD Collection and himself as a popular poet whobelonged to circlethe of liberal progressivethe established he soon at18where thecapital to moved he finally though instance), Szép had schooling in several towns (in Hajdúszoboszló, Debrecen and Mez and Debrecen Hajdúszoboszló, (in towns several in schooling had Szép is why this residence, family’s the changed frequently who teacher, school elementary an of son the was Szép upbringing. religious a particularly had them of none and families, class middle Jewish speaking Hungarian inpro-assimilationist century 19 the of end the at Northeastern-Hungary in born were them of both Interestingly, characteristics. important most the mention to just fitness, psychic and space luck,itgood yetdepended material networks, onsocial conditions, knowledge of city a streak survivalof not Iarguethat couldwas be“maskerado” successful.Namely, yellow star house, in life a of daily in emphasisthe isonthe reconstruction caseof Szép, 1944: the while in the in Jewish depicted authors cooperation – non-Jewish Budapest howboth emphasize case of Soros,based I concentrate on the differenton why and how translation latecoming asin as 2000. hisstrategiesEsperanto version of Soros’sthey adopted, their stories differ significantly. I World Warcame. Molnár, he was conscripted as a front correspondent and as a nurse when the First title the with out came Humans The Smellof 117 Szép Ern Nyugat First, it is worth comparing the social background of Szép andbeyond reliedThough bothSzépand Soros toget on policies,tactics official Soros. Ę , groups. Notsurprisingly, groups. major similarly other to like writers Ferenc Emberszag, emlékirat Emberszag, by Szép was published in 1994, though in Hungarianoriginal the though by 1994, Szép was published Emberszag, emlékirat Emberszag, Maskerado (Budapest: Keresztes, 1945). was published first in 1965, with infirst 1965,with waspublishedEnglish the as early 1945 asearly as 117 , whereas the , whereas Ę túr for túr A Hét 82 th CEU eTD Collection transients, who had a suitcase or two, I was loaded down pictureswith whohadasuitcaseIwasloadeddown and ortwo, books, transients, all Palatinus. Iwasthe only permitted stay guest to until unlikeMonday for, the Hotel billeted at the were hundredGerman officers seventy March….Two and himfaceprompted German to clear“everyone had occupation: Sunday to out…on 19 Hotel whichimmediately 1944 hehad prestigious in Palatinus, aresidence the the aristocracy,many of which he could use in the hour of need. somefrom socialvarious ranging from prominents of workingthe classesto groups of had alike lawyer awideJews network Soros Tivadar and Gentiles Budapest-based contrary, the On came. occupation the when him for help be of could that allies 118 by venerated inmany, had an affluentchoices wife availableand two kids.to financial situation influenced andsocial networks,whichfactors number the of them in Whereassuch an extreme the situation.renowned Szép writer wasin different stages of a their life bachelor,cycle and in terms of their social wasposition. known Soros andand years, by early timethe of Germanoccupationinthe were 1944,SzépandSoros in the early 1920s, after fleeing from a Russian POW camp. front for servicevolunteering from inthe First World War, which he back came only startedThough Soros his university studies inlaw, he had tointerrupt them when had. Tivadar theninesiblings moderately despite well-off was Nyíregyháza and in in store ran agrocery Hisfamily years 1894. Szép ten after Schwartz Teodor) Thomkin, 215. Thomkin, Ern Major differences between them were their housing and family situation, family and housing their were them between differences Major communities emitting their of similarities social and geographical the Despite – Tivadarmagyarizedwho Soros hisnameinborn 1936–was as (or Tivadar Ę Széphad livedin between andBuda Islandfor 33years: Margaret Pest in The Smell of Humans The Smellof he does not mention any close friends or 118 83 CEU eTD Collection 120 1994), 10. and represent himself inand himself memoir represent the outsider and –asaconscientious a – himself view to ceased never he though conditions, these under life his normalize anything do assure extraordinary his he and regulations to followed survival: to tried not he did and month, few first the in rule Nazi contest to strategy long-term any have to the majority Jewishthe notJews –includingtheleadersof Council – Szépdid established –and he nevertried engage to in againstgoing official policy. Similarly privileged Thököly inút; June he movedduly toayellow house in star –whereÚjlipótváros the International corps”. from quartermaster’s the confidence straight Ghetto for Jews protected by foreign countries was later my belongings.” 119 the street in order in enforced Here cross hehad was not manager. buildingto by Gentile Pozsonyi the to go to a barber,it yet and vestibule, the in corridor stareven the wear the to itandobligatory which made he also had make waslarger allowed not to weartrips a star. Whenin movingthe itby wherehome building’s second week,andgoing every tothe out courtyard, only to Pozsonyicity; út, newhis to come regulationsbarber his having months, three for street the to cameout venturing not by was whenever tothestreet.Thewayhe this going around Thököly regulation out got at út being discriminated:outside reality and retaining normalcy within himself was highlythe material sign of the ten by ten social intoabsurdity turning reality centimeter him.around yellow star that he had to put up at all, it was onlybackin a couple of weeks. This was not areal military occupation, he said; oh no, not explanationthe by provided desk hotel’s whomthe according clerk, to “I would be Ibid. Szép Ern According to his memoirs the major obstacle to this strategy of ignoring Ę , The Smell of Humans, A Memoir of the Holocaust in Hungary 119 Beingshocked and future,the clueless abouthetriedstick to to a transitory passagetosecuresupplylines.a transitory 120 Szép would join his sister at (Budapest: CEU-Corvina, He had it in He hadit strict voyeur of 84 CEU eTD Collection sometimes led to complicate situations: complicate ledto sometimes Jewish family was assignedas each elsewhere, star houses inyellow Jewish apartments similarly to congested one room, shared werealso Újlipótváros in houses hand,these other the On area. inthe clustered often by four or more of Internationalthe mostly housingGhetto, and well-to-do Jews prominent already people, which middleupper served as classinthe period, interwar a natural designation the site for and middle Jewish by the populated heavily was which neighborhood, the that wonder and highly Bauhaus-type housingexpensive, city, of mainly builtthe in the 1930s. No modern importantly, themost it Most represented chapter. analyzed intheprevious VII district than population Jewish upscale more a socially housed neighborhood Újlipótváros house lived Szép that innear theDanube themajor and parkof the sometimes backgroundssocial opposingThe to survival strategies. turned and religious different from came who population crammed the why highlights also enlightening thatexplain comments and between conflicts cooperation andtenants, it embarrassed when passers-by noticed him as the “writer” who is humiliated. whenever this happened,hide hetried himself behind to hat, and his wasalways 122 121 Ibid. 30. Ibid. 39. her ex-wife”. apartment. They said head husband divorced the over heelsinlove was with biginfind maid’sthe could room took notelsewhere, thatan and apartment who husband divorced the came Finally families. their and friends women her of two in took she Then her. marry to intentions with in, moved had boyfriend Her daughter. little her with lived there woman divorced …a recently When commenting on daily life in a yellow star house, Szép serves with many with serves Szép house, star yellow in a life daily on commenting When 122 121 85 CEU eTD Collection 123 discriminated the restof the for in store havelittlehad might solidarity themselves they and treatment, preferential received have might Christians Old chapter: provided by various yellow house star inhabitants in 1945 analyzed in previousthe light varied, tothe andnegative positive same the accountson managerbuilding the attitude of old Christian Jews cited above did. The following story might also shed whereas policy, racial enforced the legitimate not Szép does that namely difference: is a crucial there Yet sarcasm. himwith around world the and regarding streets in the contacts avoiding by reality base the from himself distance to strategy Szép’s to residents: antisemitic themselves, and they did notwant anything in common with the rest of the wereoften Christians old because was This persuasion. Jewish of Jews the and Christians new and – measures anti-Jewish the before converted those – Christians old between was population the within distinction main the differences, social besides noted, he As Christianity. to converted had they long how for and whether was Jews experience, between main his the and Pozsonyi út division discriminated Thököly Ibid. 22. This strategy of dealing with anti-Jewish policies by alienating them is similar is them alienating by policies anti-Jewish with dealing of strategy This chain’ been Catholicshave …We plaintively: us to turned forhusband, her with there sat over had who lady, two years. other The Jew!’ that to Bothnext sitting not ‘I’m shouting: seat, women her from up jumped wore diamond crosses a lady to mysister, next on teacher of Hungarian. Here Road…One Pozsonyi on a the Thököly Road air-raid shelterThey wouldn’t evena woman,allow their children a playpostal with those of recentemployee, converts. At would not sit Szép, whodrewhis basedon enough,according conclusions to Paradoxically 123 . 86 CEU eTD Collection 125 Central Europe Criterion inHungary the sunbathingthe on rooftop: the Jews.instance For hecondoned to asbeing giving depicted decentand concessions also is manager building other The apartment. another at waiting residents the of which privilegedthe jotted guestdown in shorthand, and than read aloud for rest the a Jewish friend (“Director V.”) listen to the London broadcast at his place every night, let even Baron the Jews, the and him between developed that friendships the Showing up manager. positionthe analyze building of the took not Baron why howand the does Szép,however, residents. the of andthe rest baron andwealthy well-educated inventors and solidarity was immediate there owners, between intellectuals, the an building. As the Jewish population of the building was comprised of former company he was the and one afternoon, the in back get who to had they when Jews grantedthe counting for be responsible Jews the would baron The K”. “Mr. righta certain and baron Nazi-hater of Austrian-born an was them not wearing a yellow Humans starThe Smellof within the antisemites who tried to profiteer from the tribulations of “their” Jews. According to between antisemitic Gentiles and old Christians. population, have createdacommon ground paradoxically thuscould antisemitism and 124 Ibid. 28. On the divergence of Hungarian Jewish experience during the Shoah see Ger see Shoah the during experience Jewish ofHungarian divergence Onthe were taken out, there was even a shower up there, just like at the beach”. likethe just at up there, was evenashower there taken out, were appeared on roof,the striped red-and-green and beach Bathingsuits umbrellas. canYou imagine whatablessing thiswas;lounge from chairs balconies In the case of Szép, however, building managers were not memorialized as werenot managers building however, In thecaseof Szép, (online edition), http://www.ece.ceu.hu/?q=node/61 (accessed June 1, 2009). (Boulder: New York, 2007) as wellas Rigó Máté “A zsidó szempont,” there were two house managers sharing responsibilities: one of 124 Ę András, The Jewish East 125 87 CEU eTD Collection György, 1998), 11. For resistance through to returning normalcy withinstalinist a internment camp see Faludy Roubickoca, depicting how inmates in Theresiendtadt simply disregarded banthe on smoking see Eva M celebrations and other instances of normalcy within the Warsaw Ghetto (287), or for asimilar story safe conductpassfor which hundreds werequeuing: facilitated it him aSwedish getting Jewshad.Among others troubles that“ordinary” time from whichhigh atthe many him prestige writer, saved a social represented well-known a as – shared have might Jews Hungarian well-known and prominent world of at least limitedfor himuntil the out worked strategy hope deliverance Thispassive this. to through rationality did not Crossimplicitly Arrow occupation andsubsequent to hisfamerule –was and rely on fade away. His experiencepartially for mannerthat accounted his of German narrating satirically cheerful – that many psychological achieving narrator’s integrity.the in practices essential were building the within yellow star wear a andnot roof the on night, sunbathe he on lateat fact that dignity couldcontinue till of reading Szép: the illusion normalcy of yellowwithin house star the had akey inpreservingrole the regime. See for instance the episode in Ringelblum’s in episode the instance Seefor regime. Communist the and Nazi to the referring those both memoirs, and diaries ghetto in theme common a is and getting beyond discriminatory policies either by disregarding them or by trying to live a normal life 126 camps. concentration and in ghettoes survival on narratives several in up comes theme which circumstances, extreme the within normalcy creating While the various contexts differsignificantly as well as the seriousness of risks taken, contesting to shut the gate just before the others who ran after us got there. He happened gotthere. us ran after who others before the just gate shut the to managing skillfully Legation, the into and villa neighboring the through writer me, motioned to me to come in on the right side. This young man led the villaseeing of and, on the fifteen out stepped later aboy about Five minutes of Being awell-known journalist arenowned and writer, Szép’s otherstrategy – This episode shows the importance of the survival strategy by of characterized strategy survival the This showstheimportance episode My Happy Days in Hell We're Alive and Life Goes On: A Theresienstadt Diary (London : Andre Deutsch, c1962). Diary in which he comments on Lag b’Omer Lag on comments he which in (New York: Holt& Company, 126 Creating the Creating 88 CEU eTD Collection 129 128 127 This manifested itself in massacring the population of a whole apartmentbuilding, or militaryand forces,thesolution and took of Jewishthe into question theirhands. own laws, as previouspractices thewell Hungarian which often police as state disregarded militias, different through manifest was mainly central authority the that consideration understand the Jewish policy of the of policy Jewish the understand in emphasized national of the army. defeat the wishes who and nation Hungarian debased the who asaJewess policeman a an in malignantly herto “dressed mourning” letters, elderly denounced woman her stillwrite herhow students her on a tram telling and meeting acolleague After his reputation paid off for him, andeven saved him from being drafted: getinWhenever Széphad to touch middle with educated, class Hungarian authorities, smithereens by the new social rules under the under rules social new the by smithereens zweigian normalcy and the period of the “golden age of security” – is smashed to Ibid. 41. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 40. Forgács received me by reciting a stanza from one of my oldest poems. to be the son of the gentleman who was issuing the protective passes. This Mr On the contrary,his sister, who wasnotwidely known intogot troubles easily. would the war be by than? where And 1. January until deferment, month three me a gave That measure. before diagnosing an inflammation, and threw in a heart condition for a good seconds twenty about for myeyes examine to close me, leaned recognized There had been a call-up of Jews on 1 October. The army physician, who The extreme situation brought about by the Arrow Cross takeover is takeover Cross Arrow the by about brought situation extreme The The Smell of Humans The Smellof 129 128 by showing how this strategy – rooted in the Nyilas after mid-October is to take into Nyilas regime. Arguably key the to 127 89 CEU eTD Collection 256. shooting a random selection of Jews into the Danube. the into Jews of selection a random shooting 130 years afterHannah Arendt’s laterseminal study and contested first publishedwas on inEsperanto version study in ofhis the aftermath 1965, Eichmann the of andtrial two adopt afalse, Christian identity himselffor andhis family.Writing the original to making decision forthe weeksbefore yethe Council, wavered from Jewish the Maskerado their benefitin longthe run and leads survival.to by majority Jews the well,Budapest of reasonably as obeyingthat serves who thought shared was of Jewishthe Council orders onthe humanity the aswell as authorities of and on Governor goodwill the of on the relyinghis strategy of “Jews”, discriminated Though Szép wasmade a difference. longer no strategies these takeover Nyilas the illegal,after or a well-known personalityChristian denomination were on average safer strategies till October than going hiding whichpetitions to the governor and to foreign embassiesset – or the practice of converting him to a apart meansincludingameliorate one’s legal and – try cooperate situation through to from “common” “lads”, along“lads”, “Jews” “common” with in protected his 16 building on October nevertheless he gotimmediately upfor forcedrounded labor by Nyilasteenager validity. Szép himself bya mid-October till wasrelatively their protected Swedish Schutzpass, lost exemptions previous of majority the as mid-October, after fruitless itwas absolutely takeover, Nyilas made authoritiesthe andtrusting sense orders till Humans See Lévai Jen SeeLévai Tivadar S. (Schwartz – Soros), the protagonist, narrator and author of narrator andauthor –Soros), theprotagonist, (Schwartz Tivadar S. in in – apparent Budapest The Holocaust the of absurdity as well – is the rapidness of changes between paradigms: while following remembers that he was dead set on not obeying any regulations that came Ę : Fekete könyv amagyar zsidóság szenvedéseir Ę l (Budapest:Officina, 1946), 248- 130 While the strategy to The Smell of The Smell th . 90 CEU eTD Collection 132 Books, 1979),118. condemned the Budapest the condemned the negative role of Jewish Councils in the Final Solution 131 issue orders. obtained falseobtained identities. documents asforwhowas blamed this, thesituation After by Sorosdaredtorequest police. the their an exchangemanager, lawyer building as his higher–successfully the defended social standing a for his help:properly.At the police, Soros, – whom the police agent did notdarethis to criticize due to is howheated isnot building the that –whocriticized author the to according of parliament his son Paulpolice aftera into getting debate with influentialan of tenant buildingthe –amember and wife Julia the wassummonedto April 1944Soros instance, early Atanotheraround deposit. grantedjobpossessposition, him notnecessary he even Soros the though did the the for he applied instance, for When, manager. building the for favors important theirhelp,being legal of as a building, andrepresentative theirhe administrator did immediatelyfamily, who handed overtheir toSoros.Hecould documents counton his and manager building a from came help main first the Interestingly, sources. from members,various hisfamily though to obtaining documentation necessary the Hungarian-Jewishyield lawyer not did immediateresults, hefinally ended up left-wing journalist. among the persons who refused were a chimney various– backed lost with documents out couldexcuses; have claim – which they to sweep, a destitute their buy to plan the intellectualwith approached he whom friends Esperantist and andChristian a See Chapter 3 of Hannah Arendt, While his uniquely wide social network among Gentiles as an assimilated an as Gentiles among network social wide uniquely his While Though Soros was resolute about obtaining aboutfalse his wasresolute documentation,Though all Soros 132 Eichmann in Jerusalem. A Report on the Banality of Evil Maskerado on hisopinion on theJewish Council. Judenrat , claiming as a lawyer that they have no right to (New PenguinYork: 131 – Soros clearly Soros – 91 CEU eTD Collection brought dailybrought from a differentupscale restaurantby buildingmanager.the meals openings; were the separate as aswell two ventilation, manager proper and Kozma, friend Soros’ andhiding partner, had abuilt-in safety buzzer to housethe Lajos by architect prominent place,designed The activity. camouflaged asrenovation establishment of safeandthe hiding place with hugeiron was comfortable a door held his position, and manager building helpful and reliable wherethe 15square)building (today Március where his mother-in-law lived as well. For the residents, the emphasized by Soros factthat the obtained false papers for himself his through venture. in this essential also was majority theGentile of approval tacit the least at with hiding place, sucha construct means to operationalizablean Moreover, enterprise. asuccessful a Gentilefamily placeat for ahiding knowledge for thatof papersor (inthis case,of requests positions) exchanges previous rendered of possible had “Jews” presence the –but hideout many assimilated – which necessary were friends and placesacquaintances Gentile simply not that shows Soros of case The months. for possibly in the city, as whocouldit,whocouldinon this successfully practice andthose engagecarry well as the andnetworks means, financial both which all numberofthose“Jews”the delimited of the moment,isa decision What is made not intricate. more spur was the hiding on going that clear and it youth” was a decisionarrangements contingent showed upon thatsocial we had position, both been personalavid readers of Jules Verne in our 133 Ibid. 51. 133 Besides networks with Gentiles, the importance of family connections is offamily withconnections the importance Gentiles, Besides networks Soros rightly comments on the establishment of their bunker that “the Moreover, he makingdecided on ahiding placein very the same Esk . When investigated in more detail, however, the key to their success seems their success the keyto however, inmore detail, investigated . When Ħ square 92 CEU eTD Collection around people in the city these days. In their new apartment as subtenants at a family at as subtenants in people In their days. newapartment city the around these being enjoyed who and family a whole for responsibility took who Soros, for option have this safely survived byliterally incarcerating themselves: was, however, notan could they place, in the food enough stored if they hand, other they On occasionally. manager did not supply them they could haverisked beingidentified asJews more easily and if buildingthe with food, they would havein yellow the bunker starhouse.By remaining bystayingpath than atadesignated had to leave their shelter a riskier possibly chose move, Soros With this square. Lujza Blaha near an apartment solved the byfindingsituation a room an aunt through recently fled from in Slovakia partner his hiding Kozma, Lajos bunker, the of establishment the place:to similarly them find inJune as house to 16,whichprompted another star a yellow designated through an through agent, which enabled Soros to live false under documentsin Budapest. countryside,Nyíregyháza and sent brother, Gentile who identification considered that itpapers will be (insafer the for name him ofto hideElek inSzabó) the 134 community.After this event they decided never to set foot in the spa again. itinhe tipped of religious Jewish theWhen name the thanked George him, remark that might have been understoodfor as Jews;a sign that he knowsafter wouldthat meet they their fathersare a Jews. in whileRudas spa every day for a swim,documents and stayed George with ethnican Germanfamily friend ina Buda. The boys longlocker-room after it was banned his room apartment, be old18-year son pretendedto a false Gentile studentwith attendantone- family’s a Gentile at stayed his wife in bunker, their found refuge Kozma Lajos made an insinuating (or joking) Soros, A major blow to the tactics of Soros came when the building of his bunker was Till mid-June, everything seemed to be fine with their tactics: while Soros and Soros while tactics: their with fine be to seemed everything mid-June, Till Maskerado , 96. 134 93 CEU eTD Collection deliveries. While he contended in his memoirs this deliveries. While inhis hecontended deal on thatsomething “ought as and them liters offered of 20 on an futurewine, with agreement bargain price introducedmoving building, himself tothe Soros asawine tothelandlords, trader Irony and laughing initself,however, would nothave workedon their own. When which soon turned out to be to out turned soon which 136 135 of landlady into farce and irony: that they are Jewish. Again, it was Kozma who saved Soros by turning the accusation suspected who by landlady, the report on a police bythe hauled were tenants previous fact that Soros is Jewish posed alarger problem, especially when itturned out that the Jew” a “morelikelooked mandarin Budapest Chinese than and a features who “Jewish” have didSoros characteristic the not to Kozma Lajos –whoaccording wife. For his fate landlord wasatthe and andtheir of every mercy their moment, “Jews” at Ibid. 111. Ibid. 50. 135 “ off. for thequestion, but instinctively felt Icould that defend myself by laughing it and smilingly repeating what the landlady had said. Iwas not entirely prepared there’s something abitJewish him.’ about Szabó, the Szabó, was speaking: ‘You should take a good look at that Lexi [nickname of Elek – concealing the fact that he is persecuted posed no problem. Concealing the noConcealing problem. he posed ispersecuted that fact –concealing the Mater simper certa est certa simper Mater ‘It could be,’ I replied good-humoredly. We’dtell him better tohisface,’ wide opening said Lajos, that the door ‘The Latin proverb says, At this point the conversation took an unexpected turn. The landlady The turn. unexpected an took conversation the point this At alter ego alter of Tivadar Soros], you know, Lajos. It looks to me as if Nyilas : the mother is always certain.” But the father never. fathermother is Butthe always: the certain.” , however, they had to prove that they are not are they that prove to had they however, , 136 94 CEU eTD Collection revealing, asby itishighlight this to possible coherence ofhis the actions, andit also Again, notion the rationality”“situated of described in previousthe chapteris socialthe applied thatin rules do his 1944, or deedsonly seem in risky retrospect? simply staying Orputting athome? did it hetakeupa differently, to according risk in hidingif he engaged in any kinds other likeof activity, shopping, taking up a job or a been Jew as safer have he would whether however, is, really question memoir.The wereallsuspiciousmarketer black asaccordinghis a thatTivadarSorostook risks to out asa being“Jew” by becominghaving false pointed passers-by papers, or manager: building the charming of significance the emphasizes also Soros in chapter, previous filesanalyzed the committee vetting the Corroborating governmental intelligence agency. secret a Section, Defense of Hungarian the bepart must he that concluded they the front situation with the “Jewish” Soros who seemed possessto and expert opinion, his seemingly false identity. After Nyilasthe couple would spend evenings discussing great opportunity forhave landlords the to him they botherthat would not deciphering to have aroused their suspicions” their aroused have to 139 138 137 Ibid. 110. Ibid. Ibid. 127. Purchasingmultipleidentified anddelivering involved thewine as risks:being went off,it could take half the day to get back”. running, walk, totheoutskirts of city the Budafok.to Andif the air-raid sirens not were streetcars if or, the streetcar, the take to hadyou itTo obtain businessand too, sohe alsohad toreceive his quota. was that going buildingaboutfoundmanager on, soon the out wine this Since the buildingmanagerin apartmenta Budapesthouse knew everything Wine was also a good tool to charm the building manager as well. 138 137 he felt reassured by the fact that it was such a 139 95 CEU eTD Collection experience –easilyputupwith foolproof papers. bureaucratic authorities levelofeducation low – with a presumably and meager could depend onhaving thenecessary identification at handin 1944,controlling lives while that proves This them. with trouble any into ran never he nevertheless waswrong, seal the or mistyped either they were correct: completely were not documents these of Some needed. family his money of amount necessary earned the between forgersthe and his friends who needed papers,and through this business he middleman heactedasa German occupation the after moreover, shortly needed: and documents other with helpthe of forgers andpaper laundries provided that allhe his strategy birth build identity with was upa certificates to complete and marriage days, Cross Arrow the during majority the help not did that a Schutzpass got simple While many with success.JewsSoros had chanceof crowned being asignificant of actions and strategy the in Budapest, miscommunication bureaucratic a creating Cross leaning conservative and old-stock of power (analyzed centers in 3), chapter Arrow of German, network hadanoverlapping bombedandwhich wasregularly that a bomb explosion was no big deal,in comparison”. defenselessness,our a concentration chief fear, our in and deportation to Death camp. was tribulations worst the Jews us “For bombings: frequent the by frightened be to he when wentoff,siren ceased as air-raid cease sunbathing did not the on rooftop the aswell,in who memoir Szép’s is present of risk perception altered on this scene the to before. Aparallel risks morethan totake willing were survival,chances actors of As risk the rule became than guiding rather daily lifeinfluencing exception the and helps explain how the pre-war notion of risk changed in the extreme situation of 1944. 140 Szép, Soros’ account points to the fact that given the chaotic conditions inthe city conditions given chaotic the tothefactthat points Soros’ account The Smell of Humans , 15. 140 96 CEU eTD Collection 5.3 Strategies of Survival in Warsaw:aDissimilar Parallel Case to the Budapest enough forpossibilities some “Jews” tosave theirlives through various means. left however, front, of approaching the chaos in by partial the Gentile practiced of agenda regimesthe tofurther theirgoals. own individualistic Thismaze pursuits of antisemitic usedthe while others regulations, the “Jews”despite befriendly with mainly due to the more fierce and long German occupation. strategies, and collective personal and formore different complicated prompted itbelow, and in despiteGerman themany similarities analyzed Budapest, occupation press. AsErn antisemitic wishes rabidly the of despite of Budapest Jewry, fate decided the on that events of thatantisemitism all-encompassing1944, they also prove wasnotthe factor narratives as managerial skills respectively in– toassureorder theirWhile survival. their testify thatThey Budapest. successfully found andexploited those assets they had –fame aswell antisemitism in“Jews” persecuted similarly manyother andto networked risks, cooperated playedhelped himlive an life.almost unrestricted lived Theyboth amidstrisks and took a key roleSzép achievedin it ayellow house star andSoros adoptedapseudo while identity that in understandingadopted by Szép and Soros, they both chose to create normalcy within their own lives: the strategies the between differences major are While there run. long in the beneficial tragic months: his path identity of adopting a pseudo fitted his personality and provedtobe SurvivingWorld the WarinWarsaw Second from was surviving different All in documents were all, enough these helpto Tivadar survive Soros to for Ę Szép’s and Tivadar Soros’ memoirs Szép’sand show, some Soros’ Tivadar continued Gentiles to 97 CEU eTD Collection Poles expressing solidarity with Jews andactively helping them, which arenot of many instances are there however, invery diary, same the Warsawghetto; the in written diary Ringelblum’s in Emanuel documented behavior antisemitic Polish of significantly support 1939.Toafter view,this however, heonly anillustration gives antisemitism weaken not did andthat during German the lastingoccupation, effects have not did reconciliation Polish-Jewish short-lived the that argues also historian isJewish population tobe decreased bymass emigration. that consensus national the of part became it Gutman, to according and antisemitism, The secondground. an however, halfof brought escalating 1930s, the waveof 143 York: The Conference on JewishRelations), 165-166. 142 108. Between Two World Wars 141 during Józef Pi interwar period witnessed flourishinglifein Jewishcultural Poland, and especially numerus clauses obligation. patriotic a as position this from manyaccording thehistorian JewsMahler, saw to time,Raphael the of of ousting the parallel political the to domination of Polish Lands in previousthe twocenturies; many seenas regarded differentlyas by was economic their perceived domination well. as Ukrainians and Byelorussians like minorities other affected but extent, a different to which, process, building nation nationalist from the stemmed primarily which period, interwar inthe antisemitism official witnessed also place.took Though beingin different nature from its PolandHungarian counterpart, persecutions the and occupation German the inwhich contexts historical of difference Gutman, “PolishAntisemitism…”, 105. Raphael Mahler, “Antisemitism inPoland”, in Essays onAntisemitism, ed. Koppel S. Pinson (New Yisrael Gutman, “Polish Antisemitism Betweenthe Wars, An Overview,” in A major between difference the strategiespossible stemmed from the á in higher education and to restrict Jewish commercial activity, the activity, commercial Jewish restrict to and education in higher sudski’s rule (1926-1935), no rulesudski’s (1926-1935), serious antisemitic agendagained ed.Yisrael Gutman et al. (Hanover:Brandeis University Press,1989), 97 – 142 Despite attempts to introduce the introduce to attempts Despite 143 141 The Yad Vashem chief Jewswere,however, The JewsPoland of 98 CEU eTD Collection ongoing debateever since in both Hungary and Poland. an been has this though helpful, more be to proved wholes as societies which verify, is higher inin to It chances much impossible success Budapestthan Warsaw. were of the different, was war the of framework global the as yet cities, both in employed 1944.mid-October sensefortified subjugation, of by German Horthy as Miklós staying inpower well till no was there Germans, with sympathize necessarily not did Hungarians ordinary country remained anAlly Nazi Germanyof even occupation, the after and while the prevailed; sentiment such no in Hungary while occupation, German the of victims fellow as seen were Jews in Poland is that policies anti-Jewish Nazi to resistance years. whichfor almost lasted three ghetto, Warsaw was lasting short-lived, foronly wassix weeks, anditthus from very different the Ghetto Budapest this,the of Budapest. As aconsequence near to andwas drawing strips Hungary of had the Red eastern November,the Army already inoccupied late was established Ghetto When the these. overcome to areneeded huge efforts and that discerned. contexts of survival in possibilities Jewish Warsawand need be Budapest to yet different the first be below, by caseswill analyzed These mentioned Gutman. deportálásának 50.évfordulója alkalmából, Csordás Gábor “Hacsak egy is” (Even if only one…) in determination, ed. Nagy Károly (New York: Boulder, 1991) 89-154. 144 the that itwas clear supporters, Nazi local fanatic themost speed, andeven atarapidborder to nearwas Hungarian the drawing See Bibó István, “The Jewish Question in Hungary After 1944” in Democracy, Revolution, Self- Despite all the differences, there were similar personal strategies of survival personal of framework the distinguished that differences important most The At the time of establishing the yellow star houses in Budapest, the Soviet army ed. Králl Csaba (Budapest: TEDISZ, 1994) 158-160. Reich Holocaust emlékkönyv a vidéki zsidóság is facing serious military troubles 144 Bibó’s seminal study on the 99 CEU eTD Collection http://www.centropa.hu/object.36201806-0a30-40bd-b1c8-2f7ab76755d9.ivy?full=true Century) Izsák Erika interviewed byDóra Sárdi in February 2001 and August 2005. ed. Richard C. Lukas (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1989), 68. out to the apartment. Later on, the Gestapo raided Petri’s home, but due to a due to but home, Petri’s raided Gestapo the on, Later apartment. the to out being come they atnights were hiddeninduring cellar ableto thewith only the day, home,where family’s downtown Petri Polish the atnight to they a day,were escorted also came up in the trials of building managers. Being hiddenin aWarsaw suburb for possibility,namely being hiddenby Gentiles illegally the within city, motive which Szapiro’s family thathelp their Jewishfriends, unless they managed toescape, similarly medicalto fled doctor the Ghettoto Gentiles for impossible almost was it sealed, in was ghetto Warsaw the 1942. After smaller. Their case representsin fact caseof the Hungary,though risk the hidinghave much Jewswouldof been (ii) the secondmatter of however, that not which was, Germans, is the against ground emphasized to get backto get before street our time wasup…” sorts of reasons,another butrefused.We bitter experience got andhad torushin order ask whetherall hide at and upwith came wecouldapologized me their place…they to really relationship.good They had alarge housein Buda, and my father mom sent and had a “with they whom – survivor Budapest Izsák, a Erika –remembers colleague” Christian a had father “My Gentiles: with relations friendly had having despite help, receive not did who survivors of melancholy the by is corroborated possible, been Jewish inquestion, which he claimed thatfewer helped Jewsthe it than wouldhave 146 6, 2009). 145 kill” to intended Germans the someone help me to for normal “Didremembershelp was Jews that:I It duringentirely theoccupation? German Gentile friends, and to hide Jewish children at these families. One such rescuer The memories of Bronislawa Gniewaszewska, in Gniewaszewska, of Bronislawa memories The Centropa.Zsidó élettörténetek ahuszadik században. One similar Jewish strategy in both cities was (i) to appeal to the solidarity of solidarity appeal the (i)to cities to inwas both strategy Jewish One similar Out of the Inferno, Poles Remember the Holocaust 145 . (Centropa. Jewish Life Stories in the 20 inthe Stories Life Jewish (Centropa. 146 Again, the common the Again, (accessed May (accessed th 100 CEU eTD Collection Richard C. Lukas (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1989), 75- Christian, especially for those Jews who were not considered to have Semitic features. Germans”. had lived a Polish policeman married to a Jewish woman, forwhatin usif was store Inthe Germans found out. same buildingapartment they there were both shot by the bathroom We buthethere, and ladder climbedupthe said nothing. wekeptallknew into the Zipser went reason, some For bathroom. in the rack suitcase hidona Jadwiga came, if anyone Normally, worked. firm of the I where director the Zipser, by Karol seen was level “…Jadwiga a local on hadpower which part local of that population families authorities.to Similarly buildingto managers, they were mostly comprised of hidingnoticed report not mentioned are butdid who of passive those participation 149 Richard C. Lukas (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1989), 59-60. 148 Lukas (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1989), 136-137. running errands for Homethe Army,formally without being amember.” organization, an with underground hadaffiliation some most people Warsaw, “In resistance: even the to connected been have to ifseem relations and friends her all they Draczynska, did not formallyinvolved inillegal resistance against rule. German In memoirsthe of Wanda take were themselves Jews who rescued many Poles that it bementioned can example an oath. I always Budapest the with asadifference above, comein not testimony the up resistance did seemed cellar. underthe family, time this Szapirofor the to be of in residents building hidingother the was were out, place 1943 another constructed didpreparation of dogs nicotine, smell the not in humans cellar.the when this, After 147 The memories of Urszula Holfeld , in in , Draczynska of Wanda memories The The memories of Stefan Petri, in Similarly Budapest, to existedthere possibility (iv) the forof passing number inThere of area instances Budapest– –similarly (iii)to which the 149 Out of the Inferno, Poles Remember the Holocaust Out of the Inferno, Poles Remember the Holocaust Out of the Inferno, Poles Remember the Holocaust 147 While the motive of Whilethemotive of open 148 ed. Richard C. ed. ed. 101 CEU eTD Collection situation of situation most Cross rabidof ruleArrow inBudapest – they that beingperceived as Press, 1994.) both Ernsituation, Budapest the on Commenting circumstances. inhuman and extreme most the even normalized that in Poland, persecution and occupation of years long the with itBudapest,When possibly circumstances. adverse to compared had some connection such be would alien to normally that activities resuming people occupation, with it still highlights how normalcy found its way in the extreme situation of the German of of her discovery”. others told girl Polish the andcarelessness, stupidity of out more Perhaps Jewishness. his of aware became immediately who girl apromiscuous with relationship intimate hean began there, upresidence taking soon after But felt secure. safe and Jewish, look not did who man, young “The building: in the residents Christian by the caught how got Homeone the notes papers through Army,identification of his protégées factors andthemultiplicity couldenvironment that attempt. the spoiled have of hostile the from also but occupation, German of length the from stem only Roman Polanski’s 2002 movie, Ern Soros enough were not for survivalinmemoirists cases.According most to like Tivadar Christian prayers, thatin in tolearn was prevalenthidingboth forJews cities was that A practice common could prove essential when caught by the Germans, yet they 151 150 152 153 Lukas (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1989), 102. Soros, 2000. The memories of J. Kowalski, in Soros Tivadar, Soros The Pianist Ę Szép, 150 J. Kowalski, who remembers to have furnished several Jews with false with Jews several furnished have to remembers who Kowalski, J. and others hiding, passing for a Christian was an extremely as for was extremely hiding, and aChristian task, tedious an others passing Ę The Smell of Humans, A Memoir of the Holocaust inHungary Szép and Tivadar Soros note in their memoirs , DVD. Directed by Roman Polanski, 2002, Hollywood, CA:Universal Studios, 2002. Maskerado 152 Though this one case cannot be a basis of sweeping conclusions, (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2000),134. Outof the Inferno,Poles Remember the Holocaust The Pianist also highlights it. (Central European University 153 151 that in the extreme in the that Its difficulty did not ed. Richard C. 102 CEU eTD Collection continuing on with lovetheir lives, though the occasion would havepresented itself: beinterim andto over –persecuted soon andhidingless were Jews keen on 154 was key in both cities. It apartmentintobuilding functions ofhiding normal that andtransforming place its isa no wonder that after andthe nooks the cranniesof of makingthe use that, Besides strategies. these success of Warsaw uprising, the influence onthe hadagreat Ghetto local powers cities inboth thedifferences, Despite – years. three well over inWarsaw whereas month, forthree lasted discrimination harshest the inBudapest as longviable in run, became the these could practices to which with extentthe in Warsawsuccesscorrelated situation, their extreme the of nature temporal focused on the they in were While Budapest of contexts. difference strategies were mirrored in different tactics and practices in the two cities due to the accordingly. acted resident every and be temporal to discrimination of situation the expecting were they that highlights he how clear is it yet ghetto, Polish the from different Szép, 1994, 22-23. All in all, a comparison of All inWarsaw all,acomparisonBudapestrevealssimilar of that and survival lived is in Szép house which of star yellow the context the isthat It apparent to me or to any other men around. women in buildingthe that she offered herselfbywords by or signsany other make up toa woman whose man had been carried away…Nor can I say of any to gall the have not did I no, and no no, But cigarette. for as love for starved as was I though even no, is answer The another. or one courting try I did ask, mightyou in house, herethe there and women good-looking There weresome 154 103 CEU eTD Collection While the quite eerie drawings in drawings eerie quite While the Conclusion urban resistance impossible. further from by leveled house– house making any wasfoughtthat was Germans, to that were by that assiduously investigated Tim Cole in regulations spatial of anti-Jewish an analysis to administrative-bureaucratic turned everyday duringsurvival strategies persecution the “Jews”.of I Budapest First, discrimination. with coping of individual strategies as well on hostility, or cooperation “non-Jewish” “Jewish” – varied meaningon alocal ministerial acquired basedauthorities level, local on and municipal the of decrees anti-Jewish the thesis, in the demonstrated was it As theoutright before 1944, October and March between especially important local vitally structures hadbecome that “Jews” largely depended on power discriminated fate of the question, Jewish the of solution the about plans competing todeathcampsmass-scalewhere deportations nevermaterialized. city where the ghetto was set up very late in the history of the SecondWorld War and Europe,by Axis-dominated Uniquely Budapestbecame within large 1944 the only sympathizershave could thesolution felt about Jewishthe inof question Budapest. Budapest Jewry,it highlights still frustrationthe many that is a mendacious representation of the fragile social positionin 1944 street of contemporary Budapest the on residents “non-Jewish” everyday terrorize who figures The in analysis the united thesis investigation of threelevels approach the to As overlapping ministerial, German and municipalbureaucracies had A Harc A showing “yellow star men” aspowerful star “yellow showing Holocaust City . Nevertheless Iwas . Nevertheless Nyilas Nyilas terror began. terror and their 104 CEU eTD Collection networks and spatially contingent processes. contingent and spatially networks social localized highly basedon practice and everyday between desired policies policies sources other onit. Lookingthan at official revealed theordinances cleavages playground of different administrative bodies who could freely implement various city wasa space that assumption outfrom tacitstarted the that argument Cole’s of tenability the about questions raised sources personal as aswell press contemporary effectively pursue theirinterests. Studying bureaucraticin ordinances view of the adminsitrative months void for several in whichlocal couldand individual actors accountinto interests “Christian” to take willingness the as aswell population “Jewish” when the of concentration overthe tussle administrative the that showed investigation decidingThe advantage. own their into changes the turn to aimed who actors various by used policies were between different changes paradigm howthese I investigated but space, on city reshape to imagined theordinances different the in how interested primarily not ghettoization of Budapest Jewry created an position within building.an apartment Onmany individualoccasions,other however, policy when or they could beutilized by a building manager acquire to the power official manipulate to articlulated were interests individual when applied possibly forwere they instance, of nature interaction: social the on depended however, of clichés, The application these “Jews” between and“non-Jews”. interaction with instance –for when authorities petitions – aswellinwriting everyday several in interactions were duly echoed that andclichés stereotypes served with ready-made press of the antisemitism the that out turned “Jewry”. It Budapest of the situation period and to in“Jews” in 1944 togetcloser totheorder language use of from personal sources the find out to how the contemporary press reflected on the changing On a second level, I analyzed the perspective of the official discourse on discourse of official the perspective level,On the analyzed a second I 105 CEU eTD Collection valueleads understanding in toadistorted of Holocaust the Budapest. face at “non-Jews” “Jews”and between interactions oneveryday reporting articles contrasting the press betweenexist majority minority by discriminated the and thepopulation. Thus with other types of sourcesverify the official policy according towhich only hostility and conflict of interests can the and sustain thesis to interactions “non-Jewish” – “Jewish on revealed reported falsely and events that distorted takingpapers these hand, other the on interactions; everyday thereflect not did but papersmanipulated of these antisemitism thatthe analysis 1944press reveals of the livessaved during Nyilasraidsin anapartment building. than More anything else, the and etc. assets “Jewish” preserve to helped when“non-Jews” money or for exchange instance by when official overriding “Jews”regulations hide were allowed to in for putting for aside: antisemitism prompted “Jews” “non-Jews” interests of and highlighted highlighted thethat waylocal population used and antisemitic contested policies in was it as scholarship, existing to contribution relevant most the provided that personal survival throughthe strategies perspective Alltageschichte.of This is part the fromin Budapestview of revealing level,when of point Holocaust the the I approach unified antisemitic fighting horde the social influence of Budapest “Jews”. a as behave not did who population, “Christian” the on impact all-pervasive their of lack the about indignation their expressed constantly thesis in the analyzed papers the Moreover, readers. its of behavior the influence fully never could press the that reveals “non-Jews” and “Jews” between interactions of studies with press antisemitic of desires the contrasting life, in everyday ordinances anti-Jewish of materialization all the actions of the “non-Jewish” population. Similarly to the results of studying the The analysis of the thesis comes to a full a circle on its third and most in influencing factor major the become to failed however, antisemitism, This 106 CEU eTD Collection Holocaust in Budapest in historical scholarship was emphasis anddecreesin tostudy ordinances accorded with connection the much While policies. these of thecontent than important more 1944 wasactually Lévai Jen Lévai 155 and factors financial among other of networks mobilization social circumstances basedon the policies these for contesting much room was there place where wasa Jewry, Budapest provincial of experience the to contrary and enforced brutally cities Asdiscriminatory to ghettoization was opposed ordinances prescribed. where the solitary, the elderly as well as women and children got amuch rawer deal than the especially Some persecuted, neighbors. the of and“non-Jewish” doctors managers, concessionshouses from various likebuilding got representatives of power, Karsai László,Holokauszt, (Budapest:Pannonica, 2001). and ignore the regulations. Others likeErn Others regulations. ignore the and in whose cases–could thesis illegal wereanalyzed the and Soros go simply Tivadar Gobbi like Hilda several them – of capital, the within equally all “Jews” affected the decrees theanti-Jewish nominally Though a large extent. to varied regulations with coped these to whichthepersecuted extent the revealsthat cases individual looking at Budapest, a universalized narrative case of inthe give Holocaust to credit networks, financial capacities, the age as well as the gender of the persecuted. manager to higher authorities, on relationshipthe individual “Jews” thebuildingof with manager thebuilding and as well as the location differently depending constructed was anddiscrimination experiencepersecutions of of the buildingthe that revealed was it houses, star yellow and andbuildings apartment of thelevel the social on Especially variations. significant showed implemented were policies these which Szita Szabolcs, Szita While simply studying the decrees and anti-Jewish laws might steer one to Ę , A pesti gettó csodálatos megmenekülésének hiteles története A zsidókA üldöztetése Budapesten (Budapest: MagyarAuschwitz Alapítvány,1994); Ę Szép and many Jews in yellow star in SzépandmanyJews 155 , the thesis showed that the extent to (Budapest:Officina, 1946); 107 CEU eTD Collection Budapest. in Holocaust the of uniqueness the all testify –that patterns common many with analyzed in the thesis. Necessarily, this led to a divergence of individual stories – than the given political contexts in various East and Central European cities, it all the itwas for more maneuvering as unique possibilities provided individualagency and by in extreme broughtabout situations Though in HolocaustNazi rule.the Budapest recognition local processesof inthe outcome of antisemitic persecutionssurvival and thesis. in the analyzed ordinances top-down many level, alleviated micro to the on other regulation this enforced similarly who or ones were the managers and building the yet neighbors the scale, ona forcity “Jews” on instance localthe for level:officialpolicy, yellow thewearingof prescribed star individual experiences the effectshow that of discriminative measured policy was out divergent Jewry, the Budapest characterized lifethat of everyday framework regulations, shopping restrictions andforced relocations –influencedsignificantly the wearingyellow star like – German occupation issued the after antisemitic decrees While state. Hungarian hostile the from or Germans the from directly coming threat experience “Jews”in city in buildings not whowere June, those the physical did move apartmentdesignated wereforced to into and“Jews” German occupation, withinthisperiod. and“global”, processes capital-scale country-scale the on than local the on contingent more actually were persecution of experience the and life everyday of quality the that showed buildings apartment within In terms of the Holocaust scholarship the thesis prompts for a more serious theotherfollowing after one wereissued the ordinances While “anti-Jewish” In words,other the investigation focusing on the micropower structures 108 CEU eTD Collection more the shift highlights 156 inperiod question. reality andmulti-faceted from a of the end upcreatingalienated perpetrators astory attempts in lives,historian everyday people’s just might the wishes echo the of of top-down fulfillment andthe ordinances bureaucratic of efficacy the checking Alla local level.as without ordisregardedon carried moreso the out were contested, study regulations how to important just isit as space toaffectcity wereattempted or affected that regulations the on focusing besides that argued thesis the environment, individual interests wasmade possible.In studyingin of terms the Holocaust an urban courtyards pursuing like hide-outs, or unnoticed andpublic spaces wheregoing spaces” “liminal many the city provided how madecity space, and of they how use in depended Budapest Holocaust on during survivalstrategies the success various of how out the pointed “spatial history thesis urbanthe turn” forms.and the Interms of did theirbest hostile tocontest policies theirexpressing through invarious Eigensinn also highlights theagency and persecuted the of how the discriminated populations in and persecution wereentangled reveal howeveryday people oppression Although this reconceptualizationcities as did.camps concentration everywheresurvive than almost more chanceto provided strategies, survival successful of possibilities the highlights of also it theyet cities, Holocaust might destroythat happenedsocialtragedies the reveals hand taboos one the on offapproach This Shoah. the theduring and resistance of death camps, in the cellars, streets and apartments of various 157 solution in Poland Holocaust imFamiliengedächtnis See for instance Christopher Browning, Christopher instance Seefor On the German context see Arthur Welzer et. al. et. Welzer see Arthur context German Onthe (New York: HarperCollins, 1992). 156 to the recognition of the role of individual actors and acts (Frankfurt: Fisher, 2002). Ordinary men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the final Opa war Nazi: kein Nationalsozialismus und 157 yet it 109 CEU eTD Collection 110 CEU eTD Collection 2. BFL IV. 1409/c. Budapest Székesf 2. BFLIV.1409/c. Diviki, BFL XVII/ 997, the case of Mrs. Antal Póth, Mrs. Ferenc Csomor. Building managers); of case managersand Mrs.Sándor Assistantthe Building the of Files of Hungarian Committee the (The291/aJustificatory iratai. Bizottságának Adelson, Alan Robert. Alan Lapides, andAdelson, Secondary sources Orthodox Israelitethe community, 1875; Birth registry of Israelite Neolog the community.1863, 1875,1898; Birth registry of MAZSIHISZ Archives, Budapest. 1864.kisdoboz.-----, IX-2785/1944. 1863.kisdoboz.-----, IX-2743/1944. 1861.kisdoboz.-----, IX-2339/1944. 1857. kisdoboz.IX-1621/1944.; Files) Committee ügyosztályokirattára. központi (Files Major Lord the of Budapest, Mayoral 1. XVII/ 997. Magyar 997. Házfelügyel 1. XVII/ Budapest F Archival sources Bibliography New York: New York: Penguin 1991. Books, Ę város Levéltáraváros (BFL)–BudapestCity Archives Lodz ghetto: inside acommunity under siege. Ę k és Segéd-házfelügyel k és Ę város polgármesterének iratai. Polgármesteri polgármesterének város Ę k 291/a. sz. Igazoló k 291/a. 111 CEU eTD Collection -----. “Vádirat a zsidóság ellen!”. a zsidóság “Vádirat-----. Bosnyák, Zoltán. Bosnyák, Bibó István, “The Jewish Question in Hungary After 1944” in Democracy, Bergerson, AndrewStuart. 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Gay guides, cognitive maps and the in Jewish Question” “A the Speech on Secret Heinrich. Himmler, 1960. Narancs, (Forgotten authors no.5: Erotic, Catholic (RenéeErd Harvard University Press, 1994). 1936.) Nazi Hungary construction homosexualof London, 1917-1967”,in Gunn and Morris, 165-186. Jehuda Reinharz. NewYork: Oxford University 684-685. 1995. Press, Modern World: ADocumentary History, From Prejudice toDestruction, Antisemitism 1870-1933 XVIII/ 45. XVIII/ November 11,2006. Holokauszt Budapest SzékesfBudapest by Soros Tivadar, by Edinburgh:Soros 211-226. Canongate, 2000. , Budapest:Pannonica, 2001. Ę k V.: Erotikus, katolikus (Erd Ę város Statisztikai Évkönyve. város Statisztikai Vádirat anácizmus ellen Maskerado, DancingAroundDeath in edited by Paul Mendes-Flohr and Ę s, 1879-1956). Ę s Renée, 1879-1956)” (Bp: Közp. Stat. Hiv. The Jewinthe . Budapest:MIOK, (Cambridge: Magyar 115 CEU eTD Collection Komárik, Dénes. “A Dohány utcai zsinagóga építése,” in építése,” Dénes.“ADohány zsinagóga utcai Komárik, Kovacs, Maria M. “Interwar Anti-Semitism in the Professions: The Case of the “Keresztény fogyasztók kívánsága: meg, fogyasztók Akadályozzák “Keresztény hogy a zsidókfelvásárolják Lévai, Jen Jacob. Katz, Lackó, Miklós. “A két világháború között.” (1995) Silber. HebrewUniversity Press, Jerusalem 1992. 237-244. to MosheCarmilly-Weinberger onHisEightieth Birthday in Engineers” examine the Jewish inabuses milk provisions) buy incapacitated to beforeup food Christians,investigation dire needed to visszaélélsei ügyében” a el keresztények az élelmiszereket Harvard University Press, 1994. http://www.bparchiv.hu/magyar/kiadvany/bpn/20_21/lacko.html Ę . Eichmann inHungary. Documents From Prejudice toDestruction, Antisemitism 1870-1933. http://www.bparchiv.hu/magyar/kiadvany/bpn/08/komarik.html Jews intheHungarianJews Economy,1760-1945.Studies Dedicated (The desire of Christian consumers: Jews should be Ę l, Szigorú vizsgálatot azsidók tejellátási l, vizsgálatot Szigorú Budapesti Negyed (Budapest: Pannónia Press,1961). Esti Újság Esti Budapesti Negyed . no. 2-3,. no. 1998. , May , May 9, 1944. , edited by Michel K. Cambridge: , no. 2, 116 CEU eTD Collection Magyar ZsidóLexikon, “Muzsikál a múlt” (The Music of múlt”of Past). the a Music (The “Muzsikál ----, /Ę Lüdtke, Alf. “Introduction, What is the History of Everyday Life and Who Are Its Lukas, Richard C. ----. rinz, Katalin. “Életköszönt rinz, Katalin. Anyagiság, hatalom-vágy ésa felszín varázsa. AzAlltagsgeschichte Fekete könyvamagyarzsidóság szenvedéseir n.,1929) a Life:L perspectives of perspectives of Alltagggeschichte) perspektíváiról University Press, 1995). ofLife Experiences andWays Practitioners,” in Practitioners,” Kentucky University 1989. Press, Ę rincz Katalin interviewed Pál Pál Reg interviewed rincz Katalin . Outofthe Inferno, Poles Remember theHolocaust. (Materialism,lust for power and the charm of the surface. The The HistoryofEverydayLife,Reconstructing Historical ed. Ujváry Péter. (Hungarian Jewish Lexicon) (Budapest :S. Ę . L Ę rincz Katalin beszélgetett Reg rincz beszélgetett Katalin edited by Alf Princeton (Princeton: Lüdtke Aetas A Harc A 1(2003): 147-156. Ę Ę s”). , 1944.június 18. l. Budapest: Officina, 1946. Paralell , No.10,2008 Ę s Pállal,” (“Greeting Lexington: 117 CEU eTD Collection Roubickoca, Eva M. Eva Roubickoca, Laura. Palusuo, Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. “The Controversy That Isn’t, The Debate Over Daniel J. Romsics, Ignác. 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Edinburgh: (New 118 , 5 CEU eTD Collection Ujvári Ujvári Péter: Thirring, Gusztáv. Szita, Szabolcs, Soros, Tivadar. Soros, Soja Soja Szép, Ern Szép, Schlumbohm, Jürgen . “Mikrotörténelem makrotörténelem”– , , F. Stat. Hiv. 1936. Auschwitz Alapítvány, 1994). Canongate, 2000) American Geographers, 1971. American Geographers, 146. Edward W. Edward W. Structures inand G.Urry Retheorization” D.Gregory (eds.) Ę . Emberszag Zsidó Lexikon Maskerado. DancingAroundDeathinNazi Hungary A zsidóküldöztetése Budapesten (London: Macmillan, 1985.) ThePoliticalOrganization of Space. “ A F A The Spatiality of Social Life: Towards aTransformative Life: Towards Social The Spatiality of Ę . (Human OsirisSmell) 2000. Budapest: Kiadó, városi Statisztikai városi Hivatal statisztikai évkönyve. . Budapest, 1929. , 1944-45 Washington: Association of Social RelationsandSpatial , (Budapest: Magyar , (Budapest: Aetas 4 (2000):139- (Edinburgh: Budapest: Bp. Sz. 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