INDIGENOUS AMERICAN ART

INDIGENOUS AMERICAS Indigenous Americas

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre- Columbian inhabitants of North and South America. In other words, these refer to the tribes of the Americas before the arrival of Europeans in the 1500’s. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.

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Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

The Chavín de Huántar was actually constructed by the pre-Incan tribe, the Chavin, around 900 B.C. The Chavins survived basically on an agricultural economy, because of its strategic location near the Coast of Marañón River and the jungle. The Chavín de Huántar served as a ceremonial center, where the ancient people came together for worship. The Chavín de Huántar holds a geographical, historical and religious significance because of its tremendous influence on the Ancient Chavin culture. It is located where the Mosna River merges with the Huanchecsa River. This allows the Chavins easy transport, but access is very limited for visitors. Consequently, it is the perfect site for crop cultivation such as maize and potatoes. The ancient Chavins also started domesticating llamas to help and assist in carrying load and crops.

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Nose ornament, Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

Wearing a nose ring was a mark of social distinction and would have enhanced the flashy appearance of the wearer. Nose (as well as ear ornaments) were not exclusive to men. Women and priestesses wore them for public and ceremonial appearances. Realize that these nose rings covered all the way to the chin in most cases, and stretched from cheek to cheek…..made from gold, or an alloy. These ornaments were beautiful with intricate designs but they REALLY heavy!

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Relief sculpture, Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

Relief sculpture depicting jaguars covers the ruins of a stairway at Chavin de Huantar, Peru. Chavin de Huantar is believed to be the center of the Chavin culture, the earliest civilisation of the Andes.

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Relief sculpture, Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. 900-200 BCE.

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Lanzon Stela, Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

Here shown poking through a hole in the roof of its chamber, the Lanzon has been interpreted variously as a principal deity of Chavin, an oracle with the power to speak (thanks to the hole in the roof), a symbol of trade, fertility, dualism, and humankind's interaction with nature, or any combination of these. What is evident is that the 4.5m (15 feet)-tall obelisk is a painstakingly carved piece of white granite in a roughly lance-like shape, and depicts a human- feline hybrid with claws, writhing snakes for hair and eyebrows, fangs curved sideways in a smile (thus the nickname 'Smiling God'), and one arm raised while the other is lowered. Other carvings at Chavin de Huantar depict Lanzon clutching a Strombus shell in one hand and a Spondylus shell in the other, which has been interpreted as a possible reference to fertility and the duality of the sexes.

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Lanzon Stela, Chavin de Huantar (detail). Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

Here shown poking through a hole in the roof of its chamber, the Lanzon has been interpreted variously as a principal deity of Chavin, an oracle with the power to speak (thanks to the hole in the roof), a symbol of trade, fertility, dualism, and humankind's interaction with nature, or any combination of these. What is evident is that the 4.5m (15 feet)-tall obelisk is a painstakingly carved piece of white granite in a roughly lance-like shape, and depicts a human- feline hybrid with claws, writhing snakes for hair and eyebrows, fangs curved sideways in a smile (thus the nickname 'Smiling God'), and one arm raised while the other is lowered. Other carvings at Chavin de Huantar depict Lanzon clutching a Strombus shell in one hand and a Spondylus shell in the other, which has been interpreted as a possible reference to fertility and the duality of the sexes.

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Layout plan, Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 BCE.

INDIGENOUS AMERICAS Indigenous Americas

Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. Montezuma County, Colorado. Anasazi. 450-1300. Sandstone.

The cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde are some of the most notable and best preserved in the North American Continent. Sometime during the late 1190s, after primarily living on the mesa top for 600 years, many Ancestral Puebloans began living in pueblos they built beneath the overhanging cliffs. The structures ranged in size from one-room storage units to villages of more than 150 rooms. While still farming the mesa tops, they continued to reside in the alcoves, repairing, remodeling, and constructing new rooms for nearly a century.

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Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. Montezuma County, Colorado. Anasazi. 450-1300. Sandstone.

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Architectural complex, Yaxchilan. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

Yaxchilán is a gorgeous Maya site located on the riverbank of the Usumacinta. The site lies on top of a horseshoe meander on the Mexican side of the important river that divides Mexico from Guatemala. Today, the site can only be reached by boat. Yaxchilán was founded in the 5th century CE and reached its maximum splendor in the 8th century CE. Famous for its more than 130 stone monuments, among which include carved lintels and stelae depicting images of royal life, the site also represents one of the most elegant example of classic Maya architecture.

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Architectural complex, Yaxchilan. Guatemala Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

Yaxchilán is a gorgeous Maya site located on the riverbank of the Usumacinta. The site lies on top of a horseshoe meander on the Mexican side of the important river Mexico that divides Mexico from Guatemala. Today, the site can only be reached by boat. Yaxchilán was founded in the 5th century A.D and reached its maximum splendor in the 8th century A.D. Famous for its more than 130 stone monuments, among which include carved lintels and stelae depicting images of royal life, the site also represents one of the most elegant example of classic Maya architecture.

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Yaxchilan, Structure 33. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

Still in the Central acropolis, Structure 33 represents the height of Yaxchilán architecture and its Classic development. This temple, the most preserved building of the complex, was probably constructed by the major ruler Bird Jaguar IV or dedicated to him by his son. The temple, a large room with three doorways, decorated with stucco motifs, overlooks the main plaza and stands on a excellent observation point toward the river. The real masterpiece of this building is its roof, almost intact, composed by a high crest, or roof comb, with a frieze and niches with remains of a human figure. The second hieroglyphic stairway leads to the front of this structure.

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Yaxchilan, Structure 33. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

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Lintel 25, Structure 23, Yaxchilan. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

Buildings in Yaxchilán were known for their elaborate decorations, particularly the sculptural door lintels that were commissioned by the city’s rulers and are believed to document their history.

A lintel is the horizontal beam that spans the opening between two upright architectural elements. This particular lintel (referred to as lintel 25) was located above the central doorway of a palace structure (structure 23) in Yaxchilán. An inscription on the lintel reads October 20, 681, the date of Lord Shield Jaguar II’s accession to throne as documented in other monuments. It is believed that creation of the lintel, as well as the ritual portrayed in its carving, were associated with this event.

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Architectural complex – Structure 40, Yaxchilan. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 CE. Limestone.

Structure 40 is flanked by structures 39 and 41 in the South Acropolis. It has been restored and has three doorways opening onto a single room and the remains of a perforated roof comb. The room has the remains of murals that once covered all the interior walls..

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Great Serpent Mound, Southern Ohio. Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands). c.1070. Earthwork / effigy mound.

Serpent Mound is a man-made earthwork in the shape of a long, uncoiling serpent nearly 1,200 feet long and about 5 feet high. Created between 1000-1500 AD for unknown purposes, it is now protected in a state park in Ohio. Two different cultures contributed to the Serpent Mound site. The earliest is the Adena people, who lived in this area from about the 6th century BC to the early 1st century AD.

Based on stone axes and other artifacts, we know that the Adena built the two conical burial mounds near the serpent. Other Adena burial mounds in the area indicate that they buried their dead in log tombs or clay-lined basins; important individuals were painted in red ocher and buried with valuable grave goods.

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Great Serpent Mound, Southern Ohio. Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands). c.1070. Earthwork / effigy mound.

Made of earth, it is formed in the shape of an uncoiling snake about to swallow an egg-shaped oval in its open mouth. The head of the serpent is aligned to the summer solstice sunset and the coils also may point to the winter solstice sunrise and the equinox sunrise.

The specific purpose of this impressive effigy remains a mystery. It was never used for burials. Some have speculated that the vast earthwork was an offering to the gods. It certainly seems meant to be seen from above: the serpent is difficult to see from ground level. Visitors can now climb a tower to appreciate its shape. The coil of the serpent's tail is a common sacred symbol throughout the ancient world and often symbolizes the sacred forces of the earth. This may suggest that the mound-builders worshipped the earth as a divine mother.

INDIGENOUS AMERICAS Indigenous Americas Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, southern Ohio. Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands). c.1070. Earthwork / effigy mound.

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Templo Mayor (Main Temple). Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Stone.

Templo Mayor (Great Temple) is an Aztec temple recently discovered in the heart of modern Mexico City. It was built to honor the Aztec god of war and god of water. According to Aztec sources, Templo Mayor was built on this spot because an eagle was seen perched on a cactus devouring a snake, in fulfillment of a prophecy. Construction on the temple began sometime after 1325 AD and was enlarged over the next two centuries. At the time of the 1521 Spanish Conquest, the site was the center of religious life for the city of 300,000. The temple was almost completely destroyed by the Spaniards after their conquest of Tenochtitlan and was completely lost until an Aztec carving was discovered in the heart of Mexico City in 1978. This prompted extensive excavations, which uncovered the ruins of Templo Mayor.

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Templo Mayor (Main Temple). Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Stone.

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The Coyolxauhqui Stone, Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). Aztec. 1375- 1520. Volcanic stone.

The Coyolxauhqui Stone was discovered in the heart of Mexico Excavation revealed the 3.25 meter stone (over 11 ft.), a carved relief of a dismembered female, to be a representation of the goddess Coyolxauhqui. It was located at the base of the stairway of the Templo Mayor, on the Huitzilopochtli side of the temple. The story of Coyolxauhqui (the Aztec Moon goddess) is interlinked with with that of her mother Coatlicue. Coyolxauhqui encouraged her four hundred sisters and brothers to kill their dishonored mother. Coatlicue gave birth to Huitzilopochtli after a ball of feathers fell into the temple where she was sweeping and touched her. Huitzilopochtli sprang out of his mother as an adult fully armed and saver her. Coatlicue regretted such violence. Thus, Huitzilopochtli cut off Coyolxauhqui's head and threw it into the sky to form the Moon.

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The Coyolxauhqui Stone, Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). Aztec. 1375- 1520. Volcanic stone.

In Tenochtitlan, ritual sacrifice was performed at the top of the Templo Mayor, and the bodies of the victims were then rolled down the stairs, landing upon this stone. It is believed that the placement of the stone at the base of the stairs served to integrate ancient stories with the ritual in their own lives.

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Uncovering the Coyolxauhqui Stone, Templo Mayor. (modern Mexico City).

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Exhibiting the Coyolxauhqui Stone, Templo Mayor. (modern Mexico City).

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Calendar Stone Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Basalt.

The Aztec Calendar Stone, known in archaeological studies as the Aztec Sun Stone, is an enormous basalt disk covered with carvings about Aztec creation myths and calendar signs. The stone, measures about 3.6 meters (11.8 feet) in diameter, about 3.9 ft thick and weighs more than 24 tons.

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Calendar Stone, Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Basalt.

The Aztec Sun Stone (or Calendar Stone) depicts the five consecutive worlds of the sun from Aztec mythology. The stone is not, therefore, in any sense a functioning calendar, but rather it is an elaborately carved solar disk, which for the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican cultures represented rulership. At the top of the stone is a date glyph (13 reed) which represents both the beginning of the present sun, the 5th and final one according to mythology, and the actual date 1427 CE, thereby legitimizing the rule of Itzcoatl (who took power in that year) and creating a bond between the divine and mankind.

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Calendar Stone, Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Basalt.

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Olmec-style mask, Templo Mayor. Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). Aztec. 1375-1520. Jadeite. Over a hundred ritual caches or deposits containing thousands of objects have been found with the Templo Mayor. Some offerings contained items related to water, like coral and shells. Other deposits related to warfare and sacrifice, containing items like human skull masks. Many of these offerings contain objects from faraway places—likely places from which the Mexica collected tribute. Some offerings demonstrate the Mexica’s awareness of the historical and cultural traditions in Mesoamerica. For instance, they buried an Olmec mask made of jadeite. The Olmec mask was made over a thousand years prior to the Mexica, and its burial in Templo Mayor suggests that the Mexica found it precious and perhaps historically significant.

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Ruler’s feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II). Aztec. 1428-1520. Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold.

Montezuma, or more correctly, Motecuhzoma II Xocoyotzin (aka Moctezuma) or ‘Angry Like A Lord’ was the last fully independent ruler of the Aztec empire before the civilization’s collapse at the hands of the Spanish in the early 16th century CE. He would rule as an absolute monarch until 1520 CE, during which time he expanded the empire and was considered a god by his people and a manifestation and perpetuator of the sun. This headdress (though not positive that it belongs to Motecuhzoma), is made from 450 green quetzal, blue cotinga and pink flamingo feathers and is further embellished with gold beads and jade disks.

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Ruler’s feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II) (detail). Aztec. 1428-1520. Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold.

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Qorikancha (main temple/church and convent of Santo DOmingo), City of Cusco, Central highlands, Peru. Inka. C.1440. Sandstone.

Qorikancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire, dedicated primarily to Inti, the Sun God. It was one of the most revered temples of the capital city of Cusco. In Inca times, Qorikancha (Quechua for ‘Golden Courtyard’) was literally covered with gold. The temple walls were lined with some 700 solid- gold sheets, each weighing about 2kg. There were life-sized gold and silver replicas of corn, which were ceremonially ‘planted’ in agricultural rituals. Also reported were solid-gold treasures such as altars, llamas and babies, as well as a replica of the sun, which was lost. But within months of the arrival of the first conquistadors, this incredible wealth had all been looted and melted down.

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Walls of Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman), City of Cusco, Central highlands, Peru. Inka. C.1440. Sandstone.

Inca architecture includes some of the most finely worked stone structures from any ancient civilization. Sacsayhuaman is a walled fortress complex on the northern outskirts of the city of Cusco, Peru, the former capital of the Inca Empire. Like many Inca constructions, the complex is made of large polished dry stone walls, with boulders carefully cut to fit together tightly without mortar. For example, the zig-zag walls at Saqsa Waman create triangular shadows which seem to mirror the shadows created by the mountain peaks in the background.

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Walls of Saqsa Waman (detail), Central highlands, Peru. Inka. C.1440. Sandstone.

This stone has 12 angles and illustrates the great precision Inca masons employed in ensuring their stone blocks fitted so well together that no mortar was needed. (15th century CE).

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Silver and gold maize cobs. Inka. c.1400-1533. Sheet metal / repousee, gold and silver alloys.

In a courtyard and an adjacent garden in Cuzco were planted full scale gold maize stalks, as well as life-size statues of llamas and herders. The maize plants were reputedly erected during planting and harvest festivals, and as part of investiture ceremonies. Other Inca shrines may have contained similar ritual objects. Only three of these are known to still be in existence.

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City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite. Hidden in the rocky countryside northwest of Cuzco, Peru, Machu Picchu is believed to have been a royal estate or sacred religious site for Inca leaders, whose civilization was virtually wiped out by Spanish invaders in the 16th century. Built during the height of the Incan empire, it wasn’t rediscovered until 1911. Until then, the abandoned citadel’s existence was a secret known only to peasants living in the region. The site stretches over an impressive 5- mile distance, featuring more than 3,000 stone steps that link its many different levels. There is no evidence that the conquistadors ever attacked or even reached the mountaintop citadel, however; for this reason, some have suggested that the residents’ desertion occurred because of a smallpox epidemic. Machu Picchu is made up of more than 150 buildings ranging from baths and houses to temples and sanctuaries.

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City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite.

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Temple of the Stun (Observatory), Machu Picchu. Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite. Machu Picchu is also known as the “City within the clouds” because it is located high in the Andes. Its location provided unobstructed view of astronomical phenomenon. The Intihuatana Stone, the Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows are three structures in the citadel of Machu Picchu that the Incas built in order to observe celestial events. These structures were dedicated to the greatest deity, the Sun or Inti. Buildings and windows were strategically placed in order to observe astronomical events of importance to the Incas. These observations served to predict changes of season and were used as an agricultural calendar. For survival these events had to be carefully tracked.

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Temple of the Sun (Observatory), Machu Picchu. Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite.

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Intihuatana Stone, Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite. One of Machu Picchu's primary functions was that of astronomical observatory. The Intihuatana stone (meaning 'Hitching Post of the Sun') has been shown to be a precise indicator of the date of the two equinoxes and other significant celestial periods. This stone is designed to hitch the sun at the two equinoxes: At midday on March 21st and September 21st, the sun stands almost directly above the pillar, creating no shadow at all. At this precise moment the sun "sits with all his might upon the pillar" and is for a moment "tied" to the rock. At these periods, the Incas held ceremonies at the stone in which they "tied the sun" to halt its northward movement in the sky..

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City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c.1450-1540. Granite.

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All-T’oqapu tunic. Inka. 1450-1540. Camelid fiber and cotton. This tunic was reserved for the use by Inka kings as the royal symbol of unity and totality of the Inka empire, Tawantinsuyo. It is woven from fine Alpaca wool dyed, spun and woven by the sacred female weavers of the Inca empire. Aesthetically, it exhibits the Inka taste for abstraction rather than naturalism in order to express individual and group identity. The stepped patterns, checkerboard coloration and regular motifs exemplify order and standardization essential to spreading a message of unity. More specifically, each of the individual blocks of fine textile may represent in miniature mantels worn by different classes of ethnic Inka. Therefore, this tunic “broadcasts the message that the ruler controls more diversity, more ethnicity, almost the totality of possible patterns in his clothing”.

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All-T’oqapu tunic. Inka. 1450-1540. Camelid fiber and cotton.

INDIGENOUS AMERICAS Indigenous Americas

Bandolier bag. Lenape (eastern Delaware) tribe. c.1850. Beadwork on leather. The Lenape or Delaware people were the Native American inhabitants of the land surrounding what is now called the Delaware River. They were among the very first Native Americans with whom the European settlers came into contact in the 1600s. Although the traditional wear of Lenape men was similar to other tribes (fringed pants and cotton blouses), they also carried an ornate, beaded bag. This bag, called a Bandolier, had a wide, fully beaded strap, which was connected to a beaded bag. These bags are a favorite of collectors because of their beauty.

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Shown wearing a Bandolier bag. Lenape (eastern Delaware) tribe. c.1850. Beadwork on leather.

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Transformation mask. Kwakiutl, Northwest coast of Canada. Late 19th century. Wood, paint, and string.

A transformation mask is a large mask with movable parts that can be opened and closed. These complex masks are worn by Kwakiutl dancers in special ceremonies. The use of transformation masks is rooted in ancient Kwakiutl traditions. According to Kwakiutl creation stories, there was once a time when birds, fish, animals and humans differed only in skin covering and had the ability to transform themselves at will. All living beings were unified and animals could take on human form, just as humans could become animals, birds, fish, and mythical creatures. According to Kwakiutl belief, when dancers are wearing these masks, they are transformed into the spirits represented on the mask.

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Transformation mask. Kwakiutl, Northwest coast of Canada. Late 19th century. Wood, paint, and string.

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Hide painting of Sun Dance. Attributed to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody), Eastern Shoshone, Wind River Reservation, Wyoming. c.1890- 1900. Painted elk hide.

Painting on animal hides is a longstanding tradition of the Great Basin and Great Plains people of the United States, including the Lakota, Shoshone, Blackfeet, Crow, Dakota, and Osage. While the earliest surviving hide paintings date to around 1800, this tradition was undoubtedly practiced much earlier along with other forms of painting like petroglyphs (rock engravings). Painting, in tandem with oral traditions, functioned to record history. Usually, artists decorated the hides with geometric or figural motifs. By the later eighteenth century certain hide artists like Cotsiogo began depicting subject matter that “affirmed native identity” and appealed to tourists. The imagery placed on the hide was likely done with a combination of free-hand painting and stenciling.

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Hide painting of Sun Dance. Attributed to Cotsiogo c.1890-1900. Painted elk hide.

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Black-on-black ceramic vessel. Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez. Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico. c.Mid-20th century. Blackware ceramic.

The story of the acceptance of Pueblo pottery as “art” is tied to potter Maria Martinez (ca. 1887–1980). Martinez, and the various family members with whom she worked, produced pots that are highly acclaimed in the academic and collecting environments, with some examples bringing upwards of $500,000. Collectors appreciate not only the beauty of the work but also its place in the continuum of an ancient tradition. Through an examination of the historical context in which Maria Martinez developed as an artist, a greater understanding is gained of the myriad forces that have shaped Pueblo pottery making and continue to help establish innovations within the tradition.

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Black-on-black ceramic vessel. Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez. Tewa, Puebloan, New Mexico. c.Mid-20th century. Blackware ceramic.

Maria’s pottery included traditional San Ildefonso Pueblo designs but also recognizable motifs from other Puebloan cultures. Changing fire temperatures, the applications of different colored paints and slips, refiring pots, and signing her work—unusual in the communal culture of her people—were just some of the innovations that kept Maria’s work fresh and the collectors returning for more!

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Black-on-black ceramic vessel. (detail) Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez. Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico. c.1939. Blackware ceramic.

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